Unit # 5

Special NDT Techniques

Eddy Current Inspection: Principle, Methods, Equipment for ECT, Techniques, Sensitivity, advanced ECT
methods. Application, scope and limitations, types of Probes and Case Studies. Introduction to Holography,
Thermography and Acoustic Emission Testing

PRINCIPLE OF EDDY CURRENT

When magnetic flux through a conductor changes, induced currents are set up in closed paths on the surface of
the conductor. These currents are in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic flux and are called eddy currents.
The basic arrangement for producing eddy currents in a conducting material is shown in Fig. 6.2.
When an alternating current is passed through a coil, a magnetic field is set up around it. The direction of the
magnetic field changes with each cycle of alternating current. If a conductor is brought near this field, eddy
currents are induced in it. The direction of the eddy current changes with a change in the direction of the magnetic
field during the cycles of alternating current.
The induced eddy current produces its own magnetic field in a direction opposite to the inducing primary magnetic
field. The secondary magnetic field due to the eddy current interacts with the primary magnetic field and changes
the overall magnetic field and the magnitude of the current flowing through the coil. This means that the
impedance of the coil is altered due to the influence of the eddy current. During non-destructive testing, changes
in impedance are displayed either on a meter or on a CRT screen.

Factors Affecting Eddy Currents

The magnitude and distribution of eddy currents in a given conductor is influenced by the conductivity, the
magnitude of the primary magnetic field, the permeability of the conductor, geometrical variations, magnetic
coupling, in-homogeneity, discontinuity, the test frequency and skin effect. In non-magnetic materials, the
distribution of eddy currents is strongly influenced by their conductivity.
In materials of high conductivity, strong eddy currents are generated on the surface of the conductor. This results
in a strong secondary magnetic field, opposing the primary magnetic field. This restricts the penetration of the
primary magnetic field into the depth of the material. This means that the depth penetration of eddy currents in
good conducting materials is limited. But in poor conducting materials, the depth penetration of eddy currents is
comparatively larger as shown in Fig. 6.3.
The primary magnetic field determines the strength of the
induced eddy current as well as the depth of penetration of the
eddy current into the material. The effect of magnetic
permeability on the eddy current is similar to that of conductivity.
Geometrical variations like shape, thickness and the presence of
conducting materials in close proximity affects the distribution of
eddy currents and the associated magnetic field. Edges, corners
and radii obstruct the circular pattern of the eddy current. This is
called the edge effect. It limits the volume distribution of the eddy
current and its associated magnetic field as shown in Fig. 6.4.
In-homogeneities and discontinuities like cracks, inclusions,
voids, etc. in conducting materials also affect the circular pattern
of eddy currents and the associated magnetic field.
Coupling
Magnetic coupling refers to the interaction of the varying
magnetic field of the test coil with the test object. The effect of
the primary magnetic field of the coil in inducing an eddy current
on the surface of a conductor is strongly influenced by the
distance of the coil from its surface. A small distance of
separation ensures good coupling. However, coupling is
influenced by such factors as configuration, geometry, surface
condition and coating on the surface of the test object. Coupling
is of two types: Lift-off and Fill-Factors. Lift-off indicates the
effect of separation of the test coil and the test surface. Fill-factor
indicates the effect of magnetic coupling when the encircling
coil is used to test a cylindrical object. Fill-factor is given by the
ratio of the cross-sectional area of the specimen to the effective
cross-sectional area of the encircling coil as shown in Fig. 6.6.
EDDY CURRENT TEST SYSTEM
Any eddy current test system consists of:
• An oscillator to provide the alternating current for exciting the test coil
• A combination of a test coil and a test object to generate information in the form of an electrical signal. Varying
the property of the test object modulates the impedance magnitude of the coil
• Signal processing and display
Figure 6.13 gives the block diagram of an eddy current test system. The oscillator provides an alternating current
of the required frequency to the test coil, which generates an eddy current in the test object. Test object variables
like conductivity, permeability or discontinuities modulate the test coil impedance. The modulated impedance
signal is processed and displayed over a readout mechanism like meters, CRT, relays, recorders, etc. There are
four basic types of eddy current instruments that carry out the following measurements:
• Measurement of the change in magnitude of the total impedance of the test coil, regardless of phase
• Phase-sensitive measurement, which separates the resistive and reactive components of the test coil
impedance
• Measurement of the resistive component of the test coil impedance
• Measurement of the inductive component of the test coil impedance
• Measurement of the total impedance of the test coil, regardless of phase

Probes - Mode of Operation

Eddy current probes are available in a large variety of shapes and sizes. In fact, one of the major advantages of
eddy current inspection is that probes can be custom designed for a wide variety of applications. Eddy current
probes are classified by the configuration and mode of operation of the test coils. The configuration of the probe
generally refers to the way the coil or coils are packaged to best "couple" to the test area of interest. An example
of different configurations of probes would be bobbin probes, which are inserted into a piece of pipe to inspect
from the inside out, versus encircling probes, in which the coil or coils encircle the pipe to inspect from the outside
in. The mode of operation refers to the way the coil or coils are wired and interface with the test equipment. The
mode of operation of a probe generally falls into one of four categories: absolute, differential, reflection and
hybrid. Each of these classifications will be discussed in more detail below.
• Absolute Probes
Absolute probes generally have a single test coil that is used to generate the eddy currents and sense changes in
the eddy current field. As discussed in the physics section, AC is passed through the coil and this sets up an
expanding and collapsing magnetic field in and around the coil. When the probe is positioned next to a conductive
material, the changing magnetic field generates eddy currents within the material. The generation of the eddy
currents take energy from the coil and this appears as an increase in the electrical resistance of the coil. The eddy
currents generate their own magnetic field that opposes the magnetic field of the coil and this changes the
inductive reactance of the coil. By measuring the absolute change in impedance of the test coil, much information
can be gained about the test material.
Absolute coils can be used for flaw detection, conductivity measurements, liftoff measurements and thickness
measurements. They are widely used due to their versatility. Since absolute probes are sensitive to things such as
conductivity, permeability liftoff and temperature, steps must be taken to minimize these variables when they are
not important to the inspection being performed. It is very common for commercially available absolute probes
to have a fixed "air loaded" reference coil that compensates for ambient temperature variations.
• Differential Probes
Differential probes have two active coils usually wound in opposition, although they could be wound in addition
with similar results. When the two coils are over a flaw-free area of test sample, there is no differential signal
developed between the coils since they are both inspecting identical material. However, when one coil is over a
defect and the other is over good material, a differential signal is produced. They have the advantage of being
very sensitive to defects yet relatively insensitive to slowly varying properties such as gradual dimensional or
temperature variations. Probe wobble signals are also reduced with this probe type. There are also disadvantages
to using differential probes. Most notably, the signals may be difficult to interpret. For example, if a flaw is longer
than the spacing between the two coils, only the leading and trailing edges will be detected due to signal
cancellation when both coils sense the flaw equally.
• Reflection Probes
Reflection probes have two coils similar to a differential probe, but one coil is used to excite the eddy currents
and the other is used to sense changes in the test material. Probes of this arrangement are often referred to as
driver/pickup probes. The advantage of reflection probes is that the driver and pickup coils can be separately
optimized for their intended purpose. The driver coil can be made so as to produce a strong and uniform flux field
in the vicinity of the pickup coil, while the pickup coil can be made very small so that it will be sensitive to very
small defects.
• Hybrid Probes
An example of a hybrid probe is the split D, differential probe shown to the right. This probe has a driver coil that
surrounds two D shaped sensing coils. It operates in the reflection mode but additionally, its sensing coils operate
in the differential mode. This type of probe is very sensitive to surface cracks. Another example of a hybrid probe
is one that uses a conventional coil to generate eddy currents in the material but then uses a different type of
sensor to detect changes on the surface and within the test material. An example of a hybrid probe is one that uses
a Hall effect sensor to detect changes in the magnetic flux leaking from the test surface. Hybrid probes are usually
specially designed for a specific inspection application.
Probes – Configurations
As mentioned on the previous page, eddy current probes are classified by the configuration and mode of operation
of the test coils. The configuration of the probe generally refers to the way the coil or coils are packaged to best
"couple" to the test area of interest. Some of the common classifications of probes based on their configuration
include surface probes, bolt hole probes, inside diameter (ID) probes, and outside diameter (OD) probes.
• Surface Probes
Surface probes are usually designed to be handheld and are intended to be used in contact with the test surface.
Surface probes generally consist of a coil of very fine wire encased in a protective housing. The size of the coil
and shape of the housing are determined by the intended use of the probe. Most of the coils are wound so that the
axis of the coil is perpendicular to the test surface. This coil configuration is sometimes referred to as a pancake
coil and is good for detecting surface discontinuities that are oriented perpendicular to the test surface.
Discontinuities, such as delaminations, that are in a parallel plane to the test surface will likely go undetected with
this coil configuration.
Wide surface coils are used when scanning large areas for relatively large defects. They sample a relatively large
area and allow for deeper penetration. Since they do sample a large area, they are often used for conductivity tests
to get more of a bulk material measurement. However, their large sampling area limits their ability to detect small
discontinuities.
Pencil probes have a small surface coil that is encased in a long slender housing to permit inspection in restricted
spaces. They are available with a straight shaft or with a bent shaft, which facilitates easier handling and use in
applications such as the inspection of small diameter bores. Pencil probes are prone to wobble due to their small
base and sleeves are sometimes used to provide a wider base.
• Bolt Hole Probes
Bolt hole probes are a special type of surface probe that is designed to be used with a bolt hole scanner. They
have a surface coil that is mounted inside a housing that matches the diameter of the hole being inspected. The
probe is inserted in the hole and the scanner rotates the probe within the hole.
• ID or Bobbin Probes
ID probes, which are also referred to as Bobbin probes or feed-through probes, are inserted into hollow products,
such as pipes, to inspect from the inside out. The ID probes have a housing that keep the probe centered in the
product and the coil(s) orientation somewhat constant relative to the test surface. The coils are most commonly
wound around the circumference of the probe so that the probe inspects an area around the entire circumference
of the test object at one time.
• OD or Encircling Coils
OD probes are often called encircling coils. They are similar to ID probes except that the coil(s) encircle the
material to inspect from the outside in. OD probes are commonly used to inspect solid products, such as bars.
Case Studies
• Eddy Current Testing of Tubes
Eddy current testing is a non-destructive testing method widely used to examine tubing in heat exchangers, steam
generators, condensers, air coolers and feedwater heaters.
Eddy current testing of tubes is an effective way of assessing the condition and lifespan of tubes, particularly in
the power generation, petrochemical, chemical, fertilizer and air conditioning industries. The technique is applied
to detect corrosion, pitting, cracks, erosion and other changes to both the tube’s interior and exterior surfaces.
It is a high-speed inspection method and one of the major advantages is that it can be performed through paint
and coatings. The technique is only suitable for non-ferrous material such as stainless steel, copper and titanium.
We also perform remote field and magnetic biased eddy current testing on carbon tubing.
Eddy current testing uses electromagnetic induction to identify defects in tubing. A probe is inserted into the tube
and pushed through the entire length of the tube. Eddy currents are generated by the electromagnetic coils in the
probe and monitored simultaneously by measuring probe electrical impedance. The information revealed by the
probe will detail the tube defects. The scanning data will be recorded by the software and kept us as a backup for
future reference.
A benefit of eddy current testing is that detection of defects is instant, and can be reported immediately to site or
operation managers.Eddy current inspection is often used to detect corrosion, erosion, cracking and other changes
in tubing. Heat exchangers and steam generators, which are used in power plants, have thousands of tubes that
must be prevented from leaking. This is especially important in nuclear power plants where reused, contaminated
water must be prevented from mixing with fresh water that will be returned to the environment. The contaminated
water flows on one side of the tube (inside or outside) and the fresh water flows on the other side. The heat is
transferred from the contaminated water to the fresh water and the fresh water is then returned back to is source,
which is usually a lake or river. It is very important to keep the two water sources from mixing, so power plants
are periodically shutdown so the tubes and other equipment can be inspected and repaired. The eddy current test
method and the related remote field testing method provide high-speed inspection techniques for these
applications.
A technique that is often used involves feeding a differential bobbin probe into the individual tube of the heat
exchanger. With the differential probe, no signal will be seen on the eddy current instrument as long as no metal
thinning is present. When metal thinning is present, a loop will be seen on the impedance plane as one coil of the
differential probe passes over the flawed area and a second loop will be produced when the second coil passes
over the damage. When the corrosion is on the outside surface of the tube, the depth of corrosion is indicated by
a shift in the phase lag. The size of the indication provides an indication of the total extent of the corrosion damage.
A tube inspection using a bobbin probe is simulated below. Click the "null" button and then drag either the
absolute or the differential probe through the tube. Note the different signal responses provided by the two probes.
Also note that the absolute probe is much more sensitive to dings and the buildup of magnetite on the outside of
the tube than the differential probe is.
• The important role of eddy current testing in railway track maintenance
The constant increase of railway use and loading capacity, the contact between the wheels of the trains and the
rail becomes more frequent, which increases the rail load. This makes the rail surface prone to fatigue and damage.
If this surface damage is not addressed, it is likely to evolve into transverse cracking and horizontal cracks
internally. In order to avoid accidents, human casualties, and loss of service, the early nondestructive safety
evaluation of rail surface becomes very important.
o System Configuration and Inspection Methods
An inspection system of rail flaws used in this study included a detection coil and an excitation coil, which formed
an eddy current sensor probe shown in Figure 1.

Two eddy current sensor probes were used.

One was for detecting the signal from a rail.
It was positioned on a tested sample and
scanned along the rail length. Another was
for reference. It was positioned in air far from
a sample. Two detection coils in each sensor
probe were connected in a differential circuit,
which was common technique in magnetic
sensor. The controller (Kaisei Engineer Co.,
Ltd.) supplied an excitation current to a series
connection of two excitation coils and
amplified a signal from the detection coils.
The width of the railhead was 65 mm; thus,
the detection coil in the sensor probe could
not effectively evaluate the entire plane of the rail top. Therefore, the position of the sensor probe was varied in
five different positions along the width as indicated in Figure 2. The scan speed of the sensor probe was 2.5 mm/s
and the data acquisition rate was 8 point/s (3.2 point/mm). The frequency of the exciting magnetic field was 5
kHz.
Artificial Defect Eddy current testing was performed on a railhead with a hollow surface (a concave shape). The
artificial hollow was prepared using a grinding machine. The dimension of the depressed elliptic was 30 mm ×
75 mm as shown in Figure 3(a). The thickness (depth) was 0.6 mm, which was maximum at around the center of
the hollow. The sensor prove was scanned along the rail at the center position (0 mm in Figure 2). Figures 3(b)
and (c) show the amplitude and phase changes in the detection signal from this artificially damaged rail. It was
found that the amplitude was significantly changed at the position of the hollow, but that the phase signal was
almost constant. The phase should be also changed by the surface hollow, but its change ratio is small compared
with the amplitude change. During rail testing, due to the presence of the artificial flaw, the relative distance
between the excitation coil and the eddy current loop generated at the sample surface at the artificial flaw
increases. The eddy current intensity at the artificial hollow is reduced than that at the defect-free area. Therefore,
at the location of the artificial flaw, the reverse magnetic field generated by the eddy current is reduced and the
detected amplitude is smaller than that at the defect-free area. The phase of the detected signal does not directly
related to the current intensity changes of eddy current, so the phase change is negligible. It is concluded that the
amplitude of detected signal changes according to the uneven surface, whereas that the phase does not change in
the testing system used in this study.
Artificial Cracks This section describes the flaw detection of artificially prepared side cracks of different sizes.
The locations and sizes of the simulated cracks are shown in Figure 4(a). These cracks were positioned at 5 mm
below the sample surface. The surface was flat throughout the sample. These dimensions were 20 mm × 50mm,
40 mm × 50 mm, 60 mm × 50 mm. The thickness of the crack was constant at 2 mm. The sensor probe was
scanned along the rail at the edge (+32 mm in Figure 2) of the railhead as shown in Figure 4(a). Figures 4(b) and
(c) show the amplitude and phase changes of detection signal for three simulated artificial side cracks,
respectively. The amplitude change attributed to the existence of the artificial side crack was not significantly
observed. The amplitude should be principally affected by the inside cracks, but its change ratio was small. As
for the detected phase signal, there were significant changes in the range of 55 - 80 mm, 165 - 225 mm, and 288
- 346 mm. These positions agreed with the positions of side cracks. Because of the existence of cracks, the eddy
current cannot maintain its original circular path, but bypasses the cracks. When the conduction path of the eddy
current in the presence of cracks is longer than that without the cracks, the increase of the bypass path results in
the delay in phase of eddy current. It is found that the phase variations of the three cracks differ in position. This
is due to the difference in crack sizes. The eddy current
density is mostly localized at the railhead surface due to
the skin effect. A skin depth, δ depends on the exciting
field frequency, f as described by the following formula:

where μ and σ are permeability and conductivity of a

sample, respectively. Using a relative permeability of μr
= 500 and σ = 4.8 × 106 S/m for cast steel material of rail,
the skin depth is 0.145 mm at a frequency of 5 kHz. It is
considered that the cracks positioned at the 5 mm below
the sample surface can not be detected because of this thin
skin depth. If the sensor prove was scanned along the rail
at its center line, the cracks can not be detect. But in case
that the sensor prove was scanned along the rail edge (+32
mm in Figure 2), the magnetic field could reach the side
cracks through the air space of the side of the sample rail.
This magnetic field distribution in the air space was
modulated by the existence of the side cracks, which
resulted in the detection of the side cracks positioned at
much deeper than the skin depth. Surface Damage and
Crack in Actually Used Rail In this section, the eddy
current testing of an actually used rail is discussed. The

sample rail had a rugged surface with thin cracks as shown in Figure 5(a). In this test, five positions of the sensor
probe were examined as indicated in Figure 2. The sensor probe was scanned at Figure 5. (a) Photo and schematic
images of actually used rail sample, (b) and (c) amplitudes and phase changes of detection signal of actual rail.
each line of +32, +16, 0 (center), −16 and −32 mm from the center line of the rail length direction. Figures 5(b)
and (c) show the testing results of the amplitude and phase changes for the actually used railhead sample,
respectively. The railhead had cracks of 30 - 60 mm and a hollow on its surface. The hollow was approximately
elliptic shape of 40 mm × 110 mm. The amplitude
change was clearly observed at the position of the
hollow in case of the probe scan at −16, 0 and +16
mm lines. When the sensor probe was scanned along
the rail edge at +32 and −32 mm, the amplitude
change did not change due to the existence of the
follow. It was because that the follow was positioned
at the railhead center with its width of about 40 mm.
The maximum depth of the hollow was
approximately 0.6 mm at the center and the
amplitude change was maximum in the probe scan at
the center of 0 mm.
ADVANCED EDDY CURRENT TESTING
The technique in its conventional form has a few
limitations for in-service inspection (ISI) though it
meets the requirements for inspection during
manufacture and pre-service stages. The limitations
during ISI are: interference from support structures,
less sensitivity for circumferential cracks in a tubular
structure, inspection
of ferromagnetic materials and lack of
methodologies for accurate defect characterization.
To overcome the above limitations, a number of
developments have taken place making ECT more
versatile, reliable and fast. The developments have
come in the form of computer models,
instrumentation for multi frequency, phased array
ECT, remote field ECT, imaging, development of
special probes and development towards automation
in testing. With these advancements, significant
progress has been made with respect to defect
detection and characterization.
• Multi-Frequency ECT
It is the equivalent of operating more than one single frequency unit with a common coil and enables to eliminate
unwanted parameters from test data. The basic approach relies on the skin effect phenomenon of eddy current
flowing in the specimen that allows to obtain independent information at different frequencies. The test results
from individual frequencies can be mixed in real time so as to obtain output signals which are free from certain
unwanted parameters but preserve the desired test data.
Though there are various ways to mix outputs from various frequencies to cancel a given parameter, the more
common way is the use of dual frequency. A popular application of dual frequency is the inspection of heat
exchanger tubes for eliminating the signal due to support plate. Three or four frequency modes are used, if
necessary, to suppress signals due to other extraneous sources. The Multi-Frequency Eddy Current (MFEC)
testing relies on the analysis of a signal in the impedance plane at different frequencies. The impedance-plane
presentation is, in general, nonunique at a given frequency for certain material conditions. An analysis of signals
at two or more frequencies and the monitoring of the rate of change of pattern-phase angle with frequency can
provide information as to the nature of the signal. It has the advantage on defect detection, sludge profiling and
dent sizing and the collection of data at different frequencies for the characterization of certain signal types which
is not possible with single frequency testing.
 • The 3D Phased Array ECT
All conventional eddy current instruments, now employed for tube inspection, use a two coil single phase bridge
circuit similar to the one shown in Fig. 5.8a. The same bridge circuit or a variation of it is used in all single and
multi-frequency equipment for tubing inspection. The same bridge circuit is used even in surface inspection eddy
current equipment. All types of probes, when used with this bridge circuit generate a magnetic field which is
constant in direction and alternating in intensity. Even send-receive eddy current and pulsed eddy current
techniques use a constant direction alternating magnetic field. 3D eddy current equipment uses a substantially
different bridge circuit. As shown in Fig. 5.8b. In this, the probe that forms the bridge circuit has. three identical
coils connected together at one end. Each of the three coils is driven with a unique phase of the inspection
frequency 0, 120 and 240 degrees. The result is a null output at the junction point of the bridge similar to the case
of the conventional two coil bridge driven by O and 180 degrees. The magnetic field generated by this three coil
configuration results in a constant magnitude rotating magnetic field. When the three coils in this bridge circuit
are energized with the three phases of the inspection frequency and the probe coils are positioned in air, there will
be no output at the junction point of the three coils. The probe is balanced. Furthermore, if the probe is positioned
centrally in a tube, each of the three coils responds to the tube equally and the system is still in balance. The
impedance of each coil changes because of the presence of the tube but the impedance of each coil gets changed
to the same amount. This feature of being balanced in the tube or out of the tube is similar to a differential probe
which has no output whether the probe is located in the tube or outside the tube.

• Remote Field ECT

On ferromagnetic materials, poor results are
obtained by conventional eddy current
methods. This is mainly due to poor signal to
noise ratio due to permeability variations.
Remote field ECT uses internal probes to
inspect tubes. The internal electromagnetic
field generated by an exciter driven with a
relatively lower frequency sinusoidal signal can
be divided into two distinct zones namely direct
field zone and remote field zone. The secondary
current generated in the tube wall travels along
the tube length and enters the remote field zone when the intensity is greater than that of the field from the exciter.
It is in this zone that the receiver coil is placed and the voltage induced in ii is measured (Fig. 5.11). This voltage
contains information from the double transit of the electromagnetic field. The wall loss is estimated by analyzing
the phase-lag of the receiver signals relative to the excitation signals of the exciter coil. Studies have indicated
that the technique has detection capability of 10% wall loss and thus has great promise for inspection of small
diameter ferromagnetic seam and seamless tubings.

• Magnetically Biased Eddy Current

This eddy current technique depends on the ability of built-in permanent magnets to magnetically saturate the
component, thus minimizing the effect of magnetic permeability. The coil impedance change, therefore is affected
primarily by the combined probe fill-factor and the thickness changes in the component. The effects of these
variables are monitored as changes in signal amplitude and phase angle. If the complete saturation of the
component is not obtained, as is the case for thick-walled ferritic and carbon steel tubing, the coil impedance
change is affected predominantly by the permeability and probe fill-factor changes. In general, the signal
amplitude is dependent on the flaw volume and the phase-angle-to flaw depth. This technique is found to be most
suited for detection and sizing of ASME type flat-bottomed holes found in ferritic welded tubing of up to 0.90
mm thick. Because of the successful reduction of magnetic permeability to near unity when built-in magnets are
used, a clear phase-angle separation in the 20-100% through-wall depth range is possible. By selecting an
optimum operating frequency, a desired phase-angle spread could be obtained for estimating flaw depth.
• Flux Leakage
With this technique, a permanent magnet built into the test probe is used to induce a magnetic field from inside
the tubular component. A pair of coaxial induction coils detect stray flux from flaws in the tube wall. One
induction coil, placed between the two poles of the magnet, senses active flux leakage from both OD and ID
initiating flaws. A second coil, placed outside the poles of the magnet detects only the residual flux leakage from
ID flaws. By reviewing the information received from the two channels, discrimination of ID flaws from OD
flaws is possible. This system can be successfully applied to both ferritic and carbon steel Welded tubes.
Applications of Eddy Current Testing
Eddy current test methods are put to a variety of applications. Broadly, eddy current applications can be grouped
into-conductivity measurement (shorting, hardness, heat treatment, alloy segregation, case depth assessment,
etc.), discontinuity testing (cracks, dimensional changes, surface condition, etc.) and thickness measurement
(coating, plating, sheet metal gauging).
In-homogeneities like cracks, inclusions, voids, scamp, laps, etc. appreciably change the normal circular eddy
current flow pattern and can be detected by the eddy current test coil.
Further, phase changes are unique for several eddy current inspection parameters. By determining the phase
change of an eddy current response, it is possible to isolate the response of specific variables such as conductivity,
lift-off, thickness, permeability and cracks.
Introduction to Thermal Testing
(AKA Thermal Inspection, Thermography, Thermal Imaging, Thermal Wave Imaging and Infrared Testing)
Thermal NDT methods involve the measurement or mapping of surface temperatures as heat flows to, from and/or
through an object. The simplest thermal measurements involve making point measurements with a thermocouple.
This type of measurement might be useful in locating hot spots, such as a bearing that is wearing out and starting
to heat up due to an increase in friction.
In its more advanced form, the use of thermal imaging systems allows thermal information to be very rapidly
collected over a wide area and in a non-contact mode. Thermal imaging systems are instruments that create
pictures of heat flow rather than of light. Thermal imaging is a fast, cost effective way to perform detailed thermal
analysis. The image above is a heat map of the space shuttle as it lands.
Thermal measurement methods have a wide range of uses. They are used by the police and military for night
vision, surveillance, and navigation aid; by firemen and emergency rescue personnel for fire assessment, and for
search and rescue; by the medical profession as a diagnostic tool; and by industry for energy audits, preventative
maintenance, processes control and nondestructive testing. The basic premise of thermographic NDT is that the
flow of heat from the surface of a solid is affected by internal flaws such as disbonds, voids or inclusions. The
use of thermal imaging systems for industrial NDT applications will be the focus of this material.
Introduction to Acoustic Emission Testing

Acoustic Emission
(AE) refers to the
generation of transient
elastic waves
produced by a sudden
redistribution of stress
in a material. When a
structure is subjected
to an external stimulus
(change in pressure,
load, or temperature),
localized sources
trigger the release of
energy, in the form of
stress waves, which
propagate to the surface and are recorded by sensors. With the right equipment and setup, motions on the order
of picometers (10 -12 m) can be identified. Sources of AE vary from natural events like earthquakes and
rockbursts to the initiation and growth of cracks, slip and dislocation movements, melting, twinning, and phase
transformations in metals. In composites, matrix cracking and fiber breakage and debonding contribute to acoustic
emissions. AE’s have also been measured and recorded in polymers, wood, and concrete, among other materials.
Detection and analysis of AE signals can supply valuable information regarding the origin and importance of a
discontinuity in a material. Because of the versatility of Acoustic Emission Testing (AET), it has many industrial
applications (e.g. assessing structural integrity, detecting flaws, testing for leaks, or monitoring weld quality) and
is used extensively as a research tool.
Acoustic Emission is unlike most other nondestructive testing (NDT) techniques in two regards. The first
difference pertains to the origin of the signal. Instead of supplying energy to the object under examination, AET
simply listens for the energy released by the object. AE tests are often performed on structures while in operation,
as this provides adequate loading for propagating defects and triggering acoustic emissions.
The second difference is that AET deals with dynamic processes, or changes, in a material. This is particularly
meaningful because only active features (e.g. crack growth) are highlighted. The ability to discern between
developing and stagnant defects is significant. However, it is possible for flaws to go undetected altogether if the
loading is not high enough to cause an acoustic event. Furthermore, AE testing usually provides an immediate
indication relating to the strength or risk of failure of a component. Other advantages of AET include fast and
complete volumetric inspection using multiple sensors, permanent sensor mounting for process control, and no
need to disassemble and clean a specimen.
Unfortunately, AE systems can only qualitatively gauge how much damage is contained in a structure. In order
to obtain quantitative results about size, depth, and overall acceptability of a part, other NDT methods (often
ultrasonic testing) are necessary. Another drawback of AE stems from loud service environments which
contribute extraneous noise to the signals. For successful applications, signal discrimination and noise reduction
are crucial.
Laser Holography and Interferometry
Holography (holus in Greek means whole) records and reconstructs a complete optical wavefront. Holography is
a lens-less recording technique using two-dimensional record of a subject to reconstruct subsequently a three-
dimensional image.
The concept of coherence is the key to holography. A spatially coherent light beam allows hologram, to be taken
over a large area, whilst temporal coherence provides depth of field since the two beams of light can be made 'to
interfere even when large path differences have been introduced. A parallel beam of light (Fig. 2.4) from a laser
is split into two by reflection and refraction at a beam splitter. Each of these two beams is then allowed to diverse
by separate spatial filters. One beam illuminates the subject and may split further with mirrors to illuminate the
required areas. The second or the reference beam illuminates the photographic plate directly and interferes with
the light reflected by the subject. The hologram formed in the photographic emulsion contains the fringe
configuration, information corresponding to both the amplitude and phase of the light wave reflected by the
subject. After exposure which may-last from a few milliseconds to a few seconds according to the intensity of the
illumination used, the hologram is developed. Correct processing of the holographic plates is an art which has
evolved in parallel with the holographic recording techniques. Results depend critically on the use of optimum
procedures.
Reconstruction is affected by illuminating the hologram with the reference beam only, where upon the diffraction
grating recorded in the emulsion causes an image of the original object to be reconstructed. The image obtained
by illuminating the hologram is virtual. Holography, also records a set of wavefronts at different times and
reconstructs them simultaneously. Once an object is recorded, a stimulus (load, temperature etc.) is applied to the
object and then recorded again. Subsequently when these two wavefronts are reconstructed together, they interfere
and a fringe pattern related to the deformation of the object is observed on its reconstructed image. Techniques
for recording holographic interferograms are: (1) double exposure, (2) real time, (3) sandwich and (4) time
average. Double exposure holography finds the maximum application in the field of NDT.
For accurate results and a non-contact NDT technique, holographic interferometry is the ideal choice whose
applications range from inspection of pressure vessels (particularly weld regions), stress-strain analysis, vibration
analysis, precise twist and dimensional measurement and contour mapping. Latest innovations like thermoplastic
films, holo cameras and video techniques have made holographic interferometry as an NDT technique faster,
accurate and more reliable.