Form 4 Notes v1.0

CHEMISTRY OF GROUP I AND GROUP II ELEMENTS .....
22
Contents A) Group I Elements (Alkali Metals) ..................... 22
CHAPTER ONE ................................................................. 3
B) Group II Elements (Alkaline Earth Metals) ...... 22
THE MOLE CONCEPT ....................................................... 3
CHAPTER SIX ................................................................. 25
A) Relative Atomic Mass (RAM) ............................. 3
TRANSITION METALS .................................................... 25
B) The Mole (n) ....................................................... 3
A) Position of Transition Metals on the Periodic
C) Molar Mass (MM)............................................... 3 Table ......................................................................... 25
D) Percentage Composition .................................... 4 B) General Characteristics of Transition Metals .. 25
E) Different Kinds of Chemical Formulae ............... 4 C) Iron (Fe) ............................................................ 25
1
F) Molarity (M) ....................................................... 5 D) Copper (Cu) ....................................................... 25
G) Gas Laws and the Ideal Gas Equation ................ 6 CHAPTER SEVEN ........................................................... 27
H) Calculations Using Chemical Equations ............. 7 QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS ................................................ 27
CHAPTER TWO .............................................................. 10 A) Identification of Gases ..................................... 27
REDOX ........................................................................... 10 B) Identification of Organic Substances ............... 27
A) Introduction ...................................................... 10 C) Identification of Anions (Negative Ions).......... 27
B) Oxidation Number ............................................ 10 D) Identification of Cations (Positive Ions............ 27
C) Oxidation and Reduction ................................. 11 E) Flame Test ........................................................ 27
D) Common Oxidising Agents and Reducing Agents CHAPTER EIGHT ............................................................ 29
11
SALTS ............................................................................. 29
CHAPTER THREE............................................................ 12
A) Types of Salts .................................................... 29
ELECTROLYSIS ................................................................ 12
B) Solubility of Salts and Solubility Curves .......... 29
A) Introductory Electrolysis .................................. 12
C) Action of Heat on Salts..................................... 31
B) Electrolysis of Molten Compounds .................. 12
D) Soluble and Insoluble Salts .............................. 32
C) Electrolysis of Aqueous Solution ..................... 13
E) Efflorescence, Deliquescence and Hygroscopy32
D) Electrolysis Using Different Types of Electrodes
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY PART 1 ....................................... 34
14
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................... 35
E) Electroplating.................................................... 14
STRUCTURES AND PROPERTIES OF ORGANIC
F) Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis ................ 15
COMPOUNDS ................................................................ 35
G) Uses of Electrolysis ........................................... 17
A) Introduction...................................................... 35
CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................. 18
B) Variety of Organic Compounds ........................ 35
SOLUTIONS AND ACID/BASE TITRATION....................... 18
C) Characteristic of Organic Compounds ............. 35
A) Definitions ........................................................ 18
D) Classifying Organic Compounds ....................... 36
B) Preparation of a Standard Solution ................. 18
E) Nomenclature................................................... 37
C) Titration ............................................................ 19
CHAPTER TWO .............................................................. 38
CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................... 22
HYDROCARBONS (ALKANES, ALKENES AND ALKYNES) . 38
CONCISE CHEMISTRY FORM FOUR TERENCE AZAH

I. ALKANES ............................................................... 38
A) Introduction ...................................................... 38
B) Nomenclature of Alkanes................................. 38
C) Isomerism ......................................................... 39
D) Preparation of Alkanes..................................... 39
E) Reactions of Alkanes ........................................ 40
II. ALKENES ................................................................ 40
A) Introduction ...................................................... 40
B) Nomenclature of Alkenes................................. 41 2
C) Isomerism ......................................................... 41
D) Preparation of Alkenes..................................... 41
E) Reactions of Alkenes ........................................ 41
F) Test for the Alkenes (Unsaturation) ................ 42
III. ALKYNES ............................................................ 42
A) Introduction ...................................................... 42
B) Nomenclature of Alkynes................................. 42
C) Isomerism ......................................................... 42
D) Preparation of Ethyne ...................................... 42
E) Reactions of Alkynes ........................................ 42
CHAPTER THREE............................................................ 44
ALCOHOLS ..................................................................... 44
A) Introduction ...................................................... 44
B) Nomenclature of Alcohols................................ 44
C) Nomenclature of Alcohols................................ 44
D) Preparation of Ethanol ..................................... 44
E) Reactions of Alcohols ....................................... 45
F) Uses of Ethanol ................................................. 45

CHAPTER ONE Number of water molecules
𝑛𝑤 =
𝐿
THE MOLE CONCEPT 3.01𝑋1024
𝑛𝑤 =
6.02𝑋1023
𝑛𝑤 = 5𝑚𝑜𝑙
2) Let’s calculate the number of molecules of CO2
A) Relative Atomic Mass (RAM) Number of 𝐶𝑂2 molecules

𝑛𝐶𝑂2 =
𝐿
Number of 𝐶𝑂2 molecules

The relative atomic mass of an atom is the average mass of an atom 0.25𝑚𝑜𝑙 =
6.02𝑋1023
compared to 1/12th the mass of an atom of carbon-12 isotope.
Number of 𝐶𝑂2 molecule = 5𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑋 6.02𝑋1023
Number of 𝐶𝑂2 molecule = 1.50𝑋1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠

(mass of A)X(%A) + (𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵)X(%𝐵)
3
𝑅𝐴𝑀 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 = Number of atoms in 𝐶𝑂2 molecule 𝑋 Number of 𝐶𝑂2 molecule
100
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 = 3 𝑋 1.50𝑋1023
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 = 4.50𝑋1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

Or simply
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑅𝐴𝑀 = C) Molar Mass (MM)
1
𝑋 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 − 12
2
The molar mass of a substance is the mass of one mole of the

substance. Its unit is g/mol. Molar mass is a very useful term because it
The relative atomic masses are already stated on the periodic table
can be applied to any entity, whether it be atom, molecule or ion.
above each chemical symbol.
m
𝑛=
𝑀𝑀
Where,
n=Number of moles
B) The Mole (n) m=mass in grams
MM=Molar mass
The mole of a substance is the amount of the substance that contains as
many particles as there are atoms in exactly 12grams of carbon-12
isotope. Examples
1) How many mole are there in 9.8g of sulphuric acid?

(Take RAM: H=1, S=32 and O=16)
Unit for particles=mole
2) Find the mass of 0.4mole of iron.
Symbol=mol (Take RAM of iron = 56)
6.02x1023=Avogadro’s constant = L Solution
1) Let’s calculate the number of moles of sulphuric acid
Number of particles 𝑚𝐻2𝑆𝑂4 =9.8g

𝑛=
𝐿
𝑀𝑀𝐻2𝑆𝑂4 =(2 X RAMH) + (1 X RAMS) + (4 X RAMO)
𝑀𝑀𝐻2𝑆𝑂4 =(2 X 1) + (1 X 32) + (4 X 16)

Example
𝑀𝑀𝐻2𝑆𝑂4 =2+32+64
1) How many moles are there in 3.01x1024 molecules of water?
2) Calculate the number of molecules in 0.25moles of CO2. Hence, 𝑀𝑀𝐻2𝑆𝑂4 =98g/mol
how many atoms are present?
𝑚𝐻2𝑆𝑂4
𝑛𝐻2𝑆𝑂4 =
Solution 𝑀𝑀𝐻2𝑆𝑂4
1) Let’s calculate the number of moles of water 9.8𝑔

𝑛𝐻2𝑆𝑂4 =
98𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑛𝐻2𝑆𝑂4 = 0.1𝑚𝑜𝑙 % 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑒3 𝑂4 = 72%
2) Let’s find the mass of 0.4mole of iron Therefore Fe3O4has more iron composition than that of Fe2O3.
NFe=0.4mol
MMFe=56g/mol Calculating the mass of an element in a compound
𝑚𝐹𝑒 1) The percentage composition of iron(III) oxide is 70%. Calculating

𝑛𝐹𝑒 =
𝑀𝑀𝐹𝑒 the mass of iron in 200g compound of iron(III) oxide.
2) Determine the mass of iron in 200g of Fe2O3.
mFe=nFe X MMFe
mFe=0.4mol X 56g/mol Solution

1) Let’s calculate the mass of iron in 200g compound of iron(III) oxide
mFe=22.4g
70
𝑚𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝑛 200𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 = 𝑋 200𝑔
100 4
𝑚𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝑛 200𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 = 140𝑔
D) Percentage Composition 2) Let’s determine the mass of iron in 200g of Fe2O3.
𝑀𝑀𝐹𝑒2𝑂3 =(2 X RAMFe) + (3 X RAMO)

Percentage composition is the percentage of an element in a
compound. 𝑀𝑀𝐹𝑒2𝑂3 =(2 X 56) + (3 X 16)
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
Mass of element in compound
X 100 𝑀𝑀𝐹𝑒2𝑂3 =160g/mol
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
mFe=2 X RAMFe=112g
𝑚𝐹𝑒
Example 𝒎𝑭𝒆 𝑖𝑛 200𝑔 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 = 𝑋 200𝑔
𝑀𝑀𝐹𝑒2𝑂3
Determine which oxides of iron of Fe2O3 or Fe3O4 has more iron? 112𝑔
𝒎𝑭𝒆 𝑖𝑛 200𝑔 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 = 𝑋 200𝑔
160𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
(Take RAM: Fe=56 and O=16)
𝑚𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝑛 200𝑔 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 = 140𝑔
Solution
Let’s determine which oxides of iron of Fe2O3 or Fe3O4 has more iron
𝑀𝑀𝐹𝑒2𝑂3 =(2 X RAMFe) + (3 X RAMO)

E) Different Kinds of Chemical Formulae
𝑀𝑀𝐹𝑒2𝑂3 =(2 X 56) + (3 X 16)
𝑀𝑀𝐹𝑒2𝑂3 =160g/mol
a) Molecular formula
mFe=2 X RAMFe=112g
The molecular formula shows the actual formula and kinds of
𝑚𝐹𝑒 atoms present in a compound, e.g. C2H6
% 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 = 𝑋 100
𝑀𝑀𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3
112𝑔
% 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 = 𝑋 100 b) Empirical formula
% 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐹𝑒2 𝑂3 = 70% The empirical formula shows the simplest whole number ratio of
the atoms present in a compound, e.g. C2H6, ratio 1:3, therefore
𝑀𝑀𝐹𝑒3𝑂4 =(3 X RAMFe) + (4 X RAMO) empirical formula is C1H3 or CH3.
𝑀𝑀𝐹𝑒3𝑂4 =(3 X 56) + (4 X 16)
𝑀𝑀𝐹𝑒2𝑂3 =232g/mol c) Structural formula
mFe=3 X RAMFe=168g The structural formula shows how the atoms are joined in the
molecule, e.g. the structural formula of C2H6 is
𝑚𝐹𝑒
𝑀𝑀𝐹𝑒3𝑂4
168𝑔

Molecular formula=(CH2)n
Calculating the empirical formula of a compound MM=42g/mol=[(1XRAMC)+(2XRAMH)]n
The empirical formula is determined by using the following 42=[(1X12)+(2X1)]n

procedure:
42=[(12)+(2)]n
1) Qualitative and quantitative analyses are carried out and the
masses of percentage composition by mass of each element 42=14n
is obtained. 42
2) The mass or percentage composition by mass of each element 𝑛=
14
is divided by its relative atomic mass to give the number of
moles. This gives the ratio of atoms. n=3
3) The values obtained in (2) above are corrected to the nearest
Therefore the molecular formula is (CH2)3 or C3H6
whole number by dividing by the smallest number, and
approximating to the nearest whole number. 2) Let’s the relative molecular mass of glucose
5
Empirical formula=CH2O
Examples Molecular formula=(CH2O)n
1) Find the empirical formula of an oxide of magnesium consisting MM=42g/mol=[(1XRAMC)+(2XRAMH)+(1XRAMO]n

of 0.32g of oxygen and 0.96g of magnesium.
(Take RAM: Mg=24 and O=16) 180=[(1X12)+(2X1)+(1X16]n
2) An oxide of sulphur consists of 40% sulphur and 60% oxygen. 180=[(12)+(2)+(16)]n
Find the empirical formula of the oxide.
(Take RAM: S=32 and O=16) 180=30n
Solution 180
𝑛=
30
1) Let’s calculate the empirical formula
Element Mg O n=6
Mass 0.96 0.32 Therefore the molecular formula is (CH2O)6 or C6H12O6
N 0.96 0.32
= 0.004 = 0.02
24 16
Divide by the 0.04 0.02

=2 =1
lowest 0.02 0.02
F) Molarity (M)
Therefore the empirical formula is Mg2O
2) Let’s calculate the empirical formula Molarity is defined as the number of moles of solute per litre of solution.
Element S O
The unit for molarity is M (molar) or mol/dm3 or mol/L.
% composition by 40 60
n
mass 𝑀=
no of MOLES 40 60 𝑉
= 1.25 = 3.75
32 16
Where,
Divide by the lowest 1.25 3.75
1.25
=1
1.25
=3 M=Molarity
n=Number of moles
Therefore the empirical formula is SO3 V=Volume in dm3 or L
From empirical formula to molecular formula Recall
1) Find the molecular formula of propene having a relative 1L=1dm3=1000cm3

molecular mass of propene is CH2. Solute: It is the substance that dissolves in a solvent to create a solution.
(Take RAM: C=12 and H=1) Solvent: It is the liquid that dissolves the solute resulting in the solution.
2) The relative molecular mass of glucose given that its empirical Solution: It is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
formula is CH2O.
Solution
Examples
1) Let’s find the molecular formula of propene
1) What is the molarity of 5moles of sodium hydroxide in 20litres of
Empirical formula=CH2 solution?

2) 5.85g of sodium chloride is dissolved in 200cm3 of water. Calculate
the molarity in mol/dm3.
Solution
1) Let’s determine the molarity of 5moles of sodium hydroxide in

20litres of solution
nNaOH=5mol
Vsol=20L=20dm3
𝑛𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻
𝑀𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 =
𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙
5𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑀𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 =
20𝐿
6
𝑀𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 = 0.25𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝐿
2) Let’s calculate the molarity of sodium chloride in mol/dm3 1

𝑃𝛼
𝑉
mNaCl=5.85g
𝑘
𝑃=
MMNaCl=(1XRAMNa)+(1XRAMCl) 𝑉
MMNaCl=(1X23)+(1X35.5) 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑘
MMNaCl=23+35.5 Where,
P=Pressure exerted by gas
MMNaCl=58.5g/mol V=Volume of gas
𝑚𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 k=Constant
𝑛𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 = ii) Charles’s law: It states that at constant pressure, the volume of
𝑀𝑀𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its
5.85𝑔 temperature.
𝑛𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 =
58.5𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑛𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 = 0.1𝑚𝑜𝑙
Vsol=200cm3
1dm3=100cm3
200𝑐𝑚3
𝑽𝒔𝒐𝒍 = 𝑋 1𝑑𝑚3
1000𝑐𝑚3
𝑽𝒔𝒐𝒍 = 0.2𝑑𝑚3
𝑛𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙
𝑀𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 =
𝑉𝑠𝑜𝑙
0.1𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑇𝛼𝑉
0.2𝑑𝑚3
𝑉 = 𝑘𝑇
0.1𝑚𝑜𝑙
0.2𝑑𝑚3 𝑇
=𝑘
𝑉
𝑀𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 = 0.5𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑑𝑚3
Where,
T=Temperature in kelvin
V=Volume of gas
k=Constant
G) Gas Laws and the Ideal Gas Equation
Conversion of Celsius to kelvin
a) Gas laws Most temperatures are measured either on the Celsius

i) Boyle’s law: It states that at constant temperature, the pressure scale represented by the unit °C or the Kelvin scale
of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its represented by the unit K. To convert °C to K we add 273
and change the unit to K, i.e. K=°C+273. To convert K to
volume.

°C we subtract 273 from K temperature and change the V
𝑛=
unit to °C, i.e. °C=K–273. 𝑉𝑀
Where,
n=Number of moles of gas
Example V=Volume of gas at RTP
VM=Molar volume of gas at RTP
0°C=(0+273)K =273K
273K =(273-273)°C=0°C
100°C=(100+273)K=373K Example
250K=(250-273)°C=-23°C What is the number of moles of a gas if it occupies 240dm3 at STP?

What would have been the volume of the gas if the volume was
obtained at RTP instead?
Exercise Solution
7
1) Convert the following temperatures to kelvin Let’s determine the number of moles of a gas if it occupies 240dm3
temperature: at STP
i) 19°C
V=240dm3
ii) 273°C
iii) -40°C VM=22.4dm3/mol
2) Convert to Celsius temperature
i) 100K V
𝑛=
ii) 325K 𝑉𝑀
240𝑑𝑚3
𝑛=
22.4𝑑𝑚3 /𝑚𝑜𝑙
b) Ideal gas equation
𝑛 = 10.7mol
Boyle’s law and Charles’s law can be combined into a single
equation which is known as the ideal gas equation. Let’s now determine the volume of the gas if the volume of the gas
𝑃𝑉 = nRT was obtained at RTP instead
Where,
P=Pressure exerted by gas V=240dm3
V=Volume of gas
VM=24dm3/mol
n=Number of moles of gaseous particles
R=Ideal gas constant V
𝑛=
T=Temperature in kelvin 𝑉𝑀
V=nVM
c) Molar volume V=10.7mol X 24dm3/mol
The volume occupied by one mole of any gas at STP is 22.4dm3. 𝑉 = 256.8𝑑𝑚3
This volume is generally given the term molar volume at STP. STP
stands for standard temperature (273K = 0°C) and pressure
(1atm).
V H) Calculations Using Chemical Equations

𝑛=
𝑉𝑀
Where, a) Balancing chemical equations

n=Number of moles of gas
V=Volume of gas at STP All equations must be balanced because an unbalanced equation
VM=Molar volume of gas at STP will imply atoms have been created or destroyed. The only way to
balance an equation is by taking appropriate numbers of reactants
and products concerned.
The volume occupied by one mole of any gas at RTP is 24dm3. This
volume is generally given the term molar volume at RTP. RTP
stands for room temperature (298K = 25°C) and pressure (1atm). Examples
The unit for molar volume is dm3/mol. We shall balance the following equations:
i) N2(g) + H2(g) NH3(g)

ii) NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) Example
Solution MgCl2 is formed by reacting Mg and HCl according to the

equation:
i) N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
N=2 N=1 2 Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
H=2 6 H=3 6
Find the amount of hydrogen gas, in cm3, formed when
ii) 2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H20(l)
14.6g of HCl is reacted.
Na=1 2 Na=2
O=5 6 O=5 6 (Take RAM: H=1 and Cl=35.5)
H=3 4 H=2 4
S=1 S=1 Solution
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
mHCl=14.6g
Exercise
8
MMHCl=(1XRAMH)+(1XRAMCl)
Balance the following equations:
MMHCl=(1X1)+(1X35.5)
1) H2(g) + O2(g) H2O(l)
2) C3H6(g) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(l) MMHCl=1+35.5
3) CaCO3(s) + HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
MMHCl=36.5g/mol
𝑚𝐻𝐶𝑙
𝑛𝐻𝐶𝑙 =
b) Calculations from equations 𝑀𝑀𝐻𝐶𝑙
i) Reacting moles: In every equation, each atom isMg related to 14.6𝑔
each other. Let’s consider the hypothetic reaction 𝑛𝐻𝐶𝑙 =
36.5𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
below where A and B are the reactants, C and D are the
products while a, b, c and d are the stoichiometric 𝑛𝐻𝐶𝑙 = 0.4𝑚𝑜𝑙
coefficients of A, B, C and D respectively.
𝑛𝐻2 =?
aA + bB cC + dD
Then, 𝑛𝐻2 𝑛𝐻𝐶𝑙
𝑛𝐴 𝑛𝐵 𝑛𝐶 𝑛𝐷 =
= = = 1 2
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
𝑛𝐻𝐶𝑙
𝑛𝐻2 = 𝑋1
2
Example 0.4mol
𝑛𝐻2 = 𝑋1
2
Find the number of moles of ammonia that is formed
𝑛𝐻2 = 0.2mol
when 15moles of hydrogen reacts with nitrogen.
At RTP
Solution
24dm3=1mol
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
𝑉𝐻2 = 0.2𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑛𝐻2 = 15𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑉𝐻2 0.2𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑛𝑁𝐻3 =? =
24𝑑𝑚3 1𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑛𝑁𝐻3 𝑛𝐻2
= 0.2𝑚𝑜𝑙
2 3 𝑉𝐻2 = 𝑋 24𝑑𝑚3
1𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑛𝐻2
𝑛𝑁𝐻3 = 𝑋2 𝑉𝐻2 = 4.8𝑑𝑚3 /𝑚𝑜𝑙
3
15mol 1000cm3=1dm3
𝑛𝑁𝐻3 = 𝑋2
3
𝑉𝐻2 = 4.8𝑑𝑚3
𝑛𝑁𝐻3 = 10mol
𝑉𝐻2 48𝑑𝑚3
ii) Reacting volumes: First find the ratio of moles and multiply the =
1000𝑐𝑚3 1𝑑𝑚3
mole of the gas you want to find with the molar volume
4.8𝑑𝑚3
at room temperature (24dm3/mol). 𝑉𝐻2 = 𝑋 1000𝑐𝑚3
1𝑑𝑚3
𝑉𝐻2 = 4800𝑐𝑚3

c) Yield of a reaction
In most chemical reactions, it is unlikely that all the reactants will

react to form products (i.e. 100% yield). There are many reasons
for less than 100% yield including:
- Reactants may not be pure

- Reaction may involve an equilibrium
- Some product may be left behind in the reaction vessel.
The percentage yield of a reaction measures the reaction

efficiency. It is the ratio between the actual yield and the
theoretical yield (expected yield).
Actual yield 9
% yield = 𝑋 100
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
Example
2moles of ammonia was found when 15moles of hydrogen was

reacted with excess nitrogen gas.
a) What are the limiting reagents for this reaction?

b) What is the actual yield of the reaction?
c) Calculate the theoretical yield of ammonia
d) Find the percentage yield of the reaction
Solution
a) The limiting reagent is H2

b) The actual yield of NH3 is 2mol
c) Let’s calculate the theoretical yield of ammonia
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
𝑛𝐻2 = 15𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑛𝑁𝐻3 =?
𝑛𝑁𝐻3 𝑛𝐻2
=
2 3
𝑛𝐻2
3
15mol
3
𝑛𝑁𝐻3 = 10mol
Actual yield
% yield = 𝑋 100
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
2mol
% yield = 𝑋 100
10𝑚𝑜𝑙
% yield = 20%

CHAPTER TWO -2 (except when combined to
Oxygen fluorine)
REDOX
-1 (except when combined to
Chlorine fluorine or oxygen)
+1 (except when combined

Hydrogen with a metal)
5) Ina polyatomic ion the sum of the oxidation number of all the
A) Introduction constituent atom equal to the charge of the ion.
Reduction and oxidation (REDOX) are processes that complement each

other, that is, one cannot take place without the other. Hence they Examples
cannot be regarded as separate reactions.
Workout the oxidation states of the underlined elements in these
Previously, oxidation was define as the addition or removal of hydrogen compounds: 10
from a substance while reduction was define as the removal of oxygen
or addition of oxygen from a substance. This definitions were limited a) CO2
because according to them, oxidation and reduction could only take b) KMnO4
place in the presence of oxygen and hydrogen, which is not true. Today c) Fe(NO3)
oxidation and reduction is define in terms of the change in oxidation
number of an atom within a molecule. Solution
Let’s workout the oxidation states of the underlined elements in

these compounds
a) For CO2
B) Oxidation Number
(Oxidation state of C)+(-2X2)=0
Rules in determining the oxidation number or state (Oxidation state of C)-4=0
1) The oxidation number of an element in the free state is zero. Thus, Oxidation state of C=+4
each atom H2, Br2, Cl2, S8, P4, H, Cl has the oxidation number of zero.
2) The oxidation number of an ion is equal to the charge of the ion. b) For KMnO4
For example,
Oxidation number
(+1)+(Oxidation state of Mn)+(-2X4)=0
Ion
+2
(Oxidation state of Mn)+(+1)+(-8)=0
Ca2+
-2
(Oxidation state of Mn)-7=0
O2-
-3 Oxidation state of Mn=+7

N3-
+1 c) Fe(NO3)2
Na+
3) The oxidation number of hydrogen in most compounds is +1, We know that the oxidation state of the nitrate ion(NO3-) is -
except when bonded to a metal where its oxidation number is -1. 1
For example, (Oxidation state of Fe)+(-1X2)=0
Oxidation number
Compound
(Oxidation state of Fe)-2=0
+1
H2O
Oxidation state of Fe=+2
+1
HCl
-1
NaH
Note: Transition metals and some common elements may have
-1
MgH2 different oxidation states in different compounds.
4) Some elements nearly always have the same oxidation number in Examples of elements with variable oxidation states
their compounds. These elements can be used as reference points
Oxidation
in assigning the oxidation numbers to the other. -2
-
0 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6 +7
1
Common oxidation number in State
Element a compound Manganese Mn. MnCl2 MnO2 KMnO4
-1 Chromium Cr CrCl2 CrCl3 K2Cr2O7

Fluorine

Iron Fe FeCl2 FeCl3
Cl2 NH3
Sulphur FeS S SO2 H2SO4
Concentrated HNO3 KI
Carbon C CO CO2
Concentrated H2SO4 LiAlH4

Some compounds with possible variable oxidation states has
numeral as a guide about their oxidation state, e.g. All common metals All common non-metals
- Iron(II) chlorine has formula FeCl2 and iron oxidation state is 2+

- Potassium dichromate(VI) has formula K2Cr2O7 and chromium
oxidation state is +6
- Manganese(IV) oxide has formula MnO2 and manganese oxidation
state is +4
11
C) Oxidation and Reduction
a) Oxidation
It is a reaction in which the atoms of an element lose electrons and

the oxidation number of the element increases. The oxidising agent
(OA) is the substance whose oxidation number decreases.
b) Reduction
It is a reaction in which the atoms of an element gain electrons and

the oxidation number of the element decreases. The reducing
agent (RA) is the substance whose oxidation number increases.
Example
+3 -1 0 0 +1 -1
a) 2NH3 + 3Cl2 N2 + 6HCl

RA OA
0 +4 -2 +6 -2
b) O2 + 2SO2 2SO3
OA RA
0 0 +2 -2
c) 2Cu + O2 2CuO
RA OA
D) Common Oxidising Agents and Reducing Agents
Reducing agent
Oxidising agent
O2 H2
MnO4 C
H2O2 CO
Acidified KMnO4 H2S
Acidified K2Cr2O7 SO2

CHAPTER THREE A cathode is the negatively charged electrode connected to the
negative terminal of the d.c. source. Reduction occurs at the
ELECTROLYSIS cathode. Cathode gains negative charge as electrons flow from the
battery towards the cathode, making the cathode negatively
charged. This causes cations to be attracted and gain electrons to
be an atom.
A) Introductory Electrolysis g) Anion
An anion is a negative ion. It is attracted to the anode.

a) Electrolysis
Electrolysis is the decomposition of a compound using electricity.

h) Cation
A cation is a positive ion. It is attracted to the cathode. 12
B) Electrolysis of Molten Compounds
Molten and aqueous ionic compounds conduct electricity because ions

are free to move. In solid state, these ions are held in fixed position
within the crystal lattice. Hence solid ionic compounds do not conduct
electricity.
When a molten binary compound is electrolysed, the metal is formed

on the cathode while the non-metal is formed on the anode.
a) Electrolysis of molten PbBr2

b) Electrolyte
To make molten lead(II) bromide, PbBr2, we strongly heat the solid
An electrolyte is an ionic compound which conducts electricity in until it melts. To electrolyse it, pass current through the molten
molten or aqueous solution, being decomposed in the process. PbBr2.
c) Electrode
An electrode is a rod or plate where electricity enters or leaves the

electrolyte during electrolysis. Reactions occur at the electrodes.
d) Discharge
A discharge is the removal of electrons from reactive ions to form

atoms or the gain of electrons of positive ions to become atoms.
e) Anode
An anode is the positively charged electrode connected to the Ions present

positive terminal of the d.c. source. Oxidation occurs at the anode.
Anode loses negative charge as electrons flow towards the battery Pb2+ and Br-
leaving the anode positively charged. This causes the anions to
discharge their electrons there to replace the last electron. Reaction at anode
Br- loses electrons to anode and become Br- atom. Br atom created
form bond together to make Br2 gas.
f) Cathode
2Br-(aq) Br2(g) + 2é

Reaction at cathode
a) Concentrated solutions
Pb2+ gains electrons to cathode to become Pb atoms become liquid
lead.
Pb2+(aq) + 2é Pb(l) Electrolysis of concentrated NaCl
Overall equation Ions present
PbBr2(l) Pb(l) + Br(g) Na+, H+, OH- and Cl-
Below are other compounds that can be electrolysed. The theory is Reaction at anode
the same as PbBr2.
Cl- loses electrons at anode to become Cl atom, although OH-
Molten electrolyte Cathode Anode is easier to discharge. Cl atoms created form covalent bond
product product together to make Cl2 gas.
Calcium chloride Calcium (Ca) Chlorine (Cl2)
(CaCl2)
2Cl-(aq) Cl2(g) + 2é 13
Lead(II) chloride Lead (Pb) Chlorine (Cl2) Reaction at cathode
(PbCl2)
Aluminium oxide Aluminium (Al) Oxygen (O2) H+ gains electrons at cathode to become H atoms becoming
(Al2O3) hydrogen gas.
Sodium iodide (NaI) Sodium (Na) Iodine (I2)
2H+(aq) + 2é H2(g)
Sodium chloride Sodium (Na) Chlorine (Cl2)
(NaCl)
Overall equation
2HCl(g) H2(g) + Cl2(g)
Note: Any cation and anion left undischarged in solution

forms new bonds between them. For example, in above,
C) Electrolysis of Aqueous Solution
leftovers Na+ and OH- combine to form NaOH.
Aqueous solutions contain additional H+ and OH- ions of water, totally 4

ions in the solution that is, 2 from electrolyte and 2 from water. Only 2 b) Very dilute solutions
of these are discharged.
Electrolysis of aqueous solutions use the theory of selective discharge. Electrolysis of dilute H2SO4
Ions present
Electrochemical series (Activity series) H+, OH- and SO42-
Product at Reaction at anode

Product at
Ease of discharge Cation Anion anode
cathode
OH- loses electrons at anode to become O2 and H2O
Difficult K+
SO42- O2 from
Na+ 4OH-(aq) O2(g) + 2H2O(l) +4é
H2O
Ca2+ -
H2 from H2O NO3
Mg2+
Reaction at cathode
Al3+ Cl2
Cl-
Ni2+ Br2
H+ gains electrons at cathode to become H atom becoming
Ni Br-
hydrogen gas.
Pb2+ I2
Pb I-
2H(aq) + 2é H2(g)
+
H H2
O2
Cu2+ Cu OH -
Easy Overall equation
Ag+ Ag
Both equations must be balanced first. The cathode equation

is of 2 electrons. Hence, we should first even them by
At cathode
multiplying cathode equation by 2.
- In CONCENTRATED solutions of nickel/lead compounds,
2 X (2H(aq) + 2é H2(g)) = 4H(aq) + 4é 2H2(g)
nickel/lead will be discharged instead of hydrogen ions of
water which is less reactive than nickel/lead. Now we combine the equations forming:
- In VERY DILUTE solutions, hydrogen, copper and silver are
preferable to be discharged according to its ease to be 4H+(aq) + 4OH-(aq) 2H2(g) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l)
discharged.
- Sulphate and nitrate are NEVER DISCHARGED in 4H+(aq) and 4OH-(aq) ions, however, combine to form 4H2O
concentrated or dilute solutions. molecules, hence.

4H2O(l) 2H2(g) + O2(g)
H2O molecules are formed on both sides. Therefore, they

cancel the coefficients:
H2O(l) 2H2(g) + O2(g)
Since only water is electrolysed, the sulphuric acid now

becomes concentrated.
D) Electrolysis Using Different Types of Electrodes
E) Electroplating
a) Inert electrodes 14
Inert electrodes are electrodes which do not react with the Electroplating is the coating of an object with thin layer of a metal by
electrolyte or product during electrolysis. Examples are platinum electrolysis. This makes the object protected and more attractive.
and graphite.
Object to be coated (plated) is made to be the cathode and the plating
metal is made as the anode.
b) Active electrodes The electrolyte MUST contain plating cation.
Active electrodes are electrodes which react with products of

electrolysis, affecting the course of electrolysis. Examples are silver,
copper and iron. a) Plating iron object with silver
Electrolysis of CuSO4 using inert electrodes
Ions present
Cu2+, H+, OH- and SO42-
Reaction at anode
OH- loses electrons at anode to become O2 and H2O.
4OH-(aq) O2(g) + 2H2O(l) +4é
Reaction at cathode
Cu2+ gains electrons at cathode to become Cu atoms becoming solid

copper. Hydrogen ions are not discharged because copper is easier Reaction at anode
to discharge.
Ag+ is discharged from anode into solution. So, the electrode size
Cu2+(aq) + 2é Cu(s) decreases.
Overall change Ag(s) Ag+(aq) + é
There is no change in solution content as for every loss of Cu2+ ions Reaction at cathode
at cathode is replaced by Cu2+ ions released by dissolving anode.
Ag+ produces from anode gains electrons at cathode to become Ag
Only the cathode increases size by gaining copper and anode
atoms becoming silver. Hence, the silver is decomposed here and
decreases by losing copper. We can use this method to create pure
the electrode grows.
copper on cathode by using impure copper on anode. Impurities of
anode falls under it. Ag+(aq) + é Ag(s)
Overall change
There is no overall change in solution contents while iron spoon

receives silver deposit.
b) Uses of electroplating

Plating Uses The same result can be achieved using any single charged element
metal provided its electrochemical equivalent and mass is known. The
Water taps, motor car bumpers, bicycle quantity of electricity 96500C is called 1Faraday (1F).
Chromium parts
Tin cans
Tin
Note: 1Faraday is the quantity of electricity needed to liberate
Silver sport trophies, plaques, ornaments,
Silver cutleries
1mole of silver atom or 1mole of hydrogen atom during
electrolysis.
For corrosion resistant layers
Nickel
Watches, plaques, cutleries, water taps,
Gold ornaments b) Faraday’s second law
Copper
Printed circuit broads, trophies, ornaments Faraday’s second law states that the number of moles of electrons
required to discharge 1mole of ion at an electrode equals the
number of charges on the ion.
15
𝑄𝐴𝑟
𝑚=
𝑥𝐹
F) Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis
Where,
m=mass of element discharged in grams (g)
The quantitative results of electrolysis, which occur when an electric
Ar=Relative atomic mass of the element discharged
current is passed through an electrolyte are summarised by Faraday’s
Q=Quantity of electricity in coulomb (C)
laws.
x=Charge of the ion
F=96500C
a) Faraday’s first law

Examples
Faraday’s first law states that the mass of an element liberated at
the electrodes during electrolysis is directly proportional to the 1) A current of 0.4A was passed through an aqueous solution of
quantity of electricity passed. copper(II) sulphate for 15minutes.
Calculate the quantity of electricity in
mαQ a) Coulomb
b) Faraday
m=EQ c) What mass of copper was deposited at the cathode?
𝑚 𝑚 (Take RAM (Ar) of copper=63.5 and 1F=96500C)
𝑄= or 𝐼𝑡 = since Q=It
𝐸 𝐸 2) During the electrolysis of aqueous silver nitrate, current was
passed through the electrolyte for 8minutes. If 1.08g of silver
Where,
were deposited on the cathode,
Q=Quantity of electricity in coulomb (C)
Calculate
I=Current in ampere (A)
a) The number of faraday used
t=Time in seconds (s)
b) The current in ampere
m=mass of element discharged in grams (g) (Take RAM (Ar) of silver=108 and 1F=96500C)
E=Electrochemical equivalent of the element discharged 3) 48000C of electricity were found to liberate 14g of iron from
an iron salt. What is the charge on the iron?
(Take RAM (Ar) of iron=56 and 1F=96500C)
Experiment have shown that the minimum quantity of electricity 4) If a current of 2A is passed through molten lithium chloride
required to liberate 1mole of a single charged ion is 96500C. for 20minutes (molar volume of gas is 24000cm3 at RTP)
Calculate,
a) The number of faradays used in the experiment
b) The number of moles of lithium produced
Example c) The volume of the gas produced at room temperature
If the electrochemical equivalent of hydrogen is 0.00001045, and Solution

the atomic mass of hydrogen is 1.008, then according to Faraday’s
law 1) Let’s calculate the quantity of electricity and the mass of
copper deposited at the cathode
m=EQ a) I=0.4A
𝑚
𝑄= t=15min
𝐸
1.008 60s=1min
𝑄=
0.00001045 𝑡 15𝑚𝑖𝑛
=
𝑄 = 96500𝐶 60 1𝑚𝑖𝑛

15𝑚𝑖𝑛 1𝐹
𝑡= 𝑋60𝑠 𝑄= 𝑋 965𝐶 = 0.01𝐹
1𝑚𝑖𝑛 96500𝐶
t=900s Q=0.01F
b) Q=360C b) From
1F=96500C 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡
𝑄 360𝐶 𝑄
= 𝐼=
1𝐹 96500𝐶 𝑡
360𝐶 965𝐶
𝑄= 𝑋1𝐹 𝐼=
96500𝐶 480𝑠
Q=0.0037F I=2.01A
c) Cu2+(aq) + 2é Cu(s) 3) Let’s calculate the charge on the iron

16
Ar=63.5g Q=48000C
Q=360C Ar=56g
x=2 m=14g
1F=96500C 1F=96500C
Using Faraday’s second law 𝑄𝐴𝑟

𝑚=
𝑥𝐹
𝑄𝐴𝑟
𝑚= 𝑄𝐴𝑟
𝑥𝐹 𝑥=
𝑚𝐹
360𝐶 𝑋 63.5𝑔
𝑚= 56𝑔 𝑋 48000𝐶
2 𝑋 96500𝐶 𝑥= ≈2
14𝑔 𝑋 96500𝐶
m=0.117g
x=+2
2) Let’s calculate the number of faradays used and the current
in ampere 4) Let’s calculate the number of faradays used then the quantity
a) Ag+(aq) + é Ag(s) of lithium produced and finally the volume of the gas
produced at room temperature
t=8min a) I=2A
60s=1min t=20min
𝑡 8𝑚𝑖𝑛 60s=1min
=
60 1𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑡 20𝑚𝑖𝑛
8𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑡= 𝑋60𝑠 60 1𝑚𝑖𝑛
1𝑚𝑖𝑛
20𝑚𝑖𝑛
t=480s 𝑡= 𝑋60𝑠
1𝑚𝑖𝑛
Ar=108g t=1200s
m=1.08g 𝑄 = 𝐼𝑡
x=1 Q=2A X 1200s
Given that Q=2400C
𝑄𝐴𝑟 1F=96500C
𝑚=
𝑥𝐹
𝑄 2400𝐶
𝑚𝑥𝐹 =
𝑄= 1𝐹 96500𝐶
𝐴𝑟
2400𝐶
𝑡= 𝑋 1F
1.08𝑔 𝑋 1 𝑋 96500𝐶 96500𝐶
𝑄=
108𝑔 𝑄 = 0.025𝐹
Q=965C b) Li+(aq) + é Li(s)
In faradays

nLi=0.025F
1mol=1F
𝑛𝐿𝑖 0.025𝐹
=
1𝑚𝑜𝑙 1𝐹
0.025𝐹
𝑛𝐿𝑖 = 𝑋 1mol
1𝐹
nLi=0.025mol
c) 2H+(aq) + 2é H2(g)
𝑉𝐻2 = 0.025𝐹
24000cm3=2F
𝑉𝐻2 0.025𝐹 17
=
24000𝑐𝑚3 2𝐹
0. 𝑂25𝐹
𝑉𝐻2 = 𝑋 24000𝑐𝑚3
2𝐹
𝑉𝐻2 =300𝑐𝑚3
G) Uses of Electrolysis
- It is used in the extraction of metals such as Na, Mg, Al etc.

- It is used in the purification of metals.
- It is used in electroplating metals such as iron.
- It is used in the manufacture of compounds such as NaOH, Cl2, H2
etc.

CHAPTER FOUR It is the number of replaceable hydrogen ion (H+) in 1mole of acid.
For example
SOLUTIONS AND ACID/BASE TITRATION
Acid Ions produced Basicity
CH3COOH CH3COO- and H+ 1 (Monobasic)
HCl H+ and Cl- 1 (Monobasic)
A) Definitions H2SO4 2H+ and SO42- 2 (Dibasic)
HNO3 H+ and NO3- 1 (Monobasic)

a) Standard solution
H3PO4 3H+ and PO43- 3 (Tribasic)
A standard solution is a solution whose concentration is known.
For example
g) Base 18
1M NaOH solution
A base is a proton acceptor (BrØnsted-Lowry definition). Bases are
usually oxides or hydroxides of metals.
b) Molar solution For example
A molar solution is a solution that contains one mole of pure Sodium oxide (Na2O)
solute in one litre (1dm3) of solution. Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Aqueous ammonia (NH4Cl)
c) Acid
An acid is a substance that ionises in order to produce the hydrogen

ion (H+) as the only positive ion. h) Alkali
OR SIMPLY An alkali is a basic hydroxide that is soluble in water.
An acid is a proton (H+) donor (BrØnsted-Lowry definition) For example
For example Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

Aqueous ammonia (NH4Cl)
Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
Phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) i) Strong alkali
Nitric acid (HNO3)
Nitrous acid (HNO2) A strong alkali is a base that completely ionises in water to form
OH-(aq) ions. Their reaction is irreversible.
For example
d) Strong acid
NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
A strong acid is an acid that ionises completely in water.
For example
j) Weak alkali
HCl(aq) H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
A weak alkali is a base that ionises partially in water. The remaining
molecule then remains unchanged as base .
e) Weak acid For example
A weak acid is an acid that ionises partially in water. The NH4OH(aq) NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
remaining molecules remain unchanged as acid. Their reactions
are reversible.
CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq)

B) Preparation of a Standard Solution
f) Basicity of an acid

Experiment to preparation of a standard solution of 0.1M sodium  Dissolve in distilled water
carbonate  Transfer into a volumetric flask
 Make up to the mark with distilled water
Requirements
- A chemical balance
- A weighing bottle
- A clean beaker
- A glass stirrer
C) Titration
- A funnel
- A 250cm3 volumetric flask
- A wash bottle Titration is the determination of the concentration of some substance in
- Anhydrous sodium carbonate (without water of a solution by slowly adding measured amounts of some other substance
crystallisation) (normally using a burette) until a reaction is shown to be complete, for
example by the colour change of an indicator.
Procedure
In titration experiments a standard solution must be used to react with
1) Find the mass of anhydrous sodium carbonate which
the solution of unknown concentration. 19
dissolves in 250cm3 to make a 0.1M solution of sodium
carbonate.
That is, Experiment to standardising a solution of hydrochloric acid using 0.1M

sodium carbonate solution
M=0.1M=0.1mol/dm3
𝑛 Requirements
= 0.1𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑑𝑚3
𝑉
- A 25cm3 pipette
𝑚 - A burette
= 0.1𝑚𝑜𝑙/𝑑𝑚3
𝑀𝑀 𝑋 𝑉 - Distilled water
- Methyl orange indicator
m = 0.1mol/dm3 X MM X V
- Conical flask
MM=106g/mol - White tile
- Clamp and stand
V=250cm3 - Hydrochloric acid solution
- 0.1M sodium carbonate solution
1dm3=1000cm3
Procedure
𝑉 250𝑐𝑚3
=
1𝑑𝑚 3 1000𝑐𝑚3 1) A pipette is washed and rinsed with distilled water and with
3
the 0.1M sodium carbonate solution.
250𝑐𝑚 2) A burette is washed and rinsed with distilled water and then
𝑉= 1𝑑𝑚3
1000𝑐𝑚3 with hydrochloric acid.
V = 0.025𝑑𝑚3 3) Three conical flasks are washed and rinsed with distilled
water.
Therefore, 4) The burette is clamped and then filled with the acid making
sure that no air bubbles are trapped inside it. The volume of
m = 0.1mol/dm3 X 106g/mol X 0.025dm3 the acid in the burette is recorded as first burette reading.
5) 25cm3 of the 0.1M Na2CO3 solution are pipetted into each of
m=2.65g
three conical flasks.
2) Using a clean dry weighing bottle, weighing accurately 2.65g 6) Two or three drops of methyl orange indicator are added to
of anhydrous sodium carbonate and transfer into a clean the solutions in the conical flask.
beaker. 7) One of the flask is placed on a white background under the
3) Add about 100cm3 of distilled water and stir for it to dissolve clamped burette.
completely. 8) Run the acid slowly from the burette into the conical flask
4) Transfer quantitatively into the 250cm3 volumetric flask while swirling the flask until there is a permanent colour
through a funnel. change. This is the endpoint. Record the volume of the acid
5) Wash the wash bottle, the weighing bottle, stirrer and funnel that neutralise the alkali as the second burette reading. This
then transfer all the washings into the volumetric flask. is the approximate.
6) Make up to the mark with distilled water. 9) Carryout two accurate titrations, this time when approaching
7) Stopper (cork) the volumetric flask and turn it upside down the end point, add the acid drop after drop until one drop
several times to obtain a homogenous solution. produces the first appearance of a permanent colour change.
8) The solution is now standard with concentration of O.1M.
Diagram
Summary of preparing a standard solution
 Weigh the substance

Questions
1) What is the volume of 2M HCl needed to neutralise 25cm3 of

0.4M NaOH?
2) What is the volume of 0.05M Na2CO3 needed to neutralise
25.0cm3 of 0.1M HCl?
3) 25cm3 of M (molar) KOH neutralised 60cm3 of sulphuric acid
Find
a) The molarity of the acid
b) The concentration of the acid in g/cm3
Solution
1) Let’s determine the volume of 2M HCl needed to neutralise

25cm3 of 0.4M NaOH
20
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Ma=2M
Va=?
Mb=0.4M
Specimen results Vb=25cm3
The results of the titration are then set out as follows: 𝑀𝑎 𝑉𝑎 𝑀𝑏 𝑉𝑏
=
Titration Approximate First accurate Second accurate 1 1
Second burette 𝑀𝑎 𝑉𝑎 = 𝑀𝑏 𝑉𝑏
reading
First burette 𝑀𝑏 𝑉𝑏
𝑉𝑎 =
reading 𝑀𝑎
Titre
0.4𝑀𝑋25𝑐𝑚3
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 + 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑉𝑎 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒 = 𝑐𝑚3 2𝑀
2
Therefore,
Calculations
Va=5cm3
Suppose the average titre is 23.5cm3, the titre result shows that
23.5cm3 of an unknown concentration of sulphuric acid is required 2) Let’s determine the volume of 0.05M Na2CO3 needed to
to completely react with 25cm3 of 0.1M solution of sodium neutralise 25.0cm3 of 0.1M HCl?
carbonate.
2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
The equation of the reaction is:
Ma=0.1M
Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Va=25cm3
From the equation, 1mole of Na2CO3 reacts with 2mole of HCl.
Mb=0.05M
i.e.
Vb=?
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
= 𝑀𝑎 𝑉𝑎 𝑀𝑏 𝑉𝑏
2 1 =
𝑛𝑎 𝑛𝑏 𝑛
2 1
= but remember that 𝑀 =
1 1 𝑉
𝑀𝑎 𝑉𝑎 = 2𝑀𝑏 𝑉𝑏
𝑀𝑎 𝑉𝑎 𝑀𝑏 𝑉𝑏
= 𝑀𝑎 𝑉𝑎
2 1 𝑉𝑏 =
2𝑀𝑏
𝑀𝑎 𝑉𝑎 = 2𝑀𝑏 𝑉𝑏
0.1𝑀𝑋25𝑐𝑚3
𝑉𝑏 =
Where 2𝑋0.05𝑀
Ma=Molarity of acid
Therefore,
Va=Volume of acid
Mb=Molarity of base Vb=25cm3
Vb=Volume of base

3) Let’s determine
a) The molarity of the acid
H2SO4(aq) + 2KOH(aq) K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Ma=?
Va=60cm3
Mb=1.0M
Vb=25cm3
𝑀𝑎 𝑉𝑎 𝑀𝑏 𝑉𝑏
=
1 2
2𝑀𝑎 𝑉𝑎 = 𝑀𝑏 𝑉𝑏
𝑀𝑏 𝑉𝑏
𝑀𝑎 = 21
2𝑉𝑎
1𝑀𝑋25𝑐𝑚3
𝑀𝑎 =
2𝑋60𝑐𝑚3
Therefore,
Ma=0.208M
b) The concentration of the acid in g/cm3
Concentration in g/dm3=Molarity X Molar mass
Ma=0.208M
MMa=(2XRAMH)+(1XRAMS)+(4XRAMO)
MMa=(2X1)+(1X32)+(4X16)
MMa=98g/mol
Concentration in g/dm3=0.208M X 98g/mol
Concentration in g/dm3=20384g/dm3
But
Concentration in 𝑔/𝑑𝑚3
Concentration in 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 =
1000
20384𝑔/𝑑𝑚3
Concentration in 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 =
1000
Concentration=20.384g/cm3

CHAPTER FIVE iii) Reaction with water: They react vigorously with cool
water to evolve hydrogen gas and form alkaline
CHEMISTRY OF GROUP I AND GROUP II ELEMENTS solutions hence the name alkali metals.
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
iv) Effect of heat on their nitrates: When heated, their
nitrates decompose to their nitrites and oxygen.
2NaNO3(s) ∆ 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g)
2KNO3(s) ∆ 2KNO2(s) + O2(g)
A) Group I Elements (Alkali Metals)
2LiNO3(s) ∆ 2LiNO2(s) + O2(g)
v) Effect of heat on their carbonates: Their carbonates do
The elements in this group are: not decompose on heating except that of lithium.
K2CO3(s) ∆ No reaction
Lithium, Li Na2CO3(s) ∆ No reaction
Sodium, Na Similarly their hydroxides (OH-) are stable to heat except
Potassium, K that of lithium.
Rubidium, Rb NaOH(s) No reaction
22
∆
Caesium, Cs KOH(s) ∆ No reaction
Francium, Fr vi) Reaction with hydrogen: They also react with hydrogen
to form electrovalent hydrides.
They are generally called alkali metals because they react with cool water 2Na(s) + H2(g) 2NaH(s)
producing an alkaline solution liberating hydrogen gas. Sodium hydride
2K(s) + H2(g) 2KH(s)

Potassium hydride
Properties of alkali metals (group I elements)
a) Physical properties
B) Group II Elements (Alkaline Earth Metals)
- They are stored under paraffin oil (kerosene) because they
are very reactive metals that react with air.
- They are silvery white in colour. The elements in this group are:
- They are soft enough to be cut with a knife.
- Each element has one electron on the valence shell Berylium, Be
(monovalent). Magnesium, Mg
- They form soluble compounds. Calcium, Ca
- They are good conductors of heat and electricity. Strontium, Sr
- They are highly electropositive with their electropositivity Barium, Ba
increasing down the group. They are thus reducing agents. Radium, Ra
b) Chemical properties Properties of alkaline earth metals

i) Reaction with air: They tarnish when exposed to air
forming in succession their oxides, hydroxide and
carbonates.
a) Physical properties
4Na(s) + O2(g) 2Na2O(s)
- There are reactive metals even not as reactive as group I
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq)
metals.
2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
- They have two electrons in their valence shells (divalent).
ii) Reaction with oxygen: When group I elements are
- They are reducing agents.
burnt in air, they react with oxygen producing coloured
- They are good conductors of heat an electricity.
flames.
Sodium burns brightly with a golden yellow flame
producing a white solid which dissolves in water turning
red litmus paper blue. b) Chemical properties
4Na(s) + O2(g) 2Na2O(s) i) Reaction with oxygen: They burn in oxygen giving their
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) oxides.
Potassium burns brightly with a lilac flame producing a 2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
white solid which dissolves in water turning red litmus 2Ca(s) + O2(g) 2CaO(s)
paper blue. ii) Reaction with water: Calcium reacts with water to form a
4K(s) + O2(g) 2K2O(s) weak alkaline solution.
K2O(s) + H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
Magnesium reacts with steam to give insoluble magnesium
oxide and hydrogen.

Mg(s) + H2O(l) MgO(s) + H2(g) Mg(HCO3)2(aq) ) ∆ MgCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
iii) Effect of heat on their nitrates: Their nitrates decompose on Soluble Insoluble
heating to give their oxide, nitrogen dioxide and oxygen.

2Mg(NO3)2(s) ∆ MgO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g) The CaCO3 (or MgCO3) is insoluble and this brings the calcium
2Ca(NO3)2(s) ∆ CaO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g) ion (or magnesium ion) out of the solution as a precipitate
iv) Effect of heat on their hydroxides: Their hydroxides (scum).
decompose on heating to give their oxide and water.
Ca(OH)2(s) ∆ CaO(s) + H2O(g)
v) Reaction with nitrogen: They combine with nitrogen to form
Effect of heat on temporary hardness
nitrides.
3Mg(s) + N2(g) Mg3N2 - When temporary hard water is boiled for some time in
Magnesium nitride
kettles and boilers, they will be gradual coating of the
3Ca(s) + N2(g) Ca3N2 kettle with a layer of Ca(HCO3)2 (or Mg(HCO3)2).
Cacium nitride
- Hot pipes may sometimes become blocked by this
Note:
CaCO3 deposit. This can be removed by passing dilute
Mg3N2(s) + 6H2O(l) 3Mg(OH)2(aq) + 2NH3(g)
Warm
acid through the pipe. 23
vi) Reaction with hydrogen: They combine with hydrogen to give
ionic hydride.
Ca(s) + H2(g) CaH2 b) Permanent hardness
Calcium hydride
Mg(s) + H2(g) MgH2 This is hardness that cannot be removed by boiling. It is

caused by the presence of small amounts of calcium sulphate
(CaSO4), magnesium sulphate (MgSO4), Calcium chloride
(CaCl2) and magnesium chloride (MgCl2). The sulphates or
Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)
chlorides do not decompose on heating.
Calcium carbonate occurs abundantly on the earth’s crust in

Removal of hardness
polymorphic forms like limestone, chalk, marble and calcite.
i) Boiling: This is applicable only to temporary hardness.
Uses of calcium carbonate
ii) Addition of calcium hydroxide: Temporary hardness
- It is used in the extraction of iron. can be removed by adding calculated quantity of
- Commercial quicklime is manufactured by heating calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) because excess will cause
calcium carbonate. hardness on its own.
- It is used in the production of cement. Ca(HCO3)2(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) 2CaCO3(s) + 2H2O(l)
- It is used in the building of roads. iii) Addition of washing soda (Na2CO3): Washing soda
- It is used to whiten papers in the paper industry. precipitates calcium and magnesium ions which cause
- It is used in the production of glass. hardness. This method is capable to both temporary and
- It is used to neutralise acidic soil and lakes affected by permanent hardness.
acid rain. Removal of temporary hardness
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) + Na2CO3(s) CaCO3(s) + 2NaHCO3(aq)
Removal of permanent hardness
Hardness of water CaSO4(aq) + Na2CO3(s) CaCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
iv) Distillation: This method will remove all solid matter.
Hard water is water with dissolved minerals (like magnesium and v) Softeners: Many modern washing powders now have
calcium ions) making it difficult to lather (foam) with soap. Soft softeners added to them. They are soften phosphates
water lather easily with soap. (PO43-). The phosphate ions react with calcium to form
calcium phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2) thereby removing
There are two types of water hardness namely temporary and hardness.
permanent hardness.
Hard water, soap and scum

a) Temporary hardness When soap is used with hard water a scum forms on the surface.
The formation of scum is actually a precipitate between the Ca2+,
It is cause by the presence of calcium hydrogen carbonate,
Mg2+ and the soap.
Ca(HCO3)2 and magnesium hydrogen carbonate, Mg(HCO3)2.
This hardness can be removed by boiling. Heat decomposes Note: A precipitate is an insoluble solid that separate out from
the HCO3- into H2O and CO2 which are expelled. solution during a reaction. The precipitate in the above reaction is
scum.
Ca(HCO3)2(aq) ) ∆ CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Soluble Insoluble

A common soap is called sodium stearate commonly known in
Cameroon as ‘savon azur’ which is soluble in water but calcium
stearate is insoluble when soap is mixed with hard water a white
precipitate of calcium stearate is formed.
Advantages and disadvantages of hard and soft water
a) Hard water
Advantage Disadvantage
 It is good for cooking  It waste soap

and drinking  It is not good in
 The shells of eggs making laboratory
chemicals
24
b) Soft water
Advantage Disadvantage
 Good for washing  It is not good for

because it does not drinking because it
waste soap lacks dissolve
 Good for making minerals
chemicals in the
laboratory

CHAPTER SIX Unlike the oxide layers formed on exposure to air by
metals such as zinc and aluminium, the iron rust is
TRANSITION METALS porous and does not prevent further corrosion. Thus the
process of rusting continues until all the iron has been
converted to the oxide.
If finely divided iron, e.g. iron fillings is heated in air, it
will combine with oxygen to form iron(II)diiron(III) oxide
(Fe3O4) (magnetic oxide of iron.
Fe(s) + 2O2(g) Fe3O4(s)
A) Position of Transition Metals on the Periodic Table
ii) Reaction with non-metals: When heated, iron readily
combines with chlorine to give iron(III) chloride and with
The collection of elements between group II and group III particularly sulphur to give iron(III) sulphide. It also combines
from period 4 are called transition elements. They are also known as directly with phosphorus and carbon but not with
heavy metals because their relative density is much higher than those of nitrogen.
alkali metals and alkaline earth metals. 2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2FeCL3(s)
Fe(s) + S(s) FeS(s)
iii) Reaction with acids: Iron dissolves readily in dilute
25
G G G GI G G G G
I II
Transition metals
III V V VI VII VIII hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid to give iron(II) sats
and hydrogen.
P
1 Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)
P Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
2
With dilute nitric acid, iron yields several products
P
3 including nitrates, ammonium nitrates and the oxides of
P
𝑆𝑐 𝑇𝑖 𝑉 𝐶𝑟 𝑀𝑛 𝐹𝑒 𝐶𝑜 𝑁𝑖 𝐶𝑢 𝑍𝑛
nitrogen. No reaction is observed when concentrated
4
nitric acid is added to iron probably because the acid
P
5 oxidises the iron to form a protective layer of oxide.
P Thus concentrated nitric acid is scored in iron
6
containers.
P
7
b) Test for iron(II) ions and iron(III) ions using sodium hydroxide
solution
B) General Characteristics of Transition Metals
When few drops of sodium hydroxide is added to a solution
containing iron(II) ions (Fe2+), a (dirty) green gelatinous precipitate
- Transition metals are hard, strong metals except mercury (Hg) is formed which is soluble in excess sodium hydroxide.
which is a liquid metal at room temperature.
- They have high melting and boiling points. Fe2+(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Fe(OH)2(aq) + 2Na+(aq)
green gelatinous ppt
- They have higher densities than alkali metals.
- They are good conductors of heat and electricity.
On the other hand when few drops of sodium hydroxide is added
- They are ductile, which means they can be drawn into wires.
to a solution containing iron(II) ions, a reddish-brown gelatinous
- They are malleable, which means they can be beaten into thin
precipitate is formed which is insoluble in excess sodium
sheets.
hydroxide.
- They have variable oxidation states, e.g.iron (Fe) appears as Fe2+ or
Fe3+. Fe3+(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) Fe(OH)3(aq) + 3Na+(aq)
- They form coloured compounds, e.g. CuSO4 is blue, FeSO4 is green. Reddish-brown gelatinous ppt
- They act as catalysts.

- They form complex ions, e.g. [Co(H2O)6]2+, [CoCl4]2- Note: Similar results are obtained if aqueous ammonia is used
Note: Some main group elements also form complex ions e.g. instead of sodium hydroxide.
[Al(OH)4]-
D) Copper (Cu)
C) Iron (Fe)
a) Reactions of copper
a) Reactions of iron i) Reaction with air: Copper which is very low on the
i) Reaction with air: When iron is exposed to moist air, it electrochemical (or activity) series, is very stable in pure
gradually rust, due to the formation of hydrated iron(III) air. In moist air, however, it gradually become cover
oxide (Fe2O3.xH20). with a green coating of basic copper(II) sulphate
4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2xH2O(l) 2Fe2O3.xH2O(s) (CuSO4.3Cu(OH)2), and carbonate. A coating of basic

chlorine is formed if it is exposed to moist sea air i.e.
copper(II) oxide.
2Cu(s) + O2(g) 2CuO(s)
ii) Reaction with acids: Being lower than hydrogen on the
activity series, copper is not capable of displacing
hydrogen from dilute acids. However, copper is
attacked by oxidising acids.
Cu(s) + 2H2SO4conc CuSO4(aq) + 2H2O(l) + SO2(g)
With nitric acid, the products formed depend on the
concentration of the acid. Nitrogen monoxide is given
off by the dilute acid, while nitrogen dioxide is liberated
by the hot concentrated acid.
2Cu(é) + 8HNO3(aq) 3Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 4H2O(l) +
2NO(g)
Cu(é) + 4HNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l) +
2NO2(g)
iii) Displacement reactions: Copper is displaced from
26
solutions of its salts by most metals since it is nearly at
the bottom of the activity series.
b) Test for copper(II) ions (Cu2+) using sodium hydroxide solution
When copper(II) salts is mixed with a solution of sodium hydroxide,

the formation of a blue gelatinous precipitate which is insoluble in
excess sodium hydroxide confirms the presence of copper(II) ions.
Cu2+(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Cu(OH)2(aq) + 2Na+(aq
Note: All hydrated copper salts are green or blue in colour, and
dissolves in water to form a blue solution.
c) Reduction of Cu2+ to Cu+
Copper can form copper(I) and copper(II) compounds by sharing or

losing one and two electrons respectively. However, the +2
oxidation state is more common. In aqueous solution, copper(I) ion
is unstable with respect to the copper(II) ion and metal.
Thus, in aqueous solution, copper(I) ions are readily converted to

copper(II) ions and the metal by simultaneous oxidation and
reduction; this process is called disproportionation.
2Cu+(aq) Cu2+(aq) + Cu(s)
i) Copper(I) chloride: Copper(I) chloride is a white

covalent solid which is readily oxidised to green
copper(II) chloride in moist air. Copper(I) chloride (CuCl)
is prepared by passing sulphur dioxide through a
solution of copper(II) sulphate and sodium chloride.
2Cu2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) 2CuCl(s) + SO42-(aq)
+ 4H+(aq)
ii) Copper(I) oxide: Copper(I) oxide (Cu2O) is obtained as a
red precipitate by reducing an alkaline solution of a
copper(II) salt. This is the reaction that is used in
identifying reducing sugars in the Fehling’s and
Benedict’s tests.

CHAPTER SEVEN C) Identification of Anions (Negative Ions)
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS
Brown ring test
BaCl2(aq) or (sample +
Dil HCl or
Ba(NO3)2(aq) followed AgNO3(aq) followed FeSO4(aq) +
Anion dil HNO3 or dil
by dil HCl or dil by dil HNO3
H2SO4 H2SO4conc
HNO3
CO32- CO2 is released White precipitate is White precipitate

formed. Precipitate is formed.
is soluble in excess Precipitate is
dil HCl/HNO3 soluble in excess
Qualitative analysis is the identification of the elements, functional groups or dil HNO3
SO42- White precipitate is
compounds present in a sample. formed. Precipitate
is NOT soluble in
excess dil HCl/HNO3
Cl- White precipitate
is formed.
A) Identification of Gases Precipitate is NOT
soluble in excess
dil HNO3
NO3- Formation of a
Gas Colour Smell Test brown ring 27
Ammonia Colourless Pungent smell Turns moist red
NH3 (smells like urine) litmus paper blue
Carbon dioxide Colourless Odourless Turns lime water

CO2 milky
D) Identification of Cations (Positive Ions)
Chlorine Greenish Chocking smell Bleaches moist
Cl2 yellow (Smells like javel) litmus paper
Hydrogen Colourless Odourless Gives a ‘pop’ sound Cation NaOH(aq) NH3(aq)

H2 with a lighted
2+
splinter Ca White precipitate is produce No precipitate
and precipitate is insoluble in
Oxygen Colourless Odourless Rekindles a glowing excess NaOH(aq)
splinter Mg2+ White precipitate is produce White precipitate is produce and
and precipitate is insoluble in precipitate is insoluble in excess
Dinitrogen oxide Colourless Faint, pleasant Rekindles a glowing excess NaOH(aq) NH3(aq)
N2O but sickly smell splinter
Al3+ White precipitate is produce White precipitate is produce and
Nitrogen dioxide Brown Pungent smell Brown gas that turns and precipitate is soluble in precipitate is insoluble in excess
NO2 moist blue litmus excess NaOH(aq) NH3(aq)
paper red
Zn2+ White precipitate is produce White precipitate is produce and
Sulphur dioxide Colourless Chocking smell Bleaches by and precipitate is soluble in precipitate is soluble in excess
SO2 reduction with excess NaOH(aq) NH3(aq)
deposition of
sulphur Fe2+ Dirty green precipitate is Dirty green precipitate is produce
produce and precipitate is and precipitate is insoluble in excess
Hydrogen Colourless Smells like rotten Reacts with oxidising insoluble in excess NaOH(aq) NH3(aq)
sulphide eggs agents and deposit
H2S sulphur Fe3+ Reddish brown precipitate is Reddish brown precipitate is
produce and precipitate is produce and precipitate is insoluble
Hydrogen White fumes Pungent choking Turns moist blue insoluble in excess NaOH(aq) in excess NH3(aq)
chloride smell litmus paper red
HCl Cu2+ Blue precipitate is produce Blue precipitate is produce and
and precipitate is insoluble in precipitate is soluble in excess
excess NaOH(aq) NH3(aq)
B) Identification of Organic Substances
E) Flame Test
Test
Organic substance
Alkanes Burns with a pale blue flame and undergoes free radical
reactions with halogens in UV light The flame test is a qualitative test used in chemistry to help determine
the identity or possible identity of a cation found in an ionic compound.
Alkenes Decolourises bromine water and acidified KMnO4
If the compound is placed in the flame of a gas burner, there may be a
Alkynes Form a red precipitate with ammoniac copper(I) chloride characteristic colour given off that is visible to the naked eye.
Alcohols Forms white fumes of HCl with phosphorus pentachloride Colour of flame
Cation ion
(PCl5)
Ammonium compounds Faint green
Esters Have fruity smells
Lithium compounds Carmine
Sodium compounds (Golden) yellow

Potassium compounds Lilac (purple)
Calcium compounds Brick-red
Strontium Deep red colour
Barium compounds Apple green
Copper compounds Bluewish green
28

CHAPTER EIGHT For example
(NH4)2Fe(SO4)2.6H2O [Ammonium iron(II) sulphate hexahydrate]

SALTS
KAl(SO4)2.12H2O [Aluminium potassium sulphate dodecahydrate]
e) Complex salt
A salt is the compound formed when all or part of the ionisable hydrogen of A complex salt contains complex ions.
an acid is replaced by metallic or ammonium ions.
For example
Na2Zn(OH)4 [Sodium tetrahydroxozinate(II)]

A) Types of Salts
K4Fe(CN)6 [Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II)]
a) Normal salt Are complex salts which ionise as follows:

29
A normal salt is formed when all the replaceable hydrogen ions of Na2Zn(Zn)6(aq) 2Na+(aq) + [Zn(OH)4]2-(aq)
an acid have been completely replaced by a metallic or
ammonium ion. K4Fe(CN)6(aq) 4K+(aq) + [Fe(CN)6]4-(aq)
H2SO4(aq) + ZnO(s) ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
HCl(aq) + NH4OH(aq) NH4Cl(s) + H2O(l) B) Solubility of Salts and Solubility Curves
Normal salts are neutral to litmus paper. However a few salts such
as sodium carbonate, aluminium chloride and sodium sulphide a) Solubility
will undergo hydrolysis in water to give an acidic or an alkaline
medium. Solubility is stated as the mass in grams of the solute that will
saturate one hundred grams (100g) of a solvent (usually water) at
a given temperature.
b) Acid salt
An acid salt is formed when only part of the hydrogen ions of an b) Saturated solution
acid is replaced by a metallic or ammonium ion.
There is a limit to the amount of a substance which will dissolve in
H2SO4(aq) + KOH(aq) KHSO4(aq) + H2O(l) water. A solution is saturated when it contains as much of the
dissolved substance as possible at a given temperature. The figure
H3PO4(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaH2PO4(aq) + H2O(l) below shows how the solubility of the salt copper(II) sulphate varies
with temperature. This is called a solubility curve.
H3PO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2HPO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Acid salts are formed when there is insufficient supply of metallic Solubility curve of copper(II) sulphate
ions. They have acidic properties, e.g. it will turn blue litmus paper
red.
Solubility: mass of crystal that dissolves in 100g of
80
c) Basic salt
60
A basic salt contains hydroxide ions (OH-).
water
Ca(OH)2(aq) + HCl(aq) Ca(OH)Cl(aq) + H2O(l) 40
Basic salts are formed when there is insufficient supply of acid.

20
They have basic properties, e.g. it will turn red litmus paper blue.
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
d) Double salt
Temperature / °C
A double salt is a salt which ionises to produce three different types
of ions in solution. Usually two of these are positively charged
(metallic or ammonium ions), while the other is negatively charged.

Exercise (4) Heat the mixture until the crystals of the potassium
chlorate(V) have just dissolved.
From the graph above we can see that at 20°C a solution of (5) Remove the boiling tube from the water bath. Allow the
copper(II) sulphate is saturated when 20g of solute is dissolved in solution to cool slowly while being stirred with the
100g of water . At the higher temperature of 80°C, 60g of solute thermometer. Note the temperature at which the crystals
dissolves in 100g of water to make a saturated solution. Thus first form.
saturated solutions of salts at higher temperatures contain a (6) Add a further 4cm3 of water to the boiling tube and repeat
greater mass of solute for a fix amount of solvent (100g). step 3, 4 and 5. Continue to add water until the amount
reaches 20cm3.
What is the solubility of copper(II) sulphate at:
i) 50°C
ii) 30°C Questions
iii) 60°C (1) Calculate the solubility values and complete the table above
and the plot of a graph showing solubility of the vertical axis
(y-axis) and temperature on the horizontal axis (x-axis).
c) Solubility curves (2) Does the solubility of potassium chlorate(V) in water increase 30
or decrease as the temperature rises?
The solubility of a salt in water at a given temperature is the mass (3) Use your graph to predict the temperature at which crystals
of solute which will saturate 100g of water at that temperature. will start to form when a solution of 20g of potassium
This is calculated in the experiment below by: chlorate(V) in 100g of water is cooled.
(4) Use your solubility curve for potassium chlorate(V) to answer
100𝑐𝑚3 the question. A solution containing 30.0g of potassium
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑋 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒(𝑔)
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟(𝑐𝑚3 ) chlorate(V) in water is heated to 80°C. Mark these conditions
on your graph with a cross and label it A. The solution is left
to cool. Mark B on the graph at the point at which crystals
Experiment to investigate the relationship between solubility and start to form. The solution is now cooled to room
temperature temperature (25°C) mark this point as C on your graph. What
mass of crystal will be formed between points B and C?
Requirements
Solubility curves of sodium chloride, potassium
- The apparatus shown below nitrate and sodium nitrate
- Burette
- Bunsen burner Sodium chloride Sodium nitrate
- Potassium chlorate(V)
Potassium nitrate
- Water
Procedure
260
(1) Weigh 2.0g of potassium chlorate(V) into a boiling tube. Copy
240
the table below in your book.
Mass of solute in 100g of water / g
Temperature at which Solubility per 100g of 220

Volume of water
crystallisation begin to water
added (cm3) 200
appear (°C)
4 92 100𝑐𝑚3
4𝑐𝑚3
2𝑔 = 180
8 63 160
12 48 140
16 35
120
20 27
100
80
(2) Add 4cm3 of water from the burette.
(3) Put the boiling tube into the beaker of water as shown in the 60
figure below 40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Temperature / °C
Uses of solubility curves
Solubility curves are used to separate two substances in a mixture

when one of the substance has a significant greater solubility than

the other at a particular temperature by fractional crystallisation.
For example the compounds sodium chlorate(V) is used as a weed
killer and in matches. It is made by reacting a solution of sodium
hydroxide with chlorine gas. The reaction however forms sodium
chloride as well as sodium chlorate(V). A hot concentrated solution
of the mixture would saturate be saturated as far both substances
were concerned and, if it was cooled crystals of the two compounds
we examined, figure below, the problem of separating the sodium
chlorate(V) can be solved.
Solubility curves of sodium chloride, potassium nitrate and sodium

nitrate
Sodium chloride Sodium chlorate (V) a) Heating effect on carbonate salts

Equation of the reaction
Carbonate salt
Potassium carbonate
Not decomposable
31
Sodium carbonate
200
Calcium carbonate CaCO3 ∆ CaO + CO2
180 Magnesium carbonate MgCO3 ∆ MgO + CO2
160 Aluminium carbonate Al2(CO3)3 ∆ Al2O3 + 3CO2

Mass of solute in 100g of water / g
Zinc carbonate ZnCO3 ∆ ZnO + CO2

140
Iron(III) carbonate Fe2(CO3)3 ∆ Fe2O3 + 3CO2
120 Lead(II) carbonate PbCO3 ∆ PbO + CO2
Copper(II) carbonate CuCO3 ∆ CuO + CO2

100
Mercury(II) carbonate 2HgCO3 ∆ 2Hg + 2CO2 + O2
80 Silver carbonate 2Ag2CO3 4Ag + 2CO2 + O2

∆
60 Ammonium carbonate (NH4)2CO3 ∆ NH3 + CO2 + H2O
40
b) Heating effect on nitrate salts
20 Carbonate salt
Equation of the reaction
Potassium nitrate 2KNO3 ∆ 2KNO2 + O2

0
Sodium nitrate 2NaO3 2NaNO2 + O2
0 20 40 60 80 100 ∆
Temperature / °C Calcium nitrate 2Ca(NO3)2 ∆ 2CaO +4NO2+ O2
Magnesium nitrate 2Mg(CO3)2 ∆ 2MgO + 4NO2+ O2
The curves show that at 100°C sodium chloride is much less soluble Aluminium nitrate 4Al(NO3)3 ∆ 2Al2O3 + 12NO2+ 3O2
than sodium chlorate(V). If a solution containing the two is
crystallised at 100°C it will be the sodium chloride that will form Zinc nitrate 2Zn(NO3)2 ∆ 2ZnO + 4NO2+ O2
crystals which can be removed by filtration. Eventually there will be Iron(III) nitrate 4Fe(NO3)3 ∆ 2Fe2O3 + 12NO2+ 3O2
more sodium chlorate(V) in the solution than sodium chloride. If
the solution is now cool to room temperature (25°C), the crystals Lead(II) nitrate 2Pb(NO3)2 ∆ 2PbO + 4NO2+ O2
that form will be sodium chlorate(V) since it is now much
Copper(II) nitrate 2Cu(NO3)2 ∆ 2CuO + 4NO2+ O2
concentrated.
Mercury(II) nitrate Hg(NO3)2 ∆ Hg + 2NO2 + O2
Silver nitrate 2AgNO3 ∆ 2Ag + 2NO2 + O2
Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 ∆ N2O + 2H2O
C) Action of Heat on Salts
c) Heating effect on sulphate salts
Most sulphates salts do not decompose by heat. Only certain

sulphate salts are decomposed by heat when heated strongly.
Zinc sulphate, copper(II) sulphate, iron(III) sulphate

ZnSO4(s) ∆ ZnO(s) + SO3(g) (1) Heating to dryness: This method is used only when the
soluble salt can withstand heating. The salt is usually put in an
CuSO4(s) ∆ CuO(s) + SO3(g) evaporating dish and heated slowly to dryness to produce the
salt in the solid crystalline form.
2Fe2(SO4)3(s) ∆ Fe2O3 + SO3(g) + SO2(g)
(2) Crystallisation: This method is used when the salt is
Ammonium sulphate destroyed or decomposed by dry heating. The salt is first
boiled to drive some of the water. On cooling the
(NH4)2SO4 ∆ 2NH3(g) + H2SO4(g) concentrated solution, crystals of the salts obtained can be
washed with distilled water and then dried between filter
papers.
d) Heating effect on chloride salts
All chlorides are not decomposed by heat except ammonium

chloride.
NH4Cl(s) ∆ Nh3(g) + HCl(g) 32
What is a crystal?
D) Soluble and Insoluble Salts
A crystal is a solid matter which have a regular shape and smooth
surfaces because the particles that make up the crystal are
Salt Solution Insoluble
arranged in a regular manner. Crystals are formed by the process
Nitrate salts All nitrate salts are of crystallisation.
soluble in water
Sulphate salts All sulphate salts are Lead(II) sulphate (PbSO4)
soluble in water Barium sulphate (BaSO4)
except… Calcium sulphate (CaSO4)
b) Preparation of insoluble salts
i) By double decomposition: In this method, usually two
Chlorides salts All chloride salts are Lead(II) chloride (PbCl2) soluble compounds, one containing the wanted cation
soluble in water Silver chloride (AgCl) and the other containing the wanted anion are mixed
except… Mercury chloride (HgCl2) together. During double decomposition, there is an
exchange of ionic radicals, resulting to the precipitation
Carbonate salts Potassium carbonate All carbonates are
Sodium carbonate insoluble except…
of thee required salt, which is obtained by filtration.
Ammonium AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
Soluble Soluble White ppt soluble
carbonate
Ammonium salts All the common K2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2KCl(aq)
ammonium salts are Soluble Soluble White ppt soluble
soluble
a) Preparation of soluble salts

i) By reacting dilute acid and a metal: A salt may be prepared
by the direct displacement of the hydrogen ion of an acid by E) Efflorescence, Deliquescence and Hygroscopy
ametal more reactive than hydrogen, e.g. calcium,
magnesium, zinc, iron.
When certain compounds are exposed to air, they either lose their water
Zn(s) 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
of crystallisation or they absorb moisture from their surroundings. The
Mg(s) H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
terms efflorescent, deliquescent and hygroscopic are used to describe
ii) By neutralisation: A soluble salt may also be prepared by the
neutralisation reaction of an acid and a base. such compounds.
CuO(s) H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
ZnCO3(s) H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2 O(l) + CO2(g)
a) Efflorescence
Efflorescence is the loss of water of crystallisation from a hydrated

Assignment salt on exposure to the air at room temperature. A lower hydrate
or an anhydrous salt is formed. The salt is said to be efflorescent.
State two ways a soluble salt can be recovered from its solution. An example is washing soda molecule which loses nine out of its
ten molecules of water of crystallisation when exposed to the
atmosphere.
Recovering soluble salts from solution Na2CO3.10H2O(s) ∆ Na2CO3.H2O(s) + 9H2O(g)

b) Deliquescence
Deliquescence is the phenomenon whereby a solid absorbs

moisture from the air and passes into solution. The substance is
said to be deliquescent. Examples of these substances are:
 Sodium hydroxide, NaOH

 Iron(III) chloride, FeCl3
 Potassium hydroxide, KOH
 Calcium chloride, CaCl2
 Magnesium chloride, MgCl2
 Phosphorus(V) oxide, P4O10
c) Hygroscopy
33
Hygroscopy is the ability of a substance to attract and hold water
molecules from the surrounding environment. If they are solids,
they will not form solutions but merely become sticky or moist. A
hygroscopic liquid like concentrated sulphuric acid will absorb
water from the air, usually diluting itself up to about three times its
original volume. Other examples of hygroscopic substances
include:
 Sodium nitrate, NaNO3

 Copper(II) oxide, CuO
 Quicklime or calcium oxide, CaO
Hygroscopic substances are commonly employed as drying agents

in the laboratory.
Drying agents
Drying agents are substances that have a strong affinity for

moisture or water. They may be either hygroscopic or
deliquescent. They are usually used to dry gases in the laboratory.
They are also commonly used in desiccators. A drying agent
cannot be used if it reacts with the substance to be dried.
Gases
Drying agent
Concentrated All gases except ammonia and hydrogen
sulphuric acid sulphide
Fused calcium All gases except ammonia

chloride
Calcium oxide Suitable for ammonia in particular
(quicklime)
Phosphorus(V) oxide All gases except ammonia
Silica gel All gases

34
ORGANIC
CHEMISTRY PART 1

CHAPTER ONE (1) The exceptional ability of carbon atoms to catenate, i.e. to
combine with one another to form, straight chains, branched
STRUCTURES AND PROPERTIES OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS chains or ring compounds containing many carbon atoms.
(2) The ease with which carbon combines with hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen and the halogens.
The ability of carbon atoms to form single, double and triple bonds.
We can illustrate the ability of carbon to form a variety of

A) Introduction compounds by show five carbon atoms can join together to form
some compounds
This chapter deals with the organic compounds of carbon apart from the
very simplest ones such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and
carbonates. Organic chemistry was originally defined as the study of the
chemistry of compounds found in living things. Today the term refers to
the millions of carbon compounds that exist, some of which are shown 35
in the table below:
Molecular Common name Structural formula

Name
formula or use
CH4 Methane Natural gas
C4H10 Butane Bottled gas
Building block of
C2H4 Ethene
polystyrene
C2H2 Ethyne Used in welding
C2H5OH Ethanol Alcohol
Vinegar
CH3COOH Ethanoic acid
(when diluted)
Many organic compounds do come from plants and animals but many
more have been made by organic chemists in laboratories.
C) Characteristic of Organic Compounds
a) Covalent nature
B) Variety of Organic Compounds Carbon atoms form stable covalent bonds with one another. Most
organic compounds are stable because of the strong carbon-carbon
bonds. Since they are covalent, they do not ionise and are non-
Organic compounds are made up of conductors of electricity.
 the main element, carbon;

 hydrogen and oxygen which are usually present; and
elements such as nitrogen, the halogens, phosphorus, b) Polarity and solubility
sulphur and some metals which are sometimes present.
Carbon-carbon bonds and carbon-hydrogen bonds are non-polar
The presence of numerous organic compounds is due to the following bonds. This is due to the almost equal electronegativities of the two
properties of carbon: elements. Most organic compounds are non-polar unless they

consist of very electronegative elements like chlorine or groups like
the hydroxyl group (OH).
Since most organic compounds are non-polar, they do not form

bonds with water molecules. So most organic compounds are Alkanes
insoluble in water.
c) Low melting and boiling points
Organic compounds usually have low melting and boiling points

than inorganic compounds. This is because compounds possess
Haloalkanes
relatively weak intermolecular bonds which can be easily broken by
heat energy.
36
d) Thermal instability
Organic compounds are thermally unstable, decomposing into

Alcohols
simpler molecules when heated to temperatures above 500°C.
(Alkanols)
e) Flammability
Most organic compounds are flammable. They burn in the presence

of air to yield carbon dioxide and water.
Ethers
f) Reactivity
Organic compounds are less reactive than inorganic compounds.

Their reactions usually requires a catalyst and heat.
Aldehydes
(Alkanals)
D) Classifying Organic Compounds

Ketones
(Alkanones)
a) Homologous series
A homologous series is a family of organic compounds which

follows a regular structural pattern, in which each successive
member differs in its molecular formula by a –CH2- group.
Compounds in the same homologous series have similar: Carboxylic
acids
 Structures
 Physical properties
 Chemical properties
 Chemical formulae
Esters
b) Functional group
A functional group is an atom, a radical (group of atoms) or a bond

common to a homologous series, and which determines the main
chemical properties of the series.
Homologou Functional Examples Primary

General formula
s series group amines

Note: R and R’ maybe the same or different alkyl groups or may
represent more complex group than an alkyl group. The table
below shows the name and the structure of some alkyl groups.
Alkyl Number of Structure

group carbon (CnH2n+1)
(R) atoms
Methyl 1
Ethyl 2
37
Propyl 3
Butyl 4
Pentyl 5
Exercise
Name the following compounds:
E) Nomenclature
The name of simple straight chain organic compounds is usually divided

in three parts which gives information on the number of carbon atoms
present, the types of bonds present (single, double or triple bond)
between the carbon atoms and the functional group present.
Functional group
Number of carbon atoms Type of bond
an if only single carbon- e if it is a hydrocarbon

Meth for 1C atom carbon bonds (C-C) are
present. ol if it is an alcohol
Eth for 2C atom
Prop for 3C atom
en if only single carbon- al if it is an aldehyde
But for 4C atom
Pent for 5C atom carbon double bonds (C=C)
are present one if it is a ketone
Hex for 6C atom
Hept for 7C atom
oic acid if it is a carboxylic
Oct for 8C atom
yn if only single carbon- acid
Non for 9C atom
carbon triple bonds (C≡C)
Dec for 10C atom
are present amine if it is an amine
Examples

CHAPTER TWO
5 Pentane C5H12
HYDROCARBONS (ALKANES, ALKENES AND ALKYNES)
6 Hexane C6H14
7 Heptane C7H16
Hydrocarbons are compounds of carbon and hydrogen only. Hydrocarbons can
be saturated or unsaturated.
Saturated hydrocarbons (e.g. alkanes) are hydrocarbons which the combining 8 Octane C8H18
capacity of the carbon atoms is as fully
As possible in bonding with hydrogen atoms. They only have single bond (-)
9 Nonane C9H20
only.
38
Unsaturated hydrocarbons (e.g. alkenes and alkynes) are hydrocarbons which
the combining capacity of the carbon atoms is not fully used. This is indicated 10 Decane C10H22
by a carbon-carbon double bond (=) or triple bond (≡).
B) Nomenclature of Alkanes
I. ALKANES The following rules apply when naming organic compounds using the
IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) system of
naming:
A) Introduction
Rule 1
Alkanes are a homologous series of hydrocarbons with the formula Locate the carbon chain with the longest number of carbon atoms.
CnH2n+2; examples are: Mistakes can be made here. For example, alkanes with the formula C9H20
can be numbered in four different ways:
 Methane in which n=1 so that its formula is C1H(2X1) +2, namely
CH4;
 Ethane in which n=2 so that its formula is C2H(2X2) +2, namely
C2H6;
The table below shows the first ten members of the homologous
series of the alkanes.
Number
of Molecular Structural formula
Name
carbon formula
atoms
1 Methane CH4
Version (d) gives the longest chain (eight carbon atom prefix ‘oct’) and
the lowest number for the methyl group substituent. If (d) is redrawn it
2 Ethane C2H6
becomes.
3 Propane C3H8
4 Butane C4H10
Its name is 3-methyloctane
Rule 2
Name any group that is attached to the longest chain. In alkanes these
groups are given the general name of alkyl groups.
Rule 3
Give the positions on the carbon chain of any group attached. Counting Butane
can occur from either end. Therefore this molecule could be 2-
methylpentane or 4-methylpentane
C4H10
2-methylpropane
The IUPAC rules state that the number given to the attached group
should be the lowest possible. So the molecule is named 2- Pentane
methylpentane.
39
The chain can have more than one group attached to it. Examples are:
2-methylbutane
C5H12
Numbered from either end the name of this compound is 2,4-

dimethylpentane, and: 2,2-dimethylpropane
D) Preparation of Alkanes
Numbered from the left gives the lowest numbers for the methyl
substituents – the name is 2,4-dimethylhexane.
Alkanes can be prepared by fractional distillation of crude oil or by
cracking.
Exercise
Draw the structural formulae and name the isomers of C6H14. a) Fractional distillation of crude oil
Crude oil is the major natural source of alkanes. Crude oil is a

mixture of complex hydrocarbons with varying boiling points,
depending on the number of carbon atoms and how they are
arranged. Fractional distillation uses this property to separate the
C) Isomerism hydrocarbons in crude oil. The table below gives the boiling points
of the different fractions of crude oil.
Isomerism is the phenomenon of the existence of different substances Approxima

Number of Boiling
with the same molecular formulae. Thus, isomers are substances with Percentage te demand
Fraction carbon point
yield (%) (%)
the same molecular formulae. Thus, isomers are compounds with the atoms range (°C)
same molecular formula but different structures. Petroleum gases 1-5 2 4
The table below shows the isomers of C4H10 and C5H10 and C5H10. This Gasoline 5-10 0—65 5 22
type of isomerism is called branching isomerism.
Naphtha 8-12 65-170 9 5
Molecular Structural formula
Name Kerosene 9-16 170-250 12 8
formula

Gas oil 5-25 250-340 17 23 Alkanes react with chlorine in the presence of sunlight. The UV
radiation in sunlight provides energy for the chlorine molecule to
Fuel oil 20-30 Above 55 38
5000 split and reaction to proceed. The reaction for methane is:
CH4(g) Cl2(g) UV radiation CH3Cl(g) + HCl(g)

Chloromethane
b) Cracking
Cracking is a method used to break up the longer chain carbon The chlorine has replaced a hydrogen atom and this type of
atoms up into shorter more useful ones. The two main types of reaction is called substitution reaction.
cracking are thermal cracking and catalytic cracking.
Further substitution can occur so that eventually all the hydrogen
i) Thermal cracking: Thermal cracking of fuel oil is achieved by atoms have been substituted by chlorine atoms.
heating the mixture of alkanes to temperature between UV radiation
CH3Cl(g) + Cl2(g) ) CH2Cl2(g) + HCl(g)
400°C and 700°C. At this temperature the longer chain Dichloromethane
alkanes break to form smaller chain alkanes, alkenes and UV radiation
CH2Cl2(g) + Cl2(g) ) CHCl3(g) + HCl(g)
hydrogen. Trichloromethane(chloroform)
Long chain alkanes Smaller chain alkanes + Hydrogen
UV radiation
40
For example, CHCl3(g) + Cl2(g) ) CCl4(g) + HCl(g)
Tetrachloromethane
Note: Bromine substitutes in a similar way to chlorine but the

reaction is slower.
ii) Catalytic cracking: In this method of cracking the alkane is

passed over a catalyst at temperatures of 400-500°C. Question
Question What is a substitution reaction?
What is the purpose of the catalyst? Answer
A substitution reaction is one which involves direct displacement of

an atom or group by another atom or group.
Laboratory preparation of methane (CH4)
Methane is prepared in the laboratory by heating two solids:

sodium ethanoate and soda lime.
CH3COONa(s) + NaOH(s) Na2CO3(s) + CH4(g)

from soda lime
II. ALKENES
The other alkanes in the series can be similarly prepared by
heating an appropriate sodium salt with soda lime.
Methane:
A) Introduction
 is a colourless gas;
 has no smell;
 is insoluble in water; Alkenes have the general formula CnH2n. The name of all alkenes end with
 is neutral to litmus paper; –ene and the formula of one alkene differs from the next by –CH2-. They
 is less dense than air. have similar properties like alkanes going down the homologous series.
Number of
Molecula Structural formula
carbon Name
r formula
atoms
E) Reactions of Alkanes
2 Ethene C2H4
a) Combustion
All alkanes burn in air with clean and luminous, non-sooty flames 3 Propene C3H6
to give carbon dioxide and water. The equation for methane is:
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

4 But-1-ene C4H8
b) Reaction with chlorine (chlorination)

4 But-2-ene b) Dehydration of alcohols
An alkene is formed when an alcohol is heated with concentrated

sulphuric acid at temperatures above 170°C.
170°C
C2H5OH(l) C2H4(g) + H2O(g)
B) Nomenclature of Alkenes Conc H2SO4
Ethene:
Alkenes are named just as their corresponding alkane except that their
names end with –ene and at times a number precedes the –ene to
indicate the position of the carbon-carbon double bond (C=C). However,  has no smell
when numbering, the double bond has priority over any eventual  is insoluble in water.
substituent.
41
Exercise
E) Reactions of Alkenes
Name the following alkenes
a) Combustion
Alkenes burn in air to form carbon dioxide and water.
C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
Incomplete combustion forms soot and carbon monoxide.
b) Addition reaction
Addition reaction is the reaction of two or more molecules to form

a single product.
i) Addition of hydrogen (hydrogenation): In the presence of

nickel catalyst and heat, alkenes react with hydrogen to form
C) Isomerism alkanes.
C2H4(g) + H2(g) C2H6(g)
Alkenes like alkanes show branching isomerism, for example
ii) Addition of halogens (halogenation): Chlorine and bromine

add to the carbon double bond (C=C) of alkene molecule.
They also show positional isomerism caused by the different positions

of the double bond in the molecule for example,
iii) Addition of hydrogen halide: Hydrogen halides add to the
double carbon-carbon bond (C=C) of alkene molecules to
form haloalkanes.
iv) Addition of water: An alcohol is formed when alkenes and

steam is passed over phosphoric acid catalyst and
D) Preparation of Alkenes
temperature of 300°C.
C2H4(g) + H2O(g) 300°C C2H5OH(l)
a) Cracking Conc H2PO4
Similar to the alkanes

Exercise
Name the following alkynes
v) Polymerisation: Polymerisation is the chemical linking of

small simple molecules of low molecular weight called
monomers to form larger molecules called polymers, with or
without the loss of matter.
C) Isomerism
42
Just like alkenes, alkynes also show branching and positional isomerism.
F) Test for the Alkenes (Unsaturation)
The addition reactions of alkenes with chlorine water, bromine water, Question
acidified potassium permanganate(VII) and acidified potassium
dichromate(VI) can be used to test for alkenes. All of these reactions Give an example of branching isomers and positional isomers of alkynes.
involve a colour change which indicates that a double or triple carbon-
carbon bond is present in the molecule.
Question D) Preparation of Ethyne
What colour changes occur when:

a) Bromine water is added to an alkene; Ethyne is usually prepared in the laboratory by the action of cold water
b) Chlorine is added to an alkene; on calcium carbide.
c) Potassium permanganate(VII) is added to an alkene;
CaC2(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + C2H2(g)
d) Potassium dichromate(VI) is added to an alkene; Ethyne
Ethyne:
 has a sweet smell;
III. ALKYNES  is insoluble in water.
A) Introduction
E) Reactions of Alkynes
Alkynes have the general formula CnH2n-2. The name of all alkynes end
with –yne and the formula of one alkyne differs from the next by –CH2-.
They have similar properties like alkenes and alkanes going down the a) Combustion
homologous series.
All alkynes burn in air to give carbon dioxide and water.
2C2H2(g) + 5O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
In complete combustion occurs in the presence of limited air to

B) Nomenclature of Alkynes form soot and carbon monoxide.
Alkynes are named just as their corresponding alkene except that their
names ends with –yne. b) Addition reactions

Addition reactions occur in alkynes because of the presence of a
triple bond between carbon atoms. For example the addition of a
chlorine molecule across the triple bond occurs in two stages as
follows:
43

CHAPTER THREE b) Classify the structures drawn in (a) above as branching or positional
isomer
ALCOHOLS c) Classify the structures drawn in (a) above as primary, secondary or
tertiary alcohols
d) Drawn and names all the possible functional group isomers
There are three types of alcohols: primary, secondary and tertiary

alcohols.
A) Introduction Primary alcohols: The hydroxyl (OH) group is attached to a carbon

atom with two other hydrogen atoms attached. An example is
ethanol:
Alcohols are homologous series with general formula CnH2n+1OH. They
have the –OH functional group (hydroxyl group). All alcohols end with
the suffix –ol.
First three members of the series (so that you’d have an idea on the next)
are:
44
 Methanol (CH3OH) Secondary alcohols: The hydroxyl (OH) group is attached to a

 Ethanol (C2H5OH or CH3CH2OH) carbon atom with one other hydrogen atoms attached. An example
 Propanol (C3H7OH or CH3CH2CH2OH) is propan-2-ol:
Note: For alcohol, the –OH is not of hydroxide ion (OH-), but is covalent
bond between oxygen and hydrogen.
Tertiary alcohols: The hydroxyl (OH) group is attached to a carbon

B) Nomenclature of Alcohols atom with no other hydrogen atoms attached. An example is 2-
methylpropan-2-ol:
Question
Predict the names of the following alcohols:
D) Preparation of Ethanol
a) Fermenting glucose
Fermentation is the breakdown of sugars into smaller molecules by

microorganisms.
C6H12O6(aq) 2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)

C) Nomenclature of Alcohols
Temperature is kept constant at 37°C to prevent destruction of
yeast at higher temperatures.
Alcohols exhibit branching isomerism as with all the other homologous
series studied so far. In addition, they also show positional isomerism
and functional group isomerism. b) Reacting ethane with steam
Ethene and steam are passed over phosphoric acid (as a catalyst)
under high temperature of 300°C and pressure of 65atm.
Exercise
C2H4(g) + H2O(g) 300°C,65atm C2H5OH(l)
Given the alcohol with molecular formula, C4H9OH
Conc H2PO4
a) Draw and name all the possible structures of the alcohol

Ethanol:
 is a colourless, volatile liquid with a
characteristic taste and smell; F) Uses of Ethanol
 is soluble in water;
 has no effect on litmus paper.
- Ethanol is used as a fuel, either by itself or mixed with petrol, in
racing cars and in rockets.
- It is used in industry in the manufacture ethyl ethanoate and other
esters as fruit flavourings for sweet and drinks.
- It is present in many alcoholic beverages such as beers, wines, and
E) Reactions of Alcohols spirit.
- It is used as a solvent in the manufacture of cosmetics.
a) Combustion
All alcohols burn in air to produce carbon dioxide and water.
C2H5OH(l) + 3CO2(g) 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g) 45
b) Reaction with sodium and potassium
When alcohols react with sodium (or potassium), hydrogen is

liberated.
2C2H5OH(l) + 2Na(s) 2C2H5ONa(aq) + H2(g)

Sodium ethoxide
c) Reactions with chlorides of phosphorus
Phosphorus(V) chloride reacts vigorously with alcohols.
C2H5OH(l) + PCl5(l) C2H5Cl(g) + HCl(g) + POCl5(l)
On the other hand, phosphorus(III) chloride reacts less vigorously

with alcohols.
3C2H5OH(l) + PCl3(l) 3C2H5Cl(g) + H3PO3(aq)
d) Oxidation
Carboxylic acids can be prepared in the laboratory by warming

warming alcohols with oxidising agents (potassium
dichromate(VI)). The product is carboxylic acid and water.
C2H5OH(l) + 2[O] 2CH3COOH(l) + 3H2O(l)

from OA
Alcohols can be oxidised when left in air with bacterial enzymes as

catalyst. The products is carboxylic acid and water.
C2H5OH(l) + O2(g) 2CH3COOH(l) + 3H2O(l)
e) Esterification
Esterification is the reaction between an organic acid and an

alcohol that result in the production of an ester.
CH3COOH(aq) + C2H5OH(l) CH3C00C2H5

Ethyl ethanoate

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CHEMISTRY OF GROUP I AND GROUP II ELEMENTS .....

CONCISE CHEMISTRY FORM FOUR TERENCE AZAH

CONCISE CHEMISTRY FORM FOUR TERENCE AZAH

2) Let’s calculate the number of molecules of CO2

A) Relative Atomic Mass (RAM) Number of 𝐶𝑂2 molecules

Number of 𝐶𝑂2 molecules

Number of 𝐶𝑂2 molecule = 1.50𝑋1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠

𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 = 4.50𝑋1023 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

The molar mass of a substance is the mass of one mole of the

1) How many mole are there in 9.8g of sulphuric acid?

6.02x1023=Avogadro’s constant = L Solution

1) Let’s calculate the number of moles of sulphuric acid

Number of particles 𝑚𝐻2𝑆𝑂4 =9.8g

𝑀𝑀𝐻2𝑆𝑂4 =(2 X 1) + (1 X 32) + (4 X 16)

1) Let’s calculate the number of moles of water 9.8𝑔

MMFe=56g/mol Calculating the mass of an element in a compound

𝑚𝐹𝑒 1) The percentage composition of iron(III) oxide is 70%. Calculating

mFe=0.4mol X 56g/mol Solution

D) Percentage Composition 2) Let’s determine the mass of iron in 200g of Fe2O3.

𝑀𝑀𝐹𝑒2𝑂3 =(2 X RAMFe) + (3 X RAMO)

𝑀𝑀𝐹𝑒2𝑂3 =(2 X RAMFe) + (3 X RAMO)

𝑀𝑀𝐹𝑒3𝑂4 =(3 X 56) + (4 X 16)

𝑀𝑀𝐹𝑒2𝑂3 =232g/mol c) Structural formula

CONCISE CHEMISTRY FORM FOUR TERENCE AZAH

Calculating the empirical formula of a compound MM=42g/mol=[(1XRAMC)+(2XRAMH)]n

The empirical formula is determined by using the following 42=[(1X12)+(2X1)]n

Examples Molecular formula=(CH2O)n

1) Find the empirical formula of an oxide of magnesium consisting MM=42g/mol=[(1XRAMC)+(2XRAMH)+(1XRAMO]n

Mass 0.96 0.32 Therefore the molecular formula is (CH2O)6 or C6H12O6

Divide by the 0.04 0.02

From empirical formula to molecular formula Recall

1) Find the molecular formula of propene having a relative 1L=1dm3=1000cm3

CONCISE CHEMISTRY FORM FOUR TERENCE AZAH

1) Let’s determine the molarity of 5moles of sodium hydroxide in

2) Let’s calculate the molarity of sodium chloride in mol/dm3 1

a) Gas laws Most temperatures are measured either on the Celsius

CONCISE CHEMISTRY FORM FOUR TERENCE AZAH

250K=(250-273)°C=-23°C What is the number of moles of a gas if it occupies 240dm3 at STP?

c) Molar volume V=10.7mol X 24dm3/mol

V H) Calculations Using Chemical Equations

Where, a) Balancing chemical equations

i) N2(g) + H2(g) NH3(g)

CONCISE CHEMISTRY FORM FOUR TERENCE AZAH

Solution MgCl2 is formed by reacting Mg and HCl according to the

Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

CONCISE CHEMISTRY FORM FOUR TERENCE AZAH

In most chemical reactions, it is unlikely that all the reactants will

- Reactants may not be pure

The percentage yield of a reaction measures the reaction

2moles of ammonia was found when 15moles of hydrogen was

a) What are the limiting reagents for this reaction?

a) The limiting reagent is H2

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

CONCISE CHEMISTRY FORM FOUR TERENCE AZAH

+1 (except when combined

Reduction and oxidation (REDOX) are processes that complement each

Let’s workout the oxidation states of the underlined elements in

-3 Oxidation state of Mn=+7

Element a compound Manganese Mn. MnCl2 MnO2 KMnO4

-1 Chromium Cr CrCl2 CrCl3 K2Cr2O7

CONCISE CHEMISTRY FORM FOUR TERENCE AZAH

Concentrated H2SO4 LiAlH4