DP CELL

A DP cell is a differential pressure cell. It is used to measure the differential pressure

between two input points. It consists of a sensor, a transducer and a transmitter
combined in a single device. To measure the level of a tank using a differential
pressure cell (DP Cell).

Working PrincipleIe DP cell a diaphragm is present which remains in normal

condition when the forces on both sides of diaphragm are equal. The unequal forces
(pressure difference) create deformation in the diaphragm. By the extent of
deformation, the differential pressure is calculated. DP cell a diaphragm is present which
remains in normal condition when the forces on both sides of diaphragm are equal. The unequal
forces (pressure difference) create deformation in the diaphragm. By the extent of deformation,
the differential pressure is calculated.

Types of DP Cells There are two main types of DP Cells:

Pneumatic DP CellElectronic DP CellBefore discussing the types of DP cells, let here
discuss the Diaphragm Capsules which are the main sensing element of the DP Cell.

Diaphragm CapsulesMost DP cells have a diaphragm capsule as their

sensor.Capsules consist of two circular metallic diaphragms formed into a disc and
an internal backing plate.The diaphragms often have concentric corrugations to
optimize their flexibility/rigidity.The space between the diaphragms and the backing

plate is filled with silicone oil.

Pneumatic DP Cell

The capsule is held between two flanged castings which form chambers on either
side.These are designated as the high and low pressure sides of the DP cell.Air is
supplied to keep the force bar in horizontal position and in this way differential
pressure is calculated.

Electronic DP Cell

The general features of construction of electronic and pneumatic DP cells are much
the same.These cells convert the deflection of the diaphragms into a change in
resistance, inductance or capacitance which is then measured using an integrated
circuit as appropriate.
Because the designs of the various d/p cells are discussed in detail in another issue
of Transactions, only a brief overview is provided here.

The motion balance cell is well suited for remote locations where instrument air or
electric power are not available. If a bellows is used as the sensing element in a motion
balance d/p cell, an increase in the pressure on either side causes the corresponding
bellows to contract (Figure 7-3A). The bellows is connected to a linkage assembly that
converts the linear motion of the bellows into a rotary indicator motion, which can be
Figure 7-3: Click on figure to enlarge.

calibrated to indicate the tank level.

In a force-balance type of d/p cell, the sensing element (often a diaphragm) does not
move. A force bar is provided to maintain the forces acting on the diaphragm in
equilibrium (Figure 7-3B). In pneumatic d/p cells, this is often achieved by the use of a
nozzle and flapper arrangement that guarantees that the pneumatic output signal will
always be proportional to the differential pressure across the cell. The output of
pneumatic d/p cells is linear and is usually ranged from 3 to 15 psig. The levels
represented by such transmitted signals (pneumatic, electronic, fiberoptic or digital) can
be displayed on local indicators or remote instruments. Pneumatic transmitters require a
compressed air (or nitrogen) supply.

Electronic d/p cells provide ±0.5% of span or better precision typically conveyed via a 4-
20 mA signal. The range of these simple and robust cells can be as narrow as a draft
range of 0- 1/2 inH2O or as wide as 0-1,000 psid. Some electronic d/p cells can operate
at line pressures up to 4,500 psig at 250°F. The drift and inaccuracy of some of these
units have been tested for periods of up to 30 months, and the errors did not exceed the
±0.5% of span limit.
Applications

Level Measurement

Density Measurement

Flow Rate Measurement

Interface Measurement

Strain gauges:

1. DEFINITION • A strain gauge is an example of passive transducer that converts a

mechanical displacement into a change of resistance. • A strain gauge is a thin, wafer-
like device that can be attached to a variety of materials to measure applied strain.
2. HISTORY A brief history of the Strain Gauge: • 1856 : Lord Kelvin first reported on a
relationship between strain and the resistance of wire conductors. • Early 1930s : Charles
Kearns made the first notable use of bonded resistance strain gauges to measure
vibratory strains in high performance propeller blades. • 1937/8 : Arthur Ruge discovered
that small diameter wires made of electrical resistance alloys could be bonded to a
structure to measure surface strain. • 1952 : At this time, printed circuits were emerging,
and Saunders-Roe developed the idea of making a strain gauge by etching the pattern
for the gauge from a thin foil.
3. STRUCTURE • The majority of strain gauges are foil types, available in a wide choice of
shapes and sizes to suit a variety of applications. They consist of a pattern of resistive foil
which is mounted on a backing material. • They operate on the principle that as the foil is
subjected to stress, the resistance of the foil changes in a defined way.
4. WORKING • The strain gauge is connected into a Wheatstone Bridge circuit. The change
in resistance is proportional to applied strain and is measured with Wheatstone bridge.
5. WORKING • The sensitivity of a strain gauge is described in terms of a characteristic
called the gauge factor, defined as unit change in resistance per unit change in length, or
• Gauge factor is related to Poisson's ratio µ by, K=1+2 µ
6. TYPES Based on principle of working : • Mechanical • Electrical • Piezoelectric Based on
mounting : • Bonded strain gauge • Unbonded strain gauge
7. TYPES Based on construction : • Foil strain gauge • Semiconductor strain gauge •
Photoelectric Strain gauge

Electrical resistance of any conductor is proportional to the ratio of length over cross-
 sectional area (R ∝ l/A), which means that tensile deformation (stretching) will
increase electrical resistance by simultaneously increasing length and decreasing
cross-sectional area while compressive deformation (squishing) will decrease
electrical resistance by simultaneously decreasing length and increasing cross-
sectional area.
8. . MECHANICAL STRAIN GAUGE • It is made up of two separate plastic layers. The
bottom layer has a ruled scale on it and the top layer has a red arrow or pointer. One
layer is glued to one side of the crack and one layer to the other. As the crack opens, the
layers slide very slowly past one another and the pointer moves over the scale. The red
crosshairs move on the scale as the crack widens.
9. ELECTRICAL STRAIN GAUGE • When an electrical wire is stretched within the limits of
its elasticity such that it does not break or permanently deform, it will become narrower
and longer, changes that increase its electrical resistance end- to-end. • Strain can be
inferred by measuring change in resistance.
10. PIEZOELECTRIC STRAIN GAUGE • Piezoelectric generate electric voltage when strain
is applied over it. Strain can be calculated from voltage. Piezoelectric strain gauges are
the most sensitive and reliable devices.
11. BONDED STRAIN GAUGE • A bonded strain-gage element, consisting of a metallic
wire, etched foil, vacuum-deposited film, or semiconductor bar, is cemented to the
strained surface.

Metal Foil Strain Gauge

Description of Metal Foil Strain Gauge

The arrangement consists of the following;

The metal foil of 0.02mm thick is produced using the printed circuit
technique. This metal foil is produced on one side of the plastic backing.
Leads are soldered to the metal foil for electrically connecting the strain
gauge to a measuring instrument (wheat stone bridge).
Operations of Metal foil Strain gauge
With the help of an adhesive material, the strain gauge is pasted/bonded on
the structure under study. Now the structure is subjected to a force (tensile
or compressive). Due to the force, the structure will change the dimension.
As the strain gauge is bonded to the structure, the stain gauge will also
undergo change in both in length and cross-section (that is, it strained). This
strain (change in dimension) changes the resistance of the strain gauge
which can be measured using a wheat stone bridge. This change in
resistance of the strain gauge becomes a measure of the extent to which the
structure is strained and a measure of the applied force when calibrated.
Same as Fine Wire strain gauge operation.

Advantages of Metal foil Strain gauge

 These strain gauges can be manufactured in any shape.
 Perfect bonding of the strain gauge is possible with structure under
study.
 The backing can be peeled off and the metal foil with leads can be
used directly on the structure under study. In such cases, a ceramic adhesive
is to be used.
 These gauges have a better fatigue life.
 Has good sensitivity and have stability even at high temperatures.
12.
13. UNBONDED STRAIN GAUGE • The unbonded strain gage consists of a wire stretched
between two points in an insulating medium such as air. One end of the wire is fixed and
the other end is attached to a movable element.
hese strain gauges are not directly bonded (that is, pasted) onto
the surface of the structure under study. Hence they are termed as
unbounded strain gauges.
Description of the Unbonded Strain gauges:
The arrangement of an unbonded strain gauges consists of the following.
Two frames P and Q carrying rigidly fixed insulated pins as shown in
diagram. these two frames can move relative with respect to each other and
they are held together by a spring loaded mechanism. A fine wire resistance
strain gauge is stretched around the insulated pins. The strain gauge is
connected to a wheat stone bridge.

Operation of Unbonded strain gauges:

When a force is applied on the structure under study (frames P & Q),
frames P moves relative to frame Q, and due to this strain gauge will change
in length and cross section. That is, the strain gauge is strained. This strain
changes the resistance of the strain gauge and this change in resistance of
the strain gauge is measured using a wheat stone bridge. This change in
resistance when calibrated becomes a measure of the applied force and
change in dimensions of the structure under study.
Application of Unbonded strain gauge:
Unbonded strain gauge is usedin places where the gauge is to be
detached and used again and again.unbonded strain gauges are used in
force, pressure and acceleration measurement.

Advantages of Unbonded strain gauge:

 The range of this gauge is +/- 0.15% strain.
 This gauge has a very high accuracy.

Limitation of unbonded strain gauges

It occupies more space.
14. FOIL STRAIN GAUGE • The foil strain gage has metal foil photo-etched in a grid pattern
on the electric insulator of the thin resin and gage leads attached,
15. SEMICONDUCTOR STRAIN GAUGE • For measurements of small strain,
semiconductor strain gauges, so called piezoresistors, are often preferred over foil
 gauges. Semiconductor strain gauges depend on the piezoresistive effects of silicon or
germanium and measure the change in resistance with stress as opposed to strain.
The sensing element is rectangular filament made as a wafer from silicon or
geranium crystals. To these crystals, boron is added to get some desired
properties and this process is called doping and the crystals are called doped
crystals. This sensing element is attched to a plastics or stainless steel
backing. Leads made of gold are drawn out from the sensing element for
electrically connecting the strain gauge to a measuring instrument (wheat
stone bridge).
There are two types of sensing element namely:
Negative or n-type (resistance decrease with respect to tensile strain).
 Positive or P-type ( resistance increase with respect to tensile strain).

With the help of an adhesive material, the strain gauge is pasted/bonded on

the structure under study. Now the structure is subjected to a force (tensile
or compressive). Due to the force, the structure will change the dimension.
As the strain gauge is bonded to the structure, the stain gauge will also
undergo change in both in length and cross-section (that is, it strained).
When the sensing element (crystal) of the semiconductor strain gauge is
strained, its resistivity changes contributing to a change in the resistance of
the strain gauge. The change in the resistance of the strain gauge is
measured using a wheat stone bridge. . This change in resistance of the
strain gauge becomes a measure of the extent to which the structure is
strained and a measure of the applied force when calibrated.

Advantages of semi-conductor Strain gauges

 These gauges have high gauge factor and hence they can measure
very small strains.
 They can be manufactured to very small sizes.
 They have an accuracy of 2.3%
 They have excellent hysteresis characteristics.
 They have a good frequency of response.
 They have good fatigue life.

Limitation of semi-conductor Strain gauges

 These gauges are brittle and hence they cannot be used for measuring
large strain.
 The gauge factor is not constant.
 These gauges have poor linearity.
 These gauges are very costly and are difficult to be bonded onto the
structure under study.
 These gauges are sensitive to change in temperature.

16. PHOTOELECTRIC STRAIN GAUGE • The photoelectric gauge uses a light beam, two
fine gratings, and a photocell detector to generate an electrical current that is proportional
to strain. The gage length of these devices can be as short as 1/16 inch, but they are
costly and delicate.
17. STRAIN GAUGE STRAIN GAUGE SELECTION CRITERIA: • Gauge Length • Number of
Gauges in Gauge Pattern • Arrangement of Gauges in Gauge Pattern • Grid Resistance •
temperature sensitivity • Carrier Material • Gauge Width • Availability • low cost
18. ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES Advantages • There is no moving part. • It is small
and inexpensive. Disadvantages • It is non-linear. • It needs to be calibrated.
19. APPLICATIONS • Residual stress • Vibration measurement • Torque measurement •
Bending and deflection measurement • Compression and tension measurement • Strain
measurement

1. Transducers are devices that transform signals in one form to a more convenient form •
Not just conversion of energy! Diaphragm produces displacement on application of
pressure. Note that displacement and pressure are both manifestation of energy – but
displacement is more convenient from the measurement point of view •
2. Transducers can be of various types: Mechanical, Electrical, Optical, Acoustic, etc. •
Electrical transducers are always preferred:  signal can be conditioned easily
(modified/amplified/modulated etc.)  easy remote operation
3. Transducers • Here we are concerned with Electrical Transducers that produces an
electrical output due to an input of mechanical displacement or strain • Mechanical strain
or displacement may be produced by a primary sensor due to various input physical
variables such as temperature, pressure, flow etc. Primary Sensor Electromechanical
 Transducer Mechanical displacement/strain Electrical outputInput Temp, Pr, etc Force
Displacement Pressure Diaphragm

Strain Gauge • When we apply force to a solid at rest, it will be mechanically deformed to a
certain extent. If the force is tensile, the length of the solid will increase. If the force is
compressive, the length of the solid will decrease. • The longitudinal or axial strain is defined as:
ε = ΔL/L • Longitudinal stress: σ = F/A (force F applied on area A) • Stress-strain relationship
within elastic limit: Hooke’s Law: E = σ/ε E = Young’s modulus [if σ is in kg/m2, so will be E] •
When a body of length is elongated, its transverse (perpendicular) dimension will contract.
Lateral strain: εt = ΔD/D • Poisson’s ratio: ν = Lateral strain/Longitudinal strain = εt/εa Poisson’s
ratio lie between 0 and 0.5. And mostly, it is 0.3

Strain Gauge • Strain measurement is essentially measurement of very small, about 1

micrometer, displacement • Methods: – Mechanical: Use levers and gears to measure ΔL after
magnification [early days: extensometer uses many levers to magnify strain so that it becomes
readable] – Electrical: Change in resistance or inductance or capacitance – Optical: Use
interference, diffraction, and scattering of light waves • Most commonly used method: Electrical:
change in resistance: Resistive Strain Gauges
To provide a means of comparing performance of various gauges, the gauge factor, or strain
sensitivity, of a gauge is defined as: Higher gauge factors are generally more desirable -- the
higher the gauge factor the higher the resolution of the strain gauge This equation holds good for
many common metals and nonmetals at room temperature when subjected to direct or low
frequency current When the wire is stretched, the cross-sectional area A is reduced, which
causes the total wire resistance to increase. In addition, since the lattice structure is altered by
the strain, the resistivity of the material may also change, and this, in general, causes the
resistance to increase further.

1. Strain Gauge A strain gauge is a passive type transducer whose electrical resistance

2. changes when it is stretch

ed or compressed The wire filament is attached to a structure under strain and the
resistance in the strained wire is measured by Wheatstone Bridge principle  Un-bonded
Type  Bonded Type  Semiconductor Type
 3. 30. Strain Gauge Operation Un-bonded Strain Gauge: Movable base Fixed base Wire:
25 mm length, 25 micrometer diameter Electrically insulated pins Stretched un-bonded
wire Connec ted to object (Input motion or force)  A set of preloaded resistance wire is
stretched between two frames: one movable and the other fixed  A small motion of the
movable base increases tension in two wires while decreasing it in two others.  Change
in resistance cause Wheatstone bridge unbalance  The output voltage is proportional to
input displacementA very small motion (say 50 µm) and very small forces can be
measured
4. Strain Gauge Operation Bonded Strain Gauge: Wire-type Foil type Bonded strain gauges
are directly bonded to the surface of the specimen being tested, with a thin layer of
adhesive cement. They use paper or bakelite as baking material. Useful for
measurement of strain, force, torque, pressure, vibrations, etc. They are very sensitive
and can measure strains as low as 10-7. Bonded strain gauges are also made of
semiconductor material. Usually, silicon doped with boron (p-type) or silicon doped with
arsenic (n-type) are used. High gauge factor, small gauge length are advantages. High
temperature sensitivity and nonlinearity are disadvantages.
5. Strain Gauge Operation Bonded Strain Gauge:
Strain Gauge Strain gauge circuit with temperature compensations Temperature
compensation: Strain gauge circuit without temperature compensations
6. Application of Strain gauge • Strain gages are used to measure displacement, force,
load, pressure, torque or weight • Strain gages may be bonded to cantilever springs to
measure the force of bending • Strain-gage elements also are used in the design of
pressure transmitters using a bellows type or diaphragm type pressure sensor •
Semiconductor type strain gauge – high gauge factor

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezoelectric_sensor#/media/File:SchemaPiezo.gif
Schematic symbol and electronic model of a piezoelectric sensor