An Encyclopedia of Mythology and Folklor PDF

Storytelling
(c) 2011 M.E. Sharpe, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Storytelling
An Encyclopedia of Mythology and Folklore
Volume One
Volume Two
Volume Three
Edited by Josepha Sherman

SHARPE REFERENCE
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Storytelling: an encyclopedia of mythology and folklore/Josepha Sherman, editor.

p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-7656-8047-1 (hardcover: alk. paper)
1. Folklore—Encyclopedias. 2. Mythology—Encyclopedias. 3. Storytelling—Encyclopedias.
I. Sherman, Josepha.
GR35.S76 2008
398.203—dc22 2008007915
Cover image: Werner Forman/Art Resource, New York.
Printed and bound in the United States of America
The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of

American National Standard for Information Sciences
Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials,
ANSI Z 39.48.1984.
(c) 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Publisher: Myron E. Sharpe

Vice President and Editorial Director: Patricia Kolb
Vice President and Production Director: Carmen Chetti
Executive Editor and Manager of Reference: Todd Hallman
Project Manager: Laura Brengelman
Program Coordinator: Cathleen Prisco
Text Design: Carmen Chetti and Jesse Sanchez
Cover Design: Jesse Sanchez

Contents
Volume 1 Amun/Amen/Amon/
Contributors ...................................................xiii Amun-Re (Egyptian) ..................................20
Preface .............................................................xv An/Anu (Sumerian)........................................20
Introduction...................................................xvii Anansasem (West African) .............................21
Animal Bride or Bridegroom.........................21
A-Z Animal Helper and Grateful Animal............22
Aarne, Antti ........................................................1 Antar (Middle Eastern) ..................................22
Abassi/Abasi and Atai (West African) ............2 Antero Vipunen (Finnish)..............................23
Abatwa (South African)....................................2 Antichrist (Christian)......................................24
Aboriginal Mythology (Australian) .................3 Antigone (Greek) ............................................24
Abracadabra......................................................5 Anu (Hittite) ....................................................25
Abzu/Apsu (Sumerian and Anubis/Anpu (Egyptian)................................26
Babylonian)...................................................5 Anzu (Sumerian and Babylonian).................27
Achilles (Greek) ................................................6 Aphrodite (Greek) ..........................................28
Adapa (Babylonian)..........................................7 Apollo (Greek) ................................................28
Adon/Adonis (Phoenician) ..............................8 Apple Trees .....................................................30
Adroa and Adro (East African)........................9 Arabic Storytelling .........................................32
Adroanzi (East African)....................................9 Arachne (Greek) .............................................32
Aeneid (Roman)..................................................9 Arawn (Welsh) ................................................33
Aesop and Aesop’s Fables (Greek) ...................11 Archetype ........................................................33
Aetheopis/Aithiopis (Greek)...............................12 Argonautica (Greek) .........................................34
African Bushmen Mythology.........................13 Arianrhod (Welsh) ..........................................36
Ahti/Ahto (Finnish).........................................13 Armageddon ( Judeo-Christian)....................36
Aigamuxa (South African) .............................14 Asbjørnsen, Peter Christen ............................37
Aino (Finnish)..................................................14 Asgard (Norse) ................................................38
Aiomum Kondi (South American) ................14 Ash Trees (Western European)......................39
Ajok (North African).......................................15 Athena/Athene (Greek)..................................39
Alalu/Alalus (Hittite) ......................................15 Atlas (Greek) ...................................................40
Amadis of Gaul (Spanish or Portuguese) ........15 Atum (Egyptian)..............................................41
Amazons (Greek) ............................................16 Aucassin and Nicolette (Medieval
Amled/Amleth (Danish).................................18 European)....................................................41
Amphisbaena (Greek) ....................................18 Avalon (Celtic) ................................................43
Amulets............................................................19 Aztec Mythology ............................................44
v

vi Contents
Baba Yaga (Russian) .......................................47 Centaurs (Greek) ............................................86

Baby Cast Adrift .............................................48 Cerberus (Greek) ............................................87
Baku ( Japanese) .............................................49 Champ/Champy (North American).............88
Balder (Norse) .................................................49 Chapbooks ......................................................88
Balinese Mythology........................................50 Charlemagne and His Peers ..........................89
Ballads..............................................................51 Charon (Greek)...............................................90
Ballads, Homiletic ..........................................53 Chaucer, Geoffrey ..........................................91
Bannik (Slavic) ................................................54 Chickens ..........................................................92
Banshee (Irish) ................................................54 Child, Francis James.......................................93
Basile, Giambattista........................................55 Chiron (Greek)................................................93
Basilisk (European).........................................55 Chupacabras (Latin American) .....................94
Basque Folklore and Mythology ...................56 Cockatrice (European) ...................................95
Bastet/Bast (Egyptian) ....................................57 Collective Unconscious..................................95
Bats...................................................................58 Comets.............................................................96
Battle of Kadesh (Egyptian)...........................59 Compassion.....................................................97
Bees ..................................................................60 Con Man or Woman/Con Artist ...................97
Bellerophon (Greek) .......................................61 Contendings of Horus and Seth,
Bendigeidfran/Bran (Welsh)..........................63 The (Egyptian) .............................................98
Beowulf (Anglo-Saxon) ...................................63 Counting-Out Rhymes.................................100
Berekhiah ben Natronai ha-Nakdan .............65 Creation Stories of Mesopotamia................100
Bestiary ............................................................65 Culture Heroes..............................................103
Black Dogs (English) ......................................66 Cumulative Rhymes and Tales....................104
Black Magic (Western European)..................67 Curses ............................................................104
Black School (Scandinavian and
Scottish) ....................................................68 Dahut/Ahes (French) ....................................107
Bluebeard (Western European) .....................69 Danish Traditional Tales...............................107
Boccaccio, Giovanni.......................................70 De Iside et Osiride (Roman)............................110
Bogatyr/Bogatyri (Russian)............................71 Deals with the Devil .....................................111
Boy Who Didn’t Know Fear..........................71 Death ..............................................................113
Bremen Town Musicians (German) ..............72 Decameron (Italian) .........................................114
Bridges .............................................................73 Demeter and Persephone (Greek) ...............114
Broadside Ballads............................................74 Digenis Acritas (Greek) ...................................116
Brothers Grimm..............................................75 Dilmun (Sumerian and Babylonian) ...........116
Brownies (British)............................................76 Djinn/Djinni/Jinn/Genie (Arabic) ..............117
Brunhilde/Brynhild/Brunnehilde Dobrynya Nikitich (Russian) .......................118
(Norse) .........................................................77 Dogs ...............................................................118
Bucephalus (Greek) ........................................78 Domovoi/Domovois (Russian)....................121
Bull of Heaven (Sumerian and Dongmyeongseong/Chumong (Korean) ....121
Babylonian) .................................................78 Don’t Count Your Chickens Before
Bunyips (Australian Aboriginal)....................80 They Are Hatched ...................................122
Bylina/Bylini (Russian) ..................................80 Doomed Prince (Egyptian) ..........................123
Doppelganger................................................124
Camp Stories ...................................................81 Dragons .........................................................125
Campfire Storytelling.....................................82 Dragon-Slayer (European) ...........................130
Canterbury Tales, The (English)........................82 Dumuzi (Sumerian) ......................................130
Cat-and-Mouse Tales......................................83
Catoblepas (Roman).......................................84 Ears ................................................................133
Cats ..................................................................85 El Cid (Spanish) ............................................135

Contents vii
Elf Shot/Elf Arrow (British).........................135 Gambling.......................................................182

Elm Trees.......................................................136 Gamelan (Indonesian)..................................183
Eloquent Peasant, Tale of the Gargoyles.......................................................183
(Egyptian) ..................................................136 Garm (Norse) ................................................185
Enki/Ea (Sumerian) ......................................137 Garuda (Indian) ............................................185
Enkidu (Sumerian)........................................138 Geb (Egyptian) ..............................................186
Enlil (Sumerian) ............................................139 German Storytelling .....................................186
Enmerkar (Sumerian) ...................................140 Gesta Danorum (Danish)................................188
Ennead of Heliopolis (Egyptian) .................142 Ghost Stories, College ..................................189
Epics...............................................................142 Ghosts, Aviation............................................190
Epics, French.................................................143 Ghosts: A Sampling of Stories .....................191
Epics, German...............................................145 Ghosts and Hauntings ..................................192
Epics, Greek ..................................................146 Ghosts in Theaters ........................................197
Epics, Roman ................................................147 Giants.............................................................199
Epics, Spanish ...............................................148 Gilgamesh (Sumerian and Babylonian)......201
Erra (Babylonian)..........................................149 Goblins (Western European) .......................203
Estonian Storytelling ....................................150 Golem ( Jewish) ............................................204
Etana (Babylonian) .......................................152 Grail/Holy Grail (Western European)........206
Ethiopian Mythology ...................................153 Grateful Dead ...............................................208
Ethiopian Storytelling ..................................154 Gremlins (English)........................................208
Evil Eye..........................................................154 Griots/Griottes/Jelis (West African)............209
Gudrun/Kudrun (German) .............................210
Fables .............................................................156 Index................................................................I-1
Fabliau/Fabliaux...........................................156
Fairy Godmothers .........................................157 Volume 2
Fairy Midwife and Demon Midwife ...........157 Habaek and Haemosu (Korean)..................212
Faithful Companion .....................................158 Hags................................................................213
Faithless Wife ................................................159 Hand of Glory (European)...........................213
Familiar/Familiar Spirit ...............................159 Hands .............................................................214
Fantasy ...........................................................160 Hannahanna/Hannahannas
Fates................................................................161 (Hittite).......................................................215
Faust, Dr. Johann...........................................161 Hansel and Gretel (Western
Fenrir (Norse) ................................................163 European) ..................................................215
Ferdowsi/Firdawsi/Firdusi/Firdousi...........163 Harpies (Greek).............................................216
Filipino Mythology .......................................164 Hathor (Egyptian) .........................................217
Fingernails .....................................................166 Havelock the Dane (English) .......................217
Fink, Mike .....................................................167 Heart in the Egg ............................................218
Firebird (Russian)..........................................167 Hebat/Hepit/Hepatu (Hittite) .....................219
Fish and Fishing Folklore .............................167 Hector (Greek) ..............................................219
Flood, The (Mesopotamia) ..........................168 Heimdall/Heimdallr (Norse) .......................219
Flying Dutchman..............................................170 Hel (Norse)....................................................220
Fools ...............................................................172 Heqat/Hekat/Heket (Egyptian) ..................221
Frame Stories .................................................175 Hera (Greek) .................................................221
Freischutz (German)......................................176 Hermes (Greek) ............................................222
Frey and Freya (Norse) .................................176 Hervarar Saga (Swedish)................................222
Frigga/Frigg (Norse)......................................178 Hi’iaka (Hawaiian) .......................................223
Frogs and Toads.............................................178 Hocus-Pocus..................................................224
Fur-Bearing Trout (North American) ..........180 Hodag (North American).............................224

viii Contents
Homer (Greek) .............................................225 King Arthur (British).....................................272

Hook, The .....................................................226 King of the Cats/King of the Cats is
Horror............................................................227 Dead (Western European)........................274
Horseshoes ....................................................228 King Solomon (Biblical) ...............................275
Horus (Egyptian) ..........................................228 Kludde (Flemish)...........................................276
Hurston, Zora Neale.....................................229 Kullervo (Finnish) .........................................276
Hyenas...........................................................230 Kumarbi/Kumaris (Hittite) ..........................277
Kypria (Greek)................................................277
Iliad (Greek) ..................................................231
Iliou Persis (Greek).........................................232 La Fontaine, Jean de .....................................279
Illuyankas (Hittite)........................................233 Labyrinths......................................................279
Ilmarinen (Finnish).......................................233 Lake Monsters ..............................................280
Ilmatar (Finnish) ...........................................234 Lang, Andrew ...............................................281
Ilya Murometz/Ilya of Murom Lange Wapper (Flemish)..............................281
(Russian)....................................................234 Lares and Penates (Roman).........................282
Inanna/Ishtar (Sumerian and Lemminkainen (Finnish) .............................283
Akkadian)..................................................235 Leprechauns (Irish) ......................................284
Inaras (Hittite) ...............................................237 Leshy/Leshiye (Slavic).................................284
Inca Mythology.............................................237 Liderc (Hungarian).......................................285
Indian Storytelling........................................239 Little Iliad (Greek).........................................286
Insects ............................................................242 Local Legends...............................................286
Internet Lore/Netlore ..................................244 Lorelei (German) ..........................................288
Iroquois Storytelling.....................................245 Louhi (Finnish) .............................................288
Isis (Egyptian)................................................247 Lugalbanda (Sumerian)................................289
Ivan/Ivan Tsarevich (Russian).....................248 Lullabies ........................................................290
Lusiads, The (Portuguese) ..............................291
Jackalope (North American)........................250 Lutin (French) ...............................................292
Japanese Storytelling ....................................251 Lyonesse (British) .........................................293
Jersey Devil (American)...............................254
Joe Magarac (American)..............................255 Maat (Egyptian) ............................................294
John Henry (American) ...............................255 MacDonald, George.....................................295
Johnny Appleseed (American)....................256 Magi (Persian) ...............................................295
Jongleurs (French).........................................257 Magic Incantations and Spells ....................296
Joukahainen (Finnish) ..................................258 Magician and His Pupil/Magician’s
Journey to the West/Monkey (Chinese) ............258 Apprentice ................................................297
Jump Tales.....................................................259 Mahabharata (Indian) ....................................297
Jung, Carl Gustav .........................................260 Malory, Sir Thomas .....................................299
Juniper Tree, The (German) ........................261 Manticore (Persian) ......................................300
Marie de France............................................300
Kalevala (Finnish) ..........................................263 Maui (Polynesian) .........................................301
Kamishibai ( Japanese).................................264 Melusine/Melusina (European) ..................302
Kelly, Ned .....................................................264 Menehune (Hawaiian) .................................303
Kenyan Storytelling......................................265 Mermaids ......................................................304
Khnum (Egyptian)........................................266 Meskhenet (Egyptian) ..................................308
Khoikhoi/Hottentot Mythology..................266 Metamorphoses (Greek and Roman) .............309
Kievan Cycle (Russian) ................................267 Metaphors .....................................................309
Kikimora (Slavic) ..........................................270 Mice................................................................310
Kind and Unkind Girls.................................271 Minnesang/Minnesingers (German)...........310

Contents ix
Minotaur (Greek) ..........................................311 Papyrus Westcar/Papyrus Berlin 3033

Minstrels ........................................................312 (Egyptian)..................................................357
Mistletoe ........................................................313 Pegasus (Greek) ............................................358
Moon’s Reflection .........................................314 Pele/Madam Pele (Hawaiian) .....................359
Morgan le Fay ...............................................314 Penelope (Greek) ..........................................361
Mother Goddess/Earth Mother Peri/Pari (Persian) .........................................361
(European).................................................315 Perrault, Charles ...........................................362
Mother Goose (European) ...........................316 Phantom Bus (English).................................363
Mothman (North American) ........................317 Phantom Ships/Ghost Ships........................363
Motif Index ....................................................317 Phoenix (Egyptian and Greek)....................364
Motifs .............................................................319 Pixies (English) .............................................365
Mystery Lights...............................................319 Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl (Aztec)..............365
Mystery Stories .............................................320 Popol Vuh (Mayan) ........................................366
Mythography ................................................320 Priam, King (Greek) .....................................367
Mythology .....................................................322 Princess in the Tower....................................367
Prometheus (Greek) .....................................368
Nagas (Hindu)...............................................326 Proverbs ........................................................369
Nanna-Suen/Sin (Sumerian)........................327 Ptah (Egyptian) .............................................369
Neith/Neit/Nit/Net (Egyptian)....................327 Puppetry and Storytelling ............................370
Nephthys/Nebthet (Egyptian) .....................328 Pushkin, Aleksandr Sergeyevich .................372
Nergal (Sumerian and Babylonian) ............328 Puss in Boots (European) .............................373
Nightmares....................................................329
Ninhursanga (Sumerian)..............................330 Quest for the Missing Husband...................376
Ninurta/Ningirsu (Sumerian and Quests.............................................................377
Babylonian)...............................................331
No-Bigger-than-a-Finger (Russian)..............332 Railroad Folklore (American)......................378
Nonsense Rhymes ........................................333 Rakshasas (Hindu)........................................380
Noodle Tales/Simpleton Tales ....................334 Ramakian (Thai) ............................................380
Norse Mythology..........................................335 Ravens and Crows........................................381
Nun (Egyptian)..............................................337 Re/Ra/Pre/Re-Harakhety (Egyptian) ........383
Nursery Rhymes (European).......................337 Reincarnation ...............................................384
Nut (Egyptian) ..............................................338 Reynard the Fox ...........................................385
Nymphs (Greek) ...........................................339 Rhiannon (Welsh).........................................386
Ring Cycle, The............................................387
Oberon (European) ......................................341 Rivers, Greek Mythological ........................392
Odin/Odhinn (Norse) ..................................341 Rocs/Rucs/Rukhs/Rukhkhs (Arabic) ........393
Odysseus (Greek) .........................................342 Rolandslied (German) ....................................393
Odyssey (Greek)..............................................344 Role-Playing Games.....................................394
Oedipus (Greek) ...........................................345 Romance .......................................................395
Operas and Their Stories.............................347 Romance of Antar, The (Arabian)...................395
Oral History..................................................350 Rusalka/Rusalki (Slavic) ..............................396
Orestes and Electra (Greek) ........................351 Rustam (Persian) ...........................................397
Osiris (Egyptian) ...........................................351
Ovid...............................................................353 Sadko (Russian) ............................................398
Owl Lore .......................................................353 Saga of the Volsungs (Norse) ...........................399
Sampo (Finnish)............................................399
Palestinian Storytelling ................................356 Sandman........................................................400
Panchatantra (Indian) ....................................356 Satire ..............................................................401

x Contents
Saxo Grammaticus .......................................402 Talismans.......................................................444

Scapegoats.....................................................402 Tall Tales........................................................445
Scheherazade (Arabic) .................................403 Talmudic Storytelling ( Jewish) ...................445
Science Fiction..............................................403 Tasmisus (Hittite) ..........................................448
Seanachai (Irish) ...........................................404 Tefnut (Egyptian) ..........................................448
Seelie Court and Unseelie Court Telegonia (Greek)............................................449
(Scottish)....................................................405 Telepinu/Telepinus (Hittite).........................449
Seers (Greek).................................................405 Teshub (Hittite) .............................................450
Sekhmet (Egyptian) ......................................407 Theseus (Greek)............................................450
Seth/Set/Sutekh (Egyptian).........................408 Thompson, Stith ...........................................452
Setne Khamwaset Cycle (Egyptian)............408 Thor (Norse)..................................................452
Shaggy Dog Stories.......................................410 Thoth/Djehuty (Egyptian)...........................454
Shape-Shifters................................................411 Tiamat (Sumerian and
Shipwrecked Sailor, The Story of the Babylonian)...............................................454
(Egyptian) ..................................................412 Tibetan Storytelling......................................456
Shu (Egyptian) ...............................................413 Tolkien, J.R.R. ..............................................456
Simurgh (Persian) ..........................................414 Tom Thumb (English) ..................................458
Sinuhe, The Story of (Egyptian) ......................415 Tomte/Tomten/Tomtar (Swedish) ...............459
Sirens (Greek)................................................416 Tongue Twisters ............................................460
Sius (Hittite) ...................................................417 Tree Spirits.....................................................461
Skald (Norse) .................................................418 Tricksters .......................................................462
Skulls ..............................................................418 Tristan and Isolde (Celtic)............................465
Slavic Mythology ..........................................419 Trojan War (Greek) ......................................465
Sleepers, Enchanted .....................................421 Troubadours (French)...................................467
Sleepers, Heroic (Western European) ........422 Truth and Falsehood, The Tale of
Sleipnir (Norse).............................................424 (Egyptian)..................................................468
Snakes............................................................424 Twin Brothers................................................469
Snegurochka/Snowmaiden (Russian).........426 Two Brothers, Tale of the (Egyptian)...............469
Song of Igor’s Campaign (Russian)..................427 Typhon (Greek) .............................................471
Song of Roland (French) .................................428
Sorcerer’s Apprentice ..................................429 Ugly Baby......................................................473
Sphinx (Egyptian and Greek)......................429 Ullikummi (Hittite) .......................................474
Squonk (American) ......................................430 Unicorns ........................................................474
Standing Stones (Western European)..........431 Upelluri/Ubelluris (Hittite) ..........................479
Straparola, Giovanni Francesco..................433 Urban Legends..............................................479
String Figures ................................................434 Utu/Shamash (Sumerian) ............................480
Sundiata (Mali) ..............................................436
Sunken Cities ................................................438 Vainamoinen (Finnish).................................482
Superman (North American).......................438 Valhalla (Norse) ............................................483
Sword, Broken (Norse).................................439 Valkyries (Norse) ..........................................484
Sword in the Stone/Sword in the Tree .......440 Vampires .......................................................484
Swords ...........................................................440 Vanishing Hitchhiker ...................................488
Symphonic/Tone Poems ..............................441 Vegetable Sheep/Lamb (European) ...........488
Index................................................................I-1 Verse Stories..................................................489
Vietnamese Storytelling...............................489
Volume 3 Vodianoi (Slavic)...........................................490
Tail Tales........................................................443 Vol’ka (Slavic)................................................491
Tale Types......................................................443 Völva (Norse) ................................................492

Contents xi
Wayang (Indonesian) ...................................494 The Cuckoo: A “Fool” Folktale of

Wele (Kenyan) ..............................................495 Gotham, England.....................................552
Wenamun, Report of (Egyptian) .....................496 Dick Whittington and His Cat: A
Werewolves ...................................................497 Medieval Folktale from England ............553
West African Mythology ..............................500 Fire! Fire! Burn Stick!: A Cumulative
White Horses of England ............................502 Folktale from England .............................555
White Magic .................................................503 The Gingerbread Boy: An English
Wicked Stepmothers ....................................504 Folktale ......................................................557
William Tell (Swiss) ......................................504 A Grain of Corn: A Cumulative
Wise Man or Woman ...................................506 Folktale from England .............................559
Wise Men of Chelm (Polish) .......................508 The Sorcerer’s Apprentice: An English
Wise (or Foolish, or Mad) Men of Version of a World Folktale .....................561
Gotham (English) .....................................509 Tom Thumb’s Adventures: A Medieval
Wizards ..........................................................510 English Folktale ........................................563
Wonder Woman (American)........................512 Virgil the Magician: A Medieval
World Tree .....................................................512 English Folktale ........................................568
Wurusemu (Hittite) .......................................513 The Laplander Wizard: An Estonian
Folktale of a Magician ..............................571
Yeti (Tibetan) .................................................514 The Brave Little Tailor: A German
Yggdrasil (Norse) ..........................................516 Folktale ......................................................573
Ymir (Norse) ..................................................517 Rumpelstiltskin: A German Folktale .............575
Yoruban Storytelling (West African)............517 The Six Swans: A Shape-Shifting Folktale
Yoshitsune ( Japanese) ..................................518 from Germany ..........................................576
Ys/Ker-Ys (Breton/French)..........................518 The Twelve Dancing Princesses: A German
Folktale ......................................................578
Zeus (Greek)..................................................520 Cuchulain and the Green Man: An
Ziusudra (Sumerian) .....................................521 Ancient Irish Folktale ..............................580
Zmeys and Zmeyitsas (Bulgarian)...............522 A Leprechaun’s Gold: An Irish Folktale ........583
Zulu Mythology ............................................523 The Storyteller at Fault: An Irish
Zwarte Madam (Flemish).............................523 Folktale......................................................585
The Crystal Casket: An Italian
Retellings Snow White Folktale................................588
The Ramayana: A Great Mythic Epic Appointment in Samarra: A Folktale
from India .................................................527 from the Talmud, the Jewish Book
Shah-nameh: Iran’s Greatest Epic ................534 of Religious Wisdom................................592
Destiny: An American Civil War The Golem of Prague: A Jewish Folktale .......593
Tale ............................................................540 King Solomon and the Demon: A Jewish
Greatest Liar of Them All: An Apache Folktale......................................................595
Folktale ......................................................541 No Escape from Fate: A Persian
Why Ananse Owns Every Story: An Folktale......................................................598
Ashante Folktale from Ghana.................542 Koschei the Deathless: A Russian
Brewery of Eggshells: A Changeling Folktale......................................................599
Folktale from Wales .................................544 Gold-Tree and Silver-Tree: A Scottish
Tam Lin: A British Folktale ..........................546 Snow White Folktale................................601
The Smart Man and the Fool: A Fjort Geser: A Folktale of the Culture Hero
(Congolese) Folktale ................................549 of Tibet......................................................603
The Cauld Lad of Hilton: An English A Bagful of Tricks: A Uighur Folktale
Folktale ......................................................551 from China................................................607

xii Contents
The Story of Gelert: A Welsh Local Balder: A Norse Myth...................................633

Folktale......................................................609 Thor Catches the Midgard Serpent:
Vainamoinen: A Finnish Hero A Norse Myth...........................................634
Tale.............................................................611 Maui Snares the Sun: A Polynesian
Guigemar: A Medieval French Hero Myth ..........................................................636
Tale.............................................................614 Inanna’s Descent to the Underworld:
A Story of Gwydion: A Medieval Welsh An Ancient Sumerian Myth....................638
Mythic Tale................................................616 Prince Wicked and the Grateful Animals:
Raven Steals the Sun: An American A Parable from the Jataka........................641
Myth from the Pacific Northwest............621 The Lady, or the Tiger?: An American
Orpheus and Eurydice: An Ancient Riddle Tale................................................644
Greek Myth ..............................................623
Perseus: A Greek Myth of a Appendix: Storytelling
Culture Hero ............................................624 Resources......................................................649
Spider Woman: Creation Myth of Bibliography..................................................663
the Hopi People........................................627
A Creation: An Iroquois Myth......................630 Index................................................................I-1

General Editor
Josepha Sherman
Contributors
Maria Teresa Agozzino Piret Paar

Anne Elizabeth Baldwin Aaron Rosenberg
Gail de Vos Steven Rosenhaus
Jeff Doolittle Marella Sands
Noreen Doyle Boria Sax
Soren Ekstrom Susan M. Shwartz
Shanti Fader Suzanne Smith
Laura Anne Gilman Cathy Spagnoli
Bob Greenberger Lisa Spangenberg
Gregory Hansen Ira Spar
James A. Hartley Ruth Stotter
Alexandra Honigsberg Wade Tarzia
David M. Honigsberg Byron Tetrick
Ian Hutton Bob Trubshaw
Flora Joy Elizabeth Tucker
Pille Kippar Graham Watkins
Judith Mara Kish Lyn Wolz
Margaret Read MacDonald Melanie Zimmer
xiii

Preface
Where data was available—wars, other

T he world of storytelling is a vast one. It
covers the entire world and everything in
it, and every century in which there is a record
major events, and cultural changes invariably
got in the way—basic national storytelling
of storytelling having taken place. In the early styles have been included. Also included in this
days of putting this encyclopedia together, it work are subjects more peripherally related to
was soon apparent that the central dilemma storytelling, such as role playing games and the
was not so much what to include, but what connections of superheroes to folktales.
to exclude. After all, almost every subject can The general format of this encyclopedia
be used by an enterprising storyteller, and, if is a collection of informative entries, orga-
every potential subject was to be included, this nized in alphabetical order. This section is
would have turned into an endless series of followed by a carefully chosen selection of
volumes. appropriate retellings of many of the stories
It seemed important to include examples of discussed in the entries. Appendices include
world tale types, from which storytellers could a list of educational programs and courses
spin off their own versions, basic world myths, focused on storytelling and a list of story-
and folktales. Also included have been some telling festivals. A selected bibliography and
of the major characters in mythology, folklore, a comprehensive index are also provided for
and popular culture, and discussions of how more in-depth research.
they are related to one another. Another inclu- Taken as a whole, you will find this three-
sion has been short biographies of major fig- volume reference set to be a most definitive
ures in the realm of storytelling, such as Hans and fascinating study of the wide world of
Christian Andersen and J.R.R. Tolkien. storytelling.
xv

Introduction
Once Upon a Time . . . Storytelling Throughout History

Storytelling is one of the oldest human activi-
. . . there was a story. Story openings take ties, possibly as old as language itself. So who
a number of forms: “once there was,” “once was the first to tell a tale? It may have been a
there was not,” “once, in the long ago days,” hunter boasting of his skill or exaggerating the
and many others. But no matter what shape reason for his failure to find game. It may have
the opening words take, the result is always been a mother who told stories of monsters
the same—listeners are hooked. waiting in the forest to keep her children from
Once a story has begun, there is some- wandering off. Or it might have been a
thing deep within the human psyche that shaman, seeking to explain the creation of the
must hear what will happen next. The pull world, the turning seasons, or the coming of
of the story is universal. There is no known birth or death.
culture without some form of storytelling, There is no way to determine the first indi-
and the craving to know “what comes vidual ever to tell a story. The history of story-
next” has been felt by every human being, telling can be traced back only as far as the
regardless of age, gender, culture, or cen- development of written language. The oldest
tury. surviving written records show that story-
Storytelling is present in many aspects of telling was thriving by the second millennium
human life. Stories are told by grandparents, B.C.E. Records of Egyptian storytelling date to
parents, and other family members. Profes- about 2560 B.C.E., when the sons of Pharaoh
sional storytellers share their tales at fairs, Khufu (or Cheops) entertained their father
festivals, schools, libraries, and other sites. with stories.
Stories are integral to the mediums of televi- The first written stories are from the first
sion, film, opera, and theater, and storytelling millennium B.C.E. Early examples show that
sessions sometimes take place in the business the basic elements for a good story were al-
world at special meetings. Campfire tales are ready in place by that time. The Egyptian tale
meant to make campers shiver. And urban “The Prince and His Three Fates,” which dates
legends, contemporary folktales that usually to about 1500 B.C.E., includes familiar themes,
are attributed to a “friend of a friend,” are such as the princess in the tower or, in some
told and retold. No matter how unlikely the versions, on the glass mountain, who can be
tale may be, the teller invariably insists, “It’s rescued only by a true hero. And this story cer-
true! ” tainly is older than the written version.
xvii

xviii Introduction
In general, by the time a story is written formalize this sharing takes on the role of the
down, it has been told and retold, possibly for “storyteller.”
centuries. One of the earliest known storytellers A storyteller has a repertoire of tales, skill
is the Greek poet Homer, who lived in the at delivering those tales, and access to an audi-
eighth century B.C.E. Homer probably recited ence. The sharing of stories serves the audi-
his Iliad and Odyssey in front of an audience ence as well as the teller. For the audience, the
long before these epics were written down. An- storytelling event offers a moment of play, a
other storyteller from ancient Greece whose shared experience, a bonding.
tales were later recorded, the fabulist Aesop, Participation stories allow listeners to be in-
lived in the fifth century B.C.E. volved in an artistic event—and, in the hands
A similar example of a traditional tale that of a skilled teller, they can play their part very
was handed down is the Near Eastern epic of well. Emotionally intense stories bring a group
Gilgamesh. The earliest complete version dates of people closer together in a shared caring. In
to the seventh century B.C.E., but there are ear- such a group event, emotions that are not nor-
lier, incomplete versions from about 1500 B.C.E. mally allowed to surface are released.
There are written stories from Greece, The most wonderful gift of story is the
China, and India that date to the end of the first bonding of a group. Held close under the spell
millennium B.C.E. In the British Isles at that of a story, the group breathes as one. The
time, Celtic storytellers wandered the country- shared experience softens the edges between
side telling stories of gods, heroes, and clan his- individuals and brings everyone closer in the
tories. The earliest Welsh storyteller for whom warmth of the moment. Together, the mem-
a name was recorded was Taliesin, who lived in bers of the group enter a “story trance.” Story-
the sixth century C.E. tellers benefit, in turn, as they experience the
In the Middle Ages, storytellers’ names heartwarming feeling of holding the audience’s
were regularly recorded, and, by the time of attention and nurturing the group by sharing a
the Renaissance, individual storytellers were beloved tale.
identified around the world. In China, the first Many stories also serve the community in
storyteller whose life was well documented a broader sense. All societies use stories to pass
was Liu Jingting, who lived in the sixteenth on group values. Wrapped in the sweet pill of
and seventeenth centuries C.E. an entertaining story, a moral goes down eas-
Throughout these early years, much ily. Stories also can be useful tools that allow
storytelling—unrecorded but very real—was individuals to chastise or expose negative
taking place. Mothers, fathers, and grandparents behaviors without overtly speaking the truth.
were telling stories to their families, wander- The Liberian storyteller Won-Ldy Paye related
ing or amateur storytellers were telling stories how Anansi spider stories have been used
to villagers, and people in general were telling to “say without saying” in front of a chief. If
stories on the job, on breaks, and whenever the chief has behaved in a greedy manner, the
there was time—as they continue to do today. storyteller shows Anansi in this incorrect be-
havior. Everyone knows whom the storyteller
is talking about. The chief hears, and he
Why Tell Stories? knows, too.
The real question may be how can one not tell Many families draw “catch-phrases” from
stories? Every conversation is rife with their favorite stories, with which they can
information-packed stories of what the teller quickly refer to a story in the course of their
has been doing recently. People share stories daily lives. A phrase, such as “It don’t take
they have heard from others, retell stories they long to look at a horseshoe,” can bring family
have read, and even rehash things they have members back to the original story, as well as
seen on television. Anyone who chooses to remind them of the moral of the tale.

Introduction xix
Communities and families also may wrap embellished or exaggerated, but the facts gen-
their history in stories in order to remember erally are unaltered. News stories fall into this
details of events long past. A moment in time category, and newscasters, with their deliber-
can be preserved by creating a story and ate style of delivery, definitely can be called
telling it a few times. The story format bundles storytellers.
the facts into a neatly tied packet that is more There are also folk performers, such as
readily stored and retrieved than a number of the plena singers of Puerto Rico, who present
separate details. the news of the day and social commentary
Stories also help to broaden awareness of in music. Like the traditional town crier, who
other cultures. The folktale genre, in particu- strolled the streets calling out the day’s news,
lar, reflects many traditions and helps to famil- these storytellers provide information in
iarize people with world cultures. communities that lack ready access to televi-
Stories also can be used for educational sion or recent newspapers.
purposes. Stories can help to develop a child’s Family stories usually are shared among
literary sensibilities, and listening to tales im- the members of a nuclear or extended family.
presses a sense of story structure into a child’s These tales may include factual history, shared
mind. Stories aid in stretching vocabulary, and memories, family jokes, and exaggerated tales
children who are able to tell stories often gain about the exploits or mishaps of family mem-
advanced verbal ability and an increased sense bers and friends. In the past, family histories
of self-worth. were fabricated to trace back the ancestry of a
Storytelling provides other growth oppor- ruler, or a particular clan, to a deity. This gave
tunities, as stories help listeners to see through early leaders and dominant peoples credibility
another’s eyes and to share the protagonist’s among the masses.
feelings of anger, fear, or love—all from a safe The types of family stories range from
place. The Austrian-born American writer and personal memories to general family histories
child psychologist Bruno Bettelheim explained that include a family’s shared beliefs, cus-
that stories are important to children because toms, and folklore. Stories of personal memo-
battling difficulties through story can help ries tend to be less complex than family
them face real-life troubles. Stories provide histories. Personal memories might include
role models who show us how to face demons seemingly trivial events, such as how a sister
and overcome adversity. had a “bad hair day” on the day of a big date
Perhaps best of all, stories stretch the and what she did about it, or how the teller
imagination. The teller takes the listener to first planted a garden. In the right hands, how-
distant places where remarkable things hap- ever, this same material can be crafted into an
pen. And once stretched, an imagination stays engaging tale.
stretched. Family stories or histories generally en-
compass a larger view of the world. They
What Is a Story? might tell of how the family survived the
Great Depression in the United States, how
There are many different story categories,
ancestors migrated from their homeland, or
ranging from true adventures to tall tales. All
even explain the origin of family holiday tra-
stories can be organized roughly into four
ditions.
genres: true stories, folklore, fiction and liter-
Related to family stories are fictionalized
ature, and fairy tales.
accounts that sound plausible and can be told
outside the family. An example is James
True Stories Thurber’s hilarious “The Night the Bed Fell,”
A true story may be a personal account or a re- which he included in a book of such tales, My
counting of a historic event. The story may be Life and Hard Times (1933).

xx Introduction
Folklore Myths are closely related to religious sto-

ries, since myths sometimes belong to living
The genre of folklore predates written litera- religions. In addition to explaining questions
ture and can be broken down into the follow- about the world around us, these stories create
ing categories: folktales, nursery rhymes and a sense of community among believers, often
some nonsense rhymes, myths, religious sto- giving comfort to the listeners. Religious stories
ries, epics, ballads, fables, and legends. are likely to be retellings from sacred books,
A folktale is literally a tale of the folk, or such as the Judeo-Christian Bible and the
the people, that has no known author. Folk- Hindu Bhagavad Gita. Religious stories also
lorists separate folktales into basic categories, may take the form of parables, or tales in-
such as wonder tales, moral tales, tales of fools, tended to teach a lesson, such as the Christian
and pourquoi, or how-and-why, tales. parable of the prodigal son.
A wonder tale generally is a story of ad- Epics are long narrative poems about the
venture and magic with familiar themes, such adventures of legendary figures. While Homer’s
as the triumph of the third son, the magic Iliad may not sustain the interest of a youthful
sword, the talking animal helper, and so on. audience, the tales of King Arthur and his
An example of a moral tale is the “Grateful knights or the adventures of the African hero-
Dead” tale type, in which a ghost rewards the king Sundiata would be appropriate. Shorter
man who gave his earthly remains an honor- epic tales that are full of adventure and hero-
able burial. Fool tales, also known as noodle ism are ideal for children.
or numbskull tales, generally are good-natured Ballads are poems that tell a dramatic story
tales of foolish or downright stupid people, in verse. Longer ballads may be too much
such as the Jewish folktales of the people for a younger audience, but a great many of
of Chelm, “to whom foolish things keep hap- the ballads—for instance, those about Robin
pening.” Pourquoi tales explain the how-and- Hood—can easily be told as stories.
why of things that are too ordinary to be the Fables are short stories that teach a lesson.
themes of true myths, such as the West African Many of the characters in fables are animals
story of “Why Mosquitoes Buzz in People’s that talk and act like humans. Some fables,
Ears” or the Indian story of “Why the Blue such as those written by the eighteenth-century
Jay is Blue.” French writer Voltaire, were meant for adults.
Nursery rhymes are ideal for entertaining Others, such as Aesop’s fables, are more pop-
young children. There are many collections of ular with children, because of the clear exam-
nursery rhymes available, and the rhymes ples of right and wrong. In Aesop’s “The Fox
usually are in the public domain. Some story- and the Grapes,” the fox is unable to reach
tellers invent their own rhymes. But the classic the grapes and so decides they are sour. The
rhymes have been around for ages for good moral of this fable is, “It is easy to despise
reason: They are fun for children to repeat what you cannot get.”
and effectively use humor and musical lan- Legends are about historic or quasi-historic
guage. Nonsense rhymes are also favorites people or places. American legends, to take
with the younger age group. some familiar examples, include stories about
Myths address daunting themes such as larger-than-life but real people, such as fron-
creation, life, death, and the workings of the tiersman Davy Crockett (who invented many
natural world, answering major life questions of his legends himself) and riverboat man
such as “How did the world begin?” and “Why Mike Fink. A legend may feature a real person
does the Sun rise and set?” Myths often include but not celebrate an actual event. The Ameri-
deities and other supernatural beings in their can legend of George Washington and the
lists of characters, and they may tell of cosmic cherry tree is based on an incident that never
events, such as the birth of the universe. occurred. The legend has lasted, because peo-

Introduction xxi
ple wanted to believe that Washington was stories about the bond between animals and
honorable even as a boy. Quasi-historic figures humans. These stories have long been fa-
may or may not have lived, such as King vorites of children and have long been used
Arthur or Robin Hood. by storytellers.
There are also legends attached to specific Adventure tales feature brave and clever
places. Such legends may relate to an actual heroes and dangerous villains. Early adven-
event, such as the signing of a peace treaty un- ture stories might feature brave swashbucklers
der a so-called Treaty Oak. Or they may ex- and pirates, while heroes in modern works
plain a feature of a place as being the result of may triumph over terrorists.
a fantastic event, such as an indentation re- Historical fiction is exciting as well as edu-
sembling a hoof print that is said to mark the cational, since it provides a glimpse of life
spot where the devil stamped in anger after ways and traditions from long ago. Realistic
losing a soul. novels, also called problem novels, deal with
real world issues, such as drugs and pollution.
These have a more limited audience than
Fiction and Literature some of the other “lighter” genres.
Storytellers often turn to fiction when search- Stories both realistic and far-fetched that
ing for source material. Nonfiction books do are set in foreign lands give listeners a look
not lend themselves as well to storytelling. The into other traditions and cultures that add an
genre of fiction ranges from novels based on exotic touch.
historic events to total fantasy.
Fantasy and science fiction describe ad- Fairy Tales
ventures in both realistic and fantastic set-
tings. Books such as J.K. Rowling’s Harry Fairy tales are stories in which a series of
Potter series (1997–2007) and J.R.R. Tolkien’s fantastic events befall the protagonist and al-
The Hobbit (1937) and Lord of the Rings (1954– most always lead to a happy ending. The best-
1955) are prime examples of the fantasy known fairy tales are those written by the
genre. nineteenth-century Danish author Hans Christ-
In general, science fiction adventures are ian Andersen.
centered on the impact that science and tech- Fairy tales usually open with the conven-
nology have on the characters. Popular themes tional, “once upon a time,” which still holds
include space travel, time travel, and alien be- power over listeners. Other beginnings from
ings, as in Jules Verne’s Around the Moon (1870) around the world include (origins are listed if
and H.G. Wells’s The Time Machine (1895) and known):
The War of the Worlds (1898). Science fiction
for children is fairly difficult to find, although • It all happened long ago, and believe
many children love reading novels taken from it or not, it is all absolutely true . . .
(Ireland)
the Star Wars (1977–2005) films and Star Trek
(1966–2005) television series. • Long years ago, in the early ages of
Mysteries engage listeners young and old, the world . . . (Hungary)
as the unraveling story leads the audience to • In a place neither near nor far, and a
discover “whodunit.” Children’s mysteries gen- time neither now nor then . . . (Den-
erally do not feature murders or other grue- mark)
some crimes, and early mystery series, such as • Once there was, twice there was, and
the Nancy Drew books (the first was published once there was not . . . (Scotland)
in 1930), are still popular. • Long ago, so long ago I wasn’t there
Animal stories can be about either wild or I wouldn’t be here now to tell
or domestic animals. Within this genre are you . . . (Ireland)

xxii Introduction
• Not in your time, not in my time, but The setup and complication are followed by
in the old time, when Earth and the a quest. This could be the son’s efforts to suc-
sea were new . . . ceed with royalty or rich merchants or the
• At a time when people and animals ugly princess’s hunting to find the fairy who
spoke the same language . . . (Navajo) cursed her or a magician who can help her.
• Once there was and once there Finally, there is the outcome, in which all
wasn’t . . . (Slavic) problems are resolved and there is a happy
• Back when it was a sin to talk too ending.
much . . . There are also certain conventions that
pertain to fairy tale characters. Listeners ex-
• In the days now long departed . . .
pect the characters to be somewhat familiar.
(Scandinavia)
The protagonist generally is possessed of one
• Long ago, when some folk were dead or more of the following attributes: He or she
and others weren’t born yet . . . (Tartar) is young, is either of common or of noble
• It happened, it did not happen, it birth, is the third son or daughter, has a good
could perhaps have happened in the heart and is well mannered, and/or is a hu-
tents of our neighbors . . . (Arabic) man without magical powers.
• Many years ago, in a time when mem- Similarly, villains generally fall into one of
ory was young . . . (India) the following categories: He or she may be a
• Before the beginning of time, before wicked or insulted fairy, witch, or warlock, an
the beginning of everything, before evil aristocrat wanting the throne, a miserable
there was a beginning . . . miser, an officious official, a greedy or envious
• Once, on the far side of yesterday . . . ruler, or a demon or devil (sometimes in dis-
• Once upon a time, and a very good guise).
time it was . . . (England) Descriptions of characters are minimal in
fairy tales, as they are in folktales and myths.
• In a time not your time, nor my
It is enough for readers to know that a charac-
time, nor indeed anyone’s time . . .
(England) ter is kind of heart or fair of face. Peripheral
characters often are not even given names but
• In a time when your grandfather was
are placed in a story to move the action along.
a wee baby, and turnips could talk . . .
They simply go by descriptive monikers such
(Ireland)
as “the blacksmith” or “the tailor.” Other de-
• Long, long ago, in the days when ani- tailed physical descriptions or identifications
mals talked like people . . . (used by
also are not included. In the Greek myth of
many indigenous peoples)
Jason and the Argonauts, the Golden Fleece
is never actually described. And further de-
All fairy tale plots follow a basic struc- tails are not required for such story elements
ture: The initial setup is a description of as the “golden apples” or the “honest farmer.”
the setting and main characters—such as the Most, though not all, fairy tales include
poor farm and the poor family or the royal some element of the supernatural. When the
palace and the ugly princess. Then, a compli- hero is kind to an old woman, he may be given
cation is presented—for example, the poor a magic box of never-ending coins or a flying
family’s only son must leave home to find a carpet. These gifts are always taken in stride by
fortune before his family starves, or the ugly fairy tale characters who accept the existence
princess must find a way to break the curse of magic without question.
she lives under before she reaches her six- Again, fairy tales almost always end hap-
teenth birthday or she will never be free of it. pily, and villains are ultimately punished. The

Introduction xxiii
penalties generally are not described in graphic, • And that, as well as being the end, was
sadistic detail, as they often are in folktales, but just the beginning. (modern)
there is a feeling of satisfaction and justice
achieved at the story’s end. Stories can take on many guises. But no
Interestingly, what is considered a happy matter what type of story one chooses to tell, a
ending may vary, depending on the tale ver- successful performance should leave the lis-
sion. For instance, modern fairy tales do not tener with the secure sense that all’s well that
always end in the traditional way, with the ends well.
princess marrying a handsome prince. Instead,
the princess might choose to start a democracy
and run for public office.
Collecting Stories
As with the variable outcome, there are When researching source material, storytellers
many variants of the familiar ending, “and they have a number of options available to them. A
lived happily ever after” from around the world natural place to start is in the storyteller’s own
(origins are listed if known): life. Stories shared with family and friends and
those that reflect the cultural and ethnic back-
ground of the teller can be honed for larger
• Snip snap snout, now my tale is out.
audiences.
(Caribbean)
Personal sources should be handled with
• Wires bend, stories end. (Caribbean) care, however. Those who are new to the prac-
• Crick! Crack! (Caribbean; also may be tice of storytelling often make these personal
used to open a story) stories much too long for most audiences. Be-
• And maybe they did all live happily fore attempting to share this type of story, it is
ever after, but how you and I live is up a good idea to listen to recordings of personal
to us. (Western Europe and United stories told by professionals to see how they
States) have made them appealing to listeners.
• And they lived happily ever after, but Note that while recordings of professional
you and I are left here sucking on our storytellers can provide inspiration, care should
teeth. (Eastern Europe) be taken not to borrow directly from these
• And that’s the end of that. (Ireland) sources. Permission from the original teller
• And the party lasted four days and must be obtained before using copyrighted
four nights, and I’ve only just come material.
away from it to tell you this tale. (East- A personal collection of literature is an-
ern Europe) other good source for stories. Even stories that
• And if you don’t believe this story is are recalled from childhood can provide ex-
true, go see for yourself. cellent material.
There are many story collections located in
• And ever since then, that’s the way it
has been. (widespread) public libraries (found in the section designated
by the call number 398.2). Most librarians are
• And what happened next? Well, that’s happy to assist in selecting an appropriate an-
another story for another day.
thology or even popular children’s books.
• And so it was, and so it is, to this very Folk literature collections in particular are
day. (Ireland and Western Europe) filled with wonderful tales. Storytellers seeking
• Such things do happen, you know. authentic folk literature should check the bib-
• And they lived happily ever after, or if liography and back notes of folklore collec-
they didn’t, it’s none of our business. tions to find the origins of the material. The
(United States) advantage to using folk literature is that much

xxiv Introduction
of it is in the public domain and free to use. If Collecting Family Stories

a folktale collection is made up of retold ver-
sions of the original tales as collected by tellers Family stories, whether from the storyteller’s
or scholars, this may not be the case and per- own family or other families, have a dual pur-
mission may be required. Another disadvan- pose. They provide new material and keep
tage is that some incidents in folktales may not precious family histories and lore alive for
make sense to modern listeners or fit into later generations.
Western concepts of morality. Some family members are more than
Care also should be taken in choosing folk happy to share stories, such as an uncle who
sources, and storytellers must be respectful of loves to tell about how things were in his boy-
other cultures when using this material. A hood days. But some family members may be
Bantu tale, for instance, should not be told as a less enthusiastic about sharing information.
Cherokee tale, and the cultural source of any They may claim they cannot remember the
story should be mentioned in the telling. past or do not think their past experiences are
The search for a story that a teller is com- important enough to repeat.
fortable with can be difficult and may entail To use the former—the born family
reading dozens (or even hundreds) of stories storytellers—as sources is simple. Their stories
before the right one is discovered. just need to be recorded and permission
granted to share the stories. The latter, more
reluctant informants may need some prodding
Using Overheard Conversations to share their memories.
Many good stories are inspired by bits and A storyteller who is gathering family or
pieces of conversation that have been over- personal stories can ask the reluctant infor-
heard and even misunderstood in passing. Odd mant leading questions, such as, “Do you re-
lines and weird phrases heard on the street or in member where you lived when you were
a coffee shop can act as springboards for grip- five?” or “What was your favorite (television
ping stories. Storytellers should never intention- show, holiday, music, and so on)?” Other ques-
ally eavesdrop, but using phrases or snippets of tions might include asking family members
conversation that have been overheard acciden- whether they had pets as a child, what they
tally as a starting point is a common practice. liked to do in their free time, who their friends
Consider any of the following: “What did were in school, and what the family did on va-
he do then?” “Did she really leave him?” “But cations before the storyteller’s time.
what was a camel doing there?” “Are there Such questions should not be delivered as
dragons in the subway?” “What happened a rapid-fire inquisition, but rather in the course
to it?” “But the cat found the passport first.” of a general conversation. If a question re-
When taken out of context, all of these bits of ceives no response, it should be dropped. The
conversation are fragments of reality that can entire process should remain relaxed and cor-
inspire stories. dial. As with any research, it is a good idea to
The question, “What did he do then?” in- dig for details. Remembered scraps of history
variably leads to other questions, such as “Why can range from a teacher’s name to what year
did he do it?” “What was it?” or even “Who the family went to Yellowstone National Park.
was he?” When a personality is created for this A family’s history can be linked to historic
nameless character and “he” is given a situation events and eras, so that the past comes alive
that leads to action, all the elements are in place and remains vital. For instance, the story of a
for a story to be spun. trip made during the Great Depression, as the
Storytellers also should not overlook family sought a new place to live and available
the possibilities that lie within their own jobs, ties the family history to the social history
families. of the nation. Good stories also may lie in the

Introduction xxv
real reason behind a nickname or why some- until the entire tale can be delivered in its en-
one in the family changed his or her name. tirety with confidence.
In addition to preserving family history, Strict memorization of a story can get a
researching family stories also benefits the sto- storyteller into deep trouble. If something
ryteller, by providing insight into the past on causes the teller to lose track of his or her
a personal level. place in the story, it can be awkward for both
the teller and the audience. A better strategy is
Effective Storytelling for the teller to break the story down into parts
and put it in his or her own natural language.
An effective storyteller is one who is able to
(It should be kept in mind, however, that liter-
communicate with an audience and move the
ary material should remain true to the origi-
listeners emotionally. Successful storytelling re-
nal, and that some authors will not allow their
quires hard work and patience. All professional
stories to be told unless they are recounted
storytellers have had to jump many hurdles in
word for word.)
order to reach their level of expertise. But even
First, a concise outline of the story’s plot or
those who only plan to be “just-for-fun” story-
a storyboard is created to determine the most
tellers can experience a certain amount of anx-
basic plot elements. This outline is used as a
iety and apprehension, and they may have
springboard to relate the story in the teller’s
many questions about the process.
own words. The goal is to make it sound as if
There are several levels of performance in
the events happened to the teller or a close
storytelling: everyday storytelling, in which the
friend or relative.
events of the day are shared with the family; ca-
In order for a teller to “own” a story, a
sual storytelling, which takes place at gather-
connection must be made with it. Storytellers
ings such as reunions, picnics, parties, and other
should find parts of the story that intrigue them
social occasions; and formal storytelling to a
and utilize the strengths and talents that they
group, which is the form that requires the most
possess to enhance the performance. Some sto-
preparation. A formal situation might be a case
rytellers use musical instruments, mime, facial
of incorporating stories in a prepared speech or
expressions, poetry, and song. Others sit and
a performance by either an amateur or profes-
tell in the traditional style, letting the story go
sional storyteller at a school or library.
through them using just the voice. It is impor-
Certain guidelines should be considered
tant to remember only to use props when they
in the preparation and delivery of a story, re-
enhance, rather than distract from, the telling.
gardless of the storyteller’s level of expertise.
Selecting and Learning a Story Practice Techniques

The first rule of effective storytelling pertains to Many instructors of storytelling workshops sug-
story selection. It is imperative that the individ- gest that their students should “tell the story to
ual is comfortable with the story. A performer’s the wall” several dozen times before perform-
lack of involvement in a story will come ing for a live audience. Others suggest per-
through in the telling. A performer’s body lan- forming for a small group and admitting to the
guage can reflect how much he or she likes (or audience that the story is a work in progress. In
dislikes) a story. the latter instance, the audience will not expect
Professionals use several methods to learn a perfect performance, which can ease the ten-
a story. Probably the most common is to read sion for the storyteller.
the story many times until the story’s “voice” Once a casual group has been assembled,
becomes familiar. Then, the first part of the the teller should remind the audience that
story is practiced until it feels right. This pro- the performance is a practice session. Once
cess is repeated with each section of the story, finished, he or she might ask the listeners what

xxvi Introduction
they liked best about the story, encouraging preparation is deep breathing, which feeds
them to discuss the performance. The audi- the brain cells with oxygen and makes you
ence should give suggestions about how story more alert. The audience can be brought into
delivery might be improved. This type of feed- this breathing exercise. The storyteller might
back should not be sought until the performer ask the audience to breathe along as follows:
is ready to accept constructive criticism. “In through the nose, one, two, three, four . . .
Another technique is to share a variety of and hold, five, six, seven, and exhale.” Then,
stories with friends and family. By telling and exhale through pursed lips (as if blowing out a
retelling, a performer can determine what match), “eight, nine, ten, eleven . . .” This is
works and what does not. repeated slowly, three or more times. The ex-
There are also organizations that provide ercise helps to increase the teller’s energy,
venues and support for storytellers, such as the while also serving to calm and focus the audi-
National Storytelling Network. Storytelling ence. Once the ritual is complete, the audi-
groups offer opportunities for sharing stories ence is engaged and ready.
and getting feedback. The Toastmasters Inter- Discuss the Art of Listening. If the crowd is
national club is another organization that pro- unruly or restless, the “art of listening” can be
vides opportunities for practicing speeches introduced. The audience is asked whether
and stories. The members are happy to offer they ever have noticed that when a friend is
valuable feedback to budding storytellers. talking, they are actually thinking of what they
After performing for a few small groups in will say when their friend stops, rather than
a comfortable setting, a storyteller takes on the listening to what is being said. Most people
challenge of a larger audience. Schools, neigh- will recognize the behavior immediately. The
borhood scout troops, or any group of people storyteller might mention that good listeners
in a community generally are happy to listen are never short of friends. This comment
to stories. Another possibility is to volunteer at could be followed by simply saying, “Listen to
local libraries, daycare centers, and nursing this next paragraph.” Now, the audience
homes. Most of these institutions welcome sto- should be focused on listening.
rytellers, and telling to these groups allows the Use Silence. Performers must be conscious
performer to test material and discover the of pauses between phrases. These natural
differences in telling stories to people of differ- pauses give the listeners time to absorb a
ent ages. story’s images. Actors often use silence as
Storytelling for a larger audience allows punctuation, and, in performance terminol-
performers to refine both the content and de- ogy, phrasing is the use of silence and the way
livery of their material. But the most impor- words are grouped between pauses to help
tant piece of advice for storytellers at all levels shape what is being expressed.
of expertise is to tell, tell, and tell some more. Calm Your Nerves. It is believed that ap-
proximately 70 percent of people living in
North American have an intense fear of
Holding the Audience’s Ear speaking in front of others. This means that
There are several techniques that can help a 70 percent of any audience would rather run
storyteller keep an audience spellbound: away than trade places with a storyteller. Re-
Know the Stories. The absolute first step is membering this should help storytellers to
to know the stories well. Short pieces should keep their own “butterflies” in check.
be known by heart. Make the Best of Mistakes. If a mistake is
Use a Ritual. Much like athletes do before made in an original work, the audience will
a game, storytellers create a “zone” just be- not be aware of it. If the story is a “classic,”
fore going onstage. The best method of however, the performer should not further

Introduction xxvii
disrupt the rhythm by apologizing, but should Thus, stories should be timed beforehand
just take a breath and continue. and carefully planned out. The stories must fit
Focus on the Story. The message is more im- the time limit. Often, a performance will not
portant than the messenger. The focus should start on schedule, so stories may need to be
always be on the story and not on the teller. shortened spontaneously, or shorter alterna-
tives may be used. Practicing with a kitchen
timer or even while driving (safely glancing
Storytelling Time and Timing at the car’s clock) are good techniques.
Anyone who has told stories knows the impor- Storytellers should never exceed their al-
tance of time and timing. If used wisely, time lotted time when performing in concert with
can be a storyteller’s best friend. When used other tellers. If other tellers go over their time,
without thought, however, time can ruin a a conscientious performer will shorten his
performance and rob a teller of credibility, or her segment to get the program back on
reputation, and the joy of experiencing eager schedule. A short, punchy story or a well-sung
listeners. ballad can make as much of an impression on
First, tellers always should pay close atten- the audience as a long, drawn-out tale.
tion to the time that has been scheduled for a Attention to the timing, pacing, and rhythm
performance. A professional is on time—or of a storytelling program guarantees a success-
even early—for a performance. The same ful outcome. It generally is a good idea to in-
consideration should be given to scheduling tersperse short stories between longer ones.
and performance length as is given to the se- Following a long, gripping story with a short,
lection of material. For example, when telling snappy one will offer a break in the rhythm
at a birthday party, a performer should try to and even give the audience a little rest. It helps
avoid being scheduled at the beginning in or- if the shorter stories are humorous or involve
der to avoid being interrupted by the arrival the audience.
of latecomers. The timing and pacing within each story
Several things should be considered when also should be practiced. If a storyteller fails to
planning the length of a program for children. vary the speed or to use pauses, the audience
Children from preschool through second will be lost to drowsiness. The audience should
grade will be attentive for about thirty min- have time to laugh, to ooh and ah, and to won-
utes, especially if interactive rhymes, rhythms, der what is going to happen next. In other
and singing are included in the performance. words, tellers should not race through their
Mornings work better for this age group, be- stories. And at the end of each story, as well as
cause the children still are fresh and eager. at the end of the program, the performer
Children from eight to eleven years of age will should stay on stage long enough for people in
easily remain entranced for forty-five minutes. the audience to show their appreciation.
Any time of the day is fine for them, but it is Storytellers also are advised to take time
usually best to avoid performing right before a off from storytelling efforts each week. Be sure
special party or recess. to make time for intellectual play or other cre-
Performances at junior high or high schools ative pursuits to reawaken and maintain an ac-
usually are subject to more rigid time con- tive sense of wonder.
straints than those for the lower grades. When
the bell rings, signaling the end of the desig-
nated period, the students must go to their next
Dual Storytelling
class, no matter how gripping the story is. Also known as tandem storytelling, dual story-
Knowledge of the allocated time helps the teller telling is the act of two storytellers performing
set the pace. a story together. When two tellers perform a

xxviii Introduction
story in tandem, different characters in the out the size of the group and the age range.
story are defined by the two separate voices There is a big difference between entertaining
and personalities. This technique adds variety an intimate group of ten and performing for an
to a story and makes a performance more like entire auditorium full of children. It is also very
theater. difficult to tell stories to an audience with a
Dual storytelling requires carefully chosen large grade spread; stories for kindergartners
partners. Obviously, the two must be compat- will not work for middle-school students, for
ible, as they must spend a great deal of time example. Therefore, if possible, the audience
together, choosing and then practicing their should be limited to one grade at a time, or
story. Both tellers must like the story they two at most.
choose. If only one of the partners enjoys Even the youngest children can enjoy a sto-
telling the story, the difference in attitude will rytelling performance, but the storyteller must
be obvious to listeners. understand the needs of this audience. Telling
The shape of the story also must be con- to children between the ages of two and five
sidered. Some stories lend themselves better poses special challenges to the storyteller, but
to two tellers. Dual tellers should look for tales it also offers special rewards. Children at this
that have two main protagonists. age have very finite attention spans, so the
Timing must be perfect in tandem telling. teller must take care to choose the right stories
Seamless tandem storytelling requires a great and the right props to use. Watching the audi-
deal of planning and practice, and both part- ence is important, since little ones can change
ners always must be ready to handle unfore- moods almost instantly. A storyteller must be
seen mishaps. Dual storytellers must be sure prepared to drop one story if the audience does
that they know their parts and are familiar not respond well and go on to another.
with each other’s part, just in case one of them It is important to remember that all chil-
has a memory lapse. While a single storyteller dren, not just the youngest, have short attention
may be able to recover with a simple, “Oops, I spans. No matter how engrossing a perfor-
forgot to tell you,” this tactic does not work as mance is, squirms and occasional sighs or whis-
well with two storytellers. pers are normal reactions from small children
Dual storytellers must decide who will do and should be expected.
the introductions, who will begin the story, Vocal interruptions, particularly if they
who will end it, and so on. A program that in- have nothing to do with the story, should not
cludes a story told in tandem also may incor- be tolerated. Prior to the performance, it is a
porate some solo stories. The two storytellers good idea to ask the teacher or librarian if
can take turns performing, or one may tell a there are any disruptive children in the group.
story while the other provides musical accom- These children should be placed up front so
paniment. that they feel included in the story and are less
As with solo performances, dual story- likely to interrupt.
tellers should exhibit joy in what they are In choosing material for children, it must
doing. This enthusiasm is contagious and en- be remembered that many stories are not suit-
hances the audience’s experience. able for a younger audience. Some stories are
intended for adults only, and others are just
too complex or long-winded for children. Chil-
Storytelling for Children dren prefer stories with action, humor, and,
Storytelling to a young audience has many preferably, a happy ending. Some longer sto-
benefits, but it also poses some problems. ries can be condensed for youngsters.
When accepting an invitation to tell a story Stories with catchy rhythms or repeated
to a group of children, the teller should find phrases can be used to engage the audience.

Introduction xxix
Children love to shout out repeated phrases. If stories can help students become storytellers
a fairy tale is being read, it is customary to themselves, as well as better readers.
make a big deal out of the famous closing line, Storytelling can be smoothly integrated
“and they all lived happily ever after.” This into the school curriculum. Although an out-
guarantees contented sighs, happy squirming, side storyteller may not have any input into the
and applause. placement of a performance, a wise teacher will
When setting up the performance space, think about the most effective integration of
there should be no distractions behind the stories into the school day. The most obvious
performer, such as a window or bookshelf. It place is during language arts, but storytelling
is best to perform in front of a bare wall or a also can work as part of social studies or history
blank blackboard. A story should begin after a programs.
moment of silence. This can be encouraged A lesson about the settlement of the West
by telling the group that the story will not can be made more memorable by stories about
“work” until there is complete silence or by the real but larger-than-life Davy Crockett or a
ringing a “magic bell” for quiet. fictional hero, such as Pecos Bill. Storytelling
Once the story begins, the teller should try also can show the value of the cultural back-
to make eye contact with each member of the grounds of immigrant or minority students.
audience. This is true whether the story is told Ethnic heroes such as West Africa’s Sundiata,
or read from a book. In the latter instance, the for example, appeal to all students and add to
storyteller should frequently look up from the the self-worth of African American students.
book and out at the audience.
The actual performance should be as
much theater as traditional storytelling, rather
The Journey
than a static recitation. The teller should inter- Students also can benefit from learning to tell
act with the audience and encourage children stories. Storytelling improves imagination, lan-
to participate by clapping hands, singing, and guage skills, a sense of plot and timing, and
making funny noises. The storyteller needs to writing skills.
follow the children’s guidance to know when To help budding storytellers, a teacher or
to encourage them and when to quiet things workshop leader can start out an oral story-
down. telling session with a traditional story opening,
The basic rules are simple: Think like a such as “once upon a time” or a less familiar
child, have good material, have patience, and, variant, such as “once there was and was not.”
above all, have fun. Cumulative storytelling with a group is also ef-
fective, with one student taking the story as far
as possible, then passing it on to the next stu-
Educational Storytelling dent to continue. Even reluctant public speak-
Storytelling is also a valuable teaching tool ers will become more comfortable the more
when used in the classroom, whether presented often they tell a story.
by a professional teller-guest or the classroom The wonderful world of storytelling awaits
teacher. Except for an outside storyteller’s fee, in the following pages. Let the epic journey
there are no costs to the school, and there is no begin!
expensive equipment to be bought or rented. Ian Hutton
Hearing stories told aloud trains students in Flora Joy
their listening skills and the use of their imagi- Margaret Read MacDonald
nation. The immediacy of live storytelling gives Josepha Sherman
students a stronger sense of story than televi- Suzanne Smith
sion or films. And the activity of listening to Gail de Vos

xxx Introduction
Sources tional Sourcebook. Ed. M.R. MacDonald. Chicago:

Fitzroy Dearborn, 1999.
Bettelheim, Bruno. The Uses of Enchantment: The Meaning ———. “ ‘It Don’t Take Long to Look at Horseshoe’:
and Importance of Fairy Tales. New York: Alfred A. The Humorous Anecdote Catch-Phrase as Prover-
Knopf, 1976. bial Saying.” Indiana Folklore and Oral History 15:2
Leone, Carmen J. Remembering Our Rose Streets: A Guide (1986): 95–120.
for Collecting and Writing Family Stories. Southamp- ———. Ten Traditional Tellers. Urbana: University of Illi-
ton, CT: Calcagni, 2000. nois Press, 2006.
Pratt, Michael, and Barbara H. Fiese, eds. Family Sto-
Lifetime Press. Memories of a Lifetime: How to Collect and ries and the Life Course: Across Time and Genera-
Share Your Personal and Family Experience. New York: tions. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2004.
Hyperion, 2003. Sturm, Brian. “The Storylistening Trance Experience.”
MacDonald, Margaret Read. “Fifty Functions of Story- Journal of American Folklore 113:449 (Summer 2000):
telling.” In Traditional Storytelling Today: An Interna- 287–304.

A
F
Aarne, Antti
(1867–1925)

innish scholar Antti Amatus Aarne special-
ized in folktale classification, sorting the
Part of Aarne’s education took place in Rus-
sia from 1893 to 1898, when he was named
headmaster of the Kokkola Finnish Coeduca-
tional School, a position he held until 1902. For
the next eighteen years, Aarne taught at the Sor-
tavala Lyceum. During this time, he became a
docent in the field of Finnish and comparative
various types of tales into categories. Aarne’s folklore at the University of Helsinki, where he
most important writings—particularly his best- was supplementary professor until 1922.
known work, Verzeichnis der Märchentypen (The In addition to being a folklorist, Aarne
Types of the Folktale), first published in 1910— was a literature historian and ethnographer,
are valuable catalogs of tale types and story and his research included studies of legends,
summaries. riddles, old Finnish poems, and nature sounds.
Born December 5, 1867, in Pori, Finland, In his writings, Aarne acknowledged the arbi-
Aarne attended college from 1889 to 1907, trariness of classification, as illustrated by the
where he earned his master’s and doctoral de- indistinct line between animal and wonder
grees in folklore. While preparing a series of tales, and the overlap between genres and
three monographs on folktales for his disserta- subgenres. He died on February 7, 1925.
tion, Aarne encountered difficulties in col- After his death, Aarne’s many mono-
lecting materials and suggested to his mentor, graphs—including numerous publications in
Kaarle Krohn (1863–1933), the possibility of the Folklore Fellows Communications (FFC),
creating a complete inventory of Finnish folk- a series of scholarly articles published by the
tales. With Krohn’s approval, Aarne created Finnish Academy of Science and Letters—
such a system, drawing on collections by Dan- continued to be recognized as significant con-
ish folklorist Svend Grundtvig (1824–1883) tributions to the field of folkloristics. Aarne’s
and Kinder- und Hausmärchen (Children’s and work The Types of the Folktale (FFC 3) was re-
Household Tales), a collection by the German vised and enlarged by American folklorist
Brothers Grimm, Jacob (1785–1863) and Wil- Stith Thompson in 1928 as The Types of the Folk-
helm (1786–1859). Although previous attempts tale: A Classification and Bibliography. Thomp-
at cataloging these folktales had been made, son published another revision in 1961. He
Aarne’s classification system was a more use- praised Aarne’s work and noted the scholar’s
ful scholarly tool, assigning numbers to and conviction that “folktales had a unity that tran-
providing a brief summary for every tale type. scended individual motifs.”
1

2 Abassi/Abasi and Atai
Despite its Eurocentrism (focus on Euro- offspring. To save the world from overpopula-
pean tales), Aarne’s work transformed folk tion, Atai gave the people two gifts: argument
narrative scholarship worldwide and contin- and death. And so it is that humanity fights
ues to influence regional folktale indices. As and dies.
recently as 1995, Aarne’s/Thompson’s The However, even though Abassi never vis-
Types of the Folktale was translated into Spanish ited Earth, he did not forget about humankind,
by Fernando Peñalosa and published as Los which was made up of his children’s children.
Tipos del Cuento Folklórico: Una Clasificación. Abassi used Ikpa Ison, a fertility goddess who
took the form of a vulture to fly between
Maria Teresa Agozzino heaven and Earth, to let him know what was
happening below. Thus, good people could
See also: Tale Types; Thompson, Stith. be rewarded and evil ones punished.
Sources See also: Death; West African Mythology.

Aarne, Antti. Verzeichnis der Märchentypen (The Types of the
Folktale). FFC 3. Helsinki, Finland: Folklore Fellows
Sources
Communications, 1910.
Abrahams, Roger D. African Folktales: Traditional Stories
Aarne, Antti, and Stith Thompson. The Types of the Folk-
of the Black World. New York: Pantheon, 1983.
tale: A Classification and Bibliography. FFC 74.
Radin, Paul, ed. African Folktales. New York: Schocken,
Helsinki, Finland: Folklore Fellows Communica-
1983.
tions, 1961.
Walker, Barbara K., and Warren S. Walker, eds. Nigerian
Rausmaa, Pirkko-Liisa. “Antti Aarne.” In Biographica:
Folk Tales. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University
Nordic Folklorists of the Past: Studies in Honor of Jouko
Press, 1961.
Hautala. Ed. Dag Strömbäck, Brynjulf Alver,
Bengt Holbek, and Leea Virtanen. Copenhagen,
Denmark: Nordisk Institut for Folkedigtning,
1971.
Thompson, Stith. A Folklorist’s Progress: Reflections of a Abatwa
Scholar’s Life. Ed. John Holmes McDowell, Inta Gale
Carpenter, Donald Braid, and Erika Peterson-Veatch.
Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1996. (South African)
I n Zulu folkloric tradition, the Abatwa of

South Africa are tiny, peaceful, humanlike
Abassi/Abasi and Atai beings.
Abatwa are described as living in anthills
or wandering in the mountains, sometimes us-
(West African) ing anthills for shelter. Some accounts tell of
I n the mythology of the Efik people in what

is now Nigeria, Abassi was the supreme god
and the father of humanity. His wife, Atai, was
Abatwa that live in dwellings that are only dis-
guised to look like anthills for the safety of the
Abatwa living there. The corridors and rooms
the mother. within are ornamented with wall paintings and
Abassi and Atai had two children who mosaics made of colored seeds.
wanted to leave heaven and settle on Earth. These beings are so small that they can
Abassi was concerned that the two children hide under blades of grass and ride on ants.
would raise a warrior race that could turn Perhaps because of their small size, the
against him. But Atai convinced Abassi to per- Abatwa are shy of humans. Only children
mit the two children to live on Earth, as long as under the age of four, wizards, and pregnant
they agreed never to work or mate. women are able to see the Abatwa. If a preg-
In spite of their promise, however, the nant woman sees a male Abatwa, it means she
children soon began to work at growing food is carrying a boy; seeing a female Abatwa pre-
and to mate. The Earth was soon full of their dicts the birth of a girl.

Abor iginal Mythology 3
The Abatwa are said to enjoy helping peo-

ple, often giving them aid and good advice.
But if the Abatwa are offended by a foolish
human or if someone is clumsy enough to step
on one of them, they shoot tiny but very poi-
sonous arrows at the offender.
See also: Elf Shot/Elf Arrow; Leprechauns;

Zulu Mythology.
Sources
Courlander, Harold. A Treasury of African Folklore. New
York: Marlowe, 1996.
Radin, Paul, ed. African Folktales. New York: Schocken,
1983. An undated rock carving from Australia shows a mythic
Savory, Phyllis, ed. Zulu Fireside Tales. Secaucus, NJ: being that combines human and nonhuman aspects. It
Carol, 1995. probably is a representation of a spirit from the Dream-
time. (Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY)
Aboriginal Mythology The Dreaming/The Dreamtime

The Dreaming, also known as “the Dream-
(Australian) time,” originated long ago with the beginning
A ustralia’s Aboriginal mythology is char-

acterized by two main features. First, it
is a predominantly oral tradition. Aboriginal
of creation itself. It describes how creator-
beings, who were neither human nor animal
but had characteristics of both, formed the
society was, and still is in many cases, one of land, plants, animals, and humans. The con-
hunter-gatherers. As the Aborigines moved cept of the Dreaming is at the heart of Aborig-
in search of resources, and as seasons changed, inal culture.
the mythology developed regional variations The creator-beings described in the
and differences peculiar to tribal groupings. Dreaming also created sacred places imbued
Second, the mythology deals primarily with with djang, or residues of their own energy.
creation and the way that humans and na- The performance of rites and rituals in these
ture interact. To the Australian Aborigines, sacred places ensures the continuance of cre-
everything is permeated with life, and this ation, which is seen by Aborigines as simulta-
life is grouped into related families con- neously finished and endless.
nected by a spiritual concept known as “the In the Dreamtime, the earth was a feature-
Dreaming.” less plain, partially covered by water. When
In many cases, Aboriginal mythology the ancestors (including great serpents that
serves as a sort of oral map, defining the lived below the earth) awoke, they started to
boundaries of tribal territory and identifying move and shape everything, forming many of
the natural features that mark those bound- the planet’s natural features.
aries. Local traditions generally stop at the The period of the Dreamtime is seen as a
point where another tribal grouping takes up metaphysical concept as much as a period in
custodianship of the land. Therefore, tradi- time. The Aborigines seek to bring forth the
tional tales are shared only by communities djang of the ancestral archetypes by engaging
within the same boundaries. And, as with the in sacred ceremonies. They believe that the
tribal groupings of people, things and animals life within them is a spark of the ancestors’
are classified and grouped by kinships as well. djang. By awakening that energy, one can

4 Abor iginal Mythology
enter the Dreamtime, where all things are cre- ashamed of its tail. The insects wanted to be
ated and go on being created. larger. The birds wanted to be like the kanga-
roos. The fish felt imprisoned in water. Biame
The Sky World gathered all the animals in a cave, removed
these wishes and discontents, and placed the
Above the earth lies the Sky World, seen by
wishes and discontents in his new creations, the
many as the home of ancestors that took part
men and women. And so human beings, with
in the creation process of the Dreamtime. The
all their discontents, became the custodians of
stars are sometimes said to be the many camp-
nature, and they were watched over by the All-
fires of the ancestors, or occasionally the light
Father, who lives in the Sky World.
of the ancestors themselves. When a person
Biame also set out the laws by which hu-
dies, his or her soul may first go to the Island
manity is meant to live and the sacred cere-
of the Dead, where it is purified, and then go
monies that mark the passage from boyhood
on to the Sky World, the final resting place.
to manhood. These ceremonies occur in Boro
Most of the ancestors are totemic, taking the
circles, or Boro grounds, which are representa-
form of various native animals, including bandi-
tions of the sacred Sky World where Biame
coots, crocodiles, crows, curlews, dingoes, ea-
lives. The uninitiated are forbidden to enter
gles, echidnas, emus, fish, flies, flying foxes,
these sacred places.
frogs, kangaroos, koalas, platypuses, seagulls,
The All-Mothers are also known by differ-
and several forms of serpents. These animal an-
ent names in different regions. The most im-
cestors are woven into various fireside tales.
portant All-Mother is the chief wife of Biame,
Each tale contains a message about the Dream-
called Birraghnooloo. Gunabibi (or Kunapipi)
ing, the Dreamtime, or the natural order and
is the northern Australian variant.
continuance of the folkloric tradition.
In some traditions, the Rainbow Serpent is
said to be the mother of everything, but this
All-Father and All-Mother deity is more often seen as either genderless
The most important deity in Aboriginal or androgynous. The Rainbow Serpent is also
mythology is the All-Father. The All-Father the teacher and guardian of the secret healing
came before the ancestors and before all things. rituals of the tribal shamans.
Regardless of regional variations, the All- The Bull Roarer is an instrument, said to
Father, or at times the All-Mother, is always have been created by Biame, that is used in
known as the being from which all things came. many of the ceremonies held in Boro grounds.
Each All-Father sent a son to Earth to care for A shaped and incised oval of wood, it is swung
humanity, punish wrongdoers, and carry out from the end of a long string, and the sound it
the All-Father’s plans. produces is said to be either the voices of the an-
The All-Father and his son are known by cestors or the voice of Biame himself. The sa-
different names in different regions. In south- credness of the instrument varies from area to
eastern Australia, they are known as Biame or area. In some regions, it is forbidden for women
Biaime and his son Daramulun or Gayundi; in to look upon it. In other places, only the elders
the Murray River area, as Nooralie and his son or initiated may see it. When carved with sa-
Gnawdenoorte; and in the Kurnai community, cred designs, a Bull Roarer becomes a specific
as Mungan Ngour and his son Tundun. sacred object, known as tjuringa or inma.
Biame, in the variants of the myths that
are told today, experimented by creating the
animals and then, based on this experience, cre-
Uluru
ated men and women. In the Dreamtime, ani- In addition to the Boro grounds, other sacred
mals had all the characteristics, emotions, and places are imbued with their own spirits or
discontents of human beings. The kangaroo was essences. In many communities, it is believed

Abzu/Apsu 5
that certain places hold spirit-children, and it tic sect in Alexandria, Egypt. This sect, the
is to such places that women go if they wish to Basilidians, was founded by Basilides of
become pregnant. Egypt, and their chief deity was Abrasax
One of the most important sacred places is (Abraxas in Latin). The name Abraxas was said
Uluru, also known as Ayers Rock, in central to have magical powers as a word that, when
Australia. Here, it is believed that oral tradi- written in Greek, added up to 365, the num-
tion and song cycles are embodied by the ber of days in the year. For this reason,
sandstone rock, which towers 1,100 feet (335 Abraxas was often engraved on amulets and
meters) above the surrounding countryside. precious stones.
Uluru is divided in two halves—a shady side The term may derive from the initial let-
and a sunny side—which represent the oppos- ters of three Hebrew words: Ab, “the father,”
ing positions in the vast battle that marked the Ben, “the son,” and Acadsch, “the Holy Spirit.”
end of the Dreamtime and the beginning of In this form, the word was used as a charm,
the current age, a separation also representa- written in the shape of a triangle on a piece of
tive of the division between generations. parchment worn around the neck, that was be-
lieved to have the power to cure toothaches,
James A. Hartley malaria, and other scourges. Whatever its
derivation, abracadabra most likely came
See also: Bunyips. from Greek into French, and from French into
English.
Sources
Mudrooroo. Aboriginal Mythology. Sydney, Australia:
Thorsons, 1994.
See also: Hocus-Pocus.
Reed, A.W. Aboriginal Myths: Tales of the Dreamtime.
Chatswood, New South Wales, Australia: Reed New Sources
Holland, 1998. Hendrickson, Robert. The Facts on File Encyclopedia of
Word and Phrase Origins. New York: Facts on File,
2000.
Abracadabra Rees, Nigel. Cassell’s Dictionary of Word and Phrase Origins.

London: Cassell Academic, 2002.
U sed by modern storytellers and stage ma-

gicians only as a pseudo-incantation, the
word abracadabra has a long history as an ut-
Abzu/Apsu
terance with magical powers.
The first known mention of abracadabra
(Sumerian and Babylonian)
was made by the Roman poet Quintus Serenus
Sammonicus in the second century C.E., but the
origins of the term remain a mystery. There are
I n the mythology of Sumer and Babylon, the
creature called Abzu in Sumerian and Apsu
in Akkadian was believed to be a vast ocean of
several theories as to when and where the term freshwater lying beneath the earth. Water from
was first used: It may be a combination of the this source sprang forth to the surface through
first few letters of the Phoenician alphabet springs, wells, streams, rivers, and lakes. Sev-
(A-Bra-Ca-Dabra); the name of a demon of dis- eral Mesopotamian gods were thought to have
ease, whose origin is unknown; the Phoenician inhabited the Apsu, including Enki; his wife,
Aramaiz avada kedavra, which means “may the Damgalnuna; Enki’s minister, Isimud; and a
thing be destroyed”; or abra kadibra, meaning number of lesser deities.
“it will be made like it is said.” In the Babylonian myth Enuma Elish, Apsu
Another possibility is that abracadabra was the name of a primeval creature of the
originated from the Greek abrasadabra, which freshwater that lived before the creation of
is said to be a mystical word used by a Gnos- the world. From the mingling of Apsu and

6 Achilles
This seventh-century B.C.E. clay tablet—found in the ancient city of Nineveh, now part of northern Iraq—is one of a
series that tells the Babylonian story of the creation of the gods Apsu and Tiamat out of the primal waters. Apsu
planned to destroy the younger gods and instead died at the gods’ hands. (© British Museum/HIP/Art Resource, NY)
Tiamat, who was the primal goddess of fertil- various evil gods and monsters were said to
ity and the saltwater sea, the lesser gods were have come forth. The so-called Land of No
born. These deities created an uproar that dis- Return, or the realm of the dead, lay beneath
turbed Apsu, their begetter, and prevented it. The apsu was also the name given to a large
him from resting during the day and sleeping water basin found in some Mesopotamian
at night. Apsu resolved to do away with them. temple courtyards.
When the gods heard about Apsu’s plan, they Ira Spar
were shocked and angered.
Ea, the god of wisdom and magic, offspring See also: Creation Stories of Mesopotamia.
of Anu, chief of the gods, came up with a plan to
save the lesser gods. He cast a spell on Apsu, Sources
placing him in a deep slumber, and killed him. Black, Jeremy, and Anthony Green. Gods, Demons and
Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia. Austin: University of
After the murder, Ea set up his dwelling on the
Texas Press, 1992.
dead god’s body and called his new abode the Jacobsen, Thorkild. The Treasures of Darkness: A History of
Apsu. Ea and his wife, Damkina, settled there. Mesopotamian Religion. New Haven, CT: Yale Uni-
Their son, Marduk, was formed in the Apsu and versity Press, 1978.
was known as the “firstborn son of the Apsu.”
In Sumerian myth, the E-abzu (Apsu
House) was the name of Enki’s temple in the
Sumerian city of Eridu. (Enki was the Sumer-
Achilles
ian form of the Babylonian Ea.) Abzu shrines
also have been found in cult centers in several
(Greek)
Mesopotamian cities.
In Mesopotamian thought, the Apsu was a
place connected with demons, from which
I n Greek mythology, Achilles was the son of
the mortal King Peleus of Phthia in Thessaly
and the immortal sea nymph, Thetis. He is

Adapa 7
often described as the greatest warrior of the To this day, the phrase “Achilles’ heel”
Trojan War. refers to a vulnerable spot.
Thetis was worried about her newborn son
and his defenselessness, due to his half-mortal See also: Culture Heroes; Hector; Homer;
parentage, so she took the newborn Achilles to Iliad.
the River Styx. She dipped the baby into the
water, which had the power to make him in- Sources
vincible. But either Thetis neglected to dip the Apollodorus. The Library of Greek Mythology. Trans. Robin
Hard. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
heel by which she was holding the baby or a
Grant, Michael. Myths of the Greeks and Romans. Cleve-
leaf stuck to his heel and kept the water from land, OH: World, 1962.
touching it. As a result, Achilles’s heel re- Homer. The Iliad. Trans. Robert Fagles. New York: Pen-
mained vulnerable. Still another version of the guin Classics, 1998.
story states that when Achilles was a baby,
Thetis rubbed him each day with godly am-
brosia, and each night laid him on the hearth
fire. His father, Peleus, came upon Thetis hold-
Adapa
ing their baby in the flames and cried out in
alarm. Thetis was offended and returned to the
(Babylonian)
sea, leaving Achilles to his mortal fate.
When the Trojan War began, King
Agamemnon of Mycene, the commander of
I n Babylonian tradition, Adapa was known
as a wise man or sage from the early Sumer-
ian city of Eridu. The myth of Adapa deals
the Greek forces, sent Odysseus and a group of with the topic of mortality.
soldiers to recruit Achilles. Thetis was afraid The Sumerian kings list, an ancient text
for her son and sent him, disguised as a woman, listing the kings of Sumer, records the exis-
to King Lycomedes on the island of Skyros to tence of five cities that predate the Flood.
live among the king’s daughters. When the These early cities were ruled by eight leg-
clever Odysseus arrived at Skyros, he saw endary kings, each of whom reigned for one
through the disguise, tricked Achilles into re- or more centuries. The first seven of these an-
vealing his identity, and convinced him to join tediluvian rulers were served by semidivine
the army. counselors, called apkallu, who introduced
During the last year of the Trojan War, learning and the arts to Sumer. In the Epic of
Achilles quarreled with Agamemnon over Gilgamesh, the apkallu are said to have laid the
possession of Briseis, a young woman Achilles foundation for the wall that surrounded Uruk.
had captured as a prize of war. When According to Babylonian legend, Adapa was
Agamemnon claimed her, Achilles took it as a one of the wise apkallu from the preflood city
deadly insult. He refused to fight the Trojans of Eridu.
with Agamemnon and stayed in his tent. An unnamed Babylonian poet penned a
Without him, the Greek forces began to lose. mythic story about Adapa that explores the en-
Patrocles, Achilles’s best friend, borrowed his during theme of human mortality. Why, the
armor to go into battle and was slain by Hec- story asks, should humans be mortal and the
tor, prince of Troy, the greatest Trojan warrior. gods immortal? The story opens with a descrip-
Enraged, Achilles returned to the battle- tion of Adapa as an ideal human being: ritually
field, slaughtering everyone in his path. He observant and perfect in wisdom. As a servant
eventually killed Hector, aided by the goddess of the god Ea, Adapa performed the divine rites
Athena. Hector’s brother, Paris, shot an arrow with great care, baking bread, preparing food
into Achilles’s one mortal spot—his heel—and and drink, setting the table with clean hands,
Achilles died. and catching fish for Ea’s cult at Eridu.

8 Adon/Adonis
One day while Adapa was out fishing, a Jacobsen, Thorkild. The Treasures of Darkness: A History of
south wind came up and capsized his boat. Mesopotamian Religion. New Haven, CT: Yale Uni-
versity Press, 1976.
Adapa was thrown overboard and spent the
day “in the home of the fish.” Wet and angry,
he cursed the wind, and the power of his spell
broke its wings. For seven days, the wind was
incapacitated, and the air was still over the
Adon/Adonis
land.
Annoyed, the supreme god, Anu, sum-
(Phoenician)
moned Adapa to appear before him. Ea,
knowing that Adapa would be granted an au-
dience in heaven and not wishing to lose his
O riginally, Adon was a Phoenician god of
fertility and resurrection who was associ-
ated with crops and the seasonal agricultural
services, advised Adapa to humble himself cycle. His cult became popular during the
and stand in mourning garb with his hair di- Hellenistic period, about 200 B.C.E., and it
sheveled as a sign of grief before Anu’s gate- lasted until about the third or fourth century
keepers, Dumuzi and Gishzida. Ea’s plan was C.E. Major cult centers devoted to the god,
to so bemuse these two deities that they would who was usually portrayed as young and hand-
intercede on Adapa’s behalf and plead his some, were located at Berytus, Aphaca, and
case before Anu. Ea also advised Adapa not to Byblos, in what is now Lebanon.
accept heaven’s hospitality and to reject any It is the myth of Adon’s death and rebirth
food or drink offered to him, for such offerings that is most commonly known. Adon, the con-
were the food and drink of death. sort of the goddess Ashtar (Venus, in Greek
Upon his arrival in heaven, Adapa fol- tradition), was slain by a boar that he was
lowed Ea’s advice. He so amused the gate- hunting. The fatal wound is often said to have
keepers that they interceded and pleaded his been to the groin, adding to Adon’s reputation
case. When Adapa appeared before Anu, the as a fertility deity. After suffering this fatal
supreme god offered him food and drink, a wound, Adon, like the Greek Persephone,
rite of hospitality performed only for visiting spent fall and winter of each year in the un-
deities. Adapa declined the offering, not real- derworld.
izing that acceptance would have granted him In late spring, the river known today as
eternal life. Nahr Ibrahim flows red from minerals stirred
Anu laughed at the sage’s naïveté and up by spring rains. This phenomenon was
asked him why he did not eat or drink. Adapa taken to be a miracle by Adon’s priests and
answered that Ea had advised him in the ways worshipers, who then celebrated his death and
of heaven and that he was merely following resurrection. During the first part of the festival,
Ea’s instructions. Anu told Adapa that he had the priests made a ritual show of mourning
offered him eternal life and that his refusal Adon’s death, up to and including gashing
meant that he would remain a mortal. themselves with knives. The festival proceed-
And so, because of Adapa’s choice, all ings then switched to a joyous celebration of
humans are mortal. Adon’s return to a new life. The priests ritually
Ira Spar shaved their heads to indicate a new beginning.
The Greek story of Venus and Adonis was
See also: Death; Wise Man or Woman. well known through the Renaissance; Shake-
speare wrote a lengthy poem titled Venus and
Sources Adonis. Gradually, the name Adonis lost much
Dally, Stephanie. Mesopotamian Myths. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1989.
of its mythic power. Today, it is generally
Foster, Benjamin R. Before the Muses: An Anthology of Akka- used to refer simply to a handsome young
dian Literature. 2nd ed. Potomac, MD: CDL, 1996. man.

Aeneid 9
See also: Aphrodite; Dumuzi; Inanna/Ishtar. properly the children of Adroa’s dark half,
Adro.
Sources These beings live in streams, trees, and
Jordan, Michael. Encyclopedia of Gods. New York: Facts rocks. Those who live in water are de-
on File, 1993.
Lucian of Samosata. De Dea Syria (Concerning the Syrian
scribed as looking like water snakes, possibly
Goddess). 2nd century C.E. Trans. Herbert Strong. poisonous ones, but those Adroanzi who
London: Constable, 1913. prefer to live in trees or rocks are not de-
scribed.
The Adroanzi often follow anyone who
Adroa and Adro is traveling at night. When they do, they gen-
erally act as protectors from human or ani-
mal predators. The human that is being
(East African) followed must not look back at the Adroanzi.
The protective creatures become fierce and
A droa is a major god of the Lugbara, an
African farming people living in what are
now parts of Uganda and Congo.
attack to kill anyone who turns to look at
them.
Adroa was the all-good creator of every-
thing, including himself. He divided himself in See also: Leshy/Leshiye; Tree Spirits.
two to create the earth. But that which split off
from his goodness became the evil earth-spirit Sources
Abrahams, Roger D. African Folktales. New York: Pan-
Adro, who brought disease and other ills into
theon, 1983.
the world. Because of this split, Adroa is repre- Courlander, Harold. A Treasury of African Folklore. New
sented as a tall, white-skinned man with only York: Marlowe, 1996.
half a body, one arm, and one leg. Adro is Radin, Paul. African Folktales. New York: Schocken,
rarely represented, but in those rare represen- 1983.
tations, he is portrayed as another half figure:
half a body, one arm, and one leg, with jet-
black skin. Aeneid
Adroa’s children are called the Adroanzi.
See also: Aiomum Kondi; An/Anu; Sius; Wele;

(Roman)
Zeus.
Sources
T he literary epic the Aeneid, based on the
story of the Trojan War, was written in the
first century C.E. by the Roman poet Virgil. It
Abrahams, Roger D. African Folktales: Traditional Stories follows the adventures of Prince Aeneas, son
of the Black World. New York: Pantheon, 1983.
Courlander, Harold. A Treasury of African Folklore. New
of Troy’s doomed King Priam, after the fall of
York: Marlowe, 1996. Troy and describes the myth about the found-
Radin, Paul, ed. African Folktales. New York: Schocken, ing of Rome.
1983. The Aeneid begins with Aeneas and other
Trojan survivors leaving the fallen city of
Troy and setting out for new lands. The gods
Adroanzi had heard a prophecy that the nation Aeneas
founded would one day destroy Carthage,
which was the favorite city of the goddess
(East African) Juno. In an effort to save the city, Juno com-
T he Adroanzi are nature spirits, the chil-

dren of Adroa, though some versions of
the tales about them say that they are more
manded the winds to drive Aeneas off
course, but he landed in the countryside near
Carthage.

10 Aeneid
Aeneas, the last prince of Troy, and his companions battle the monstrous Harpies. This scene from the first-
century C.E. epic the Aeneid, written by the Roman poet Virgil, is illustrated in a fifteenth-century tapestry.
(Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY)
Aeneas and Dido were blown off course and finally landed in
Carthage.
Dido, queen of Carthage, offered her hospital- By this point in the story, Dido and Ae-
ity to Aeneas and his men. Aeneas recounted neas realized they had fallen in love. But the
the story of the fall of Troy. His version ex- gods insisted that Aeneas go to Italy. He
panded on the account in the Iliad and in- sailed off without Dido, and she committed
cluded the tale of the Trojan horse and the suicide.
defeat of the city.
Aeneas also told of his flight from Troy. He
and his men wandered for seven years,
Aeneas’s Journey
searching for a new home. They landed on Aeneas and his men returned to Sicily, and a
Thrace but found it a dangerous place full of fire destroyed four of their ships. Once they fi-
murder, and so continued on to Delos and nally arrived in Cumae, Italy, Aeneas went to
Crete. There, Aeneas was sent a dream by the the temple of Apollo and asked for guidance.
gods, telling him to settle in Italy. While sail- Apollo told Aeneas that he had to enter the un-
ing to Italy, he and his men encountered the derworld, find his father, and ask his advice.
harpies and the Cyclops. The group eventu- On this mission, Aeneas endured many
ally landed safely on the island of Sicily. As dangers. He was eventually able to cross the
they attempted to reach the mainland, they Acheron River and reach Hades. From there,

Aesop and Aesop’s Fables 11
Aeneas traveled through the underworld to in Samos in the sixth century B.C.E. and was
the Elysian Fields, home of the blessed souls, known for his fables. Although there is no
where he was reunited with his father’s spirit. real evidence of any fable having been cre-
The spirit told Aeneas the history of Rome. ated specifically by Aesop, one of the most
He told of the wars Aeneas would fight and of familiar fables attributed to him is “The Hare
his destiny, which would lead to Rome ruling and the Tortoise,” in which “slow and steady
the world. When the story was finished, Ae- wins the race.” Another, in which a wolf dis-
neas returned to the world of the living. guises himself as a sheep only to be killed by
Aeneas’s ships reached Latium, ruled by the shepherd who thinks the wolf really is a
King Latinus. This land was destined to be- sheep, has given us the phrase “a wolf in
long to the Trojans, and Aeneas sent an envoy sheep’s clothing.”
to the king with friendly messages. Latinus There also is little hard evidence about the
welcomed Aeneas and his men, and he man himself. Aesop’s birth date is unknown,
offered his daughter Lavinia to Aeneas in and he is said to have died around 565 B.C.E.
marriage. The folk process, by which folk stories are
attached to a historic character over time, how-
Victory at Last ever, has added a series of adventures to Ae-
sop’s life that occurred after his master freed
Juno had not forgotten about Aeneas and cre- him. He is said to have visited and shared his
ated chaos throughout Latium. She roused wisdom with various Greek rulers, including
King Turnus of the Rutulians against Aeneas, Croesus. During the time when speaking freely
and the people of Latium against the Trojans.
Aeneas traveled to Pallenteum to aid King
Evander, but, in his absence, Turnus attacked
the Trojans. Aeneas returned to Troy and won
the battle. Turnus was killed in the fight. At
last, Aeneas and the Trojans were free to begin
building their nation.
The Aeneid has inspired several composers.
Henry Purcell’s 1689 opera Dido and Aeneas fo-
cused on the pair’s doomed love affair. Les
Troyens, composed by Hector Berlioz in 1863,
told of the fall of Troy and ended with Ae-
neas’s desertion of Dido.
See also: Epics; Iliad; Trojan War.
Sources
Virgil. The Aeneid. Trans. Robert Fitzgerald. New York:
Vintage Books, 1990. Trans. David West. New York:
Penguin, 2003.
Aesop and Aesop’s Fables

The artist and illustrator Arthur Rackham (1867–1939)
(Greek) pictured the characters in Aesop’s fable “The Hare and
the Tortoise” as nineteenth-century gentlemen. The ele-
A ccording to the Greek historian

Herodotus, Aesop was a slave who lived
gant Hare is mocking the Tortoise before the start of the
race. (The Pierpont Morgan Library/Art Resource, NY)

12 Aetheopis/Aithiopis
was dangerous in Greece, Aesop’s name be- The Aetheopis begins soon after the death of
came associated with the use of fables to con- the Trojan prince and hero Hector. The queen
vey antityranny messages. of the Amazons, Penthesileia, daughter of the
In the third century B.C.E., an Athenian war god, Ares, arrived at Troy to fight on the
politician named Demetrius of Phaleron col- side of the Trojans. Penthesilea fought Achilles,
lected a group of about 200 fables and gave the greatest Greek warrior—a fight that ended
them the title Aesop’s Fables, or Assemblies of in her death.
Aesopic Tales. In the first century C.E., a freed Later, while Achilles was still full of battle
Greek, or possibly a Roman slave, named Phae- rage, the Greek warrior Thersites made the fa-
drus issued a version in Latin verse. It is through tal mistake of taunting him. Thersites claimed
these two collections that the story of Aesop has that Achilles had been in love with Penthe-
reached modern times. sileia. Achilles was outraged and killed Ther-
To further confuse the matter, in the sec- sites. This murder incurred the wrath of the
ond century C.E., a Buddhist collection of fa- gods and other Greeks, so Achilles was made
bles reached the West and was combined with to undergo a ritual purification.
the Demetrius collection by a Greek writer, While Achilles was being purified of his
Valerius Babrius. This new compilation be- sin, another Trojan ally arrived. Memnon of
came the accepted version of Aesop’s Fables. Ethiopia was the son of Eos, goddess of the
Some scholars suspect that the addition of a dawn. Memnon wore armor that had been
moral at the end of each fable is a result of forged by the master smith god, Hephaestus,
Buddhist influence. and he led a contingent of warriors. Mem-
So many other additions have been made non killed the Greek warrior Antilochos in
to the collection from other sources, especially battle. Antilochos had been close to Achilles,
after countless retellings, that no definitive who returned from his purification to learn
version of the fables supposedly written by of his friend’s death. Achilles killed Mem-
Aesop exists. non, but Memnon cheated death when Eos
successfully petitioned Zeus to make her son
See also: Fables. immortal.
Achilles then rushed into Troy and was
Sources killed by an arrow that was shot by Paris,
Aesop. Aesop’s Fables. Trans. Laura Gibbs. New York: prince of Troy, and guided by the god
Oxford University Press, 2003. Apollo. After some fierce fighting, the Greeks
Perry, B.E. Studies in the Text History of the Life and Fables
of Aesop. Philadelphia: American Philological Asso-
managed to drive the Trojans back so that
ciation, 1936. Odysseus and Aias could retrieve Achilles’s
Rangaves, George D. Aesop’s Fables and His Life. Walnut body.
Creek, CA: n.p., 1992. The Greeks held a funeral for Antilochos
and began a ceremony for Achilles. The sea
nymph Thetis, Achilles’s mother, arrived with
Aetheopis/Aithiopis her sisters and the Muses, who lamented over
the body and carried it away. The epic ends
with Achilles’s armor and weapons being of-
(Greek) fered as a prize to the greatest hero.
T he Aetheopis, or Aithiopis, is a lost epic

of ancient Greece, possibly dating from
the seventh century B.C.E. This epic poem
See also: Iliad; Trojan War.
Sources
about the Trojan War fits chronologically be- Burgess, Jonathan S. The Tradition of the Trojan War in
tween Homer’s Iliad and the anonymous Homer and the Epic Cycle. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
Little Iliad. University Press, 2001.

Ahti/Ahto 13
Davies, Malcolm. Greek Epic Cycle. 2nd ed. Bristol, UK: is the benevolent and all-powerful Supreme
Bristol Classical, 1989. Being and sky god to whom the souls of the
West, Martin L., ed. Greek Epic Fragments from the Seventh
dead go.
to the Fifth Centuries BC. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 2003. Tchue is a cultural hero and founder of the
Bushmen.
As with other still-living mythologies, it is
appropriate to research the beliefs of the Bush-
African Bushmen men to ensure an accurate portrayal of current
beliefs in any stories that are connected to them.
Mythology
Sources
Biesele, Megan. Women Like Meat: The Folklore and Forag-
T he traditional home of the African Bush-

men is the vast expanse of the Kalahari
Desert in South Africa and Namibia. Many
ing Ideology of the Kalahari Ju/’Hoan. Bloomington:
Indiana University Press, 1993.
Bleek, Wilhelm H.I., and Lucy C. Lloyd, comps. Speci-
different groups are considered to be Bush- mens of Bushman Folklore. Cape Town, South Africa:
men, but they have no collective term for Struik, 1968.
Van der Post, Lauren. The Heart of the Hunter. New York:
themselves. Some Westerners call them San, Harcourt, 1980.
but this name is actually derogatory and the
term Bushmen seems to be preferred.
The African Bushmen are traditionally
hunter-gatherers. In many areas, however, Ahti/Ahto
these groups are being forced off their tradi-
tional lands and are making new lives as farm- (Finnish)
ers and ranch workers. Following is a
summary of the major deities in the mythol-
ogy of their ancient culture.
A hti, or Ahto, is the Finnish god of the
seas, lakes, and rivers.
Ahti’s palace was hidden within a black
Kaang, or Cagn, is the creator god of the
cliff that was forever protected from the out-
African Bushmen. Kaang is said to have made
side world, particularly from humans, by the
all things but to have met with such opposition
waves and clouds. A gloomy deity, Ahti was
in the world that he went away. He is regarded
forever jealous of the gods of the sky and
as the god of natural phenomena, present in
spent a great deal of time brooding because
all things, but especially the mantis and cater-
the people prayed to them and not to him.
pillar. He is a shape-shifter with many trickster
He could give humans fish if it pleased
and epic hero tales attached to him. Kaang has
him. To punish them for not worshipping
two sons, Cogaz and Gewi.
him sufficiently, Ahti often sent his servants,
Other traditions name Hishe as the great
the water sprites, to whip up whirlpools in-
self-created god who then created the lesser
stead.
gods, the earth, humanity, wild animals, and
Ahti’s wife, Vellamo, enjoyed drowning
vegetation. The northern Bushmen, how-
humans.
ever, call Huve (or Huwe) the beneficent
Supreme Being and creator of all things. See also: Kalevala.
Huve is a deity of the forest. Mukuru is the
benevolent ancestral god and creator god Sources
of the Herero Bushmen of Namibia. Mukuru Lönnrot, Elias. The Kalevala: An Epic Poem After Oral Tra-
brings the life-giving rain, heals the sick, dition. Trans. Keith Bosley. New York: Oxford Uni-
and brings home the very old. Quamta is the Pentikäinen, Juha Y. Kalevala Mythology. Trans. and ed.
supreme god of the Xhosa Bushmen of the Ritva Poom. Bloomington: Indiana University Press,
Transkei in South Africa. The Xhosa god Xu 1999.

14 Aigamuxa
Aigamuxa recklessly promised his sister to Vainamoinen.

When Aino discovered that she had been
promised to Vainamoinen, she could not bear
(South African) the thought of being the old man’s bride. Her
family wanted the marriage for the honor it
I n the mythology of the Khoikhoi people
of South Africa (formerly called the Hot-
tentot people), the Aigamuxa were man-
would bring them, and Vainamoinen promised
to be kind to her and vowed that as the master
of song-magic he would give her anything she
eating monsters that looked like large, thin,
desired. In spite of this, Aino mourned that it
long-armed apes with long fangs.
would have been better for her never to have
The Aigamuxa could sometimes be found
been born, and threw herself into the ocean to
hiding behind sand dunes, ready to catch and
drown. Some variants of this tale imply that she
devour any unwary humans. Fortunately for
transformed into a fish rather than dying.
those humans, the Aigamuxa were hampered
Aino’s tragic tale is one of the more popular
by the fact that their eyes were positioned on
in Finnish folklore. A postage stamp was issued
the insteps of their feet, causing them to run
in 1997 showing Aino escaping Vainamoinen
blind.
and hurling herself into the sea.
If the Aigamuxa wanted to see where they
were going or what was happening around
See also: Kalevala.
them, they had to get down on their hands
and knees or lie down. This gave their prey
Sources
time to escape, which is presumably why the Lönnrot, Elias. The Kalevala: An Epic Poem After Oral Tra-
Aigamuxa were always portrayed as hungry dition. Trans. Keith Bosley. New York: Oxford Uni-
creatures. versity Press, 1999.
Pentikäinen, Juha Y. Kalevala Mythology. Trans. and ed.
Ritva Poom. Bloomington: Indiana University
See also: Khoikhoi/Hottentot Mythology.
Press, 1999.
Sources
Berens, Penny, Emile Boonzaier, Candy Malherbe,
and Andy Smith. The Cape Herders: A History of the
Khoikhoi of Southern Africa. Athens: Ohio University
Aiomum Kondi
Press, 1996.
Radin, Paul, ed. African Folktales. New York: Schocken, (South American)
1983.
Theal, George M. The Yellow and Dark-Skinned People of
Africa, South of the Zambesi. New York: Negro Uni-
versities Press, 1969.
I n the mythology of the Arawaks of Guyana,
Aiomum Kondi was the ruler of the gods
and the sky.
Aiomum Kondi, or the Inhabitant of the
High, created all living things, including mor-
Aino tals. But he soon became disgusted by the de-
bauchery of humans and destroyed them in
a fire from heaven. He remade the humans,
(Finnish) but they disappointed him once again, and so
I n the Kalevala, the collection of Finnish epic

folk ballads, Aino, whose name means “the
only one” or “the one and only,” is the beautiful
Aiomum Kondi sent a flood to wash them
away.
There was one good man, a chief named
sister of the brash young magician Joukahainen. Marerewana, whom Aimum Kondi warned of
When Joukahainen rashly challenged the the flood. Marerewana saved himself and his
old wizard Vainamoinen to a duel of singing family by taking shelter in a large canoe that
magic, the youngster lost and, to save his life, was tied to a tree.

Amadis of Gaul 15
See also: Amun/Amen/Amon/Amun-Re; An/ Later, Anu was the first among the gods,
Anu; Sius; Wele; Zeus. second only to Alalu. As second, Anu served
as Alalu’s cupbearer. He served for nine
Sources years. Then, he fought and defeated the older
Bierhorst, John. The Mythology of South America. New deity and dispatched Alalu to live under the
York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
Harris, Wilson. The Age of the Rainmakers. London: Faber
earth.
and Faber, 1971.
Osborne, Harold. South American Mythology. London: See also: Anu.
Hamlyn, 1968.
Sources
Gurney, O.R. The Hittites. Rev. ed. New York: Penguin,
Ajok 1990.
Hoffner, Harry A. Hittite Myths. 2nd ed. Atlanta: Schol-
ars Press, 1991.
Hooke, S.H. Middle Eastern Mythology. Mineola, NY:
(North African) Dover, 2004.
I n Sudanese mythology, Ajok was the cre-

ator, a deity who made humankind in his
own image. Ajok was believed to be a benevo- Amadis of Gaul
lent deity, who would remain compassionate
only if the behavior of humankind allowed (Spanish or Portuguese)
him to remain so.
When the child of the first man and woman
died, the grieving mother pleaded with Ajok T he medieval work Amadis of Gaul and its
sequels originated in either Spain or Por-
tugal and is regarded as the first epic fantasy
to return the child to life. Ajok complied. The
woman’s husband was so furious that he had adventure series.
not been consulted that he killed his wife and It is not known where or by whom the
child. original Amadis of Gaul was written. The work
Ajok, who had planned to grant immortal- may have been written by Portuguese author
ity to humans, vanished from the earth and Joao de Lobeira in the late thirteenth or early
left behind a warning that from then on, death fourteenth century, but no manuscript has been
would be permanent. found. The epic was translated into Castilian
Spanish by García Ordóñez de Montalvo in
See also: Death. the sixteenth century. The latter was a best
seller in its own time and is the version that is
Sources best known today.
Courlander, Harold. The Master of the Forge: A West
African Odyssey. New York: Crown, 1983.
Gordon, Rosemary. African Mythology. London: Guild of The Story of Amadis
Pastoral Psychology, 1965.
Parrinder, Geoffrey. African Mythology. London: Hamlyn, The plot of Amadis of Gaul is intricate, as are
1967. most stories of this genre. Set in and around
England just after the Roman era, it follows the
pre-Arthurian adventures of the great knight
Alalu/Alalus Amadis.
As an infant, Amadis, who was the illicit
offspring of King Perion of Gaul and the lady
(Hittite) Elisena, was put in a basket to float down a
A lalu was a Hittite deity also known as

Alalus. He was the king in heaven in the
earliest days.
river to the sea. The baby was rescued by the
noble Gandales, who called him “Child of the
Sea.” Gandales raised Amadis along with his

16 Amazons
own son, Gandalin. King Perion and Elisena fantasy series. The craze for generic fantasy
had two more children, a daughter named grew so large that it was parodied by Miguel
Melicia and a son named Galaor. The latter Cervantes in Don Quixote, in which the old don
was kidnapped by a giant who raised Galaor went mad from reading too many fantasy ad-
as his own. ventures and thought he was a hero-knight
King Lisuarte of England placed his lovely himself. Cervantes’s satire managed to put an
daughter Oriana in the household of King Pe- end to the fantasy adventure craze—at least for
rion. Amadis had since returned to his father’s that era.
house to work as a page, but his true identity
was unknown. The young Amadis, known to See also: Fantasy.
all as Child of the Sea, became Oriana’s page,
and the two fell in love. Sources
The sorceress Urganda the Unknown had Moorcock, Michael. Wizardry and Wild Romance: A Study
of Epic Fantasy. London: Gollancz, 1987.
prophesied that Child of the Sea would be the O’Connor, John J. Amadis de Gaule and Its Influence on
greatest of knights—the strongest, the most Elizabethan Literature. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers
honorable, and the most loyal in love. King University Press, 1970.
Perion knighted Amadis. In turn, the hero Patchell, Mary. The Palmerin Romances in Elizabethan Prose
Fiction. New York: AMS, 1966.
knighted his brother, Galaor, who had by then
Place, Edwin B., and Herbert C. Behm. Amadis of Gaul: A
been released by the giant. It was at this point Novel of Chivalry of the 14th Century Presumably First
that the two brothers learned each other’s true Written in Spanish. Lexington: University Press of
identities. Kentucky, 2003.
Amadis and Galaor became knights-
errant, rescuing damsels in distress, eliminat-
ing false knights, and battling every menace,
from giants and terrible beasts to evil wizards.
Amazons
And while Galaor dallied with many ladies,
Amadis remained true to his love, Oriana.
(Greek)
The tale ended happily and left an opening
for further adventures.
Montalvo’s translation was a great success.
I n Greek mythology, Amazons were warrior
women who lived apart from men.
In the Iliad, Amazons are described as an-
Like modern fantasy epics, the story was spun tianeirai, a Greek word that means “those who
into a series that followed the adventures of go to war like men.” The Greek historian and
Amadis and those of his descendants. The se- occasional tale teller Herodotus (c. 484–c. 420
ries included twelve books, the success of B.C.E.) described the Amazons as androktones,
which led to imitators. which means “killers of males.” Tradition says
that they lived in Asia Minor, in what is now
Turkey.
The Fantasy Fad The Amazons are said to have gotten their
One such imitation was written by the name from the Greek word amazoi, or “breast-
Spaniard Francisco Vázquez de Coronado. less,” referring to a belief that the Amazons
His initial work, Palmerin de Oliva, about a cut or burned off their right breasts to make it
heroic knight, and its sequel, Primaleon, about easier to draw a bow. The Amazons, who are
the adventures of Palmerin’s son, were the first almost always pictured as fighting on horse-
of many such tales. Portuguese writer Fran- back, are sometimes shown using swords or
cisco de Moraes followed up with Palmerin of axes.
England. They were said to take their mates as it
The success of Amadis of Gaul eventually pleased them and then either enslave, kill, or
led to a glut of generic and often poorly written sometimes release the men once the Amazons

Amazons 17
This illustration from the thirteenth-century C.E. manuscript “Li Livre des Ansienes Estories,” or “The Book of Ancient
Stories,” depicts a fierce battle between the Amazons, who are led by their queen, and the Trojans. (Erich Less-
ing/Art Resource, NY)
had become pregnant. Female babies were There is no proof that the Amazons of
kept and male babies were either killed or, Greek myth were based on reality. There is,
in some accounts, returned to the father’s however, evidence throughout the world of
people. the existence of women warriors.
There are several tales in Greek mythol- The Sarmatian women, of Asia Minor,
ogy about the Amazons. In the Iliad, one of could not marry until they had taken an en-
the nine labors imposed on Hercules was to emy’s head in battle. Celtic women often
travel to the land of the Amazons and bring fought alongside men. If a Celtic family had
back the girdle of Hippolyte, the Amazon no son, the firstborn daughter was trained
queen. for combat. In Africa, the king of Dahomey
In the process of completing this mission, was protected by a female bodyguard, as
Hercules fought and killed Hippolyte, and her was the king of Thailand. The daughters of
sister Penthesilea became queen. She and her noble Japanese families were trained for
Amazon army fought on the side of King battle. Vietnamese women were savage
Priam of Troy during the Trojan War. In a warriors who fought on both sides in their
slightly conflicting version, Theseus, king of civil war, and many Russian women were
Athens, abducted and married either Antiope, decorated for valor during the two world
a sister of Hippolyte, or Hippolyte. wars.

18 Amled/Amleth
A recent incarnation of the Amazons was message to one that asked the king to have his
the title character of the television series Xena, daughter marry Amled. The hero killed the
Warrior Princess, which aired from 1995 through two guards and charmed the king, winning the
2001. hand of the princess.
Amled then returned home to take re-
Sources venge. He set fire to Fenge’s hall, killing Fenge’s
Grant, Michael. Myths of the Greeks and Romans. Cleve- men, and finally killed Fenge. Amled suc-
land, OH: World, 1962. ceeded Fenge as king of Jutland.
Jones, David E. Women Warriors: A History. Washington,
DC: Brassey’s, 1997.
The story of Amled is told in the 1994 mo-
Wilde, Lyn Webster. On the Trail of the Women Warriors: tion picture Prinsen af Jylland (Prince of Jutland),
The Amazons in Myth and History. New York: Thomas called Royal Deceit in the English version, and
Dunne, 2000. a 2002 Danish musical, Amled.
See also: Gesta Danorum; Saxo Grammaticus.

Amled/Amleth Sources
Elton, Oliver, trans. The Nine Books of the Danish History of
(Danish) Saxo Grammaticus. New York: Norroena Society,
1905.
A mled, or Amleth, was a possibly historic

but probably was a fictional fifth-century
prince of Jutland. Amled’s story is told in the
Grammaticus, Saxo. Amleth’s Revenge. Trans. Reginald
Spink. Copenhagen, Denmark: Ministry of Foreign
Affairs, 1961.
———. The History of Amleth, Prince of Denmark. Trans.
Gesta Danorum (Story of the Danes), written in Oliver Elton. Copenhagen, Denmark: Limited Edi-
the late twelfth century by Saxo Grammaticus. tions Club, 1954.
Amled’s story provided the basis for William
Shakespeare’s Hamlet.
Orvendel, son of a chieftain, was named by
King Rork to be the leader of the armies. He
Amphisbaena
married the king’s daughter, Geruth, and they
had a son, Amled. Orvendel’s brother Fenge
(Greek)
was jealous of Orvendel’s success. He murdered
Orvendel and forced Geruth to marry him,
claiming that he had saved her from a cruel hus-
T he amphisbaena is an imaginary creature
of ancient Greece—a poisonous snake-
or lizardlike being with a head at each end of
band. its body. It may well be an ancestor to the
Amled knew that his life was in danger pushmi-pullyu character in the Doctor
from his murderous uncle. He feigned insanity Doolittle books or to the cartoon character
in order to protect himself. Fenge tried to Catdog.
prove that this was merely a ruse by sending a In medieval bestiaries, which are cata-
spy to watch Amled with his mother. Amled logs of real and imaginary animals and birds,
killed the spy and raged at his mother for so the amphisbaena is described as a serpent
meekly giving in to Fenge. Geruth promised (or sometimes as a lizard or even a cross be-
to hold herself back from Fenge. tween a bird and a snake) with a head at
Geruth’s resistance led Fenge to further each end of its body and brightly shining
suspect Amled of treachery. But he could not eyes. Its name is Greek for “goes both ways,”
murder the son after having murdered the fa- and the belief in such a creature goes back at
ther, so he sent Amled to England with two least to the first century B.C.E. in Greece and
guards. The guards carried a secret message Rome.
for the king of England that asked the king to The amphisbaena is said to eat ants, which
kill Amled. Amled managed to switch the perhaps gives a hint as to its true origin.

Amulets 19
Anteaters have tails that could be mistaken

for a second head.
For the amphisbaena to travel swiftly, it
held one head in the other’s mouth and
rolled. If it was chopped in half, the two
parts joined up again. Unlike true reptiles,
the amphisbaena could survive in cold
temperatures.
The creature also was believed to have me-
dicinal properties. According to tradition,
wearing a live amphisbaena would protect a
child in the womb—although how this was de-
termined is difficult to say. Wearing a dead am-
phisbaena was supposed to cure rheumatism.
There is a real amphisbaena that was
named for the mythical one. This amphis-
baena is a type of legless lizard found in the
tropical Americas that burrows in the earth.
Unlike its imaginary cousin, it has only one
head, but its tail is said to resemble a head.
See also: Bestiary. This Persian glass amulet of a dolphin’s head has blue
eyes. Both dolphins and the color blue often were con-
sidered lucky. (Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY)
Sources
Barber, Richard, and Anne Riches. A Dictionary of Fab-
ulous Beasts. Suffolk, UK: Boydell and Brewer,
2000. folklore to provide powerful protection against
Baxter, Ron. Bestiaries and Their Users in the Middle Ages. evil, and are frequently engraved with magic
Stroud, UK: Sutton, 1998.
symbols or inscriptions.
White, T.H. The Book of Beasts: Being a Translation from
a Latin Bestiary of the Twelfth Century. Mineola, NY: Semiprecious stones are commonly used
Dover, 1984. as amulets as well, as are images of eyes. Blue
is said to be a good color to ward off evil. In
the Near East, blue glass beads, often set with
Amulets inlaid images of eyes, are sold as amulets
against the evil eye.
Amulets are often worn around the neck
A mulets are objects that are believed to
have the mystical ability to ward off
evil. Amulets are said to be a particularly ef-
or as rings, especially in the form of jewelry. In
the modern world, many people who wear
amulets or good luck charms as jewelry are
fective defense against the so-called evil eye,
unaware of their significance.
which is the deliberate casting of evil from
a look. Amulets also can be worn to bring See also: Talismans.
good luck.
Some amulets may be natural objects, Sources
such as certain nuts or berries, the rare four- Budge, E.A. Amulets and Talismans. London: Collier,
leaf clover, or a stone with a hole in it. Others 1970.
Kunz, George Frederick. The Mystical Lore of Precious
may be worked out of almost any kind of ma- Stones. San Bernardino, CA: Borgo, 1986.
terial, including ivory. Amulets are often made Paine, Sheila. Amulets: Sacred Charms of Power and Protec-
out of metals such as iron, which is said in tion. Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions, 2004.

20 Amun/Amen/Amon/Amun-Re
Amun/Amen/Amon/ Amun was the local patron of Thebes, the

paternal figure in a Theban triad of deities—
Amun-Re Amun, the vulture goddess Mut (mother), and
the youthful moon god Khonsu.
Although Amun’s true form was said to be
(Egyptian) unknowable, artists have portrayed him as a
man with a crown surmounted by two feath-
A mun was the chief god throughout most
of Egyptian history. He rose to promi-
nence around 2061 B.C.E., when rulers at
ers. He also appears as a curly-horned ram or
as a criosphinx, a ram-headed lion. His original,
Thebes reunified the country after a time of sacred animal was a goose.
political disunity. Amun was, over time, com- The Greeks and Romans saw Amun as an
pounded with other deities, particularly the aspect of Zeus and Jupiter.
sun god, Re, and the creator gods, Atum and Noreen Doyle
Tatanen. Amun became revered as a self-
created deity who maintained his secrecy. See also: Aiomum Kondi; An/Anu; Sius; Wele;
Amun became known as the ba, or life Zeus.
force, within everything in existence, includ-
ing gods. Amun was considered to be unfath- Sources
Allen, James P. Genesis in Egypt: The Philosophy of Ancient
omable by any other being, mortal or divine. Egyptian Creation Accounts. New Haven, CT: Yale
The Egyptians honored him as a supreme Egyptological Seminar, 1988.
benefactor of humankind, who bestowed the Assmann, Jan. Egyptian Solar Religion in the New Kingdom:
individual blessing of life and received praise Re, Amun and the Crisis of Polytheism. London: Kegan
Paul, 1995.
from powerful and poor alike. Amun was some-
Otto, Eberhard. Egyptian Art and the Cults of Osiris and
times simply called simply Ankh, meaning Amon. London: Thames and Hudson, 1966.
“life.”
An/Anu
(Sumerian)
T he sky god, An, was one of the principal

deities in the Sumerian pantheon. Known
as Anu in Akkadian, his name was often writ-
ten with the cuneiform numerical sign for the
number sixty. Other gods were assigned
smaller numbers to show their lower status.
In some myths, An is considered the father
of the gods, while in other cosmological
traditions he is the god in charge of the heav-
ens following the separation of heaven and
Earth.
An appears in a number of myths. Here
This wall relief, which dates to the Twentieth Dynasty are summaries of a few common tales:
(1196–1080 B.C.E.) of the New Kingdom, is on the
north wall of the main temple of Pharaoh Ramses III. It
depicts the Theban Triad, the three main deities of the • The story of Atra-hasis, in which An
city of Thebes: (left to right) the god Amun, the
goddess Mut, and the god Khonsu. (Erich Lessing/Art and a fellow deity, Enlil, grant him
Resource, NY) eternal life.

Animal Br ide or Br idegroom 21
• The myth Gilgamesh and the Bull of or not. These stories are told for group enter-
Heaven, in which An’s daughter, the tainment and are distinguished from myths.
goddess Inanna, threatens to release They are also known as “words of a sky god”
the dead from the netherworld if she is in honor of Nyankomsem, the deity who pos-
not given control over the bull, which sessed the title for all stories before Ananse
she wants to use to punish the hero-king won them.
Gilgamesh for spurning her amorous
advances. See also: Retelling: Why Ananse Owns Every
Story.
• A myth about the elevation of the god-
dess Inanna, in which she states that the Sources
Courlander, Harold, and George Herzog. The Cow-Tail
word of An, the father of the gods, is the
Switch and Other West African Stories. New York:
ultimate authority; that his commands Henry Holt, 1987.
are the very foundation of heaven and Gale, Steven H., comp. West African Folktales. Lincoln-
Earth; and that it is An who conferred wood, IL: NTC, 1995.
kingship upon earthly rulers. Spears, Richard, ed. West African Folktales. Trans. Jack
Berry. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press,
1991.
Although the Sumerian mythic tradition ac-
cords An a place of prominence, his inner
nature is never clearly defined, and his repre-
sentation in ancient art remains obscure.
Animal Bride
Ira Spar
or Bridegroom
See also: Aiomum Kondi; Amun/Amen/
Amon/Amun-Re; Sius; Wele; Zeus.
T he world folktale type of the animal bride
or bridegroom involves a human who
marries an animal that is eventually trans-
Sources formed into a human (or at least a human-
Jacobsen, Thorkild, trans. and ed. The Harps That seeming being). The most familiar of these
Once . . . : Sumerian Poetry in Translation. New Haven, stories is the classic French tale “Beauty and
CT: Yale University Press, 1987. the Beast,” written by Jeanne-Marie Le Prince
———. The Treasures of Darkness: A History of Mesopotamian
Religion. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1976.
de Beaumont.
The main difference between this tale type
and that of the animal helper (the animal who
Anansasem aids the hero) is that the former is always a hu-
man in its transformed shape while the latter
may or may not be a human in disguise.
(West African) The animal bride takes the form of a vari-
I n the storytelling traditions of the people of

Ghana, Benin, and the Ivory Coast, anansasem
are spider stories, a class of folktales named
ety of animals: frog, swan, cat, mouse, and
even wolf. In some Slavic tales, for instance,
the bride is a frog that becomes a beautiful
such after the spider trickster Ananse. princess when the hero keeps his promise to
Ananse is said to have attained the title to marry her. This is related in theme to the
all stories after winning a trial set on him by Arthurian story “Sir Gawain and Dame Rag-
the sky god, Nyankomsem. Ananse was given nell.” In that tale, the bride is hideous until the
three supposedly impossible tasks to accom- hero marries her and gives her “what every
plish, which he did, of course, by trickery. woman wants,” namely her own will.
Stories are referred to as anansasem sto- The animal bride is featured in tales from
ries, whether the spider takes part in the story around the world in a number of guises: a

22 Animal Helper and Grateful Animal
mouse in a tale from Sri Lanka; a frog in tales Perhaps the most familiar story featuring an
from Austria, Germany, Italy, and Myanmar; animal helper is “Puss in Boots,” in which a nat-
a wolf in a tale from Croatia; a dog or a cat in tily dressed feline helped his human friend rise
tales from India; a tortoise in a tale from Ara- to nobility and achieve a happy marriage. Al-
bia; a bear in a tale from the Nez Perce people though the version most often cited is the one
of the American Northwest; and a monkey in written by French courtier Charles Perrault, the
a tale from the Philippines. story has earlier counterparts in world folklore.
Related to these tales are those of the swan In Western Europe, these versions generally
maidens and Celtic selkies, or seal people. In feature a cat, but in Eastern Europe the helper
these cases, the transformation into human is more likely to be a fox, such as in the Ar-
form is not permanent; the being is able to menian tale “The Miller and the Fox.” In other
switch back and forth between forms. folktales, the helper may be a wolf, as in the
The animal bridegroom also takes a vari- Russian tale “Ivan and the Great Grey Wolf ”; a
ety of forms: a bear in tales from Scandinavia, gazelle, as in some African tales; or even a fish,
the Pueblo people of the American Southwest, as in the Chinese Cinderella tale “Yeh-hsien.”
and the Tsimshian people of the Pacific North- The most common version of the
west; a serpent in tales from China, Russia, grateful-animal folktale features a human
and the Passamaquoddy people of the north- hero who helps three animals. The three later
eastern United States; a dog in a tale from En- return the favor, usually by helping the hero
gland; a pig in a tale from Turkey; and a lizard to overcome a monster and win a bride. The
in a tale from Indonesia. grateful animals often share a language in
common with the hero—a phenomenon that
See also: Motifs; Tale Types. is often explained away as having happened
in the long ago days when people and ani-
Sources mals could still communicate with each other
Afanas’ev, Aleksandr. Russian Fairy Tales. Trans. Norbert verbally.
Guterman. New York: Pantheon, 1976. A variation on this theme is the tale of the
Sax, Boria. The Serpent and the Swan: The Animal Bride in
Folklore and Literature. Blacksburg, VA: McDonald ungrateful man. In this type of story, the man
and Woodward, 1998. does not appreciate the animals’ kindness. He
Yolen, Jane, ed. Favorite Folktales from Around the World. usually comes to a bad end and is sometimes
New York: Pantheon, 1986. even slain by the animals.
See also: Motifs; Tale Types.

Animal Helper Sources
and Grateful Animal Aarne, Antti. The Types of the Folktale: A Classification and
Bibliography. Trans. Stith Thompson. Helsinki, Fin-
land: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia, 1961.
T he motif of an animal helper is found in

folktales and myths from around the
world. There are two main variations on this
Kaplanoglou, Marianthi. “ ‘Puss in Boots’ and ‘The Fox-
Matchmaker.’ ” Folklore 110:1–2 (1999): 57.
motif: either a human hero is aided by a magi-

cal animal or the animal is the hero of the tale.
In the latter version, the animal hero generally
Antar
aids a human character. Another closely re-
lated folk character is the grateful animal. This
(Middle Eastern)
creature is not necessarily magical, though it
may be able to speak, and the hero receives
the animal’s help in return for saving its life.
A ntar was an Arab warrior-poet in the sev-
enth century who has become a cultural
hero. Many epic poems have been written

Antero Vipunen 23
about Antar and his real and fictional adven- fairy Gul Nazar. It was the queen, in the form of
tures. a gazelle, whom Antar had rescued. In grati-
Antar was said to have been the son of tude, the fairy queen promised Antar the three
Shaddad, a well-respected member of the tribe great joys of life—revenge, power, and love.
of ’Abs, and an African slave woman. Because Antar awoke among the ruins of Palmyra.
Antar was dark-skinned and his mother was The piece continues with Antar’s use of the
a slave, the rest of the tribe treated him as an joys of revenge and of power. The last move-
inferior in spite of his accomplishments. ment concentrates on the joy of love. Antar
A born survivor, Antar had to fight for food made Gul Nazar agree to take his life the mo-
and at a very early age killed a dog over a ment she noticed that his passion for her was
piece of goat meat. At age ten, he slew a wolf cooling. In the end, she does so, and Antar
that was after the tribe’s herds. But when he dies in her arms.
fell in love with his paternal cousin, the beau-
tiful Abla, her father would not allow them to See also: Epics.
marry. Antar had to face a series of challenges
Sources
before the marriage could go forward, includ- Heath, Peter. Thirsty Sword: Sirat Antar and the Arabic Pop-
ing a quest for a special breed of camel from a ular Epic. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press,
northern Arab kingdom. 1996.
Antar excelled as a warrior. Shaddad fi- Rouger, Gustave. Le Roman D’Antar: D’après les Anciens
Textes Arabes. Paris: L’Edition D’Art, 1923.
nally acknowledged him as his free son and
Tietjens, Eunice. The Romance of Antar. New York:
asked Antar for help in battling another tribe. Coward-McCann, 1929.
It is not known how many stories of An-
tar’s exploits are factual. Some of his poetry
still exists. It is full of chivalry and love for
Abla. He also included full descriptions of bat-
Antero Vipunen
tles, armor, and other subjects that make his
poetry useful for historians. (Finnish)
Antar’s prowess as both a warrior and a
poet gave rise to many tales over the cen-
turies. He was the hero of the popular Arabic
T he Finnish earth-giant and wise man,
Antero Vipunen, resided just below the
topsoil. As he slept, he absorbed nature’s
epic Sirat Antar, which was loosely translated secrets.
as the Romance of Antar and thought to be the The wizard Vainamoinen was building a
work of the writer Al Asmai (739–831 C.E.). magic boat and lacked an essential binding
In this story, Antar is presented as the ideal spell. He went to wake Antero Vipunen, who
of a Bedouin chief—generous, brave, and knew the spell and, in some versions of the
honorable. story, kept the spell in his stomach. Shouting
The nineteenth-century Russian composer failed to awaken the giant, as did shaking him.
Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov was inspired by the At last, Vainamoinen poked a branch down
story of Antar and created a symphonic suite the giant’s gullet. Antero Vipunen yawned
in four movements about his life. The first and swallowed Vainamoinen.
movement is set in the desert of Sham among Stuck in the giant’s stomach, Vainamoinen
the ruins of the ancient city of Palmyra. Antar built a magic smithy. This finally disturbed An-
had taken refuge there after becoming disillu- tero Vipunen, who coughed Vainamoinen back
sioned with his fellow man. He witnessed a out again, along with the binding spell. The an-
beautiful gazelle pursued by a huge dark bird. noyance gone, Antero Vipunen slumbered on.
Antar attacked the bird and frightened it away.
He then fell asleep and dreamed of a splendid See also: Giants; Kalevala; Vainamoinen; Wise
palace ruled by the Queen of Palmyra, the Man or Woman.

24 Antichr ist
Sources number 666 is frequently used in horror fic-

Lönnrot, Elias. The Kalevala: An Epic Poem After Oral Tra- tion and motion pictures.
dition. Trans. Keith Bosley. New York: Oxford Uni-
Pentikäinen, Juha Y. Kalevala Mythology. Trans. and ed. Sources
Ritva Poom. Bloomington: Indiana University Fuller, Robert C. Naming the Antichrist: The History of an
Press, 1999. American Obsession. New York: Oxford University
Press, 1995.
McGinn, Bernard. Antichrist: Two Thousand Years of the
Human Fascination with Evil. San Francisco: Harper-
Antichrist SanFrancisco, 1994.
(Christian)
Antigone
I n Christian belief, the Antichrist is said to
be the archenemy of Jesus Christ and the
powers of good. The New Testament warns (Greek)
that the Antichrist will appear and lay waste
to all that is around him, corrupting the
hearts of men and women, turning brother
T he story of Antigone comes from Greek
mythology, but its themes of civil war and
defiance of authority are timeless. Antigone
against brother, and heralding the cata- was one of the unfortunate children of Oedi-
clysmic end of the world. However, al- pus and Jocasta. Her story has been retold in
though the term Antichrist appears four times many forms, including modern interpretations
in the Book of John, it refers not to a specific and plays.
figure but simply to anyone who opposes When Oedipus blinded himself and went
Christ. mad after learning that he had unknowingly
By the end of the first millennium C.E., married and mated with his mother, Antigone
the Antichrist had been combined with other and her sister Ismene stayed at his side until
figures from the New Testament, such as the his death.
so-called second beast of Revelations. The
general idea of an Antichrist as someone op-
posing Christ or Christianity had evolved
Eteocles and Polyneices
into the Antichrist, a Satanic individual. It The sisters guided Oedipus from Thebes to
was generally believed in Western Christian- Athens. Their brothers, Eteocles and Polyne-
ity that the Antichrist would be known by the ices, had been cursed by their father. They
number 666 and that it would shrink from agreed to share the kingdom of Thebes by
any symbols of Christianity, including the reigning in alternate years. In the first year
crucifix. Eteocles ruled, but when the year ended he re-
In the Middle Ages, it was believed that fused to surrender the kingdom to his brother.
the Antichrist would first appear on Earth in Polyneices fled to Adrastus, king of Argos,
the Holy Land, Jerusalem. This was given as who gave him his daughter in marriage and
one reason for the First Crusade of 1095—to an army to help stake his claim to the king-
expel the Saracens and other heathens before dom. This led to the celebrated expedition of
it was too late. the so-called Seven Against Thebes, the battle
During the Renaissance, Christianity split in which seven champions fought against
into two factions, the Catholics and the Protes- Eteocles. The Seven were defeated and killed.
tants; each accused the other’s leader of being The civil war continued for years, with
the feared arch-destroyer. Today, any unpopu- limited success. Eventually, both sides agreed
lar public leader may be branded an antichrist that the brothers should decide their quarrel
without any significant religious meaning. The in single combat. They fought and fell by each

Anu 25
other’s hands. The armies then renewed the Antigone had hung herself. Haemon had cut
fight, and at last the invaders were forced to her body down and stabbed himself to death
yield. They fled, leaving the dead unburied. at her side.
The uncle of the fallen princes was Creon, Antigone’s tragic story has inspired au-
Jocasta’s brother. Creon became king and had thors through the centuries. In approximately
Eteocles buried with distinguished honor. He 441 B.C.E., the Greek playwright Sophocles
ordered that the body of Polyneices be left wrote Antigone. Another Greek playwright, Eu-
where it had fallen, forbidding anyone to give ripides, also wrote an Antigone, but only frag-
him a proper burial. ments of that work have survived. In the
twentieth century, the story inspired others, in-
cluding French playwright and filmmaker
Antigone Returns to Thebes Jean Cocteau, whose film titled Antigone
After her father’s death, Antigone’s life had premiered in 1922. French playwright Jean
vastly improved. She returned to Thebes and Anouilh premiered his Antigone in 1944, during
was engaged to Creon’s son Haemon. But fol- the German occupation of France. Anouilh’s
lowing the death of her brothers, Antigone version has a contemporary political slant. The
heard of the edict consigning Polyneices’s body story of Antigone also inspired composers
to the dogs and vultures. She could think of such as Carl Orff, whose opera Antigone pre-
nothing but giving her brother a proper burial, miered in 1949.
and so she refused to marry Haemon. While
Antigone was bound by Greek law to obey the Sources
king’s commands, she was also bound by her Butler, Judith. Antigone’s Claim: Kinship Between Life and
Death. New York: Columbia University Press, 2000.
sisterly need to see to her brother’s eternal rest. Sophocles. Antigone. Trans. and ed. David Franklin. Cam-
Ismene, Antigone’s timid but loving sis- bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
ter, did her best to convince Antigone to Steiner, George. Antigones. New Haven, CT: Yale Uni-
obey the law, but Antigone refused to listen. versity Press, 1996.
When no one would help her, she visited the
battleground alone at night.
The next day, the guards warned King Anu
Creon that someone had been interrupted try-
ing to bury Polyneices. That night, the guards (Hittite)
caught Antigone trying to dig a grave for
Polyneices and brought her to Creon. He or-
dered the guards away. Since no one else had T he Hittite deity Anu started as a cup-
bearer, became king of the heavens, and
finally was sent into exile.
seen the arrest of his niece, Creon ordered her
to go to bed and pretend to be ill. Antigone Alalu was the Hittite king in heaven, yet
replied that she would return to the battle- the god Anu was more powerful. After serving
ground again that night. as Alalu’s cupbearer for nine years, Anu rose
Niece and uncle engaged in a classic argu- up and defeated Alalu, sending him to dwell
ment of the individual against authority. At under the earth. Anu assumed the throne of
the end of it, Creon had no choice but to ar- the Hittite god and took another deity, Ku-
rest the unyielding Antigone and condemn marbi, as his cupbearer.
her to death. In her cell, awaiting death, she After nine years, the cycle repeated, and
wrote to Haemon, asking him for forgiveness Kumarbi rebelled. Anu fled in the shape of a
and wishing him happiness. bird. Kumarbi caught Anu and bit off and
Antigone was sealed in a tomb, but then swallowed his phallus, ending Anu’s power.
Creon heard his son’s cry of despair—from
within. Opening the tomb, he found that Ira Spar

26 Anubis/Anpu
See also: Alalu/Alalus. cemeteries, preserved the bodies of the dead,

and guided souls to the afterlife.
Sources Anubis is represented as a black canine
Gurney, O.R. The Hittites. Rev. ed. New York: Penguin, with tall, pointed ears and a bushy tail or as a
1990.
Hoffner, Harry A. Hittite Myths. 2nd ed. Atlanta: Schol- man with the head of such an animal. The
ars Press, 1991. color of Anubis’s fur has been interpreted as
Hooke, S.H. Middle Eastern Mythology. Mineola, NY: both the black skin of a rotting corpse and the
Dover, 2004. black mud of fertile farmland.
During the Old Kingdom (c. 2687–2191
B.C.E.), Anubis judged the fate of the deceased,
Anubis/Anpu a role eventually taken over by Osiris. In The
Book of the Dead, a source dating to c. 1600
B.C.E., Anubis attended to the scales in which
(Egyptian) the hearts of the deceased were weighed
B efore his role was usurped by Osiris, Anu-

bis was the premier Egyptian funerary
god who ruled over the dead. Known as He
against maat (truth), while Osiris pronounced
judgment. During the mummification process,
a priest known as the master of secrets proba-
Who Is Upon His Mountain and Lord of the bly wore a mask and played the part of the
Sacred Land, Anubis protected elaborate canine god.
Anubis’s background varies considerably
in different sources. According to the Greek
author Plutarch (c. 46–120 C.E.), Osiris mis-
took the goddess Nephthys for his wife, Isis,
and impregnated her. Their child was Anubis.
Isis raised Anubis, the product of this acciden-
tal affair, as her own son. Other texts name the
cat goddess, Bastet, or a cow goddess as his
mother, and later texts identify his father as
Osiris, Re, or even Seth.
A peculiar symbol of Anubis is the imiut
fetish, which, in ancient times, was identi-
fied with an earlier god, Imi-ut. This object
consists of the stuffed skin of a beheaded an-
imal tied by its tail to a pole, which rests in
a pot.
The Greeks and Romans identified Anu-
bis with the god Hermes Psychopompos and
also knew him as Hermanubis.
Noreen Doyle
See also: Death; Dogs.
Sources
Doxey, Denise M. “Anubis.” In The Oxford Encyclopedia of
Anubis, “opener of the mouth,” was an Egyptian god Ancient Egypt. Ed. D.B. Redford. Vol. 1. New York:
of the underworld. He usually is portrayed as a jackal or Oxford University Press, 2001.
as a man with a jackal’s head. This mask, with its Griffiths, J. Gwyn, ed. Plutarch’s De Iside et Osiride.
movable jaws, may represent him and may have been Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1970.
part of a religious ritual. (Réunion des Musées Na- Taylor, John H. Death and the Afterlife in Ancient Egypt.
tionaux/Art Resource, NY) London: British Museum Press, 2001.

Anzu 27
Anzu Anzu stole the tablet, determined to possess

the powers of the throne and to command the
gods of heaven, and flew with his prize to his
(Sumerian and Babylonian) inaccessible mountain lair. Frightened of what
Anzu might do with the tablet’s power, the
T he Anzu is a demonic, eagle-like creature
that lived in the realm of the gods in
Mesopotamian myth. Anzu was born in the
gods assembled, seeking a warrior to fight the
monster and recover the tablet.
Anu asked for a volunteer. When none
rocks of a mountain during a storm that
came forward, three gods were nominated to
brought forceful winds and flooding waters.
take up the challenge: Adad, Girra, and Shara.
Artists depicted Anzu as a huge bird with
All three refused to encounter Anzu, afraid
outsized, broad wings, sometimes with a lion’s
that they would be turned into clay. The gods
head. In the Sumerian Lugalbanda epic, Anzu
became despondent.
is pictured with shark’s teeth and eagle’s
Finally, Ea devised a plan. The mistress of
claws. In the Babylonian epic of Gilgamesh,
the gods, Ninhursag, was called and exalted
the horrible-looking, lion-headed monster-
before the assembly. She was asked to volun-
bird is described as possessing a maw of fire
teer her firstborn son, Ninurta, to do battle
and the breath of death.
against wicked Anzu and return the seat of au-
thority to its rightful place. Ninurta accepted
Anzu and Ninurta his mission, and, seething with fury, he set
The Sumerian poem that is called “Anzu” in out to confront the thief.
modern editions celebrated the valor of the Ninurta and Anzu met on the mountain-
heroic god Ninurta. It tells of Ninurta’s res- side, but Anzu, in possession of magical powers
cue of the tablet of destinies from the hands of conferred on him by the tablet, repelled Nin-
the wicked Anzu bird. After the introductory urta’s advance. Ninurta’s arrows were turned
description of the god Ninurta as a strong and back. His bow frame vanished, and its wood
fierce hero, the poem describes the state of the was turned back into forest trees. The bowstring
world immediately after creation: The Tigris turned into sheep sinews, and the arrows’ feath-
and Euphrates rivers existed but did not yet ers became the feathers of newly created birds.
carry water; there were no clouds; the springs
did not bear water to the land; the gods had
not yet received their assigned positions; and
Ninurta’s Victory
sanctuaries for their worship had not been When word of Anzu’s successful defense
built. reached Ea, he encouraged Ninurta not to give
When Enlil, god of the winds and divine up the fight, advising him to be relentless in his
order, first saw Anzu, he was taken aback attack. Ea told Ninurta that when he observed
by his appearance. Ea, the god of wisdom Anzu beginning to tire from the battle and
and water, explained to Enlil that Anzu was a saw his wings start to droop, Ninurta must cut
product of the flood and that his energies off the monster’s pinion feathers and throw
could be harnessed and given direction by them to the wind. Anzu’s magical powers
employing him as the doorkeeper of Enlil’s would then wane, and he would instantly call
throne room. for his feathers to return, at which time Nin-
Positioned next to Enlil’s seat of authority, urta, newly rearmed with bow and arrows, was
Anzu eyed with envy the tablet of destinies, to shoot his feathered arrows at the monster.
which was one of the objects that invested Being feathered, the arrows would be drawn to
Enlil with his powers as ruler of gods and the target by the monster’s own magic.
men. Control of the tablet gave Enlil the abil- Ninurta heeded Ea’s advice. When Anzu
ity to determine the destiny of the world. tired, Ninurta cut off his pinion feathers and

28 Aphrodite
then shot his arrow into the monster. The ar- smith god, Hephaestus, since Hephaestus
row pierced the monster’s heart and lungs. was the calmest and most dependable of
Victorious, Ninurta took hold of the tablet of the gods. Unfortunately, Hephaestus was also
destinies. Gathered in their assembly, the gods lame and usually covered with soot. Al-
received word of Ninurta’s victory. They re- though he crafted his wife beautifully worked
joiced and looked forward to the return of the jewelry, he could not keep her faithful to
tablet. But Ninurta hesitated, initially refusing him, and Aphrodite had love affairs with
to comply, as possession of the tablet gave many gods and mortals. Among these were
him the powers of kingship. the god of war, Ares, and the mortal Adonis,
After a break in the text where a section who died tragically when he was gored by a
has been lost, the story ends as Ninurta re- boar.
turned to the assembly with the tablet. The One of Aphrodite’s sons was Eros, who
gods heaped praise upon him as the valiant served as her messenger. Eros is better known
conquering hero, the greatest among the gods. in the West by his Roman name, Cupid.
Aphrodite’s Roman name is Venus, and her
Ira Spar festival, the Aphrodisiac, was celebrated in var-
ious centers of Greece and especially in Athens
Sources and Corinth.
Annus, A. The Standard Babylonian Epic of Anzu. Helskini, There are strong links between Aphrodite
Finland: State Archives of Assyria, 2001. and the older goddesses of the ancient Near
Foster, Benjamin R. Before the Muses: An Anthology of Akka-
East, Ishtar, Inanna, and Astarte, who were
dian Literature. 2nd ed. Potomac, MD: CDL Press,
1996. worshipped in what is now Iraq and Syria. All
Vogelzang, M.E., and H.L.J. Vanstiphout, eds. Mesopo- three of these were goddesses of both love and
tamian Poetic Language: Sumerian and Akkadian. war, and Aphrodite is the lover of the god of
Groningen, The Netherlands: Styx, 1996. war. The love story of Aphrodite and Adonis is
very close to the older Babylonian love story of
Ishtar and Tammuz and to the even earlier
Aphrodite Sumerian tale of Inanna and Dumuzi, includ-
ing the hero’s death from wounds inflicted
by a boar.
(Greek)
See also: Inanna/Ishtar.
I n Greek mythology, Aphrodite is the god-
dess of love, beauty, and lust.
There are differing accounts of how the Sources
Grigson, Geoffrey. The Goddess of Love. New York: Stein
goddess Aphrodite came to be. The Greek and Day, 1977.
poet Hesiod wrote that Aphrodite was born Mascetti, Manuela D. Aphrodite: Goddess of Love. San
out of violence. In the primal days, soon after Francisco: Chronicle, 1996.
creation, Uranus, the father of the early gods,
was castrated by Cronos, his son. The genitals
fell into the ocean, and from that unlikely mat-
ing Aphrodite was born, rising up out of the
Apollo
aphros, or sea foam. The poet Homer was the
first to call her the daughter of Zeus, the chief
(Greek)
of the Greek gods, and the mortal woman
Dione.
When Zeus realized the beauty of his
I n Greek mythology, Apollo was the god
of music, poetry, the arts, prophecy, and
archery. A god of light, he was also known as
daughter, he was afraid that the gods would Phoebus, which means “radiant” or “beam-
fight over her. He married Aphrodite to the ing,” and was sometimes identified with He-

Apollo 29
In this painting, “Apollo and the Muses,” by Italian artist Baldassare Peruzzi (1481–1536), the god Apollo is shown
in his role as the god of music, dancing with the muses. (Scala/Art Resource, NY)
lios, the sun god. As the god of religious heal- He bestowed divine powers on one of the
ing, Apollo bestowed ritual purification on the priestesses of the sanctuary, and she became
guilty. known as the Pythia. The Pythia inhaled the
Like many of the Greek gods, including hallucinating vapors issuing from a fissure in
his sister, Artemis, Apollo had a dark side. He the temple floor and then recited her proph-
was the god of plague and in that aspect was esies. A priest translated her murmurings
worshipped as Smintheus, a name that comes and ravings for those who came in search of
from the Greek word sminthos (rat). According help.
to the Iliad, Apollo shot arrows of plague into
the Greek camp during the Trojan War. Apollo’s Trysts
Apollo, just like his father, Zeus, had many
Apollo’s Origins love affairs with both goddesses and mortals.
Apollo was the son of Zeus and the Titan One of his early loves was the nymph Cyrene,
woman Leto. Zeus’s wife, Hera, found out who bore Apollo a son. This son, Aristaeus,
about her husband’s infidelity and was furious. became a demigod protector of cattle who
So jealous was Hera that she hounded the taught humankind the skill of dairy farming.
pregnant Leto from place to place across the Another union, this time with a mortal
earth, finally banning her from staying any- woman, Coronis, daughter of King Phlegyas of
where on solid ground. The only site where the Lapiths, had a more violent outcome.
Leto could stop was Delos, which was a float- While pregnant by Apollo, Coronis made the
ing island and therefore not under Hera’s ban. mistake of falling in love with a mortal man.
It was on Delos that Leto gave birth to Apollo When Apollo learned of this, his dark anger
and his twin sister, the goddess Artemis. was roused. He asked his sister, the huntress
When he was grown, Apollo went to Del- Artemis, to kill Coronis. Artemis, just as darkly
phi, where he slew the monstrous serpent angry as her brother, did her brother’s bid-
Python with his arrows. Python had guarded ding. Apollo rescued the child from its
the sanctuary of Pytho, where a psychic re- mother’s dead body and brought the boy,
cited prophesies. Apollo, now in charge of called Asclepius, to the good Centaur Cheiron.
the oracle, gained the name Pythian Apollo. Asclepius became the god of healing.

30 Apple Trees
Not all of those whom Apollo pursued Cassandra, Troilus’s half sister, and daughter
wished to be caught. Apollo became infatu- of Hecuba and Priam. Cassandra made a bar-
ated with the nymph Daphne and harried her gain with the god. He could have her as a lover
until she finally could bear it no longer. She if he taught her the art of prophecy. Apollo
asked Peneus, a river god, for help, and he agreed. Once she had learned prophecy,
turned Daphne into a laurel tree. Apollo, dis- however, Cassandra refused him. The angry
traught by what had happened, made the lau- Apollo could not withdraw his gift but added
rel his sacred tree. to it the curse that none of her prophecies
Apollo also fell in love with Hyacinthus, a would ever be believed. This spelled Troy’s
handsome Spartan prince. Zephyrus, the west doom, since when Cassandra warned of the
wind, was jealous, and when Apollo and Hy- danger from the Trojan horse, no one believed
acinthus were throwing the discus, Zephyrus her.
blew it off course, smashing Hyacinthus’s
skull. Apollo, grieving, created a flower in his Sources
love’s honor: the hyacinth. Evslin, Bernard. The Greek Gods. New York: Scholastic,
1989.
Yet another love of Apollo’s was the boy Rose, H.J. Gods and Heroes of the Greeks. New York:
Cyparissus. As a love gift, Apollo gave him a Meridian, 1958.
deer, which the boy adored. When the deer Rouse, W.H.D. Gods, Heroes and Men of Ancient Greece.
was accidentally slain, Cyparissus wanted to New York: New American Library, 2001.
weep forever. Apollo transformed Cyparissus
into a tree, the cypress, which became the
symbol of sorrow, as the sap on its trunk forms Apple Trees
tear-shaped droplets.
Apollo’s dark side made him utterly with-
out pity when he was angry. The mortal
Niobe made the fatal mistake of boasting to
A pple trees are among the world’s most
valuable fruit trees. Many types are
found around the globe, all with beautiful
Leto, Apollo’s mother, that she had borne blossoms and bountiful fruit. Apples are even
fourteen children, which made her superior believed to have medicinal properties, which
to Leto, who had only two. This insult to their led to the old folk adage “An apple a day
mother was too much for Apollo and Artemis keeps the doctor away.” It is therefore not sur-
to ignore. They worked as a merciless hunt- prising to find a large body of myth and folk-
ing team—Apollo killed Niobe’s sons and lore surrounding this important tree.
Artemis killed her daughters. Niobe wept so
much in her grief that she turned to stone. Apple Trees in the Bible
and Mythology
Apollo and Troy In biblical lore, an apple was the forbidden fruit
Apollo also has a part in the story of Troy, the in the Garden of Eden; however, not every
city that was doomed to fall to the Greeks. He scholar agrees with that. Obviously, there is no
had a love affair with Queen Hecuba, wife of way to prove whether or not it was an apple.
King Priam of Troy, and she bore Apollo a In Greek mythology, the earth goddess,
boy, Troilus. It was foretold that Troy could Gaea, gave Hera, wife of the chief god, Zeus, a
not be defeated if Troilus was allowed to reach tree of golden apples as a wedding gift. The
the age of twenty. Unfortunately for Troy, the apples were said to bring both health and
Greek hero Achilles lay in wait for the boy beauty. The tree was guarded by a dragon and
and killed Troilus before he reached that age. three virgin sisters, the Hesperides, but Her-
Apollo was not yet finished interfering cules stole the apples as the eleventh of his
with the affairs of Troy. He fell in love with twelve labors.

Apple Trees 31
ishes pain. There is also a tale of a fairy woman

providing the mortal Connla with an apple on
which he was able to live for a month.
Apples also feature in Arthurian lore.
Avalon, the magical island to which the mor-
tally wounded Arthur was taken, is the island
of apples. In fact, some scholars think that the
name Avalon comes from the Welsh word for
apple, afal.
There were many English medieval folk
traditions surrounding apples and apple trees,
some of which remain. Villagers who wanted
to be sure of a good apple harvest would tie
cider-soaked pieces of toast on the branches of
Many people have created myths and stories about the largest tree in the orchard. By doing this,
apple trees, from beliefs in apple tree spirits to tales of
the American folk character Johnny Appleseed. (Ernest
they hoped to attract robins, which were the
Quost/The Bridgeman Art Library/Getty Images) good spirits of the tree. The villagers would
then drive away evil spirits with blasts from
their shotguns, since such spirits were said to
In another Greek myth, Prince Paris of
be afraid of noise. The ceremony ended with a
Troy judged a beauty contest between Athena,
ritual pouring of cider over the roots of the
goddess of knowledge, and Aphrodite, god-
tree. This custom is still sometimes performed.
dess of love. The prize was a golden apple.
The old custom of celebrating, or wassail-
In a third Greek myth, the swift young
ing, orchard trees on Christmas Eve still exists
woman warrior Atalanta would marry only the
in a few corners of England. A farmer and his
man who could beat her in a race. Hip-
family go out to the orchard at night with hot
pomenes, who wanted her, distracted Atalanta
cakes and cider. The cakes are placed in the
from the race by tossing three golden apples
boughs of the best apple trees. A toast is made
onto the track.
to the trees in which they are wished good
In Roman mythology, the goddess Pomona
health, and the cider is flung over them. Trees
was known as the Apple Mother. It was she who
that are bad bearers are not honored.
watched over the apples that gave immortality.
The living embodiment of the apple tree
Apples were usually served at the end of Roman
in Somerset, England, was the Apple Tree
banquets as Pomona’s blessing was recited.
Man, who was said to be the spirit of the old-
In Norse mythology, the goddess Iduna
est tree in the orchard. If honored, he would
guarded the apples that kept the gods young.
return the favor by keeping the orchard fertile.
When she was kidnapped by a giant, the gods
began to age until the trickster god Loki—who See also: Ash Trees; Elf Shot/Elf Arrow; Johnny
had gotten the gods into the fix in the first Appleseed.
place—was able to win her back again.
Sources
British Traditions Bulfinch, Thomas. Bulfinch’s Mythology. New York:
Avenel, 1978.
Apples also feature prominently in Celtic lore. Davidson, H.R. Ellis. Myths and Symbols in Pagan Europe:
The fairy folk, the Sidhe, are often portrayed Early Scandinavian and Celtic Religions. Syracuse, NY:
in folktales carrying apple branches that are Syracuse University Press, 1988.
Squire, Charles. Celtic Myth and Legend, Poetry and Ro-
sometimes poetically described as silver with mance. New York: Bell, 1901.
white blossoms or golden apples. When Yeats, W.B., ed. Irish Fairy and Folk Tales. New York:
shaken, they make a sweet melody that ban- Barnes and Noble, 1994.

32 Arabic Stor ytelling
Arabic Storytelling Transmitter. He had committed many poems

to memory that were later collected in an an-
thology called the Mu’allaqat or Collected Odes.
A rabic storytelling throughout the Middle

East and North Africa has a rich, ancient
history. The Arab storytelling tradition is con-
Poets of Hammad’s era were looked upon
as wise men or magicians, and they were ex-
pected to be able to utter spells or incantations
sidered to be an ancestor of Western frame against their foes. Many of the surviving po-
stories, such as Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury ems follow the rules of nomadic society. A typ-
Tales. ical poem begins with a reference to forsaken
Throughout the countries that make up camping grounds. The poet laments and asks
the Arab world, professional storytellers, his comrades to halt, while he calls up the
called rawiya or rawi, spend their lives travel- memory of those who departed in search of
ing and entertaining audiences in towns, in other encampments and freshwater springs.
coffeehouses, at family gatherings, and in no- Then he usually touches on romance, bewail-
mad tents with folktales, poems, and legends. ing the tortures through which his passion puts
Other storytellers, called hakawati, are more him. The poet then generally recounts his diffi-
like wandering bards, in that their stories are cult journeys through the desert and dwells on
sung rather than told. the lean condition of his steed, which he lauds
The folktales shared by both types of and describes. The poem concludes with praise
tellers are familiar in Western cultures as well, for the prince or other major figure in whose
especially by those who have read the collec- presence the poem is recited.
tion of stories known as The Thousand and One The exotic richness of this literature
Nights. Subject matter covered in traditional makes it a fascinating source of inspiration for
Arab tales includes stories of the supernatural storytellers.
beings known as the djinn, magic lamps, flying
carpets, and wishes fulfilled. World tale types See also: Djinn/Djinni/Jinn/Genie.
also are represented, such as trickster tales,
prince and princess stories, and “master thief” Sources
Bushnaq, Inea, ed. Arab Folktales. New York: Pantheon,
stories that tell of a fellow who can steal the 1986.
eggs out from under a bird or the gold out of a Connelly, Bridget. Arab Folk Epic and Identity. Berkeley:
rich man’s purse. University of California Press, 1986.
Another important Arabic epic that may Jayyusi, Lena, trans. The Adventures of Sayf Ben Dhi Yazan:
An Arabic Folk Epic. Bloomington: Indiana Univer-
be told either in parts or in a single telling is a
sity Press, 1996.
romance of chivalry entitled Sirat Antar (The Lyons, M.C. The Arabian Epic: Heroic and Oral Story-telling.
Romance of Antar). This work, ascribed to the New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
writer Al Asmai (739–831 C.E.), includes ele-
ments of pure fantasy as well as chief events in
Arab history before Islam. It is often referred
to as the Arab Iliad.
Arachne
One of the oldest forms of Arabic tradi-
tional story is the epic poem, but unfortu-
(Greek)
nately none of the oldest story poems remain.
There are no written records of Arabic tales
prior to the sixth century, when the Syrian al-
I n Greek mythology, Arachne was a young
woman, possibly a princess, who was a mag-
nificent weaver. Her boasting brought about
phabet came into use, but many stories have her downfall.
survived through oral tradition. In the eighth Arachne was so great a weaver that the
century, many of these oral poems were col- nymphs came to watch. Arachne overheard
lected by a man known as Hammad the them saying that only the goddess Athena,

Archetype 33
patron of weavers, could have trained her. At Pwyll and changed Pwyll into Arawn’s like-
this, Arachne lost her temper and boasted that ness. They traded kingdoms for a year so that
even Athena could not produce such fine Pwyll could defeat Arawn’s enemy, Hafgan.
weaving. No explanation is given as to why a mortal
Athena heard this and was angered by man was the only one able to defeat Hafgan.
Arachne’s boast. Disguised as an old woman, Pwyll defeated Hafgan, slaying him with a
she went to Arachne and warned her to watch single blow. And although Arawn’s wife was
her words. But Arachne announced that she beautiful, Pwyll courteously remained chaste
welcomed a chance at a contest of weaving while in Arawn’s form. Arawn, too, refused to
skills against Athena. take advantage of Pwyll’s wife. Returned to
With that, Athena dropped her disguise and their rightful forms and kingdoms, the two
accepted the challenge. Two looms were set up, formed a bond of friendship so strong that
and goddess and mortal woman began their Pwyll became known as Pwyll Pen Annwfn,
work. Athena wove a beautiful scene of the vic- or Pwyll, head of Annwfn.
tory of herself over Poseidon for the city that Arawn also appears in the fourth branch
now bore her name, Athens. Arachne wove an of the Mabinogion as the giver of Annwfn
equally beautiful scene of the many infidelities pigs to Pryderi, son of Pwyll. Arawn also
of Zeus, leader of the gods and Athena’s father. possessed a magic cauldron, decorated with
Furious at Arachne for her daring and presump- pearls, heated by the breath of nine maidens,
tion, Athena ripped the weaving from the loom and unable to cook the food of a coward. This
and willed that Arachne should be overcome cauldron is described in “Preiddiau Annwfn”
with guilt. Arachne, devastated, hung herself. (“The Spoils of Annwfn”), a short Welsh
Athena felt a twinge of guilt and brought poem of uncertain date, as one of the trea-
Arachne back as the finest of weavers—a spider. sures of Britain that King Arthur attempted to
The class of animals that includes spiders— steal.
arachnids—was named after the unfortunate “Cad Goddeu” (“The Battle of the Trees”),
Arachne. an obscure early poem contained in the
thirteenth-century Book of Taliesin, refers to a war
See also: Athena/Athene. between Arawn and Amaethon, a plowman.
This war began when Amaethon stole a white
Sources roebuck, a whelp, and a lapwing from Arawn.
Apollodorus. Library of Greek Mythology. Trans. Robin Arawn’s realm has sometimes been seen as
Grant, Michael. Myths of the Greeks and Romans. Cleve- an underworld, not an otherworld, but there
land, OH: World, 1962. is no evidence linking him to any demonic
Shearer, Ann. Athene. New York: Viking Penguin, 1997. iconography.
Lisa Spangenberg
Arawn Sources
Ganz, Jeffrey, trans. Mabinogion. New York: Penguin, 1977.
Jones, Gwyn, trans. Mabinogion. Rutland, VT: Charles E.
(Welsh) Tuttle, 1991.
A rawn is the king of Annwfn, the pre-

Christian Welsh otherworld.
In the first branch, or book, of the Mabino- Archetype
gion, a medieval collection of Welsh myths and
folklore, Arawn encountered the mortal King
Pwyll of Gwenydd as they were both hunting.
Arawn transformed himself into a likeness of
A n archetype is an image or a figure that
is hardwired into every human psyche
regardless of culture or race. Examples of

34 Argonautica
archetypes include basic character types such Courage (1895), who is an archetype of a soldier.
as the Wise Old Man or the Trickster. Philosophers may use the term archetype to cate-
Swiss psychologist Carl G. Jung (1875– gorize abstract concepts such as evil or strength.
1961) introduced the idea that archetypes are
instinctive thought patterns, or innate proto- Ruth Stotter
types of ideas. In Jungian psychology, arche-
typal imagery is used as a therapeutic tool. In See also: Jung, Carl Gustav.
the context of storytelling and mythology, ar-
chetypes are unavoidable, universal elements Sources
of each story or myth. Barthes, Roland. Mythologies. Trans. Annette Levers. New
York: Hill and Wang, 1972.
Archetypes are easily confused with sym-
Jung, Carl. “The Archetypes and the Collective Uncon-
bols. When archetypes are reduced to sym- scious.” In Collected Works of C.G. Jung. 2nd ed.
bols, they become stereotypes. Symbols have Trans. R.F.C. Hull. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Uni-
a concrete message in that they stand for versity Press, 1981.
something specific. The American flag, for ex-
ample, is a symbol representing the United
States of America; gold, given as a reward in
fairy tales, symbolizes inner wealth.
Argonautica
Stereotypes are locked into a single view of
an image or concept, acting as a stricture that
(Greek)
limits interpretation. Tombstones and witches
are stereotypical Halloween images; however,
when images, associations, and emotions that
T he epic Argonautica tells of the adventures
of the Greek hero Jason and his compan-
ions, the Argonauts. Both the epic and the
are normally associated with tombstones or Argonauts were named for Jason’s ship, the
witches are included in these concepts, they Argo. There are actually two versions of the epic
can become archetypal terms. The witch arche- poem. The first was written by the Greek poet
type might include good witches, evil witches, Apollonius of Rhodes in the third century
healers, the three witches in Shakespeare’s Mac- B.C.E. In the first century C.E., the Roman
beth, witches from The Wizard of Oz, innocent poet Gaius Valerius Flaccus penned another
women burned as witches, and even a mother version.
or another woman with witchlike qualities. Apollonius was born in 230 B.C.E. Little is
The hero archetype involves certain known about his life except that he was head
behavior—exploration, facing challenges, and of an academy or library as well as a poet.
independent achievement—as well as images— Flaccus lived during the reign of Titus Caesar.
Samson, Hercules, Abraham Lincoln. Arche- Apollonius’s version of the Argonautica is bet-
typal heroes in fairy tales are an amalgamation ter known, but Flaccus’s work, which he
of valiant behavior and distinctive character never completed, has unique elements.
traits. Heroes, for example, are persistent, trust The Argonautica is the only one of Apollo-
their instincts, and do not expect assistance in nius’s works to have survived. Apollonius
return for their efforts from the animals and used myths and Homer’s Odyssey as his source
people they help on their journey. Conse- material. Apollonius ended the epic before
quently, heroes succeed. Jason and Medea meet their tragic end.
In literature studies, archetype is often used as In Flaccus’s version of the story, the gods
a synonym for model or prototype. It derives from are portrayed viewing the events as a game,
the Greek archee, which means original. An ex- with each god encouraging his or her favorite
ample of an archetype in this context is the hero and working to stop the others. It is Venus, for
in Stephen Crane’s novel The Red Badge of instance, disguised as Circe, who persuades

Argonautica 35
Medea to betray her father and fall in love Medea, meanwhile, was sure that her fa-
with Jason. The epic breaks off as Jason and ther knew she had betrayed him. She rushed to
Medea leave Colchis aboard the Argo, pursued Jason, telling him that she would help him get
by the Colchians. the Golden Fleece if he saved her. Jason
calmed her fears and vowed to marry her. The
The Quest Begins couple went to the sacred grove, where a
dragon guarded the Golden Fleece. Medea put
The Argonautica begins with King Pelias, who
the dragon to sleep, and Jason took the fleece.
was warned that Jason would one day take his
They fled to the Argo and immediately set sail.
throne. Pelias sent Jason out on what he be-
King Aietes did know about his daughter’s
lieved to be an impossible voyage: a quest for
betrayal. The Colchians, led by Medea’s
the mystical Golden Fleece. Jason and fifty he-
brother, Apsyrtos, set sail in pursuit of the
roes, including Hercules and the magical bard
Argo. Jason and Medea plotted to kill Apsyr-
Orpheus, set out in the Argos.
tos. They lured him with gifts and slew him.
After many perilous and exotic adven-
The Colchians retreated.
tures, they reached the Bosporos. There they
Jason and Medea, guilty of murder, went to
found Phineus, once king of Thrace, tor-
the sorceress Circe to undergo rites to cleanse
mented by harpies. Jason’s men drove off the
them of Apsyrtos’s blood. Circe refused to help
harpies. The grateful Phineus told Jason how
them.
to reach the land of King Aietes of Colchis,
where he would find the Golden Fleece.
Aietes, who had no intention of giving up The Journey Continues
the fleece, made Jason pass a test of courage.
The Argo sailed on. When they came upon the
Jason was to harness the bronze-hoofed bulls
Sirens, Orpheus’s music silenced the treacher-
on the Plain of Ares and plow the field with
ous nymphs. The nymph Thetis and the
them. Aietes instructed Jason to then sow the
Nereids brought the ship safely past the twin
teeth of a dragon (or giant serpent), from
perils of Scylla and Charybdis.
which a crop of warriors would spring up. Ja-
Jason and Medea arrived at what is now
son accepted Aietes’s challenge.
the island of Corfu, where they were con-
fronted by the Colchians. The Colchians in-
Medea sisted that unless Medea was Jason’s wife, she
Meanwhile, the gods had smitten Aietes’s must return with them to her homeland. Jason
daughter, the sorceress Medea, with love for Ja- and Medea were married that night, and the
son. She met him at the shrine of the goddess Colchians let them go.
Hekate and gave him a magical drug to help When the Argo reached Crete, Jason and
him in his ordeal. Jason fell in love with Medea Medea were attacked by the guardian of
and offered to marry her and carry her back to Crete, Talos. This gigantic man of bronze, cre-
Greece. ated by the smith god, Hephaestus, tirelessly
At dawn, Jason made a sacrifice to Hekate circled the island, throwing stones at any ap-
and then bathed himself and his weapons with proaching ships. But Medea knew how to de-
the magical drug. He proceeded to harness the stroy him. Talos had a single vein, from his
fierce bulls, plow the field, and sow the dragon’s neck to his ankle, which was closed by a single
teeth. But the warriors that grew from the teeth bronze nail. Medea enchanted Talos and re-
immediately began fighting with one another, moved the bronze nail, causing his blood to
so Jason killed them. Even though Jason suc- run out and killing him.
ceeded in his test, King Aietes plotted to keep After this last adventure, the Argo returned
the fleece. to Greece, at which point the epic ends.

36 Ar ianrhod
See also: Epics. magical incubator into a fine boy. Arianrhod

refused to name this second son or to provide
Sources him with weapons, but Gwydion tricked her
Apollonius, Rhodius. The Argonautica. Trans. R.C. into arming the boy and giving him the name
Seaton. New York: Putnam, 1921.
———. Jason and the Golden Fleece: The Argonautica. Trans.
Lleu Llaw Gyffes (Lleu of the Sure Hand).
Richard Hunter. New York: Oxford University According to folklore, a reef off the coast of
Press, 1993. Gwynnedd is called Caer Arianrhod (Arian-
Flaccus, Gaius Valerius. Voyage of the Argo (The Argonau- rhod Castle). The lore claims that it is all that re-
tica). Trans. J.H. Mozley. Cambridge, UK: Loeb
mains of the castle where Arianrhod was tricked
Classical Library, 1934.
———. The Voyage of the Argo: The Argonautica of Gaius Va- into giving Lleu Llaw Gyffes the weapons. Caer
leriuis Flaccus. Trans. David R. Slavitt. Baltimore: Arianrhod is also an alternate name for the con-
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999. stellation Corona Borealis. Mythologists con-
sider this to be evidence that Arianrhod may
have been a deity, as many constellations were
Arianrhod named after deities.
Lisa Spangenberg
(Welsh) Sources
Ganz, Jeffrey, trans. Mabinogion. New York: Penguin,
I n pre-Christian mythology, Arianrhod was

the niece of Math of Mathonwy, ruler of the
kingdom of Gwynnedd. Her brother was
1977.
Jones, Gwyn, trans. Mabinogion. Rutland, VT: Charles E.
Tuttle, 1991.
Gwydion, the heroic magician. Some mythol-
ogists theorize that Arianrhod was originally a
deity, rather than a mythologized historical
figure.
Armageddon
Arianrhod’s story appears in “Math, Son
of Mathonwy,” the fourth branch of the
(Judeo-Christian)
Mabinogion, a medieval Welsh collection of
mythology and folklore. Arianrhod was cho-
sen as one of Math’s footholders, a virgin who
I n biblical lore, Armageddon is said to be the
name of the final battle on Earth between
the forces of good and evil. In the New Testa-
kept the magical king’s feet from touching the ment, it is also the battlefield described in
ground. But Arianrhod failed the virginity test Revelation 16:16 as the scene where the kings
when she stepped over Math’s magic wand, or of the earth, the forces of good and evil, were
rod, and instantly bore a son. As soon as the to assemble for battle on the day of divine
baby boy uttered its first cry, Arianrhod fled, judgment.
embarrassed or horrified. As she ran away, However, the only mention in the Bible
something small fell from her. Gwydion took of Armageddon is ambiguous: “And he gath-
up the small object, wrapped it in silk, and hid ered them together into a place called in the
it in a small chest. Hebrew tongue Armageddon.” It does not
Math, meanwhile, had the infant boy bap- say clearly whether or not any event actually
tized at the sea’s edge, giving him the name is to take place there or whether the gathering
Dylan, which means Son of the Waves. As of armies is to be seen only as a warning sign.
soon as the boy was touched by the sea, he The assumption that there will be a final bat-
leaped into the water and swam off, clearly a tle at that sight may belong more to biblical
child of the sea people. lore than to fact. Like the Norse Ragnarok,
The object that Gwydion had placed in Armageddon ended with the destruction of
the chest was a second fetus that grew in this the world and the creation of a finer paradise.

Asbjørnsen, Peter Chr isten 37
Megiddo was a mighty, fortified Canaanite city in the first millennium B.C.E. In the New Testament Book of Revela-
tions, Megiddo is said to be the site of the final battle of Armageddon. (Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY)
The name Armageddon probably derives See also: Death.

from Mount Megiddo (Har-Megiddo in He-
brew), located in present-day Israel. The Sources
ancient city-state of Megiddo occupied a The New Oxford Annotated Bible. Oxford, UK: Oxford
strategic site on the trade route connecting University Press, 1989.
Egypt with Mesopotamia. Many battles were
fought on the plain of Megiddo between the
Israelites and their enemies, and the location
is mentioned in the Old Testament, in Judges
Asbjørnsen, Peter Christen
5:19.
Megiddo was also the site of a ferocious
(1812–1885)
battle between Egyptian Pharaoh Ramses II
and the Hittites in 1469 B.C.E. Although Ram-
ses claimed victory, the battle ended without a
P eter Christen Asbjørnsen was a folklorist
and naturalist known for his collections of
regional folklore.
clear-cut winner and resulted in the signing of Asbjørnsen was born on January 15,
what was probably the world’s first peace 1812, in Christiana, Norway, which is now
treaty. Oslo. One of his closest friends was the poet
Today, the word Armageddon is often used Jørgen Moe, who was born on April 22, 1813.
to mean any sort of grand catastrophe, man- Moe and Asbjørnsen first met as teenagers in
made or natural. school.

38 Asgard
It was with Moe that Asbjørnsen began to gods who were the dominant deities. The chief
collect the folktales of Norway. They traveled god was Odin.
around Norway and spoke to old storytellers. Asgard was surrounded by a high stone
Their first collection of tales, Nor, was pub- wall that had been built by a stonemason
lished in 1837. The two men published their called Blast. The vast plain of Idavoll was lo-
major collection as a four-volume work titled cated at the center of Asgard. This was the site
Norske folkeeventyr (Norwegian Folk Stories) be- of the inner hall of Gladsheim (Place of Joy),
tween 1841 and 1844. The work was trans- where the Aesir gods met in council.
lated into other languages and was quickly The hall of the goddesses, called Vingolf,
praised in Norway and throughout Europe for was also within the walls of Asgard. Odin’s
its contribution to the world’s folklore and castle was the mighty Valhalla. This great hall
literature. was where slain mortal heroes were brought
Moe went on to become one of the finest to continue training and to wait for the coming
Norwegian romantic poets, publishing Digte, a of Ragnarok, the final battle, when they would
major collection of his work, in 1850. He also fight on Odin’s side against the foe.
published a children’s book in 1851 that be- Bifrost was a rainbow bridge that linked
came a classic in Norway, I broden og i tjaernet Midgard, the realm of humans, with the gate
(In the Well and the Pond). of Asgard. It was made with magic and great
While Moe worked on his poetry, As- skill by the Aesir and would stand until Rag-
bjørnsen continued his interest in Norway’s narok, when it was foretold that this rainbow
folklore. In 1845, he published the first in a bridge would collapse.
series of Norwegian Fairy Stories and Folk Leg- At the entrance of Bifrost stood the god
ends. In addition to his work as a folklorist, Heimdall, the guardian of Asgard. Heimdall’s
Asbjørnsen was also a forester and wrote nu- hearing was so keen that he was able to hear
merous scholarly papers on the natural grass growing on the mortal earth or wool
sciences. growing on the back of a mortal sheep. Heim-
Moe died in Norway on March 27, 1882. dall also could see for a hundred miles.
Asbjørnsen passed away on January 5, 1885. The realms of Vanaheim and Alfheim also
were found at this highest level of existence.
Sources Vanaheim was home to the Vanir, the second-
Asbjørnsen, Peter Christen, and Jorgen Moe. East of the ary race of gods, many of whom intermarried
Sun and West of the Moon. Trans. Sir George Dasent. with the Aesir. Alfheim was the domain of the
Mineola, NY: Dover, 1970. lios alfar, the elf folk of light. The god Frey,
———. Norwegian Folk Tales: From the Collection of Peter
Christen Asbjørnsen, Jorgen Moe. Trans. Pat Saw and
said to be the father of the lios alfar, lived at
Carl Norman. New York: Pantheon, 1982. Alfheim. Originally one of the Vanir, Frey was
Hult, Marte H. Framing a National Narrative: The Legend adopted into the Aesir pantheon and had his
Collections of Peter Christen Asbjørnsen. Detroit, MI: palace in Alfheim.
Wayne State University Press, 2003.
See also: Heimdall/Heimdallr; Norse Mythol-

ogy; Valhalla.
Asgard
Sources
Davidson, H.R. Ellis. Gods and Myths of Northern Europe.
(Norse) New York: Penguin, 1965.
I n Norse mythology, Asgard was one of the Hollander, Lee M., trans. The Poetic Edda: Translated with
an Introduction and Explanatory Notes. Austin: Univer-
nine realms of existence. It was the highest sity of Texas Press, 1962.
realm in the Norse mythic universe and the Lindow, John. Handbook of Norse Mythology. Santa Bar-
homeland of the Aesir, the race of warrior bara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2001.

Athena/Athene 39
Ash Trees mythology, the spears of the gods Odin and

Thor were said to have been made of ash
wood. In the early twentieth century, the
(Western European) wood of the ash tree was used in aircraft
wings.
T he ash tree, particularly the type that is
common to Western Europe, is found
throughout world mythology, specifically in
Both the Norse and the Celts shared a be-
lief that the ash tree was protective. The
mightiest of these in Norse mythology was
Norse and Celtic myths and folk beliefs.
Yggdrasil, the World Tree, a giant ash with
The word ash is believed to derive from a
roots in the lower realm, a trunk in the mortal
poetic Anglo-Saxon word, asec, which means
realm, and leaves in the realm of the gods.
spear, or from the Norse name for tree, ask.
The Irish Celts believed that three of the five
Alternately, it may derive from the Middle
legendary guardian trees of Ireland were ash.
English asshe, from Old English æasc.
The ash tree was one type of tree found grow-
Since ash is a hard, strong, but flexible
ing beside Irish holy wells, and it also was be-
wood, it was often used by the Norse, the
lieved to keep springs pure. The ash was also
Celts, and the Anglo-Saxons to make weapons,
known in both Norse and Celtic beliefs as a
such as spears and axe handles. In Norse
tree of healing and of rebirth.
In current folk beliefs of Europe and
North America, the leaves of the ash tree are
said to ward off evil witchcraft and to bring
good luck. Ash sap is said to protect newborn
babies and make them strong. Until fairly re-
cently, newborns in Britain were often given
a teaspoon of ash sap to drink. It was also
British tradition to pass a sickly child through
a cleft made in an ash tree in order to heal the
child. The cleft was then bound up again, and
as the tree healed, so would the child.
See also: Apple Trees; Elm Trees.
Sources
Lindow, John. Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, He-
roes, Rituals and Beliefs. New York: Oxford Univer-
sity Press, 2002.
Mac Coitir, Niall. Irish Trees: Myths, Legends and Folklore.
Cork, Ireland: Collins, 2003.
Martin, Laura C. The Folklore of Trees and Shrubs. Chester,
CT: Globe Pequot, 1992.
Porteous, Alexander. The Forest in Folklore and Mythology.
Mineola, NY: Dover, 2002.
Athena/Athene
The ash tree—like many trees—is the center of sev-
eral folk beliefs. This pencil-and-watercolor picture of (Greek)
an ash tree is by English artist John Constable
(1776–1837). (Victoria & Albert Museum, London/Art
Resource, NY) I n Greek mythology, Athena, called Min-
erva by the Romans, was the goddess of

40 Atlas
skull, and from it emerged the full-grown

Athena, wearing her newly fashioned robe and
helmet.
Athena assisted certain Greek heroes, in-
cluding Perseus and Odysseus, and the half-
divine Hercules. But Athena could be vengeful
if crossed. As the goddess of arts and crafts,
Athena was skilled at weaving, embroidery,
and spinning. When a mortal woman named
Arachne boastfully challenged Athena at weav-
ing, following their contest, Athena turned
Arachne into a spider.
Athena and the god Poseidon, king of the
seas and brother of Zeus, both wanted to
claim a certain Greek city. They agreed that
whichever gave the city the finest gift would
be the one to claim it. Poseidon struck the side
of the cliff with his trident and a spring welled
up. Athena’s gift was an olive tree. The people
chose hers as the better gift, since it provided
food, oil, and wood. Athena named her city
Athens.
Athena is usually pictured as a tall, regal
woman wearing a crested helmet and carrying
a spear and shield. On her shield is the head
of Medusa. Athena is often shown with an
owl, her patron animal, on her shoulder.
She is often called Athena Parthenos,
meaning “virgin,” because she chose to stay a
This statue of Athena, found near Varvakeion in
Greece, portrays the goddess of wisdom in all her fin- virgin. The Parthenon, the Athenian temple
ery. Athena carries a shield, as she is also a patroness dating to about 400 B.C.E., is dedicated to her.
of heroes. This work is currently part of the Acropolis
Museum collection. (Scala/Art Resource, NY) See also: Zeus.
warfare, wisdom, and arts and crafts. She was Sources

also the patron goddess of Athens and the fa- Apollodorus. Library of Greek Mythology. Trans. Robin
vorite child of her father, Zeus, chief of the
Greek gods. land, OH: World, 1962.
Athena’s mother was Metis, the goddess of Shearer, Ann. Athene: Image and Energy. London: Pen-
wisdom and Zeus’s first wife. Zeus grew fearful guin, 1998.
that Metis would give birth to a son mightier
than himself, so he swallowed Metis.
While Metis was within Zeus, she, or possi-
bly Athena, began to make a helmet and robe
Atlas
for Athena. The noise of the helmet being
hammered into shape gave Zeus terrible
(Greek)
headaches. He called to his son the smith Hep-
haestus for help. Hephaestus split open Zeus’s I n Greek mythology, Atlas was the son of the
Titan Iapetus and the nymph Clymene.

Aucassin and Nicolette 41
Unlike his brothers, Prometheus and called Re-Atum. At other times, Atum is associ-
Epimetheus, Atlas fought with the other Titans, ated specifically with the setting sun, counter-
supporting Cronos against Zeus and leading balancing Re as the rising sun.
them in battle. As a result, he was singled out Noreen Doyle
by Zeus for special punishment and made to
support the world on his back. See also: Aiomum Kondi; Amun/Amen/
Atlas was temporarily relieved of this bur- Amon/Amun-Re; An/Anu; Wele.
den by the hero Hercules, who needed the Ti-
Sources
tan’s help in getting the golden apples of the Allen, James P. Genesis in Egypt: The Philosophy of Ancient
Hesperides. Hercules then tricked Atlas into Egyptian Creation Accounts. New Haven, CT: Yale
taking up his burden again. Egyptological Seminar, 1988.
Frankfort, Henri. Kingship and the Gods. Chicago: Univer-
See also: Giants; Upelluri/Ubelluris; Ymir. sity of Chicago Press, 1978.
Mysliwiec, Karol. “Atum.” In The Oxford Encyclopedia of
Ancient Egypt. Ed. D.B. Redford. Vol. 1. New York:
Sources Oxford University Press, 2001.
Apollodorus. Library of Greek Mythology. Trans. Robin
land, OH: World, 1962.
Rouse, W.H.D. Gods, Heroes and Men of Ancient Greece.
Aucassin and Nicolette
New York: New American Library, 2001.
(Medieval European)
Atum T he popular medieval romance of Au-

cassin and Nicolette was created by an
anonymous thirteenth-century troubadour.
Written in prose, the story may have been
(Egyptian) acted out as well as recited. What makes the
T he Egyptian god Atum, whose name

means “completed one,” was the creator of
everything, including himself. He was the chief
work interesting for storytellers and modern
audiences is its feminist slant.
The tale begins with Count Bougar of Va-
deity of the ancient Egyptian city Heliopolis. lence waging war on Count Garin of Beau-
Atum created the god Shu and the god- claire. Count Garin’s son Aucassin was in love
dess Tefnut, from whom rose Geb (earth) and with Nicolette, goddaughter of Count Bougar.
Nut (sky). Shu and Tefnut were lost for a time Nicolette was a slave bought by Count Bougar
in the primordial waters (Nun). When they re- from the Saracens and converted to Christian-
turned to Atum, the god wept tears of joy, ity. Count Bougar had planned to wed her to a
from which sprang humankind. wealthy man, but Aucassin’s father refused to
Artists typically represent Atum as a king, let his son marry a former slave. Count Garin,
wearing the double crown of Egypt and a false dismayed by his son’s insistence, plotted to
beard (see illustration on page 42). He is also kill Nicolette. To protect her, Count Bougar
known as “lord of the two lands,” a reference sealed her up in a tall tower.
to Upper and Lower Egypt. At various points Aucassin was willing to fight his father’s
in Egyptian history, different animals were as- war if it meant he would see Nicolette again.
sociated with Atum, including apes, scarabs, His father agreed to the deal, but the boy was
ichneumon (a kind of mongoose), fish, and captured in battle. Aucassin managed to es-
nonvenomous snakes. cape and captured Count Bougar. But Count
Atum has been combined with a number of Garin reneged on his deal. Instead of allowing
gods, particularly the sun god Re. These two Aucassin to see Nicolette, he cast his son into
are sometimes encountered as a single god, prison.

42 Aucassin and Nicolette
This stele, or carved commemorative stone, of Lady Taperet may date to Egypt’s Twenty-second Dynasty. The de-
tail, which depicts the lady adoring the god Atum (see page 41), is painted on wood. (Erich Lessing/Art Resource,
NY)
Meanwhile, Nicolette had escaped from promptly ran off to find Nicolette, and the
her lonely tower and had hidden in the forest. couple was reunited.
She bribed peasants to get word to Aucassin Now the two young people were forced to
about where to find her. She believed that if run for their lives. They set sail for the king-
Aucassin was unable to find her in the flowery dom of Torelore. Upon their arrival, they dis-
bower she had built for herself, he was not covered that the king was sick in bed and the
worthy of her. queen had been forced to lead the army. Au-
When Count Garin learned that Nicolette cassin set things to right, but the king found
was gone, he released his son. Aucassin Aucassin too violent and tried to deport him.

Avalon 43
The king also wanted to keep Nicolette for lived in Oxford, England. Sometime around
himself. 1130 C.E., he completed his work The History of
Pirates attacked the harbor. Aucassin was the Kings of Britain, which related the ancient
carried off on one ship and Nicolette on an- history of the Britons. While much of what
other. Aucassin wound up back in Beauclaire, Geoffrey wrote is inaccurate or unverifiable,
where he learned that his father had died and his work has had a permanent effect on West-
that he was the new ruler. ern storytelling.
Nicolette went to Carthage, where she In Geoffrey’s time, the Welsh and others
learned that she was actually the daughter of still told the legends of Arthur, a leader who
the king of Carthage. Nicolette’s father planned may have lived in the fifth or sixth century.
to marry her to a pagan ruler, but Nicolette ran Someday, it was said, Arthur would return to
off to Beauclaire in disguise. lead the Britons again. Geoffrey took the shad-
Aucassin and Nicolette were reunited once owy figure of Arthur and created from it a
again, and the story ended happily. hero of enduring international fame, linked to
an otherworldly Avalon. According to Geof-
See also: Romance. frey, there was more than one connection be-
tween Arthur and Avalon. Arthur’s famous
Sources sword, Excalibur, had been forged there. Af-
Mason, Eugene, trans. Aucassin and Nicolette and Other
Medieval Romances and Legends. New York: E.P. Dut-
ter his final battle, King Arthur was carried to
ton, 1973. Avalon for treatment of his mortal wounds.
Pensom, Roger. Aucassin et Nicolette: The Poetry of Gender In another work, Vita Merlini (Life of Mer-
and Growing Up in the French Middle Ages. Bern, lin), Geoffrey gave further details: Avalon was
Switzerland: Peter Lang, 1999.
an island of apples, a place where, without cul-
tivation, the land produced fruit and grain. A
woman named Morgen ruled there, the wisest
Avalon and most beautiful of nine sisters. She had the
ability to fly and was said to have instructed
(Celtic) her sisters in mathematics. She promised
Arthur’s companions that if the king remained
I n Arthurian legend, Avalon is a mythical
place of magic, a location variously de-
scribed as an island or a valley in Britain. Oc-
on the island with her, he would recover
through her healing arts.
In 1155, Wace, an Anglo-Norman clerk,
casionally, it is simply the home territory of
finished his work Roman de Brut, a history of
one of Arthur’s nobles. More often, it is an
Britain written in verse that was based on
otherworld, a place associated with the super-
Geoffrey’s work. Wace restated that Arthur’s
natural.
sword was made in Avalun or Avarun; that his
Avalon is Arthur’s destination after he is
last battle took place in Cornwall, an area near
wounded in his last great battle. It is also the
Somerset; and that it was to Avalon that
destination of the Holy Grail, carried west-
Arthur was taken when mortally wounded.
ward by the family of Joseph of Arimathea.
Wace mentioned the legend of Arthur’s possi-
The island called Avalon is the residence of
ble survival but otherwise stripped the super-
supernatural women, from Morgan le Fay to
natural from these stories.
the fairy mistress of the knight Lanval.
Geoffrey of Monmouth and Wace Chrétien de Troyes

Geoffrey of Monmouth, who may have been a In the decades between 1170 and 1190, Chré-
secular canon, a member of the Christian tien de Troyes translated the Arthurian tales into
clergy who did not reside in a monastery, Old French and incorporated twelfth-century

44 Aztec Mythology
courtly culture in his first Arthurian romance,

Erec and Enide. The magical Avalon and other Aztec Mythology
unearthly places were still central to the stories.
In Erec and Enide, Guingamar, lord of the
Isle of Avalon, attended Erec and Enide’s
wedding. Although he played no active role,
T he Aztec empire dominated central and
southern Mexico from the fourteenth to
the sixteenth century. The Aztecs’ complex
Lord Guingamar was said to be a friend of pantheon included multiple incarnations of
Morgan le Fay’s, whose healing powers were several deities. The ancient Aztecs believed
mentioned much later in the story. At the wed- that continual human sacrifice was necessary
ding feast, it was revealed that Morgan le Fay in order for the universe to function and for
was Arthur’s sister. the gods to survive.
The pantheon of the Aztecs can be daunt-
Marie de France ing to the modern reader. The following infor-
mation is a starting point for further research
Avalon is mentioned again in an Arthurian
into this fascinating mythology.
story written by twelfth-century author Marie
de France. The story of Lanval told of a young
knight who was overlooked in Arthur’s grant- Deities
ing of wives and land. While meditating on his
unfortunate situation, Lanval encountered a Coatlicue, or “serpent skirt,” was both an Earth
maiden who offered him her love. She was a mother and a monster. She was the goddess of
fairy mistress, able to supply him with inex- fertility and death, the mother of the gods and
haustible riches. Ultimately, the maiden took of the stars of the southern sky. She was the all-
the knight away to the beautiful island of giving and all-devouring mother who was both
Avalon, and he was not heard from again. the womb and the tomb. Coatlicue was por-
The myth of Avalon has endured to mod- trayed as a woman with clawed hands and feet,
ern times and has appeared in novels, such as a skirt of snakes, and a necklace of human
Marion Zimmer Bradley’s 1979 best-seller The hearts. Coatlicue became pregnant when she
Mists of Avalon; movies, such as the 1990 Avalon, stuffed a ball of feathers that had fallen from
in which the mythical site is used as a meta- the sky in her bosom. Her outraged children
phor for the American Dream; and even a late- sought to slay her, but the god Huitzilopochtli
twentieth-century role-playing game called emerged fully armed from his mother’s womb
Avalon. and slew many of his brothers and sisters.
Huitzilopochtli then became the fierce
See also: King Arthur; Morgan le Fay. god of war and the principal god of the
Aztecs. Sacrifices to him were made daily, in
Sources echo of the story of his slaying his brothers
Chrétien de Troyes. Arthurian Romances. Trans. William
and sisters, and to reflect the endless battle be-
W. Kibler and Carleton W. Carroll. London: Pen-
guin, 1991. tween day and night.
De France, Marie. The Lais of Marie de France. 2nd ed. Coyolxauhqui, or “golden bells,” was the
Trans. Glyn S. Burgess and Keith Busby. London: sister of Huitzilopochtli. She led the rebel-
Penguin, 1999. lious attempt to slay Coatlicue. In the battle,
Geoffrey of Monmouth. The History of the Kings of Britain.
Trans. Lewis Thorpe. London: Penguin, 1966. Huitzilopochtli cut off Coyolxauhqui’s head
Gerald of Wales. The Journey Through Wales and the De- and tossed it into the sky, and it became
scription of Wales. Trans. Lewis Thorpe. London: the Moon. Coyolxauhqui was then known as
Penguin, 1978. the Moon goddess.
Scott, John, ed. and trans. The Early History of Glastonbury:
An Edition, Translation and Study of William of
Other deities filled various vital roles in the
Malmesbury’s “De Antiquitate Glastonie Ecclesie.” Suf- Aztec religion. One of these was Chicome-
folk, England: Boydell and Brewer, 1981. coatl, the maize goddess, the female aspect of

Aztec Mythology 45
corn and nourishment. Each year, a young girl

was sacrificed to her by decapitation. This may
have symbolized the cutting down of the corn
stalk. The sacrifice’s blood was then poured
over a statue of the goddess, possibly symbol-
izing life and life-giving moisture in one. The
corpse was then flayed, and the skin worn by a
priest, possibly symbolizing the corn’s rebirth.
Tlaloc was the god of rain and agriculture.
He took the souls of those killed by water,
lightning, or contagious disease. When he be-
came angry at humans, he would use lightning
to bring disease. Some accounts say that he
had four types of water at his command. The
first type was life-giving, the second brought
blight to plants, the third brought frost, and
the fourth could destroy all. Victims were sac- In Aztec mythology, the gods need blood in order for
rificed to Tlaloc by drowning. Tlaloc actually the universe to function. This page from the Aztec
codex, made with lime wash applied on beaten deer-
predates the Aztecs and probably came from skin, shows part of a creation myth. The fire god at
the Toltecs, a people who ruled Mexico before the center of the universe is being fed the blood of
the coming of the Aztecs. sacrifice from the god Tezcatlipoca. (Werner Forman/
Art Resource, NY)
Tlaloc’s wife was Chalchiuhtlicue, the
goddess of lakes and streams and of youthful
beauty and passion. She ruled all the waters. Coyote or Old Man Coyote known to indige-
In the days of creation, she was the one who nous peoples of the American Southwest.
brought a flood to destroy the wicked fourth Xochipilli, or “flower prince,” was also
world, the world that came before this one. known as Macuilzochitl, or “five flowers.” He
Another husband-and-wife team of deities was the god of flowers, games, and beauty, as
was Mictlantecuhtli, the god of death, who well as love, dance, and music. It is possible
ruled over Mictlan and guarded the bones of that Xochipilli was also the god of hallucino-
the dead, and his wife, Mictecacihuatl, the genic plants and their use.
goddess of death, who helped him rule and Ehecatl, the god of the winds, brought life
protect the bones of the dead. to all and, since he fell in love with a mortal
Chantico, or “she who dwells in the house,” woman, love to humankind.
was the Aztec goddess of hearth fires and vol- Quetzalcoatl, “the feathered serpent,” was
canic fires, as well as the protector of precious the deity who created humanity and gave the
items. When she violated the ban on eating people various gifts, including the calendar and
paprika on fasting day by eating roasted fish maize. Rituals worshipping Quetzalcoatl were
with paprika, Chantico was turned into a dog. among the few that did not involve human sac-
In the Aztec religion, even the deities were rifice. Quetzalcoatl’s brother was Xolotl, the
punished for violating taboos. god of lightning and lord of the evening star,
Tlazolteotl, “the eater of filth,” was the god- Venus. Xolotl guided the dead safely to Mictlan.
dess of both sex and purification. On hearing a He was portrayed variously as a dog-headed
dying man’s confession, Tlazolteotl cleansed the man, a skeleton, or even as a dog companion.
man’s soul by eating his sins, or his moral filth. Perhaps the most mysterious of the deities
Ueuecoyotl, or “old, old coyote,” was the was Ometeotl (Ometecuhtli, male, and Ome-
god of wildness and irresponsible sex and gai- cihuatl, female), the androgynous creator
ety. He may be the same trickster figure as god. The highest god of the Aztec pantheon,

46 Aztec Mythology
Ometeotl was the ruler of duality and oppo- near water, ate humans, and used its extra
sites united. This deity had no formal worship, hand to catch prey.
but was said to be present in all things. Cipactli was a primordial sea monster, a
fishlike crocodile, from whose body the gods
Sacred Places created the earth. The god Tezcatlipoca sacri-
ficed his foot to the creature in a mythic paral-
Aztlan was the mythical site out of which the
lel to the Norse god Tyr sacrificing his hand to
Aztec people were believed to have emerged.
the monstrous wolf Fenrir.
This is contrary to archaeological evidence,
Tzizimimet, or “the monsters descending
which shows that they traveled down through
from above,” were malevolent stellar beings.
North America to settle in Mexico.
Aztec mythology may seem particularly
Mictlan was the underworld, where every
alien to many readers, but it is a rich mine for
soul descended to find rest. To reach the un-
intrepid storytellers and an intriguing look
derworld safely, the souls of the dead needed
into one culture’s attempts to make sense of
magical powers and were guided by the god
the world.
Xolotl after wandering for four years beneath
the earth. Sources
Tlillan-Tlapallant was the middle of the Ferguson, Diana. Tales of the Plumed Serpent: Aztec, Inca
three Aztec heavens, reserved for those who and Mayan Myths. New York: Sterling, 2000.
shared in the wisdom of Quetzalcoatl. Leon-Portilla, Miguel. Aztec Thought and Culture: A Study
Talocan was the heavenly realm of the of the Ancient Nahuatl Mind. Norman: University of
Oklahoma Press, 1963.
gods, uppermost of the three heavens. Miller, Mary, and Karl A. Taube. The Gods and Symbols of
Ancient Mexico and the Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary
Monsters of Mesoamerican Religion. London: Thames and Hud-
son, 1993.
Ahuizotl was a half-human, half-monkey crea- Taube, Karl A. Aztec and Maya Myths. Austin: University
ture bearing a hand at the end of its tail. It lived of Texas Press, 1993.

B
B
Baba Yaga
(Russian)

aba Yaga is a hag from Russian folklore.
There was more than one Baba Yaga, and
fearful or honest enough to admit being sent
was eaten; however, Baba Yaga seemed to ad-
mire the bold and did not harm the pure of
heart. Baba Yaga sometimes gave advice and
magical gifts to those who were wise enough to
be polite to her or, perversely, to those who
dominated her.
the term is sometimes used to refer to a char- The Russian folktale “Vasilissa the Beauti-
acter type that is either a fearful crone or a wise ful” hints that originally Baba Yaga may have
old woman. been a divine or semidivine figure that ruled
The specific folklore character called over the elements. In that tale, Vasilissa saw
Baba Yaga was a bony, seemingly ancient three strange figures, the white horseman, the
woman with iron teeth and an abnormally red horseman, and the black horseman. All
long nose. She also was called Baba Yaga three seemed to serve Baba Yaga. In that same
Kostianaya Noga, or Baba Yaga Bony Legs, tale, Baba Yaga was served by three magi-
because of her thinness and endless hunger, cal pairs of hands that she called “My soul
often for human flesh. Baba Yaga rode in a friends.”
large mortar, pushing it along with a pestle There are other clues in the folklore that
on the ground and in the air. She swept away Baba Yaga was once considered a demigod of
all traces of her travels with a birch-wood nature. But much of pagan Russian mythology
broom. has been lost, so it is impossible to prove that
Baba Yaga lived in a hut deep within the she was ever anything more than a folkloric
dense forest. The hut stood upon giant witch.
chicken legs and rotated. This rotation kept
visitors out until Baba Yaga ordered the hut to See also: Hags; Slavic Mythology.
stand still. Surrounding the hut was a circle of
stakes, and each stake was topped by a human Sources
skull. Baba Yaga ate unwanted guests and dis- Afanasiev, Alexander. Russian Fairytales. Ed. Norbert
played these souvenirs to warn others to stay Guterman. New York: Pantheon, 1976.
Haney, Jack V., ed. The Complete Russian Folktales. Vol. 2.
away.
Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2001.
Visitors were asked whether they had come Ivanits, Linda J. Russian Folk Belief. Armonk, NY: M.E.
of their own free will or had been sent. Anyone Sharpe, 1989.
47

48 Baby Cast Adr ift
Baby Cast Adrift The brothers were rescued by a she-wolf.

The wolf nursed the boys until a shepherd
found them and raised the boys as his own.
T he folkloric and mythic theme of the baby

cast adrift is familiar around the world. The
most familiar example of the theme may be the
Taliesin
In Welsh Celtic lore, the poet Taliesin (Shining
story of Moses in the Old Testament.
Brow) had mythic origins. As a boy he was
called Gwion, and he challenged the perilous
Moses Ceridwen, a powerful sorceress.
In the Bible story of Moses, an unnamed Ceridwen and Gwion engaged in a shape-
pharaoh (possibly the historical Seti I or his shifting duel. The sorceress finally swallowed
more famous son, Ramses II) saw that the He- the boy when he took the shape of a seed,
brews were growing too numerous for his com- only to find herself with child. The baby was
fort. He ordered that all male infants be slain. Gwion. Ceridwen resolved to kill him. She
To save her son, Moses’s mother put the infant sewed him in a watertight bag and set him
in a woven basket and placed it in the bul- adrift on the ocean.
rushes in the Nile River. Gwion was rescued by Elphin, son of a
The pharaoh’s daughter found the baby Welsh lord. He took the new name of Taliesin.
and raised him as her own. When Moses was
grown, he discovered his true identity and World Folklore
became the leader of the Hebrew people. In a tale from Poland, twin babies were cast
adrift by the jealous sisters of a queen. A simi-
Sargon lar tale originated in Turkey.
King Sargon of Akkad, in what is now Iraq, A tale from what is now the Czech Republic
was a historical figure who reigned from ap- features a king who was terrified by a prophecy
proximately 2334 to 2279 B.C.E. The folklore that told of a baby who would grow up and take
that was generated about him, which may his throne. The king cast the baby adrift. Unfor-
have been inspired by court propaganda, tunately for the king, the baby survived, and the
claimed that Sargon came from humble ori- prophecy was fulfilled.
gins. It said that his mother was a temple
priestess who was forced to give up her Superman and Other Modern
baby. Equivalents
A gardener found the infant Sargon float- The story of the comic-book hero Superman is
ing in a basket on the river, and he raised the one of the most familiar tales using this theme.
boy as his son. When Sargon was a young When he was an infant, his parents placed
man, the goddess Inanna saw him and put the him in a small spacecraft to save him from his
desire for greatness into his heart. planet’s destruction. He was set adrift in the
sea of space and eventually landed on Earth,
Romulus and Remus where he was raised by humans as Clark
The two mythic founders of Rome were twin Kent.
brothers born to the vestal virgin Rhea Silvia Another example appears in the 1988 film
and the war god, Mars. Their mother was Willow, in which a baby heir to the throne is
condemned to death for breaking her vow of rescued from a basket that was set adrift in a
chastity. Before she died, she put Romulus and river.
Remus into a basket and set them adrift on the The baby cast adrift is truly a universal
Tiber River. theme.

Balder 49
See also: Culture Heroes; Tale Types. anime and manga (forms of animation and car-
toons). There is a baku-type character among
Sources
the creatures of the Pokémon franchise.
Lewis, Brian. The Sargon Legend: A Study of the Akkadian
Text and the Tale of the Hero Who Was Exposed at Birth.
Cambridge, MA: American Schools of Oriental Re-
See also: Nightmares.
search, 1980.
Sherman, Josepha. Once Upon a Galaxy. Little Rock, AR: Sources
August House, 1994. Davis, F. Hadland. Myths and Legends of Japan. London:
G.G. Harrap, 1913.
Dorson, Richard M., ed. Studies in Japanese Folklore. New
Baku York: Arno, 1980.
Tyler, Royall, ed. Japanese Tales. New York: Pantheon,
1987.
(Japanese)
P eople of every culture suffer from night-

mares and have come up with folk beliefs
Balder
to deal with these terrifying dreams. The Japa-
nese created the baku, or dream eaters.
(Norse)
The baku are good spirits that can resem-
ble a combination of many animals. A baku
might, for example, have the head of an ele-
I n Norse mythology, Balder is one of the Ae-
sir, the principal race of gods. He is the son
of the chief gods Odin and Frigga.
phant and the body of a lion, or the head of Balder was said to have been a beautiful
a lion and the body of a horse. It might have god, with fair hair and white skin. He was the
tiger legs or a cow’s tail. It might even look god of innocence, beauty, joy, purity, and
like a very pink pig. There does not seem peace. In the centuries before Christianity
to be any hard and fast rule about a baku’s reached Scandinavia, he may have had a
appearance. more warlike nature and may even have been
Whatever their appearance might be, from a battle god. By the time Icelandic poet Snorri
the weird to the almost comical, all baku play Sturluson wrote the poetic Edda in the thir-
the same role: They help people by eating the teenth century, however, Christianity had
evil spirits that cause nightmares. A baku may come to Scandinavia, and Balder had taken
have to be summoned by the dreamer, or it on Christlike attributes.
may simply decide to appear on its own. Little is actually known about Balder ex-
Sometimes, a baku may decide to turn the cept for the famous story about his death. Ei-
bad dream into a good one. Occasionally an ther Balder or his mother dreamed of his death,
overzealous baku might eat all dreams, both and so Frigga made everything on Earth vow
good and bad, or may keep a person from never to hurt him. She forgot only the humble
sleeping to avoid nightmares. But for the most mistletoe.
part, baku are helpful to humans. When the wicked Loki learned of Frigga’s
Someone who has had a nightmare may omission, he took a sharpened sprig of mistletoe
protect himself from further bad dreams by and hurried to the place where Balder was play-
calling out, “Baku, eat my dreams.” The same ing with the gods. They were hurling objects at
words may be hung on a wall or embroidered him that bounced off without harming him.
on a pillow. Loki gave the mistletoe to Balder’s brother, the
Today, there are baku plush dolls and toys, blind god Höd, who then inadvertently killed
and the symbol for baku still may be found his brother with it.
printed or embroidered on pillowcases. The Hel, goddess of the underworld, promised
baku are also characters in modern Japanese to release Balder from the underworld if all

50 Balinese Mythology
objects alive and dead would weep for him.

Everything wept, except the giantess Thokk,
who refused to mourn the slain god. And so
Balder remained in the underworld and would
not emerge until after Ragnarok, the battle at
the end of the world. At Ragnarok, Balder and
his brother Höd would be reconciled and rule
the new world together with Thor’s sons.
When the gods discovered that the giantess
Thokk had been Loki in disguise, they hunted
him down and bound him to three rocks.
They tied a serpent above him, and its venom
dripped onto Loki’s face. His wife, Sigyn, pro-
tected Loki by gathering the venom in a bowl.
From time to time, she had to turn away to
empty the bowl, and the poison would drip
onto Loki, who writhed in pain. Loki’s strug-
gling was said to cause earthquakes.
The myth ends saying that Loki would
be freed in time to fight against the Aesir at
Ragnarok.
Barong, the lion-like king of the good spirits, was an en-
emy of the demon-queen Rangda. This mask, inspired
See also: Hel; Norse Mythology; Odin/Odhinn. by Balinese mythology, was made in the twentieth cen-
tury. (Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY)
Sources
Davidson, Hilda Ellis. Roles of the Northern Goddess. New
York: Routledge, 1998. ancestors, and beyond that is the heaven of
Lindow, John. Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, the gods.
Rituals and Beliefs. New York: Oxford University
Press, 2002.
Simek, Rudolf. Dictionary of Northern Mythology. Trans.
Deities
Angela Hall. Rochester, NY: D.S. Brewer, 1993. The main Balinese deities include Antaboga;
Batara Kala, the god who created light and
Balinese Mythology Earth and rules the underworld with the god-
dess Setesuyara; and Bedwang, the world tur-
tle. During the ten-day holiday of Galungan,
T he mythology of the Indonesian island of
Bali is a mixture of Balinese Hinduism
and earlier animistic traditions. It also has been
it is believed that the gods visit Earth.
influenced by recent Islamic folklore. The

Supernatural Beings
early, pre-Hindu traditions of Bali are covered Among the many supernatural beings of Bali-
in this article. nese belief are the Awan. These are snakes
that appear as falling stars. Barong, a lion fig-
Creation ure, is the king of the good spirits and the en-
In the beginning, there was only the world emy of the demon-queen Rangda. Rangda is
snake, Antaboga. The thoughts of the great a terrifying being who devours children.
snake created Bedwang, the turtle that is the The Leyak is a ghoulish man who seems
world. There were several layers of existence, to be an ordinary human by day. But at night
including the underworld, the seas, and a series he steals the entrails of corpses—or even the
of skies. Above these lies the heaven of the living—and makes a potion from them that

Ballads 51
allows him to change shape. Tjak is a bird classic British ballads consists mainly of songs
with a human face. written and sung from the 1500s at the earliest,
with many of them originating in the 1700s
Yudisthira and early 1800s. These classic ballads are of-
ten known as Child ballads because they were
Yudisthira was a kindhearted human who did
collected from manuscript sources by Profes-
good deeds for everyone. When he and his
sor Francis James Child of Harvard University
dog died, they started up the long road to
in the 1880s.
heaven together. At the entrance to heaven,
In this collection, published as a five-
the souls of the newly dead waited for admit-
volume work titled The English and Scottish
tance. There was a chair available that Yudis-
Popular Ballads, Child grouped all the texts to-
thira could rest on, but he wanted a chair for
gether into what he considered the 305 basic
his dog so it could rest, too. Everyone raged at
narrative songs of the British tradition. For
Yudisthira for caring about a mere dog.
each ballad, Child included as many variants
Suddenly the dog turned into a deity and
and versions as he could find. His notes on
explained that he had only pretended to be a
each song reflect his extensive research into
dog to see if Yudisthira was good to all living
related songs and tales within the British tradi-
things. Yudisthira had passed the test and was
tion, as well as those of other cultures, particu-
admitted to heaven.
larly of northern Europe. Child’s numbering
Sources system is still used by scholars when refer-
Belo, Jane. Bali: Rangda and Barong. New York: J.J. Au- ring to these songs. For instance, the song “Rid-
gustin, 1949. dles Wisely Expounded” is Child #1, which
Hooykaas, C. Religion in Bali. Leiden, The Netherlands: means it is a version of the first song in Child’s
Brill, 1973.
collection.
Ramseyer, Urs. The Art and Culture of Bali. Oxford, UK:
Oxford University Press, 1977. The second type of British ballad is the
broadside. Broadsides are songs that were
printed on single sheets of paper and sold by
Ballads street vendors. They were popular from the
1600s through the 1900s. The authors of broad-
sides often wrote about current events and fa-
B allads are songs that tell a story. Many cul-
tures have a heritage of narrative songs,
but when scholars and singers in English-
mous people, frequently using the melodies of
well-known songs. Broadside ballads were very
popular and circulated widely for centuries, en-
speaking countries use the term ballad, they
riching singers’ repertoires as they were honed
are usually referring to a specific body of nar-
through oral transmission.
rative songs that originated in the British Isles.
These ballads were commonly sung from
the fifteenth through the early twentieth cen- Ballads in the New World
turies and were passed down through oral trans-
When the classic ballads and broadsides trav-
mission, evolving over time into many different
eled with emigrants from England, Scotland,
versions. They have survived because the sto-
and Ireland to America, Canada, Australia, and
ries they tell deal with universal themes and the
New Zealand, they were adapted to their new
melodies that accompany them have emotional
surroundings and local variants developed. As
appeal.
the British Isles became more industrialized
and their peoples more widely educated, some
Classic Ballads and Broadsides of the ballads lasted longer in the oral tradition
There are two basic types of ballads, the first of the colonies than they did in their homeland,
of which is the classic ballads. The body of flourishing especially in isolated and close-knit

52 Ballads
communities. The ballad tradition also contin- case the character—father, mother, brother, sis-
ued to grow in its new surroundings as local, or ter, lover.
native, ballads were written about events and A cumulative song is one that repeats all
conditions in the New World. previous verses each time a new verse is
Classic ballads and broadsides also were sung. Well-known examples, such as the tra-
called popular ballads, because they were sung ditional “Green Grow the Rushes-O” and re-
for entertainment. In many ways, modern soap vival folksinger Oscar Brand’s song “When I
operas and tabloids, with their sensational sto- First Came to This Land,” are very popular
ries of infidelity, jealousy, and murder, are the with performers and audiences alike, because
descendants of the British ballads. these songs are fun to sing as a group. Vari-
For centuries, a process of cross-fertilization ations of these techniques are familiar to sto-
between the print and oral ballad traditions re- rytellers, who find that ballads easily fit into
sulted in the development of many versions of their repertoire.
ballads. Each version had variations in the plot
and setting and often contained different de-
tails, such as names and locations, but the ker-
Subject Matter
nel of the story remained recognizable. Ballad plots encompass many facets of the hu-
man condition from tragedy to comedy, but
most are concerned with the universal themes
Melody and Structure of love, jealousy, loss, and family or commu-
The music of popular ballads communicated nity conflicts. Ballads also keep alive stories
emotions that were not addressed directly generated from the fringes of society: stories of
through the often spare plotlines of the older battles from the loser’s point of view; stories of
ballads. A good story put to music could touch ghosts, fairies, and other supernatural beings;
the hearts of both a singer and his or her audi- and stories of pirates, poachers, and outlaws,
ence. In reading a ballad, it is sometimes diffi- real and legendary.
cult to understand why anyone would find it Some of the classic ballads have plots and
interesting enough to listen to, while hearing a characters that are very similar to those in
performance of the same ballad allows the lis- fairy tales. In the ballad “Tam Lin” (Child
tener to recognize and appreciate the story’s #39), the main character’s sweetheart, Janet,
emotional power. saves him from the queen of the fairies by
The melody and structure of a ballad can holding on to him even when he is changed
act as a memory aid for the singer. Repeated into a snake, a lion, and other creatures. A few
phrases, called refrains, also encourage listen- of the oldest ballads are adaptations of legends
ers to pay closer attention and to sing along. about biblical times, such as “St. Stephen and
Refrains often consist of either nonsense sylla- Herod” (Child #22), in which a roasted cock
bles or related names, for example, “Parsley, stands up in the dish and crows to convince
sage, rosemary, and thyme.” Herod of the truth of the birth of Jesus.
Two other structural devices can be used to Some ballads, including the many ballads
encourage group participation: incremental about Robin Hood (Child #117–#154), are
repetition and cumulation. Songs that use incre- based on legends. These were seldom collected
mental repetition have one basic stanza that is from oral tradition but sometimes were printed
repeated with a different person, action, or item as broadsides. Another ballad written in a liter-
substituted each time. An example of a song ary style and seldom recorded by singers is
that uses incremental repetition is “The Maid “King Orfeo” (Child #19), which is based on
Freed from the Gallows” (Child #95), in Amer- the Greek myth of Orpheus and Eurydice.
ica often called “The Hangman.” Every verse is Ballads also may be bawdy or comic, pok-
the same stanza with only one change, in this ing fun at individuals, classes of people, and the

Ballads, Homiletic 53
human condition in general. “Get Up and Bar Sources

the Door” (Child #275), for example, takes a Atkinson, David. English Folk Song: An Introductory Bibli-
couple’s spat to laughable extremes when nei- ography. London: English Folk Dance and Song
Society, 1996.
ther will lose a bet by closing the house door Coffin, Tristram Potter. The British Traditional Ballad in
first, even after thieves come in and steal all North America. Rev. ed. Ed. Roger deV. Renwick.
their valuables. Some humorous ballads are Austin: University of Texas Press, 1977.
analogous to tall tales, for example, “The Derby Cohen, Norm. Traditional Anglo-American Folk Music: An
Annotated Discography of Published Sound Recordings.
Ram,” with its outrageous claims about the
New York: Garland, 1994.
huge size of the ram. Richmond, W. Edson. Ballad Scholarship: An Annotated
Bibliography. New York: Garland, 1989.
The Modern Ballad Sharp, Cecil J. English Folk Song: Some Conclusions. 4th ed.
Ed. Maud Karpeles. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth,
Narrative songs continue to be written and are 1965.
often concerned with current events, notorious
people, and occupational concerns, as earlier
broadside ballads had been. A body of songs Ballads, Homiletic
about accidents and natural disasters expanded
with society’s growing technological sophistica-
tion to include sinking ships, train wrecks, and H omiletic ballads are narrative songs, of-
ten narrated in the first person, that warn
of consequences for sinful actions. These bal-
truck accidents on mountain highways. In years
past, songs about miners, sailors, and lumber- lads give the details of a sinning, misspent life
jacks were common within their occupational and the subsequent repentance that often
groups and their communities but were seldom comes far too late. Listeners are warned to
sung by outsiders. take heed of the story and to avoid making the
Many modern broadside ballads also have same mistakes as the ballad’s protagonist.
been written about people on the fringes of One example of this form is the English
society, such as pirates, highwaymen, and other folk ballad “The House Carpenter,” in which a
outlaws, and about the public executions of woman abandons her husband, the house car-
criminals. Major events and movements, such penter, for her former lover. The couple flees
as the Civil War and the California Gold Rush, on a ship that sinks and takes the woman and
spawned their own ballads. Some of these bal- her lover to hell.
lads were sung nationwide, while others were Another example is an English broadside
sung only in certain geographic regions or ballad, “The Unfortunate Rake.” The title char-
among certain groups of people. acter dies when he is “disordered by a woman,”
Many people are familiar with the term which, of course, would not have happened if
ballad from its use in literature to mean a he had resisted vice. This song made the trip to
poem that tells a story, such as in “The Ballad America and eventually became “The Streets
of Reading Gaol,” by Oscar Wilde. The term of Laredo.”
is also used in popular music and jazz, where Homiletic ballads were particularly popu-
it refers to a love song or lament, for example, lar in England and America in the nineteenth
“Ode to Billy Joe,” “Harper Valley PTA,” “Big century, but there are many more recent ex-
Bad John,” and even “The Ballad of Jed Clam- amples, including the still-popular ballad “The
pett” from the 1960s television show The Bev- House of the Rising Sun,” the current form of
erly Hillbillies. which was composed in the twentieth century.
The original melody is much older than the
Lyn Wolz lyrics, which warn the listener “not to do what
I have done.”
See also: Ballads, Homiletic; Broadside Ballads;
Verse Stories. See also: Ballads.

54 Bannik
Sources tell fortunes. Girls and women would go to the

Gummere, Francis B. The Popular Ballad. Mineola, NY: bania to ask the bannik how the New Year
Dover, 1959. would be. A cold touch or one made with the
Witham, R. Adelaide, and William Allan Neilson. En-
glish and Scottish Popular Ballads. Boston: Houghton
bannik’s claws was a warning of bad fortune,
Mifflin, 1909. but a soft, warm touch meant happiness.
A special ritual had to be performed before
a new bania could be built. A black chicken
Bannik was slain and buried under the site, and salt
was thrown over the stove when the bania was
first heated.
(Slavic)
See also: Slavic Mythology.
I n Slavic lore, specifically that of Russia and
Ukraine, the bannik was the spirit of the ba-
nia, or the bathhouse. A typical Slavic bath- Sources
Afanas’ev, Aleksandr. Russian Fairy Tales. Trans. Norbert
house was not a small room like a modern
Guterman. New York: Pantheon, 1976.
bathroom, but a separate structure, much like a Curtin, Jeremy. Myths and Folk-Tales of the Russians, West-
modern sauna, with a room for steaming and ern Slavs and Magyars. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2000.
another for bathing. Ryan, W.F. The Bathhouse at Midnight: An Historical Survey
The bannik has been described as looking of Magic and Divination in Russia. University Park:
Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999.
like a little old man with hairy hands and long Warner, Elizabeth. Russian Myths. Austin: University of
nails. He made a home for himself behind the Texas Press, 2002.
stove and was almost never seen. This was con-
sidered to be for the best, since the bannik was
uncertain in mood. Because the bathhouse was
a dark, potentially dangerous place, the bannik
Banshee
was seen as a mischievous, sometimes harmful,
being. If the bannik was angered, it might suffo-
(Irish)
cate the bather, throw boiling water, or even
burn down the bania. A bannik also might be
a Peeping Tom, spying on bathers, particularly
I n Irish folklore, a banshee is an attendant fairy
being that follows old, established families
and wails outside the door when one of them is
women, as they undressed. It was considered meant to die.
perilous to bathe alone or late at night. The word banshee derives from the Irish
The bannik was a pagan being, so no icons Gaelic words bean, or “woman,” and sidhe,
were ever hung in the bania, and bathers were which means “fairy.” The banshee is some-
careful not to wear crucifixes into the bath. times seen as an old woman with scraggly hair
Mothers with new babies were kept under care- and huge, hollow eye sockets, or as a gaunt
ful guard in the bania, since the bannik some- younger woman. In both forms, her eyes are
times tried to carry off children who had not yet red from continuous weeping, and she wears
been baptized. a tattered white sheet or a burial shroud.
Bathhouses were kept clean to appease the All the greatest clans are said to have their
bannik. It was considered polite to thank him own private banshee, and many have claimed
when leaving the bathhouse and to leave him to have seen one wailing and wringing her
offerings of soap, water, and fir branches. The hands. When a great or holy clan member is
third or fourth round of bathing always was to die, a whole chorus of banshees is said to
reserved for the bannik, who liked to bathe wail mournfully.
alone in the dark. A variation of the banshee is the bean-
As in stories of the Slavic house being nighe, or washerwoman, of Ireland, Scotland,
known as the domovoi, the bannik was said to and Brittany. This creature usually was seen

Basilisk 55
washing bloody garments at the water’s edge. peccerille (The Tale of Tales, or Entertainment for Lit-
If a traveler saw her before she spied him, the tle Ones). Despite what the title suggests, Basile
traveler would survive. However, if she saw probably intended his stories for courtiers
him first, the garments she was washing be- rather than children. His tales are sophisticated
came his, and the traveler would die. In the and do not always have a happy ending.
Scottish Highlands, it was thought that only Il Pentamerone is an important work, be-
those about to die could see the bean-nighe. cause it is probably the first collection of liter-
An omen called the coiste-bodhar (pro- ary fairy tales. It includes what may be the
nounced coach-a-bower) sometimes accompa- earliest European literary versions of many
nies the banshee. This immense black coach well-known fairy tales, such as “Sleeping
with a coffin inside is drawn by headless horses Beauty” and “Rapunzel.”
and driven by a headless being. If the coach Il Pentamerone begins and ends with a
stops by your home and you open the door, frame story, in which a magic doll casts a spell
a basin of blood will be thrown in your face. on a queen who then develops a craving for
stories. This craving is at last satisfied when
See also: Death. the queen is able to hear the ten finest story-
tellers in the land tell their stories for five days.
Sources
McAnally, David Rice, Jr. Popular Tales of Ghosts, Giants,
Including the frame story, Il Pentamerone is
Leprechauns, Banshees, Fairies, Witches, and Other Mar- comprised of fifty tales.
vels of the Emerald Isle. New York: Gramercy, 1996. Basile wrote Il Pentamerone in the Neapoli-
Walsh, Maeve. A Guide to Irish Mythology. Cork, Ireland: tan dialect rather than in the preferred north-
Mercier, 2000.
ern Italian language, so it did not immediately
Yeats, W.B., ed. Fairy and Folk Tales of the Irish Peasantry.
Mineola, NY: Dover, 1991. find a wide audience. The work was not trans-
lated into another language until 1846, when
a German edition was published. The first
Basile, Giambattista English translation was made in the late nine-
teenth century.
(1575–1632) Sources
Basile, Giovanni Batiste. Il Pentamerone; or, The Tale of
G iambattista Basile was the Italian au-
thor of a major collection of tales called
Il Pentamerone.
Tales. New York: Liveright, 1943.
———. Il Pentamerone: The Tale of Tales. Baltimore: Uni-
versity Press of the Pacific, 2002.
Basile was born in 1575 in a village outside
Naples, and he grew up in a middle-class family.
In spite of having had a decent education,
Basile was unable to find a court patron in
Basilisk
Naples to present him in important society, so
he became a soldier in the service of various
(European)
Italian courts. He eventually returned to Naples,
became a courtier, rose through the political
ranks, and was eventually named Conte di Tor-
T he legendary basilisk was one of the most
feared monsters in medieval Western Eu-
rope. Described as the king of the serpents,
rone. While this military and political maneu- this creature could kill with a single glance.
vering was taking place, Basile also was writing The word basilisk is Greek for “little king.” A
poetry and prose. small but horrific reptile, it was believed to be a
Basile never achieved major fame as a nearly unstoppable foe and predator. It could
writer during his lifetime. Il Pentamerone was kill the largest animal or split a boulder with
published after his death under its original title, nothing more than a glance from its deadly eyes.
Lo cunto de li cunti, overo lo trattenemiento de Its breath was so poisonous that whatever

56 Basque Folklore and Mythology
stream it drank from was made forever toxic. A

basilisk’s sweat and saliva were also poisonous— Basque Folklore
one spit at a bird would kill it in midflight.
Strangely enough, weasels were immune
and Mythology
to the basilisk’s stare, and the common cock-
erel’s crow would scare a basilisk away. Rue
was the only plant that was impervious to the T he homeland of the Basque people strad-
dles the border between France and Spain
along the western Pyrenees. These fascinating
basilisk’s poison. And so it followed that if a
weasel was injured while fighting a basilisk, it people may have lived in this ancient home-
could eat rue to heal itself. land since the Neolithic Period.
A basilisk is also a type of lizard that lives The Basque people are unique. They are
in the rain forests of South America. It bears genetically different from the people in the sur-
no relationship to the mythical basilisk other rounding lands and have a language that is not
than its name. related to any other. Present-day Basques are
predominantly Christian, but echoes of older
See also: Bestiary. beliefs still can be found in their national tradi-
tions and folktales.
Sources
Elliott, T.J., trans. A Medieval Bestiary. Boston: David
Godine, 1971.
Deities
Gilmore, David D. Monsters: Evil Beings, Mythical Beasts, Lurbira is the goddess of the earth and the
and All Manner of Imaginary Terrors. Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002.
mother of the twin sisters Ekhi and Ilazki. Ekhi
White, T.H., ed. The Book of Beasts. Mineola, NY: Dover, is the goddess of the Sun and of sunlight, and
1984. Ilazki is the goddess of the Moon. Ilazki uses
her light to guide the ghosts of the dead to the
hereafter.
Aide is the goddess of the wind. Mari,
whose name was probably derived from the
Virgin Mary, is a figure of folklore and mythol-
ogy. She usually is conceived as a tall, beautiful,
and kindly woman with some kind of magical
or semidivine powers. Mari may be a survivor
of older pagan beliefs.
Supernatural Beings
An aatxe is a spirit in the form of a red bull that
protects caves and attacks evil people. An aatxe
is said to have set Bermeo, a village of purport-
edly evil people, on fire.
Basajaun is the Old Man of the Woods,
or Lord of the Woods. He is commonly de-
picted as a semidivine figure with some ani-
mal characteristics and is often, but not
always, regarded as malevolent. In some sto-
This ornate drinking vessel portrays the legendary, ries, Basajaun has a female companion called
deadly basilisk. The artifact is from Leipzig, Germany,
Basandere. There are late medieval carvings
and dates to about 1600 C.E., a time when belief in such
monsters was just beginning to fade. (Erich Lessing/Art of these creatures in the Cathedral of Saint-
Resource, NY) Maria in Burgos, Spain.

Bastet/Bast 57
Gaueko is a nocturnal spirit or demon in woman’s cave and bent over so that she was
the shape of a great black wolfhound that walks looking out from between her legs.
upright. Herensuge and Sugaar are two mon- The beautiful woman, a lamiak, an-
strous serpents. Herensuge is usually portrayed nounced, “In all my 105 years, I have never
as a sea serpent. seen such a sight!”
The jentilak are a race of giants who threw The helper rushed to the young man with
rocks from one mountain to another. They the information. He was about to tell the
are credited with having built old stone ruins lamiak her age when he saw her feet, which
and other Neolithic monuments. They also are were nonhuman animal feet. He fled, fell ill,
said to have invented metallurgy, agriculture, and died.
and the Basque ball game called pelota. The
jentilak disappeared into the earth with the ar- Mariurrika
rival of Christianity. Only one, Olentzero, re-
mains. He is said to appear at Christmastime to A couple had a son and a daughter, Ibon and
leave presents for children. Over the centuries, Mariurrika. Ibon was the eldest, and Mari-
he has changed from a giant to a Basque peas- urrika had a dark side. She did not want her
ant. The mairuak, whose name means “moors,” brother to claim their inheritance, so she
also are said to have been giants that built the and a servant decided to kill him. They gave
dolmens and menhirs, and they were driven Ibon too much wine. When he was asleep,
away by the coming of Christianity. they threw him off a cliff, and he fell to his
The lamiak, whose name may be derived death. Everyone believed it had been an
from the Greek lamia, are said to be beautiful accident.
but evil women. They take human form, but That night, Mariurrika saw demons slid-
have animal feet. They deceive, enchant, and ing down the chimney to claim her for her evil
kill young men. deed. She died on the spot. Since then, Mari-
The sorgin is the Basque folkloric witch. She urrika has been a fireball that flies from moun-
is common to many folktales and possesses tain to mountain. She rests only when she
attributes of certain pagan beliefs. takes refuge in the cave of the goddess Mari.
The torto is a monstrous being that abducts
Sources
and eats children. He is likely to have been in-
Baroja, Julio Caro. The World of the Witches. Chicago:
vented by parents as a way to make children University of Chicago Press, 1965.
behave. Gallop, Rodney. A Book of the Basques. Reno: University
of Nevada Press, 1970.
Basque Folktales Monteiro, Mariana. Legends and Popular Tales of the Basque
People. New York: A.C. Armstrong and Son, 1887.
Two samples of Basque folktales follow. The Reicher, Gil G. Les légendes Basques dans la tradition hu-
first shows definite influences from the outside maine. Paris: Adrien Maisonneuve, 1946.
world, incorporating the Rumpelstiltskin theme
and the “never-in-my-life” theme that appears
in Celtic changeling tales. The second tale has Bastet/Bast
ties to older mythology.
(Egyptian)
The Young Man Who Fell in Love
with a Lamiak
A young man fell in love with a beautiful, mys-
B astet, or Bast, is a protective and nurturing
Egyptian feline deity. She was one of the
daughters of Re, the sun god.
terious woman. She agreed to marry him if he In the earliest representations of Bastet,
could tell her age. A local woman agreed to she appeared as a lioness or as a woman
help the young man. She went to the mysterious with the head of a lioness. Bastet served as a

58 Bats
counterpoint to the violent Sekhmet, who also

had the head of a lioness and was a goddess
of war. Sekhmet was the punishing eye of Re,
whereas Bastet was the gentle one.
Bastet originated no later than the sec-
ond dynasty (c. 2800 B.C.E.). The cult of Bastet
probably centered in the delta city of Bubastis.
Sometime between 931 and 715 B.C.E., the do-
mestic cat replaced the lioness as the mani-
festation of the goddess. Cats were specifically
bred in the temples to honor Bastet from about
this time through the Roman period (30
B.C.E.–337 C.E.).
The rise in Egypt of animal cults stemmed
from political circumstances. The state profited
from the cults by selling official appointments
and collecting taxes and pious donations. When
Egypt was under Greco-Roman rule, these cults
became the focus of Egyptian nationalism and
reached fanatical heights. The Sicilian writer
Diodorus Siculus (first century B.C.E.) recounted
an event in which a mob murdered a Roman
visitor who had inadvertently killed a cat. Ani-
mal cults existed among the Romans in Egypt,
as well as in native Egyptian society. Bastet, or Bast, the Egyptian cat-headed goddess of
Festivals in Bastet’s honor were pop- sensual joy and dance is shown in bronze holding a
systrum, a musical instrument, in her upraised right
ular throughout Egypt. The Greek author hand. On her left arm hangs a basket, and she cradles
Herodotus claimed to have been one of more a kitten or small cat, her patron animal. (Réunion des
than 700,000 participants at a celebration in Musées Nationaux/Art Resource, NY)
Bubastis. Enormous quantities of feline stat-
uettes and mummies have been discovered Sources
by researchers. Lesko, Barbara. The Great Goddesses of Egypt. Norman:
Bastet is usually represented as a cat- University of Oklahoma Press, 1999.
headed woman, with a kitten or kittens at her Málek, Jaromír. The Cat in Ancient Egypt. Philadelphia:
feet and sometimes a basket, perhaps in which
Matthiae, Gabriella Scandone. “L’occhio del sole: le di-
to carry them. She holds in one hand a sys- vinità feline femminile dell’Egitto faraonico.” Studi
trum, a kind of musical instrument associated epigrafici e linguistici sul Vicino Oriente antico 10 (1993):
with Hathor, goddess of love, and in the other 10–19.
an aegis, a symbol of Sekhmet.
Bastet is one of the goddesses named as the
mother of the canine god Anubis. The Greeks Bats
identified her with Artemis, the Greek goddess
of fertility.
Noreen Doyle
T he nocturnal habits of bats have led to
the association of these perfectly inno-
cent animals with stories about evil crea-
tures of the night. Bats always have received
See also: Cats. mixed reactions from people around the

Battle of Kadesh 59
world, and they play diverse roles in folklore caught in public in a bat costume after a mas-
and superstition. querade and mocked by the local populace. In
In the ancient Near East, especially in what the world of comic books and graphic novels,
is now Turkey, bats were sometimes eaten. One the bat appears in a more heroic guise, as the
of the earliest negative references to bats comes ultimate man-bat figure, the brooding crime
from the Old Testament, in which they are fighter, Batman.
called unclean and “an abomination.” Con-
versely, the Chinese viewed the bat as a symbol See also: Vampires.
of good luck, and two bats together are the
symbol of Sho-hsing, the god of longevity. Also Sources
in China, a group of four bats symbolizes the Cooper, J.C. Dictionary of Symbolic and Mythological Ani-
mals. San Francisco: Thorsons, 1995.
four blessings of health, wealth, long life, and
Fenton, M. Brock. Bats. New York: Facts On File, 1992.
peace. In Japan, however, the bat is looked Graham, Gary L. Bats of the World. New York: St. Mar-
upon not as a symbol of prosperity but as a sign tin’s, 2001.
of chaos.
The cultures of Mesoamerica and South
America viewed bats as symbols of the un-
derworld and the return to life. Images of
Battle of Kadesh
man-bat hybrid deities appear on pottery
and carvings throughout both regions, often
(Egyptian)
as sacrificial beings or intermediaries between
the land of the living and the land of the
dead.
T he battle of Kadesh is the earliest armed
conflict for which a detailed record has sur-
vived. It was fought around 1299 B.C.E. between
In the modern Western world, bats are Ramses II of Egypt and Muwatillis of Hatti in
commonly viewed as creatures from the dark the city of Kadesh, or Qadesh, which is situated
side. People still worry that if a bat flies too at a strategic location in Syria (present-day Tell
close it will become tangled in someone’s hair. Neby Mend).
The fact that bats have highly developed sonar Kadesh and the region surrounding it had
that keeps them from collisions has done little long been a subject of contention between the
to counteract this superstition. two empires. In the eighteenth dynasty (c.
In some regions of England and the United 1569–1315 B.C.E.), Kadesh was under Egyptian
States, a bat circling a house three times is rule. But by the time of Ramses II, who was
viewed a warning of impending death. A bat also known as Ramses the Great (c. 1304–1237
flying playfully, however, is a good omen, fore- B.C.E.), the city had fallen into the Hittite sphere
casting fair weather. The latter contains a bit of influence. The young pharaoh was deter-
of truth, since better atmospheric conditions mined to retake it. The record of Ramses’s
mean easier flying for bats. deeds was found in thirteen existing texts on
The phrase “blind as a bat” perpetuates an- temple walls and papyri.
other misconception. Bats have perfectly good The record consists of three major parts:
vision. And only three related species, vampire the poem, which focuses on the king, his
bats native to the Americas, drink blood. These deeds, and his thoughts; the bulletin, or re-
bats have no connection with the undead vam- port, which focuses on more external details;
pires of folklore, other than being named after and the iconography, which depicts visually
them. and in captions the details of the battle that
Bats also turn up in opera and popular cul- were not preserved in the literary narrative
ture. In the Johann Strauss operetta Die Fleder- record. This summary combines the particu-
maus (The Bat), one of the main characters is lars of all three.

60 Bees
The Story chastising his troops for their cowardice. Only

his shield-bearer, Menna, his horses, and his
In the summer of the fifth year of his reign, servants remained faithfully by his side, as did
Ramses II prepared his troops and, along with the god Amun, who responded to the king’s
a number of family members, journeyed north prayer by proclaiming that the god’s own hand
through Palestine. They inspired fear in the lo- was with him. And so Ramses single-handedly
cal chieftains along the way and encountered defeated the Hittites.
no trouble. The endings of the report and the iconog-
Near the town of Shabtuna, two tribesmen raphy differ from that of the poem. In these
approached the king. They said that the Fallen accounts, the king rallied the scattered divi-
One, as they called the Hittite king, Muwatillis, sions of Amun and Pre sufficiently to mount
had made a treaty with their tribe, but they something of a defense. They were saved,
were willing to betray Muwatillis. To allay Ram- however, only by the timely arrival of a fifth
ses’s suspicions and prove their honest intent, contingent that had been traveling the coastal
the tribesmen told him that the Hittite king was route and approached from the west. With
near Aleppo, more than a hundred miles from the Hittites pushed back, there was time for
Kadesh, and would remain there because he the divisions of Ptah and of Seth to rejoin the
feared the pharaoh. king.
Emboldened by this news, Ramses pressed The next morning (according to all three
ahead to Kadesh with a group of soldiers resources) the battle began anew, with Ramses
ferred to as the division of Amun. He left be- seizing the offensive. The Egyptians were out-
hind three other divisions, named for the gods numbered, yet they killed many of the Hittite
Pre (Re), Seth, and Ptah. Once on the outskirts charioteers and officers, including two of
of Kadesh, Ramses set up camp and planned to Muwatillis’s brothers. The fight remained a
attack the city the next morning. stalemate. Muwatillis allowed Ramses to with-
The capture of two Hittite spies disrupted draw, an action the Egyptian sources portrayed
Ramses’s plans. Thorough beatings of the en- as inspired by fear rather than prudence.
emy agents revealed that Muwatillis and his The Egyptian sources claim a great vic-
army were not at Aleppo. They instead were tory, with the king of Hatti praising Ramses
hidden behind Kadesh, ready to attack. King like a god and capitulating. In fact, the Egyp-
Muwatillis had stripped his own land bare of tians did not regain Kadesh but rather lost
silver and other valuables in order to prepare their subject territories in Syria.
this army.
Ramses summoned his officers. This was, Sources
they agreed, criminal. Their allies should have Gardiner, Alan. The Kadesh Inscriptions of Ramesses II.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1960.
warned them of these circumstances. The vizier
Kitchen, K.A. Pharaoh Triumphant: The Life and Times of
went south to bring up the rest of the Egyptian Ramesses II. Warminster, UK: Aris and Phillips,
army, but at this point Muwatillis attacked. 1985.
The Hittites broke the division of Pre as it Murnane, William J. “Kadesh.” In The Oxford Encyclope-
forded the Orontes River; the other two divi- dia of Ancient Egypt. Vol. 2. Ed. D.B. Redford. New
sions were still on the march farther south, in Shaw, Ian. Egyptian Warfare and Weapons. Bucking-
the Wood of Labni. The division of Amun, hamshire, UK: Shire, 1991.
which had been setting up camp at the time of
the attack, was thrown into chaos.
Differing Accounts
Bees
In the poem, the army deserted Ramses at this
point, who fought, godlike, in his chariot while B ees, specifically honeybees, may be the ear-
liest domesticated insects in human history.

Bellerophon 61
There is evidence of beekeeping in the fourth Other British-American beliefs include the
millennium B.C.E. following: Bees were thought to have special
Bees are found in almost every country in knowledge of the future; if a beekeeper died
the world. The honey they produce is both or something good happened to a family, it is
nutritious and a very good natural antiseptic. important to inform the bees or they might die
There is a large body of world folk belief and or fly away; a bride-to-be was supposed to in-
mythology surrounding these useful insects. form the hive directly about her engagement;
and, in the case of a death, a family member
Egypt, Greece, and Rome was supposed to tell the hive three times, “Little
brownies, little brownies, your master/mistress
In Egyptian mythology, honeybees were said
[name] is dead.”
to be the tears of the sun god, Ra. They also
After a wedding or a funeral feast, a piece
were associated with the goddess Neith, whose
of cake was left for the bees. In all cases, the
temple was known as per-bit, or “the house of
language used to the bees must be polite, since
the bee.” Honey, which was used by physi-
bees will not stay near those who swear. The
cians to heal wounds, also was thought to pro-
sound of the bees is said to indicate their mood:
tect patients against evil spirits.
buzzing means they are content, but silence
The chief Greek god, Zeus, was nourished
means that they are planning to leave. Finally,
as a baby by honeybees. The god Apollo’s tem-
if a swarm settled on someone’s property or
ple was said to have been built by bees. The Ro-
was found in a dead tree, it was considered to
man goddess Mellona was the protector of bees.
be an omen of death in the family.
Europe Killer Bees
A German legend tells of bees that were sent
Folklore recently has been spread that bad-
from God to make beeswax for candles. In
tempered African “killer” bees will swarm a hu-
Breton, it was told that the tears of the cruci-
man and sting the victim to death. The truth is
fied Christ were turned into bees to bring
that the bees are so slow in flight that a healthy
sweetness into the world. In pagan Lithuanian
human easily can outpace them.
mythology, Austėja was a goddess of bees.
See also: Insects.
Great Britain and the
Sources
United States Green Mountain Folklore Society, ed. The Potash Kettle
47:4 (Fall 1999).
An old English and American folk rhyme
Ransome, Hilda M. The Sacred Bee in Ancient Times and
says: Folklore. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2004.
A swarm of bees in May

Is worth a load of hay,
And a swarm of bees in July
Bellerophon
Is hardly worth a fly.
(Greek)
There is a hint of accuracy to this, since May is
one of the best months for flower blossoms,
which attract bees for pollination. This, in turn,
I n Greek mythology, Bellerophon was a hero
who tamed the winged horse Pegasus. He
eventually allowed pride to overcome him,
leads to more honey and set fruit. By July, pol- which led to his downfall.
lination already has been finished. A weather- Bellerophon was the son of Eurynome, wife
related maxim states that when bees do not of Glaucus. Though Glaucus did not know it,
leave the hive, rain is coming. Bellerophon’s father was Poseidon.

62 Bellerophon
Frustrated in his attempts to become a father. The message contained Stheneboea’s

hero, Bellerophon went to the seer Polyeidus, claim against Bellerophon.
who told him to sleep at an altar of Athena. This passed the problem on to King Io-
Bellerophon did this, and dreamed that the bates, who also could not harm a houseguest.
goddess gave him a golden bridle. When he So Iobates sent Bellerophon off to kill a mon-
woke, he found himself holding the bridle. Af- ster, the horrible Chimera. The Chimera was a
ter making sacrifices to Athena and Poseidon, strange creature—a combination of lion, goat,
Bellerophon found where the winged horse and serpent. The monster also could breathe
Pegasus grazed. Pegasus had never been rid- fire, and no hero had been able to kill it. But
den, but once Bellerophon had bridled him, with the help of Pegasus, Bellerophon was able
the young man was able to ride Pegasus with- to get in close and kill the Chimera.
out too much difficulty. Iobates then sent Bellerophon to defeat
Later, Bellerophon accidentally killed a the Solymi. Bellerophon succeeded. Next Io-
man and went to King Proetus so that he bates gathered troops and tried to ambush
could be purified. The king’s wife, Stheneboea, Bellerophon, but the hero killed those war-
tried to seduce Bellerophon. He refused her, riors, too. Iobates realized that the gods fa-
and she, insulted, accused him of trying to vored Bellerophon, and such favor could never
rape her. have been given to a dishonorable man. He
King Proetus could not harm a house- made peace with Bellerophon and gave him
guest, so he asked Bellerophon to deliver a half his kingdom and the hand of his daughter
sealed message to King Iobates, Stheneboea’s Philonoe in marriage.
When Stheneboea learned that Bellero-
phon had married her sister, she knew that
her own falsehood would be uncovered. She
killed herself.
Bellerophon should have been content,
but instead the glory of his own deeds went to
his head, and hubris, or fatal pride, overcame
him. In his arrogance Bellerophon decided to
ride Pegasus up to Mount Olympus to visit the
gods. The gods were furious at this egotism,
and Zeus, king of the gods, sent a gadfly to
sting Pegasus. The horse bucked in midair and
threw Bellerophon.
Bellerophon survived the fall but was left
lame. Abandoned by the gods, he spent the
rest of his life alone.
See also: Pegasus.
Sources
The Greek hero Bellerophon rides the winged horse Grant, Michael. Myths of the Greeks and Romans. Cleve-
Pegasus as he slays the Chimera with his lance. This land, OH: World, 1962.
painting is by Renaissance master Peter Paul Rubens South, Malcolm, ed. Mythical and Fabulous Creatures: A
(1577–1640). (Réunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Source Book and Research Guide. New York: Green-
Resource, NY) wood, 1987.

Beowulf 63
Bendigeidfran/Bran glish epic tradition interrupted by the Norman

Conquest in 1066. Written about sixth-century
figures and composed sometime between the
(Welsh) middle of the seventh and the end of the tenth
centuries, the poem is preserved only in an
I n the pre-Christian mythology of Wales,
as collected in the medieval book of tales
known as the Mabinogion, Bendigeidfran was
eleventh-century handwritten book known as
Cotton Vitellius. The manuscript, which cur-
rently resides in the British Museum, is some-
a giant and the king of the Isle of the Mighty
what damaged, having narrowly escaped
(Britain). The name Bendigeidfran means Bran
destruction in a fire in 1731.
the Blessed. His sister, Branwen, and his
brother, Manawydan, were human sized.
Bendigeidfran was so large that in the sec-
The Story
ond branch of the Mabinogion, called “Bran- The story begins with the Danish King Scyld
wen, Daughter of Llyr,” he waded across the Scefing, who was the mythical founder of
sea between Wales and Ireland and carried an the Scyld dynasty. Sent out to sea as an infant,
army across the Liffey River on his back. No Scyld became a great king, ruled gloriously,
house was able to hold him, until one was died with honor, and received a magnificent
built for him by the Irish. burial at sea.
When Bendigeidfran died, he left instruc- Generations later, one of Scyld’s descen-
tions that his severed head was to be buried dants, King Hrothgar, built Heorot, a great
in the White Hill, looking out toward France, gabled hall. Infuriated by the rejoicing in the
so that it could defend Britain from invaders. hall, the monster Grendel, of the race of Cain,
The myths about him state that as long as his attacked it and terrorized Heorot for twelve
head was buried, no oppression could come years. Beowulf, the nephew of King Hygelac of
to Britain. Myths also refer to the “unfortu- the Geats (in present-day Sweden), came to
nate disclosure,” when King Arthur unearthed Hrothgar’s aid. Once thought slack, Beowulf
Bendigeidfran’s head, because it did not seem had become a formidable hero, with the
right to him that Britain should be defended strength of thirty men in his grasp. Vowing to
by the strength of anyone but Arthur himself. conquer the monster or die, he and his fourteen
companions settled into the hall for the night.
Lisa Spangenberg When the monster arrived, he devoured
one of Beowulf’s men before Beowulf grabbed
See also: Giants. him. After a ferocious wrestling match, Beowulf
ripped off Grendel’s arm, and the mortally
Sources wounded monster fled from the hall and back
Bromwich, Rachel, trans. Trioedd Ynys Prydein: The Welsh
Triads. Cardiff, UK: University of Wales Press, 1978. to the moors.
Ganz, Jeffrey, trans. Mabinogion. New York: Penguin, 1977. That day, the Danes rejoiced. That night,
Jones, Gwyn, trans. Mabinogion. Rutland, VT: Charles E. Grendel’s mother emerged from the fens
Tuttle, 1991. (swamps), snatched up one of the king’s chief
advisers and her son’s arm, which had been
hung up as a trophy, and retreated again to
Beowulf her lair.
(Anglo-Saxon) Death of Grendel
B eowulf is an anonymous epic poem, the

finest example that remains of the Old En-
With the king and chosen warriors, Beowulf
made the nightmarish journey to the pool

64 Beowulf
reign, a dragon’s hoard was robbed by a slave,

and the dragon rose, setting the countryside
on fire, and retrieving its hoard.
Ordering an iron shield made, Beowulf set
out with eleven men for the dragon’s lair. But
Beowulf vowed to take on the dragon himself.
Feeling his end approaching, Beowulf reviewed
his life story, saying farewell to his men.
The battle went against the hero. All of his
men fled except for young Wiglaf, who de-
fended the king. Together, he and Beowulf de-
stroyed the dragon, but Beowulf was mortally
wounded. He ordered Wiglaf to take the trea-
sure out of the cave, thanked God that he had
been able to win it, ordered his burial mound,
gave Wiglaf his battle gear, and died.
The poem ends with the Geats throwing
the dragon’s body into the sea, burning Be-
owulf on a great pyre, and building his burial
mound. There they also buried the treasure,
which was as useless then as it always had been
from the time the dragon gathered it.
Twelve warriors rode around the mound,
bemoaning the loss of their lord, whom they
called the gentlest of men and the most gra-
Grendel, the monstrous enemy of the Anglo-Saxon hero
cious, the most kindly to his people, and the
Beowulf, is depicted with demon horns and animal claws. most eager to win fame.
This illustration of a scene from the Old English epic of
Beowulf was created in the early twentieth century.
(© British Library/HIP/Art Resource, NY) Tradition and Language
As compared to the Iliad and the Odyssey, both
written hundreds of years later, Beowulf is rel-
where Grendel’s mother lurked. Beowulf
atively short at 3,182 lines. Like the Greek
plunged into the pool and was nearly killed.
epics, it is heroic and deals with the noble
Just as the she-monster sat on her “guest” and
class. But where the Greeks regard Olympian
prepared to stab him, Beowulf snatched up
intervention as a relatively normal, if often un-
an ancient, magical sword and killed her.
welcome, occurrence in epics, the Old English
When Beowulf cut off Grendel’s head, the
tradition fuses Teutonic, or Germanic, fatalism
blade of the sword melted. Taking the golden
with Christianity.
hilt and the monster’s head, Beowulf swam
In Beowulf, life is a struggle between hu-
back to the surface, where he celebrated. He
mans and monsters, among people, or between
returned home to King Hygelac and a hero’s
humankind and the environment. A hero can
welcome.
win the struggle as long as his will is strong and
his wyrd, or destiny, does not decree otherwise.
King Beowulf Any victories, however, except for the gaining
After the deaths of King Hygelac and his son, of a good name, are temporary because life is
Heardred, Beowulf became king and ruled the laene, or transitory. Stark as this worldview is,
Geats for fifty years. Toward the end of his the Beowulf poet offers hope by speaking of a

Bestiar y 65
biblical God as halig Scyppend, holy Creator; mi- Garmonsway, G.N., Jacqueline Simpson, and Hilda Ellis
htig Metod, mighty governor; wuldres Wealdend, Davidson. Beowulf and Its Analogues. London: Dent
and Sons, 1968.
ruler of glory; Liffrea, lord of life; and wuldor- Heaney, Seamus, trans. Beowulf: A New Verse Translation.
faeder, glorious father. New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 2000.
Some of the characters in the poem, such Klaeber, F., ed. Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg. Lexing-
as Hygelac, Beowulf’s king, and Hrothgar, the ton, MA: D.C. Heath, 1950.
Tolkien, J.R.R. The Monsters and the Critics and Other Es-
Danish king, are mentioned in other sources,
says. New York: HarperCollins, 1996.
such as the work of Gregory of Tours, who dates
Hygelac’s raid into Frankish territory to 521 C.E.
Subsequent mentions occur in Saxo Grammati-
cus’s Danish history and Snorri Sturluson’s
Berekhiah ben Natronai
Heimskringla, the Icelandic collection of sagas, as
well as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a collection of
ha-Nakdan
historic records of events in British history.
Old English poetry originally was com-
posed and recited by a scop, a performer who
B erekhiah ben Natronai ha-Nakdan was a
French Jewish fabulist, writer, and transla-
tor who was active in the late twelfth or early
sang epics at important ceremonies and festi-
thirteenth century. He was also a biblical com-
vals. By the time Beowulf actually was written
mentator and philosopher.
down, however, it had probably gone through
Almost nothing is known about Berekhiah
several centuries of recitation. The evidence for
ben Natronai ha-Nakdan’s life. His collection of
this lies in the fact that the language of the writ-
fables, Mishlei Shualim (Fox Fables), is derived
ten version includes not just West Saxon forms
from several sources. Some come from the
but other regional elements as well, such as An-
now-lost Latin translation of Aesop’s fables,
glian, Mercian, Kentish, and Northumbrian.
some from Jewish or Middle Eastern sources,
The language is both archaic and noble.
and some from the stories of the twelfth-century
The work begins with Hwaet, the Old English
author Marie de France.
equivalent of “once upon a time.” The reader
Berekhiah’s fables are unique because he
is taken back into misty history, where historic
added narrative details to traditional stories,
personages coexisted with monsters and drag-
introduced biblical quotations and allusions,
ons’ lairs. Another major feature of the verse
and incorporated the language and lessons of
is the kenning—compound words or phrases
the Old Testament.
that express metaphors. Phrases for the sea,
for example, include “swan’s road,” “gannet’s See also: Fables.
bath,” and “whale’s path.”
Although occasionally broken by humor Source
and irony, the language of Beowulf is somber, Hadas, Moses, trans. Fables of a Jewish Aesop. New York:
marked by awareness that happiness in the Columbia University Press, 1967.
world is hard-won and quickly extinguished—
lif ond leoht somod, or life and light together.
Bestiary
Susan M. Shwartz
See also: Epics. A bestiary is a medieval book of animals in

the style of an illustrated encyclopedia. It
contains short descriptions and religious inter-
Sources pretations of both real and fantastic animals,
Chambers, R.W., and C.L. Wrenn. Beowulf: An Introduc-
tion to the Study of the Poem with a Discussion of the Sto-
birds, and gemstones. An element of fantasy
ries of Offa and Finn. London: Cambridge University makes these collections good sources of infor-
Press, 1967. mation for storytellers and scholars.

66 Black Dogs
Even the descriptions of real animals that

are included in bestiaries have an element of
fantasy. The description of the horse, for ex-
ample, included an ancient bit of folklore that
claimed that mares might be made pregnant
by the west wind.
In addition to their entertainment value,
bestiaries also featured religious instruction and
explanations. The purpose of a bestiary proba-
bly was to connect the creatures of the earth
with Christian symbolism, rather than teaching
natural history.
Bestiary animals also are found sculpted
on the walls of medieval churches, where they
served to remind the often-illiterate congrega-
tion of religious stories.
See also: Amphisbaena; Basilisk; Catoblepas;

Cockatrice; Manticore; Vegetable Sheep/
Lamb.
Sources
Baxter, Ron. Bestiaries and Their Users in the Middle Ages.
Stroud, UK: Sutton, 1998.
The Workshop Bestiary was printed in England, possi- White, T.H., ed. The Book of Beasts: Being a Translation
bly in Lincoln or York, in the early twelfth century C.E. from a Latin Bestiary of the Twelfth Century. Mineola,
This page shows goats listening to the preaching of NY: Dover, 1984.
the prophet Amos. (The Pierpont Morgan Library/Art
Resource, NY)
At the heart of each bestiary was a work

Black Dogs
called the Physiologus (Naturalists), which was
originally assembled sometime between the (English)
second and fifth centuries. The work may have
originated in the Near East, since the animals
described in it can be identified as resembling
I n English folklore, supernatural black dogs
are said to haunt the countryside. Nearly
every county has at least one example.
actual creatures or artistic representations that The two most familiar legendary black dogs
have been found in Africa and western Asia. are the Barghest of Yorkshire and Black Shuck
The Physiologus was translated into Latin around of East Anglia. The name of the latter likely de-
the sixth or seventh century. Each animal in- rives from the Old English scucca, which means
cluded in this work represents some aspect of “demon.”
the struggle between God and the devil for the These beasts are nocturnal and are gener-
souls of humans. ally described as monstrous dogs with huge
The majority of bestiaries were compiled teeth and claws. Sometimes headless, they are
in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in West- portents of death or disaster. In the various
ern Europe, and most that survive today origi- counties of Britain, they are called by different
nated in France and Britain. The best known names:
is almost certainly the elegant and colorful Ab-
erdeen Bestiary, which may date to the twelfth Cornwall: the Devil’s Dandy (or
century. Dando) Dogs

Black Magic 67
Devon: the Yeth (Heath) or Wisht Somerset. Both died soon afterward. East An-
Hounds glia, Essex, and Buckinghamshire all have ex-
Peel Castle on the Isle of Man: the amples of phantom dogs that arrived suddenly
Moddey Dhoo, or Mauthe Doog and disappeared in dramatic flashes, with hor-
rifying results. In one case, a farmer burned to
Somerset: the Gurt Dog
death, along with his horse and wagon.
Suffolk: Old Shock Black dogs are mentioned in a few isolated
West Yorkshire: Guytrashm, which in instances in Latin American tales. But the
Lancashire is reduced to “Trash” or phantom black dog, native to the British Isles,
changed to “Skriker” remains a singularly British phenomenon.
In 1127, Abbot Henry of Poitou was ap- Bob Trubshaw

pointed to Peterborough Abbey. He recorded
that “as soon as he came there . . . soon after- See also: Dogs; Kludde.
wards many people saw and heard many
hunters hunting. The hunters were black and Sources
Brown, Theo. “The Black Dog.” Folklore (September
big and loathsome, and their hounds all black 1958): 175–92.
and wide-eyed and loathsome, and they rode Mitchell, John, and Bob Rickard. Phenomena: A Book of
on black horses and black goats.” Wonders. London: Thames and Hudson, 1977.
Medieval Welsh author Walter Map (c. Rudkin, Ethel H. “The Black Dog.” Folklore ( June 1938):
111–13.
1140–1209 C.E.) described a similar wild hunt Westwood, Jennifer. Albion: A Guide to Legendary Britain.
around 1190. Map also wrote of the legend of London: Granada, 1985.
Wild Edric in the Clun area of the Welsh
marches. This legend, which persevered into
the twentieth century, told of Edric, who was
said to haunt the hills around Church Stretton
Black Magic
in the form of a huge black dog.
One of the most familiar stories involving
(Western European)
a black dog is Arthur Conan Doyle’s The Hound
of the Baskervilles, published in 1902. This work
was inspired by the folktale of a phantom black
B lack magic, also known as the black arts, is
magic that is used only for evil purposes
either for the personal gain of the magician or
dog on Dartmoor in Devon County. with the intention of harming or killing an-
Folklore also tells of some dramatic conse- other. Black magic traditionally is said to draw
quences that were the result of phantom black its power from or invoke demons, devils, or
dog sightings. On Sunday, August 4, 1577, an spirits of chaos and destruction. By contrast,
extremely violent thunderstorm shook the white magic is never worked for harm and is
church of Bungay, Suffolk, in England. A fear- said to draw power from heavenly forces.
ful black dog appeared inside the church. Two There are numerous folktales in which
parishioners who were touched by the animal black magic is a major element. In Iceland and
were instantly killed, and a third shriveled up other Scandinavian countries and in Scottish
like a drawn purse. On the same day, a similar folklore, there was a belief that black magic was
hound appeared in the church at Blythburgh, taught by Satan or some other demon at a so-
seven miles away. This event resulted in the called Black School in which students were
death of three people and the sudden illness of trained in all the occult arts. All the tales agree
several others. Today, the Blythburgh mar- that at the end of each term, the students would
ket’s weathervane depicts the fiendish hound. race for the door. The slowest student would be
As recently as 1960, a supernatural black claimed as Satan’s prize. But the tales also agree
dog is said to have been seen by two people in that a student who was clever enough could es-

68 Black School
cape by tricking Satan into grabbing his the linking of education with sorcery was said
shadow. As long as a student never used his to include the Black School. Following are
powers for evil, he could keep his soul safe. two summarized versions of traditional Black
There are also many medieval stories of School tales.
pacts with the devil and of black magicians los- In medieval and Renaissance Scotland, it
ing wagers with Satan. These stories often cen- was believed that those who studied the black
ter on learned men, such as the real-life arts had to have made a compact with Satan.
Dr. Johann Faust of sixteenth-century Germany. The black arts included all types of magical
Black magic is a common plot element in knowledge, including good and bad practices,
modern fantasy novels, including those about such as healing, dealing with herbs, and guard-
Harry Potter. There also have been those who ing against evil spirits. It was said that those
claimed to be black magicians in real life, who learned such skills studied in underground
such as the nineteenth-century mystic Alastair schools that were located in Spain or Italy. It
Crowley, but there is no evidence to support was also said that some of the students learned
those claims. such cunning and cleverness that they could
In the world of computer programming, outwit the devil.
black magic is used as a tongue-in-cheek descrip- On the last day of school, as the last word
tion of a technique that works even though no- of the last lecture was spoken, the students all
body really understands why. And in popular fled through a long, dark corridor, where Sa-
music, black magic often refers to the power of tan waited to snatch the last one. If that last
love, in songs such as “That Old Black Magic” student cried to the devil, “There’s another
and “Black Magic Woman.” one behind me!” Satan would see what he
thought was another student and grab at it,
See also: White Magic. only to find that it was the clever student’s
shadow.
Sources
Cavendish, Richard. The Black Arts. New York: Putnam,
In Iceland, students at the Black School
1967. studied all manner of magical arts. Classes
Gregor, Walter. Notes on the Folk-Lore of the North-East of were held somewhere underground, in a dark
Scotland. London: Folk-Lore Society, 1881. place where the students read from books
Waite, Arthur E. The Book of Black Magic and Ceremonial
with fiery letters. They were not permitted to
Magic: The Secret Tradition in Goetia. Whitefish, MT:
Kessinger, 1999. leave that dark place for the length of their
study, which lasted from five to seven years.
One rule that all the students knew was that
Black School the owner of the school, the devil, would
claim whichever student was last to leave the
school.
(Scandinavian and Scottish) There were three Icelanders among the stu-
T he Black School was a private school, said

to have been run by the devil, where stu-
dents were taught sorcery and the so-called
dents in this school, Saemundur the Learned,
Kálfur Arnason, and Hálfdán Eldjárnsson. Sae-
mundur stated that he would be the last to
black arts. leave, and he threw a large mantle over himself,
In the days before universal literacy and leaving the sleeves loose and the fastenings free.
public schooling, those who were educated As Saemundur started up the staircase to the
were sometimes thought to be in league with upper world, the devil cried, “You are mine!”
dark forces. This belief goes back at least But as the devil grabbed Saemunder’s mantle,
to ancient Egypt, where a scholarly son of Saemunder slipped out of it, leaving the devil
Pharaoh Ramses II was thought to be a magi- holding only the mantle. Saemunder rushed up
cian. In medieval Scandinavia and Scotland, the stairs and out through the open door. In

Bluebeard 69
another version of this tale, it was Saemunder’s

shadow that was taken, as in the Scottish tale.
See also: Black Magic; Tale Types.
Sources
Arnason, Jon. Icelandic Legends. London: Longmans,
1866.
Gregor, Walter. Notes on the Folk-Lore of the North-East of
Scotland. London: Folk-Lore Society, 1881.
Simpson, Jacqueline, trans. and ed. Scandinavian Folk-
tales. London: Penguin, 1988.
Bluebeard
(Western European)
T he Bluebeard folktale, about a psychotic

and murderous husband and his curious
wife, can be taken as a warning against either
wifely disobedience or taking up with a man
one barely knows.
Probably the most familiar version of this
dark folktale is the one told by Charles Perrault,
the seventeenth-century French author. In this
The French version of the folktale of the murderous
account, Bluebeard was a dark and ominous no- Bluebeard is “Barbe Bleue.” These two scenes are
bleman with a literally blue beard. Fatima, the from the operetta of that name by French composer
youngest of three sisters, agreed to marry him, Jacques Offenbach (1819–1880). (Réunion des Musées
Nationaux/Art Resource, NY)
in spite of his forbidding temperament.
Upon Fatima’s arrival at his castle, Blue-
beard gave his new bride the keys to every
room. But he sternly forbade her to enter one tale type shows up in versions from Germany,
small chamber. The suspense proved too Italy, and other countries. In the Italian ver-
much for Fatima. When her husband was sion, the devil, not Bluebeard, is the villain.
away, she unlocked and opened the forbidden The story of Bluebeard inspired the
door—and was confronted with utter horror. work of three composers. In 1866, Frenchman
The room was filled with blood, and on the Jacques Offenbach wrote an operetta about
wall hung the dead bodies of Bluebeard’s for- Barbe Bleue (Bluebeard). In 1907, French com-
mer wives. poser Paul Dukas wrote Ariane et Barbe-Bleue
Terrified, Fatima shut and locked the door, (Ariane and Bluebeard), a more eerily psycholog-
unaware that there was blood on the key. ical take on the tale that reflected the growing
Bluebeard would know from that blood what interest in psychiatry at the time. And in 1911,
the terrified young woman had done and the Hungarian composer and folk musicologist
seen. He would have murdered her, too, but Béla Bartók wrote Bluebeard’s Castle, a darkly
her brothers arrived in the nick of time and psychological and sensual version of the story.
killed Bluebeard. Today, a murderous husband still may be
Although it is theorized that Perrault based referred to as a Bluebeard.
the character of Bluebeard on the real-life
fifteenth-century serial killer Gilles de Rais, the See also: Perrault, Charles; Tale Types.

70 Boccaccio, Giovanni
Sources court. Boccaccio’s story “Fiammetta” is per-

Crane, Thomas Frederick. Italian Popular Tales. Boston: haps the most original and the most personal
Houghton Mifflin, 1885. of his works, since Panfilo, Fiammetta’s hero
Meier, Ernst. Deutsche Volksmärchen aus Schwaben.
Stuttgart, Germany: C.P. Scheitlin’s Verlagshand-
and lover, may represent Boccaccio.
lung, 1852. Boccaccio’s father died in 1348, and Boc-
Perrault, Charles. The Complete Fairy Tales of Charles Per- caccio took on the guardianship of his younger
rault. Trans. Neil Philip and Nicoletta Simborowski. brother. From the mid-1340s on, Boccaccio
New York: Clarion, 1993.
held various public offices in Florence and
served as a diplomat to Padua, the Romagna,
Boccaccio, Giovanni Avignon, and elsewhere. It was during these

trips that he met the great poet Petrarch in
1350, and the two became lifelong friends.
(1313–1375) Inspired by the learned Petrarch, Boccac-
cio became a scholar of Latin and Greek. Few
G iovanni Boccaccio was a fourteenth-cen-
tury Italian poet and storyteller, noted pri-
marily as the author of the Decameron.
Italians of the time could read classical Greek,
and Boccaccio had to hire a private teacher in
order to study Homer.
Boccaccio was born in Paris in 1313, the il-
legitimate son of an Italian father and a French Decameron
mother. His merchant father had gone into
business in Paris but soon left France and Boc- Between 1348 and 1353, Boccaccio wrote the
caccio’s mother, taking the young Boccaccio work for which he is best known, the Decameron,
with him to Florence. In 1327, Boccaccio was a collection of stories told by ten characters—
sent to Naples to study law, but he soon turned seven ladies and three gentlemen—who have
to literature instead. come to a villa outside of Naples to avoid the
Sources disagree, but some say that in about ravages of the Black Death. On each of ten
1334, Boccaccio first saw a woman named days, each of the company tells a story, totaling
Maria D’Aquino, according to some records the one hundred tales in all. The name Decameron
daughter of King Robert. She is said to have means “Ten Days’ Work.”
been the one to introduce Boccaccio at court The tales range from humorous to folk-
and to have encouraged him to write. He was loric to erotic. Geoffrey Chaucer’s later work
later said to have immortalized her in prose and The Canterbury Tales (written between 1387 and
verse as Fiammetta. 1400) features a similar framework, in which a
group of people share tales to entertain them-
Early Works selves during the course of a pilgrimage.
In his later years, Boccaccio published
Boccaccio’s first and longest work, perhaps in- scholarly works on subjects as disparate as
spired by Maria d’Aquino, is the Filocolo. Writ- mythology and geography. Never wealthy,
ten between 1338 and 1340, it is a version he also was plagued by ill health. In Florence
of the popular medieval story “Floire and in 1373, he began a series of lectures on
Blanchefleur” and contains both Christian and Dante and the Inferno, but he never com-
pagan elements. The Ameto, written in the next pleted them.
two years, is an allegorical work that includes Boccaccio died on December 21, 1375.
the tragic story of Boccaccio’s mother. The Decameron has been in print almost con-
Other early works include Filostrato, tinually since 1370 and is available in dozens
which sets the story “Troilus and Cressida,” a of languages.
medieval fable also used by Geoffrey Chaucer
and William Shakespeare, in the Neopolitan See also: Decameron.

Boy Who Didn’t Know Fear 71
Sources
Boccaccio, Giovanni. The Decameron. Philadelphia: Boy Who Didn’t
Franklin Library, 1981.
Chubb, Thomas Caldecott. The Life of Giovanni Boccaccio.
London: Cassell, 1930.
Know Fear
Edgerton, Maria Louise. Illustrated Literary Cyclopaedias:
Italian Literature. London: Simpkin, Marshall, Hamil-
ton, Kent, n.d. A world folktale type, a tale of a boy who
didn’t know fear is known by various
names and in different versions in almost
every culture. It has been and still is popu-
Bogatyr/Bogatyri lar throughout Europe and in the United
States.
The basic theme of the story is of a heroic
(Russian) boy or young man who is almost mindlessly
A bogatyr is the Russian equivalent of an

Arthurian knight. These knights, or bo-
gatyri, are the fictional, or possibly fictionalized,
brave and literally does not know what fear is.
The hero is overwhelmed by curiosity or a
need to learn the unknown, and he sets out on
heroes of the bylini, which are the Russian folk a quest to find it. This tale goes by various
epic poems that originated in Kievan Russia names, such as “The Boy Who Wanted to
between the tenth and twelfth centuries. Know What Fear Was” and “The Boy Who
The bogatyri were valiant warriors associ- Couldn’t Shudder.”
ated with the court of Prince Vladimir of Kiev. As the boy sets out on his quest to learn
Some were nobles, but others were common- about the nature of fear, he finds himself con-
ers. Two of the most popular bogatyri were fronted by a variety of what should be truly
Dobrynya Nikitich, a nobleman hero who was frightening experiences. Some of his experi-
sent by Prince Vladimir on diplomatic mis- ences, taken from various international folk-
sions or to slay dragons, and Ilya Muromets, a tales, include:
peasant from Murom who was frequently in-
volved in warfare against the enemies of Kievan • Playing cards with the devil or a group
Russia. of devils, either in an abandoned house
The bogatyri often possessed more than or in a church.
mere heroism or prowess with weapons. Some • Staying all night in a cemetery or
had extraordinary strength, and others were haunted house and watching severed
aided by disguises or magic weapons. What- limbs reassemble themselves into a
ever their skills, the bogatyri set out from the dead man.
court either on adventures or to protect Russia • Stealing a ghost’s clothes.
from its enemies. They always achieved their • Defeating a pack of monster cats.
goals and returned victorious. • Letting a barber-ghost shave him.
See also: Bylina/Bylini; Dobrynya Nikitich; Ilya • Trimming the devil’s nails.
Murometz/Ilya of Murom; Slavic Mythology.
But the boy fails in all his attempts to learn
Sources fear. He defeats the monsters and devils in
Bailey, James, and Tatyana Ivanova. An Anthology of almost casual heroic fashion.
Russian Folk Epics. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, Finally, the young man’s impatient girl-
1999. friend or wife tires of hearing him complain
Costello, D.P., and I.P. Foote. Russian Folk Literature. Ox-
ford, UK: Clarendon. 1967.
about never knowing fear. So she slips fish or
Hapgood, Isabel Florence, trans. The Epic Songs of Russia. eels down his neck or drops ice water on him
New York: Scribner’s, 1886. while he sleeps. He wakes up with a shivering

72 Bremen Town Musicians
start. Now, he knows what the shuddering of formance. The donkey brayed, the hound
fear is! barked, the cat meowed, and the cock crowed.
Versions of this tale have been collected in The robbers jumped up in horror at the
Europe, Scandinavia, Britain, Russia, and the sudden din, certain that the noise was super-
United States. natural, and fled into the forest. The four mu-
sicians ate the feast that had been left behind
See also: Tale Types. and settled down for the night. Tired from
their long walk, they soon fell asleep.
Sources
Aarne, Antti, The Types of the Folktale: A Classification and
Meanwhile, the leader of the thieves sent
Bibliography. Trans. Stith Thompson. Bloomington: one of the men back to investigate. The thief
Indiana University Press, 1995. tiptoed into the house and mistook the cat’s
Luthi, Max. Once Upon a Time: On the Nature of Fairy Tales. glowing eyes for live coals. As the man held a
Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1976.
match to the cat’s face to light it, the startled
Thompson, Stith. Folktale. Berkeley: University of Cali-
fornia Press, 1977. cat leapt at him, spitting and scratching. The
thief tried to flee, tripped over the dog, and
was bitten. The awakened donkey kicked the
Bremen Town Musicians man, and the startled rooster crowed.
The thief raced back to his leader and cried,
“There’s a monstrous witch in that house! She
(German) spat on me and scratched my face with her long
T he familiar story of the Bremen Town Mu-

sicians tells of four aging animals that left
their masters after being mistreated. The four
claws. By the door stands a man with a knife
who stabbed me in the leg! In the yard, there
lies another monster who beat me with a
formed a successful partnership. The popular- wooden club. And on the roof sits the judge
ity of this tale may be attributed to the themes who called out, ‘Bring the rogue here to me!’ So
of seemingly unwanted beings finding a place I got away as well as I could.”
and the elderly showing that they are not use- After this, the robbers never again dared
less. to enter the house. This suited the four musi-
The most common version of the tale is cians of Bremen so well that they lived there
from the Brothers Grimm, in their work titled happily ever after.
Household Tales, but the basic story can be found There are other versions of this tale type
in other versions from around the world. The from France, several Arabic-speaking lands,
following is a basic summary of the Grimms’ England, the United States, Norway, China,
version. and others. The types of animals involved vary,
Four unwanted, aging animals—a donkey, but the scaring off of the robbers and subse-
a hound, a cat, and a rooster—headed to the quent settling at the house remain constant.
village of Bremen, where they planned to
make a new life for themselves as musicians. See also: Tale Types.
They came upon a well-lighted house that had
been taken over by robbers who had set a fine Sources
table for themselves. The animals decided that Asbjørnsen, Peter Christen, and Jorgen Moe, comp. Nor-
wegian Folk Tales. New York: Viking, 1960.
this house would be perfect for them and de- Bushnaq, Inea, ed. and trans. Arab Folktales. New York:
cided to sing for the robbers. Pantheon, 1986.
The donkey placed his forefeet on the Grimm, Jacob, and Wilhelm Grimm. The Complete Fairy
window ledge, the hound jumped on the don- Tales of the Brothers Grimm. Trans. Jack Zipes. New
York: Bantam, 1987.
key’s back, the cat climbed on the dog, and Massignon, Genevieve, comp. Folktales of France. Trans.
the cock perched on the head of the cat. Once Jacqueline Hyland. Chicago: University of Chicago
they were in position, the four began their per- Press, 1968.

Br idges 73
Bridges
B ridges serve a basic function in the world.
They allow traffic to pass over obstacles,
such as rivers or roads. But bridges also have
symbolic uses.
Moon bridges in Chinese or Japanese gar-
dens, for example, were originally designed to
be utilitarian. Their high arches allowed canal
boats and barges to pass underneath. Over
time, the design became a symbol of the rising
Moon.
A lovely moon bridge, in typical Chinese and Japanese
Bridges sometimes are constructed over style, imitates the arch of the full moon. In stories,
artificial waterways, such as at the approach to bridges may link parts of the real world or join worlds
a royal palace. These bridges symbolize a pas- of myth. (Harald Sund/Photographer’s Choice/Getty
Images)
sage to the proper state of mind, or from the
mundane to the grand. The Forbidden City in
Beijing, China, has bridges like this, includ-
ing one that was used only by the emperor by the devil or another supernatural being.
and empress. The keeper of the bridge demanded posses-
sion of the first living thing to cross the bridge.
Mythic Bridges of the West The devil is always cheated in these tales by
being offered an animal rather than a human.
Bridges also are found throughout world myths
In South America, the Inca believed that
and folklore. These bridges lead from mortal
to reach Hanan Pacha, the heavenly realm,
realms to the dominions of the dead or of
the souls of the dead must cross a bridge wo-
the gods.
ven from hairs. Only good souls could cross
In Norse mythology, the bridge called
it safely.
Bifrost separates Midgard, the mortal realm,
from Asgard, the home of the gods. Bifrost
was made of rainbow colors with magic and
Eastern Traditions
great skill by the Aesir, the principal race of In Zoroastrian myth, the dead must cross the
gods, and it is incredibly strong. Since it pro- Cinvat, or Separation Bridge. For the righteous,
vides the only way to enter Asgard, Bifrost is the bridge seems wide, but for the wicked, it ap-
closely guarded by Heimdall, who serves as pears to be as thin as a razor’s edge. In Islamic
watchman to the gods. During Ragnarok, tradition, the bridge to paradise, Al-Sirat, is nar-
which is the end of the world in Norse mythol- rower than spider’s silk and sharper than a
ogy, this rainbow bridge would collapse. An- sword. Only the good pass over it, while the
other Norse bridge was the Gjallar Brú, the wicked fall down to hell.
gold-roofed “echoing bridge” over the River In the Altai region of southern Siberia, the
Gjoll that led to Hel’s land of the dead. underworld realm of the perilous Erlik Khan
Some North American myths, including is reachable only by a bridge that is as narrow
those believed by the peoples of the Great as a hair. The sea below the bridge is full of the
Plains, include stories of a bridge between the bones of shamans who failed to cross it.
living and dead. This bridge shakes so fiercely In Malaysia, the Semang people tell of a
that no living person can cross it. bridge called Balan Bacham. This bridge
In Teutonic and Celtic folklore, there is a reaches over the ocean to Belet, the island af-
tale type that involves a bridge that was built terworld. It is guarded so that only the good

74 Broadside Ballads
souls may cross over it. Its guardian is named mentioning the title of the familiar tune to
Mampes. In the beliefs of the Sakai people, which the words could be sung. One of the ear-
also of Malaysia, a bridge called Menteg spans liest English examples, a Robin Hood ballad
a cauldron of boiling water. Those who are called “A Lytel Geste of Robyne Hood,” dates
wicked are unable to cross safely. to the first decade of the sixteenth century. By
Japanese mythology includes a floating 1520, broadside ballads had become so popu-
bridge that leads from Earth to heaven. It be- lar that a bookseller in Oxford sold nearly 200
longs to Uzume, goddess of dance, and is of them.
guarded by her husband, god of pathways. By 1556, English law stated that all print-
ers had to be licensed through the Stationers’
Bridges in Modern Tales Company in London. In 1557, the Stationers’
Company began a copyright service that re-
The destruction of a bridge is often an impor-
quired legal registration of printed ballads at
tant plot point in modern fiction and motion
4 pence each. For the length of time that this
pictures. Thornton Wilder’s novel The Bridge
registration was in force, through 1709, the
of San Luis Rey, centers on the collapse of a
company’s records reveal more than 3,000
bridge. Pierre Boulle’s novel Le Pont de la Riv-
entries.
ière Kwai, was made into a memorable film in
Broadside ballads could be purchased not
1957, called The Bridge on the River Kwai. This
only from booksellers but from traveling ped-
story involves a bridge that is destroyed dur-
dlers and at market stalls. As a result, they
ing World War II.
were also known as stall ballads. Many of the
broadsides were illustrated with woodcuts
See also: Asgard.
and pinned up on walls. Once a song was
Sources learned, it could be pasted over with a new
Knapp, Ronald G. Chinese Bridges. New York: Oxford broadside.
University Press, 1993. Broadside ballads also were used for adver-
Knappert, Jan. Malay Myths and Legends. Kuala Lum- tisements, as souvenirs, and as decorations in
pur, Malaysia: Heinemann Educational Books homes and pubs. In his book The Compleat An-
(Asia), 1980.
Urton, Gary. Inca Myths. Austin: University of Texas Press, gler (1653), Izaak Walton described “an honest
1999. ale-house, where we shall find a cleanly room,
Whitney, Charles S. Bridges of the World: Their Design and lavender in the windows, and twenty ballads
Construction. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2003. stuck about the wall.”
After their popularity waned in the eigh-
teenth century, broadsides made a brief re-
Broadside Ballads turn to fame during the nineteenth century.
They faded into obscurity at the turn of the
I n the sixteenth century, typesetters began

to print and sell folk songs on individual
sheets of paper, a practice that quickly be-
twentieth century, when they were replaced
by professionally printed sheet music and
newspapers.
came common throughout Western Europe
and, a little over a century later, in the Amer- See also: Ballads; Chapbooks.
icas. A broadside is anything printed on only Sources
one side of a sheet, from handouts to adver- Atkinson, David. “Sabine Baring-Gold’s Contribution to
tisements, and so these printed folk songs the English and Scottish Popular Ballads.” In Ballads
quickly became known as broadside ballads into Books: The Legacies of Francis James Child. Ed.
Tom Cheesman and Sigrid Rieuwerts. Oxford, UK:
or, simply, broadsides. Peter Lang, 1997.
The earliest examples of broadside bal- Shepard, Leslie. The Broadside Ballad. Hatboro, PA:
lads did not include the music, only a note Legacy, 1962.

Brothers Gr imm 75
Brothers Grimm six tales, was first published in 1812. A sec-

ond, enlarged volume, containing seventy ad-
ditional tales, followed in 1815, and a third
T he German scholars Jacob (1785–1863)

and Wilhelm (1786–1859) Grimm are best
known for their influential fairy-tale collec-
annotated volume was published in 1822.
The sixth and final version to be published in
their lifetime contained 200 numbered stories
tions. The brothers also contributed to the and a further ten children’s legends. (The
fields of philology, linguistics, history, ethnol- standard abbreviation for the tales in the col-
ogy, religion, jurisprudence, lexicography, and lection is KHM.) Other works included two
literary criticism. volumes of Deutsche Sagen (German Legends),
The Grimm brothers were born in rural published in 1816 and 1818, and Jacob’s ex-
Hanau, Germany. Their family moved to tensive Deutsche Mythologie (German Mythology),
Steinau in 1791 when their father, Philipp published in 1855.
Wilhelm Grimm, was appointed magistrate. The Grimms were highly respected schol-
Philipp died suddenly in 1796, and in 1798 ars, and they corresponded with leading intel-
Jacob and Wilhelm went to live with their lectuals throughout Europe. Their ideas about
maternal aunt in Cassel, where they attended a systematic, scholarly approach to folk narra-
school. Both boys went on to study law at the tives invigorated collectors in other countries
University of Marburg; Jacob in 1802 and and inspired fieldwork in the Netherlands,
Wilhelm in 1803. It was there that they both Denmark, Italy, and Scotland.
became interested in German literature and
folklore. In 1806, the brothers began to col-
lect folktales.
The folktales, though, were not collected di-
rectly from the common folk, but rather from
educated friends and neighbors who enjoyed
sharing the tales they had heard. One of the
brothers’ best contributors, Henriette Dorothea
(Dortchen) Wild, would become Wilhelm’s
wife. The brothers also edited and even rewrote
many of the tales. In the original version of
“Hansel and Gretel,” for example, it was the
mother who abandoned her children. The
brothers replaced this character with a cruel
stepmother.
On the death of their mother, Dorothea
Grimm, in 1808 at the age of fifty-two, Jacob as-
sumed financial responsibility for his sister and
four younger brothers, and he took a librarian
position at Cassel. Wilhelm soon joined him. In
1829, they accepted positions at the University
of Göttingen as librarians and professors, fol-
lowed by professorial appointments at the Uni-
versity of Berlin in 1842.
The Grimms wrote profusely throughout Jacob Ludwig Karl Grimm (left) and Wilhelm Carl
their academic careers, both together and in- Grimm are among the best-known folklorists and writ-
ers of fairy tales. This photograph was taken sometime
dividually. Kinder- und Hausmärchen (Children’s around 1835. (Time & Life Pictures/Stringer/Getty
and Household Tales), which contained eighty- Images)

76 Brownies
Though the brothers were by no means

the first to publish fairy tales, their lives and Brownies
work have prompted hundreds of books and
articles in several languages, including fairy- (British)
tale editions, biographies, commentaries, and
critiques. Scholars and enthusiasts alike have
offered analyses of the Grimms’ scholarship
and methodology, as well as literary and psy-
B rownies are small fairylike beings from
British and Scottish folklore that live in
human dwellings and help out with household
choanalytical interpretations of the texts they tasks.
collected. Traditionally brownies are described as
The brothers’ contribution to folkloristics hairy and rather homely, with flat faces and
remains a paradox, for while they could not winning smiles that make up for their ugliness.
resist improving and altering the tales that They are generally good-natured and can make
they collected, their works are still in as much themselves invisible, although very young chil-
demand as the standard versions. Jacob and dren sometimes can see them. Brownies typi-
Wilhelm have become part of folklore and are cally work only at night and do not want to be
inseparable as the Brothers Grimm. seen as they tidy up, mend clothing, and do
Jacob retired from his university posi- any other chores necessary to help “their” hu-
tion in 1848, Wilhelm retired from his position mans.
in 1853. The brothers dedicated their re- Brownies will accept food, particularly
maining years to pursuing private studies and milk or cream, but will abandon a house if
research. someone says within their hearing that the
On December 16, 1859, Wilhelm passed gifts are payment. They will definitely flee
away at the age of seventy-three; he was sur- any home in which they are mistreated or,
vived by his brother. Jacob died on Septem- more mysteriously, if they are offered gifts
ber 20, 1863, at the age of seventy-eight. of clothing.
Maria Teresa Agozzino Brownies are said to be protective of their
chosen families. They may become so attached
to them that they move wherever the family
See also: German Storytelling; Hansel and
moves.
Gretel.
In Wales, brownies are called the bwca, or
pwca. These helpful creatures are willing to
Sources
Ashliman, D.L., comp. Grimm Brothers’ Home Page.
perform small labors, such as churning butter,
http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/grimm.html. in exchange for a bowl of cream. But if mis-
Dundes, Alan, ed. “Circular Concerning the Collecting treated, a bwca will pound the walls, throw
of Folk Poetry,” by Jacob Grimm. In International small objects, pinch sleeping people, and make
Folkloristics: Classic Contributions by the Founders of
life generally unpleasant. A parallel to the
Folklore. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield,
1999. British brownie appears in the Grimm Broth-
McGlathery, James M. Grimm’s Fairy Tales: A History of ers’ tale “The Shoemaker and the Elves.”
Criticism on a Popular Classic. Columbia, SC: Cam- In the early twentieth century, brownies
den House, 1993. were popularized in the humorous cartoons ac-
McGlathery, James M., Larry W. Danielson, Ruth E.
Lorbe, and Selma K. Richardson, eds. The Brothers companied by verse that were created by Cana-
Grimm and Folktale. Urbana: University of Illinois dian artist and author Palmer Cox. It is after
Press, 1988. these brownies that the junior branch of the Girl
Michaelis-Jena, Ruth. The Brothers Grimm. New York: Guides in Britain and Girl Scouts in the United
Praeger, 1970.
Zipes, Jack. The Brothers Grimm: From Enchanted
States get their names.
Forests to the Modern World. New York: Routledge, More recently, when someone does a good
1988. deed, he or she is said to earn so-called brownie

Brunhilde/Br ynhild/Brunnehilde 77
points, though this more likely refers to the re- been made from stolen gold and was therefore
ward system of the Girl Scouts and Girl Guides cursed. When Brunhilde later learned that Sig-
than to the brownies of folklore. In addition, the urd had betrayed her with another woman,
Cleveland Browns football team used a brownie Gudrun, she sought revenge. Unaware that
as its mascot from 1946 until the mid-1960s, and Sigurd had been bewitched into wedding Gu-
again after 1999. drun, Brunhilde facilitated his murder. Upon
The house elves featured in J.K. Rowling’s learning the truth, Brunhilde killed herself.
Harry Potter series are similar to folklore In the German sagas, in particular the Ni-
brownies in their behavior, especially when the belungenlied (Song of the Nibelungs), Brunhilde has
act of giving a brownie a gift of clothing sets a a much larger role. She was a tragic heroine,
brownie free from servitude. the warrior queen of Iceland whom Siegfried
defeated in combat and won for his brother-in-
See also: Domovoi/Domovois; Pixies; Tomte/ law, Gunther. Brunhilde hated Siegfried and
Tomten/Tomtar; Retelling: The Cauld Lad of plotted his death at the hands of Gunther’s
Hilton. henchman, Hagen.
Her story may be based in part on the life of
Sources Queen Brunhild, who ruled in the late sixth and
Briggs, Katharine M. British Folktales. New York: Pan-
early seventh centuries. The historical Brunhild
theon, 1977.
Briggs, Katherine M., and Ruth L. Tongue, eds. Folktales was queen of a Frankish kingdom that is now
of England. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, part of France and Germany. She is said to have
1969. fought a bloody war to avenge her sister’s mur-
Henderson, William. Notes on the Folk Lore of the Northern der and then ruled as regent after the death of
Counties of England and the Borders. London: Long-
mans, Green, 1866. her husband.
The fictional Germanic Brunhilde’s story
was referenced by nineteenth-century Ger-
Brunhilde/Brynhild/ man poet and playwright Emanuel von
Geibel, whose play Brunhild first appeared in
Brunnehilde 1858. Richard Wagner’s series of mythic op-
eras known as the Ring Cycle was inspired by
both the Germanic and Norse versions of this
(Norse) story. But Wagner transformed it back into a
T he warrior woman called Brunhilde is the

epitome of a scorned woman who takes
terrible revenge. In the Norse myths, she is
fully mythic, rather than pseudo-historic, epic.
In Wagner’s opera, Brunhilde’s suicide not
only ends the story of love and betrayal, but
one of the Valkyrie, the minor female deities, also brings down the corrupt world of the
but in German myth she is human. gods and marks the beginning of a new, un-
In Norse mythology, her name is spelled tainted world.
Brynhild, most notably in the Icelandic me-
dieval Volsunga saga. She was one of the god See also: Norse Mythology; Odin/Odhinn;
Odin’s nine daughters, but she defied her fa- Valkyries.
ther and was subsequently imprisoned in a
ring of fire. She was to remain there until a Sources
brave hero rescued her. Andersson, Theodore M. The Legend of Brynhild. Ithaca,
That hero was Sigurd, called Siegfried in NY: Cornell University Press, 1980.
the German version. He braved the fire, woke Byock, Jesse L., trans. The Saga of the Volsungs: The Norse
Epic of Sigurd the Dragon Slayer. New York: Penguin,
Brunhilde from her charmed sleep, fell in 2000.
love with her, and gave her a ring. What the Hatto, A.T., trans. The Nibelungenlied. New York: Pen-
couple did not know was that this ring had guin, 1965.

78 Bucephalus
Bucephalus From that time forward, Alexander took

Bucephalus with him on all of his campaigns.
When Bucephalus died, Alexander named a
(Greek) city after him. Scholars believe that the city of
Bucephalas once stood in what is now Pakistan.
O ne of the most famous horses in his-

tory is Alexander the Great’s stallion,
Bucephalus.
See also: Animal Helper and Grateful Animal.
Little is known about Bucephalus’s breed- Sources

ing, or even his appearance, except that he was Plutarch. The Life of Alexander the Great. Trans. John Dry-
den. New York: Modern Library, 2004.
dark in color. He may have come from mixed Pomeroy, Sarah B., et al. Ancient Greece: A Political, Social,
stock—Oriental and Thracian—and might and Cultural History. New York: Oxford University
even have had some Arab blood. Bucephalus Press, 1999.
probably was raised on the rich grass of Thes- Wilcken, Ulrich. Alexander the Great. New York: W.W.
Norton, 1967.
saly, where Philip of Macedon, Alexander’s
father, pastured his large herds of horses. The
name Bucephalus means “ox head,” which may
have meant that he had a broad forehead. It Bull of Heaven
also may have been a reference to his brand,
since brands in the shape of ox heads were in (Sumerian and Babylonian)
use in Alexander’s time.
The story of Alexander taming Bucephalus
was first told in Plutarch’s Life of Alexander. King
T he Bull of Heaven in both Sumerian and
Babylonian tradition was a killer beast un-
der the control of the sky god, An or Anu. A
Philip was presented with the horse when Bu-
myth about the bull is preserved in a Sumer-
cephalus was a colt. The steed was already so
ian composition within the Epic of Gilgamesh.
spectacular that comparisons had been made to
This ancient text about the hero Gilgamesh
Pegasus, the winged horse of Greek myth. A
dates to the third century B.C.E. A version of
prophecy by the Delphic oracle added that
The Bull of Heaven is in a later Babylonian work
whoever was able to ride Bucephalus would
as well, also called the Epic of Gilgamesh.
become king of the world.
The Sumerian work, called Gilgamesh and
With this incentive, Philip ordered his sta-
the Bull of Heaven, opens with a paean of praise
blemen to attempt to ride the horse—but Bu-
for the hero Gilgamesh. Inanna, the principal
cephalus was so wild that he threw each of
female Sumerian deity, saw Gilgamesh and
them to the ground. The disappointed Philip
became infatuated. She entreated him to re-
ordered that the horse be sent away. But the
main with her as a lover.
young Alexander stopped his father. He said
Gilgamesh informed his mother, Ninsun,
that a horse should not be blamed for poor
that he was trapped and that the goddess would
riders, and that he could ride Bucephalus.
not let him return to his city to resume his royal
Philip challenged him to do so.
duties as a judge in the E-ana temple. Ninsun
Alexander had realized that it was the
advised her son to reject the goddess’s amorous
horse’s shadow that had alarmed Bucephalus.
advances, saying that he should not allow her
So Alexander soothed the horse and turned
allure to distract him, for she would rob him of
him away from his shadow. Alexander was
his powers.
then able to ride him with no trouble. Philip
was so astonished by his son’s feat that he an-
nounced that Alexander was to find a king-
Gilgamesh Battles the Bull
dom that was worthy of him. He felt that their Gilgamesh rejected Inanna, saying that he
land of Macedon was clearly far too small. would not allow her to distract him from his

Bull of Heaven 79
royal duties. Inanna was enraged. She de- Gilgamesh rejected her advances. He
manded of her father, the god An, that he give scorned her and threw back at her a list of
her the monster Bull of Heaven to attack and her past lovers, all of whom she had dis-
kill Gilgamesh. An replied that the bull was too carded after her passion had cooled. Ishtar
dangerous to be let loose: It would kill innocent became furious and rushed off in tears to seek
people and drink their blood. Inanna wept and counsel from her father, Anu, and her mother,
then let loose a terrifying scream in order to get Antum.
her way. The scream was so intense that all hu- Ishtar’s kindly father, Anu, replied that
manity cowered in fear. Reluctantly, An gave her behavior was inappropriate. But the god-
in and granted his daughter the use of the bull. dess was still enraged and implored her father
The bull attacked the city of Uruk, Gil- to give her control over the Bull of Heaven so
gamesh’s hometown. It ate all the vegetation, that she could seek revenge for Gilgamesh’s
stripped bare the fields, and crushed the city’s insults. Her pleading was successful. Anu gave
date palms. Gilgamesh prepared to battle the her use of the bull, which she proceeded to
bull, arming himself with a mighty dagger and lead toward Uruk, Gilgamesh’s home.
his bronze battle-axe. When they came to Uruk, the bull went on
Gilgamesh told his mother that if he was a rampage. It gulped up enormous amounts of
able to slay the monster, he would dismember water, which caused the marshes, groves, and
it, throw its carcass into an alley, place its en- reed beds to go dry. It also drank from the Eu-
trails in the main thoroughfare, give its hide to phrates River and made its water level drop by
the tanner, and present its meat to the city’s seven cubits. With its snorts, it opened up great
orphans. Its horns, he said contemptuously, pits in the ground, and hundreds of Uruk’s
would be returned to Inanna to be used as con- youth fell in.
tainers for oil in her temple. Finally, Enkidu, Gilgamesh’s companion,
As the goddess watched from the top of who had fallen into one of the pits, jumped up
her temple wall, Gilgamesh, with the aid of his and seized the bull by its horns. Angered, the
servant Enkidu, attacked the bull. Gilgamesh bull spewed foam in Enkidu’s face and swished
stood before it as Enkidu seized it by the tail. dung at him with the tuft of its tail. Enkidu re-
Gilgamesh hit the bull on the head with his leased the bull’s horns and circled behind the
axe, and the bull collapsed and died. bull, grabbing its tail. Gilgamesh, dagger in
Gilgamesh took out his knife and dismem- hand, stabbed the bull in the neck behind its
bered the monster. As the hero cut into the horns.
bull, Inanna fled. Gilgamesh shouted after her The great monster died, and the two he-
in anger that, given the chance, he would roes ripped out its heart. Enkidu then tore off
have killed her as well. Then Gilgamesh, just as the bull’s haunch and flung it at the goddess,
he had promised, cut apart the monster, gave saying that he would do the same to her. Gil-
its meat to the orphans, and presented its two gamesh finally took the bull’s horns, molded
horns to be used in the temple as vessels for oil. from precious lapis stone, and hung them up
in his bedchamber.
The episode ends with a parade of triumph
The Babylonian Epic in honor of Gilgamesh and Enkidu.
In the Babylonian variant of the story, after
Gilgamesh killed the giant guardian of the Ira Spar
Cedar Forest, he washed and put on clean
See also: Gilgamesh.
clothes. Ishtar, the Babylonian form of Inanna,
upon seeing his beauty, became aroused. She Sources
proposed marriage, offering him wealth and Black, J.A., G. Cunningham, J. Ebeling, E. Flückiger-
grandeur. Hawker, E. Robson, J. Taylor, and G. Zólyomi. The

80 Bunyips
Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature. 2006.

http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/.
Dalley, Stephanie, trans. Mesopotamian Myths. New York:
Bylina/Bylini
Oxford University Press, 1989.
Foster, Benjamin R., trans. and ed. The Epic of Gilgamesh. (Russian)
New York: W.W. Norton, 2001.
George, Andrew. The Epic of Gilgamesh: A New Transla-
tion. London: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Jacobsen, Thorkild. The Treasures of Darkness: A History of
A bylina is a Russian folk epic ballad about
one or more of the heroes in Russian lore.
The earliest bylini were composed in the
Mesopotamian Religion. New Haven, CT: Yale Uni- tenth century. The tradition was exclusively oral
until the nineteenth century, when professional
folklorists discovered that performers of the
bylini were living by the shore of the White Sea.
Bunyips It was those folklorists who gave the folk epics
the name bylina, a word that comes from the
(Australian Aboriginal) past tense in Russian of the verb “to be.” In En-
glish, the word can be roughly translated to
B unyips are spirits or creatures found in Aus-
tralian aboriginal folklore.
Descriptions of these beings vary from story
mean “something that was.”
The singers that the researchers recorded
recited the bylini in a singsong, monotonous
to story. Some tales mention flippers or tusks, voice without any instrumental accompani-
scales, or a hairy tail. ment. Bylini singers in the Middle Ages, how-
But all tales agree that bunyips are evil ever, were generally skaziteli, or minstrels, who
spirits that live in water. Most often they are sometimes accompanied themselves with gusli,
described as inhabiting creeks, swamps, or or small zithers.
billabongs, the pools or water holes that form Most of the bylini center around Russian
near rivers during Australia’s wet season. folk heroes and can be classified into three
Bunyips take delight in terrifying people groups. The stories of the Kievan cycle tell of
at night with their horrible roar. Some of the the bogatyri, who were the knights of Prince
darker stories claim that bunyips slip from Vladimir of Kiev. The second group, the Nov-
the water at night and hunt down women gorod cycle, is concerned with the city of Nov-
and children. Many white settlers have claimed gorod. And a final group of epics is comprised
to have seen bunyips. of a general mythic or supernatural series of
Various aboriginal clans have given local bylini. One well-known example of the latter is
names to bunyips, such as Yaa-loo, Dongu, the epic of Vol’ka the magician, also known as
Kine Pratie, and Wowee-wowee. Bunyips also Mikula Selyaninovich, a peasant hero who is
feature prominently in Australian children’s lit- a thinly veiled pagan earth god.
erature, and the word bunyip has taken on the Many of the bylini, including that of Vol’ka,
meaning of “imposter” in modern-day Aus- contain an intriguing mix of pagan and Christ-
tralian slang. ian elements. All types of bylini are rich sources
of Russian folklore.
See also: Aboriginal Mythology.
See also: Ballads; Bogatyr/Bogatyri; Kievan
Cycle.
Sources
Berndt, Ronald M., and Catherine H. Berndt. The Speak- Sources
ing Land: Myth and Story in Aboriginal Australia. Bailey, James, and Tatyana Ivanova, trans. An Anthology of
Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions, 1994. Russian Folk Epics. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1998.
Reed, A.W. Aboriginal Myths, Legends, and Fables. New Costello, D.P., and I.P. Foote, eds. Russian Folk Literature.
South Wales, Australia: Reed, 1982. Oxford, UK: Clarendon. 1967.
Robinson, Roland. Aboriginal Myths and Legends. London: Hapgood, Isabel Florence, trans. The Epic Songs of Russia.
Paul Hamlyn, 1969. New York: Scribner’s, 1886.

C
A
Camp Stories

t summer camp, counselors and older
children often initiate new campers by
telling scary stories about maniacs, monsters,
ghosts, and wild animals. Sitting around a
youths near Cleveland, Ohio. Ralph, a drunken
wild man, is said to have decapitated his brother
Rudy and to continue to menace campers and
counselor.
Ghost stories are also popular at camp.
In Woodland Park, Colorado, teenagers at a
church camp have made pilgrimages to the
campfire, children learn to handle the stress of grave of Chas McGee, where a ghostly light
being far from home as they listen to these leg- hovers over his gravestone. According to the
ends. Some of the best-known camp stories camp’s legends, this light will remain until
describe a menacing figure that returns cycli- Chas finds the man who murdered him.
cally to the place where a tragic event once
took place. Scout Tales
Maniacs, Monsters, and Ghosts Camp legends created by and told about Boy
Scouts and Girl Scouts have been well docu-
Campers in upstate New York have been terri- mented. Encounters with bears, ghosts, and
fied by stories of the Cropsey Maniac, who other uncanny presences are among the scouts’
lost his wife and children in a fire accidentally favored subjects. The telling of these tales is
set by campers. Counselors say he returns part of the campfire ritual.
each year to kill at least one camper in retribu- Camp storytelling varies according to the
tion for his tragic loss. At one camp in the camp’s type and the age of the children, but
Catskill Mountains, all of the children in one the main characters—maniacs, monsters,
bunkhouse chose not to return to camp be- ghosts, and wild animals—are consistent.
cause of their dread of Cropsey. Some camps, such as Camp Winona in Maine,
Other notorious frightening figures are have cherished the same scary story for many
monsters that inhabit the area surrounding a decades. This adherence to unnerving subject
camp. For instance, the large, hairy Boondocks matter shows the importance of helping chil-
Monster is said to live near Camp Wapehani in dren come to terms with fear during an inter-
Indiana. lude in the woods, far from home.
Stories of frightening beings of various
sorts sometimes migrate. The story of Ralph Elizabeth Tucker
and Rudy, for example, traveled from a riding
camp in Kentucky to a camp for disadvantaged See also: Campfire Storytelling.
81

82 Campfire Stor ytelling
Sources cludes spooky classics such as “The Golden

Dresden, Sean. Campfire Tales: The Most Terrifying Stories Arm.” This story tells of a vengeful ghost (or
Ever Told. Los Angeles: Lowell House Juvenile, monster, or devil) that was hunting for a relic
2000.
Ellis, Bill. “ ‘Ralph and Rudy’: The Audience’s Role in
stolen from him by a feckless human. The teller
Recreating a Camp Legend.” Western Folklore 41 frequently repeats a catch-phrase question, such
(1982): 169–91. as, “Who has my golden arm?” until the listen-
Mechling, Jay. “The Magic of the Boy Scout Campfire.” ers are on the edges of their seats. Then, at the
Journal of American Folklore 93:367 (1980): 35–56.
climax of the story, the raconteur points without
Tucker, Elizabeth. “The Dramatization of Children’s
Narratives.” Western Folklore 39 (1980): 184–97. warning at someone in the audience and shouts,
“You do!” This is guaranteed to bring screams.
Urban legends are also told around camp-
Campfire Storytelling fires. These are scary, realistic tales, such as
“The Hook” and “The Vanishing Hitchhiker.”
T elling stories around a campfire is possi-

bly one of the oldest forms of storytelling.
This setting has an impact that is difficult to
These often are familiar to listeners, but most
still will enjoy these old favorites, particularly
if the teller can add a new twist.
achieve in more “civilized” surroundings. If
the campsite is in the middle of dark woods or See also: Ghosts and Hauntings.
wilderness, the listeners’ imaginations add scary
Sources
elements that would not be conjured up in the Brunvand, Jan Harold. Encyclopedia of Urban Legends.
middle of a well-lit room. New York: W.W. Norton, 2002.
A campfire story’s type, length, and com- Duane, Katherine, ed. The Campfire Collection: Ghosts,
plexity are determined by what is appro- Beasts, and Things That Go Bump in the Night. San
Francisco: Chronicle, 2003.
priate for the age of the listeners. Adults
Forgery, William H. Campfire Tales. Guilford, CT: Globe
generally have more patience than children, Pequot, 1999.
so stories can be longer and more involved. Walter, David. Montana Campfire Tales. Helena, MT: Fal-
Adults also can handle stories that are more con, 1997.
violent, frightening, or graphic than those
meant for children.
It is important for the storyteller to be well Canterbury Tales, The
prepared when performing under these cir-
cumstances, since it is impossible to refer to
written notes by a campfire’s unsteady light. It
(English)
is also wise to rehearse the story in advance, de-
termining how long the telling will take. Stories
should not exceed ten minutes in length and
T he Canterbury Tales is a group of poems writ-
ten by Geoffrey Chaucer (c. 1343–1400)
that are among the first compositions written in
repetitive phrases should be utilized to draw the English. They relate stories told by a group
listeners into the story, particularly children. of pilgrims on their way to Canterbury to visit
Gestures may or may not be seen clearly the shrine of Thomas Becket, archbishop of
by the audience, but wise storytellers will fig- Canterbury between 1162 and 1170 C.E. Schol-
ure out how to let the firelight wash over them ars believe that Chaucer began writing the sto-
in the spookiest fashion. Flashlights are also ries that make up The Canterbury Tales in 1387.
useful tools—a flashlight shining directly up at Chaucer’s decision to write in Middle En-
a storyteller’s face has an eerie effect. glish rather than Latin or French was a bold
Some popular types of stories that are told step. French had been the official court lan-
around campfires include funny stories, shaggy- guage and predominant culture of England
dog tales, tall tales, urban legends, and the since the Norman invasion of 1066. It was not
infamous “gotcha” tales. The latter category in- until 1363 that Parliament was convened in

Cat-and-Mouse Tales 83
a group of twenty-nine pilgrims have a story-

telling contest. Each person tells two stories on
the way to Canterbury and two on the way
back. The person whose story is considered
the best is to be treated to dinner by the rest of
the pilgrims. However, because Chaucer wrote
only twenty-four stories, not all of the charac-
ters relate a tale.
Pilgrimages were common during the four-
teenth century, even for people who were not
particularly religious. Such journeys were a
type of vacation, a way to escape everyday life.
So it is not surprising that some of Chaucer’s
characters were not going to Canterbury for pi-
ous reasons and that their stories often reflect
worldly rather than religious views and opin-
ions. The tales contain everything from themes
of courtly love to satirical commentaries on
church and secular life.
Chaucer never completed The Canterbury
Tales. He originally planned for at least 116 sto-
ries, in addition to the prologue, but worked on
only twenty-four before his death. Some of the
tales are not complete. Chaucer left no instruc-
tions regarding which order the tales should
A fifteenth-century manuscript page from an illustrated follow, so it was left for later scholars to decide
version of Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales on an arrangement.
shows the pilgrims setting out on their journey. (Image
Select/Art Resource, NY) See also: Chaucer, Geoffrey.
English for the first time. The English language Sources

of this period was divided into at least five mu- Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Canterbury Tales. Oxford, UK:
tually unintelligible dialects. Chaucer chose to Howard, Donald R. Chaucer: His Life, His Works, His
use the London dialect in his work. This dialect World. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1987.
eventually became Modern English, which is Kline, Daniel T. The Electronic Canterbury Tales. 2007.
why much of Chaucer’s vocabulary is familiar http://www.kankedort.net.
to modern readers.
Chaucer’s works were designed to be read
aloud, most likely in a court setting. For these Cat-and-Mouse Tales
works, Chaucer decided upon a pentameter, a
poetic line with five stresses. It is likely that this
was the first time anyone had used this meter
in English poetry. Chaucer also invented the
S tories about the rivalry between a cat and
a mouse are popular throughout the
world. They exist in every format, from folk-
heroic couplet, which is a rhyming pentameter tales to television cartoons.
in which the rhyme scheme is aa, bb, cc, and In many of the stories, the mouse is the
so on. hero, or at least the winner, of the various
The framework for The Canterbury Tales combats. This may symbolize the satisfaction
is a pilgrimage to Canterbury. During this trip, most people feel in seeing the “little guy” win

84 Catoblepas
against impossible odds. In other stories, the Jacobs, Joseph. The Fables of Aesop, Edited, Told Anew, and
cat wins, providing a proper ending for those Their History Traced. New York: Schocken, 1966.
Ralston, W.R.S., and F. Anton Vonschiefner, trans. Ti-
who dislike mice. betan Tales, Derived from Indian Sources. London: G.
The theme is featured in two of Aesop’s Routledge and Sons, 1926.
fables. In “Belling the Cat,” a group of mice Zipes, Jack, ed. and trans. The Complete Fairy Tales of the
decides to protect themselves by putting a Brothers Grimm. New York: Bantam, 1992.
warning bell around a cat’s neck, but none
of them has the nerve to do the dangerous
deed. In “The Cat and the Mice,” the cat pre-
tends to be dead, but the mice refuse to be
Catoblepas
tricked.
In a German tale that was collected by the
(Roman)
Brothers Grimm as “The Cat and the Mouse in
Partnership,” a cat and mouse share a house.
The cat’s greed eventually leads him to eat all
T he catoblepas is described in Roman texts
from the first century C.E. as an imagi-
nary animal that looks something like a
the food—and the mouse as well. A similar tale bull or bison with a large, heavy head and
is told in China. a long, shaggy mane. These creatures are also
In a Russian tale, the cat looks for a friend. listed in medieval bestiaries, the encyclope-
He turns down the dog, because he can only dic collections of both real and imaginary
bark, and rejects the hen, because she can only animals.
cluck. The cat likes the mouse’s squeak, but the The weight of its massive head is what kept
mouse wisely says they cannot be friends, be- the catoblepas from being able to look up with
cause the cat will eat him. its bloodshot, red eyes. Its name meant “that
In two Tibetan tales, the cat tries in vain to which looks downward” in Greek. Once it was
deceive the wily mice, in both versions by pre- able to lift its head, however, the catoblepas’s
tending to be a penitent. A similar tale, with the glance was deadly. Since it ate mostly poison-
cat pretending to be a holy man, comes from ous plants, its breath was also lethal.
Palestine. The Roman historian and naturalist Pliny
In modern times, cartoon characters such the Elder mentioned the creature in his Nat-
as Mighty Mouse become supermice, often out- ural History. Pliny claimed that the home range
witting villainous cats. This concept was taken of the catoblepas was near a spring in Ethiopia
to extremes in the Warner Brothers’ cartoon that was the source of the Nile River. It was
television program of the 1990s Pinky and the Pliny who first claimed that the gaze of the cato-
Brain, which followed the adventures of two blepas was deadly.
genetically altered laboratory mice, who even The writings of another Roman author,
plotted to take over the world. The beloved Claudius Aelianus, provide a fuller description
cartoon Tom and Jerry remains a classic exam- of the catoblepas than Pliny’s work. In On the
ple of the never-ending battle between cat and Nature of Animals, Aelianus claimed that the
mouse. creature was about the size of a domestic bull,
This theme is so familiar that it has entered with a heavy mane, narrow, bloodshot or red
the English language as the phrase “a cat-and- eyes, and shaggy eyebrows. In Aelianus’s de-
mouse game,” referring to a situation full of scription, the animal’s gaze was not lethal. It
suspense. was in this account that the catoblepas was
described to have poisoned breath.
See also: Cats; Mice; Tale Types. Descriptions of the catoblepas make it
Sources sound either like a gnu, the large African ante-
Hanauer, J.E. Folk-Lore of the Holy Land: Moslem, Christian lope with a head resembling that of an ox, or a
and Jewish. London: Sheldon, 1935. North American bison. There are North

Cats 85
American tribal tales about why the bison never Cats in Christian Lore
looks up, most of which center on a curse
placed on it by the trickster hero Coyote. But Only a few examples in Christianity portray
the comparison ends there. Neither gnus nor bi- cats in a positive light. The M-shaped marking
son possess the poisonous glance or breath of on a tabby’s face is said to have been left in
the catoblepas. blessing by the Virgin Mary, either for having
curled up next to the infant Jesus to keep him
See also: Bestiary. warm or for killing a poisonous snake.
In general, Christian lore has not been kind
Sources to cats. This was particularly true during the
Baxter, Ron. Bestiaries and Their Users in the Middle Ages. Middle Ages, when it was believed the cat was
Stroud, UK: Sutton, 1998. created by the devil. All cats—and especially
White, T.H., ed. The Book of Beasts: Being a Translation black ones—were considered to be creatures of
from a Latin Bestiary of the Twelfth Century. Mineola,
NY: Dover, 1984. evil and companions to witches. Hundreds,
possibly thousands, of cats were killed during
the twelfth through fourteenth centuries.
Cats One reason that black cats in particular are
considered to be evil may come from Norse
mythology. Freya, the goddess of fertility and
T here are many folktales, myths, and su-
perstitions connected to cats. This may be
because domestic cats have lived closely with
guardian of the apples of youth, was said to
have a chariot pulled by black cats. Such pagan
beliefs were considered evil once Christianity
humans for many centuries and yet remain took hold in Scandinavia, so the servants of the
mysterious. pagan gods became servants of evil. The mod-
Cats may have first been considered sacred ern belief that black cats are unlucky is derived
in ancient Egypt. Bastet, or Bast, a protective from that time of medieval dread.
and nurturing feline deity, was pictured with a
cat’s head. To deliberately kill a cat in Egypt was Cats in Asia
considered a deadly offense.
Chinese tales claim that cats were once in charge
of the world and had the power of speech. But
Jewish and Islamic Traditions the cats soon delegated this job to humans so
The usefulness of the cat as a hunter of rodents that they could sit back and relax. This is an ex-
is explained in Jewish folklore. Aboard the ark, planation for why cats seem to consider them-
Noah found that there was a problem with the selves superior to their human masters.
mice, which bred so swiftly they soon were a Li Shou was a Chinese cat deity that
genuine plague. When Noah prayed for help, warded off evil spirits at night. The shadowy
he was instructed to hit the sleeping male lion patches on the necks of Siamese cats are said
on the nose. Noah did, and from the lion’s to be the thumbprints of gods who picked up
sneeze came the first two cats. This ended the the cats to admire them.
problem with the mice. Another Chinese folktale explains the
In Islamic tradition, cats are revered be- many-colored coat of Birman cats. These cats
cause a tabby cat once fell asleep on the were plain brown until one jumped on the
Prophet Muhammad’s sleeve. Rather than dis- body of a Burmese priest who had been slain
turb the cat, he cut off the sleeve. This same cat by Thai invaders. The priest’s spirit passed
once had warned Muhammad of danger. The into the cat, and its body turned golden, while
M-shaped marking on the foreheads of some its head, tail, and legs remained brown. The
tabby cats is said to be the mark of Muham- cat’s feet turned pure white because they had
mad’s blessing. touched the holy man’s skin.

86 Centaurs
Superstitions Cats are often used in stories as anthropomor-

phic characters, taking on the characteristics
The aloof, and rather mysterious, manner of of humans. One of the most familiar of these
cats has led to the creation of many superstitions stories is the French folktale “Puss in Boots” in
that sometimes conflict with one another: which the main character is both a cat and a
perfect cavalier.
• Dreaming of a white cat or seeing a Cats remain popular pets in the West and
white cat is lucky (United States). are still viewed as mysterious creatures—
• Black cats are lucky (England). aloof, independent, and capable of hearing
things beyond the human range. They proba-
• A strange black cat on the doorstep or bly will remain mysterious to us as long as we
porch is lucky (Scotland). share our homes with them.
• Black cats with any white hairs are
lucky (France). See also: Bastet/Bast; Cat-and-Mouse Tales;
Mice; Puss in Boots; Retelling: Dick Whittington
• Tortoiseshell cats are lucky (England and His Cat.
and Japan).
Sources
• Blue cats are lucky (Russia).
Briggs, Katherine M. Nine Lives: Cats in Folklore. London:
• Calico cats are lucky (Canada). Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1980.
Hausman, Gerald, and Loretta Hausman. Mythology of
• Ugly cats are lucky (China). Cats: Feline Legend and Lore Through the Ages. New
• Polydactyl (multitoed) cats are lucky York: St. Martin’s, 1998.
Leach, Maria. The Lion Sneezed: Folktales and Myths of the
(United States and Malaysia).
Cat. New York: Crowell, 1977.
• If a black cat crosses your path, it brings Morris, Desmond. Catlore. New York: Crown, 1988.
bad luck (United States).
• If a black cat crosses your path, it means Centaurs
bad luck has missed you (England).
• Do not allow a cat in a room where (Greek)
private conversations are going on,
because a cat is a gossip (Netherlands).
• A sneezing cat is good luck (Italy).
I n Greek mythology, centaurs were beings
that were half human and half horse. The
earliest images of centaurs have human bodies
• A beckoning cat is good luck ( Japan). with the horses’ bodies and rear legs growing
• If a cat washes behind its ears, it will from their backs. But the classic picture of a
rain (England). centaur is of a being with a human torso and
a horse’s body.
• Pour water on a cat, and it will bring
Centaurs were said to live on Mount Pelion
rain (Indonesia).
in Thessaly, in northern Greece. According to
• If a cat enters a house, it brings good one myth, they were the children of Ixion, king
luck (Northern Europe and Russia). of Thessaly, and a cloud. Ixion had wanted Hera
• If a black cat jumps on a sickbed, the as his mate, but Zeus tricked him by transform-
sick person will die (Germany). ing a cloud into Hera’s shape.
Centaur society is portrayed in Greek
• If a cat jumps over a corpse, the corpse
mythology as more primitive than that of the
becomes a vampire (Romania).
Greeks. Centaurs had no refined weapons
• A cat always lands on its feet (United and used branches or rocks instead. They also
States). had no resistance to alcohol. In the story of
• A cat has nine lives (United States). the wedding of Pirithous, king of the Lapiths,

Cerberus 87
the centaur guests got drunk, attacked the Overall, centaurs in modern fiction appear
female guests, and tried to carry off the bride, in a more favorable light, for example, in C.S.
sparking a bloody battle. Another story tells Lewis’s Chronicles of Narnia (1950–1956) or J.K.
of the brutal centaur Nessos, who tried to Rowling’s Harry Potter series (1997–2007).
rape Deianira, wife of Hercules. Nessos gave
Deianira the poison that would eventually kill See also: Chiron.
Hercules.
Sources
Greek mythology also portrays a famous Evslin, Bernard. Heroes, Gods, and Monsters of the Greek
civilized and learned centaur, Chiron, who Myths. New York: Bantam, 1987.
raised the young heroes Jason and Achilles. Hesiod. Theogony, Works and Days. Trans. M.L. West.
Chiron was said to be immortal. But, when New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Padgett, J. Michael. The Centaur’s Smile: The Human Ani-
wounded by a poison arrow and in terrible
mal in Early Greek Art. New Haven, CT: Yale Uni-
pain, Chiron was granted mortality by a mer- versity Press, 2003.
ciful Zeus so that he could die. Another ver-
sion of the myth claims that Chiron traded
his life for that of Prometheus and was slain
by an arrow from Hercules. Chiron may not
Cerberus
have been considered to be a true centaur by
the ancient Greeks, since it was said that he
(Greek)
was the offspring of the god Cronos and the
nymph Philyra. I n Greek mythology, Cerberus was the huge,
fierce, three-headed watchdog that served
the god Hades. The creature guarded the en-
trance to Hades, the underworld and land of the
dead.
Cerberus was not born of mortal dogs but
was the offspring of the giant Typhon and the
monstrous Echidna, who was half woman and
half snake. Although the eighth-century B.C.E.
Greek poet Hesiod claimed that Cerberus had
fifty heads, later descriptions of Cerberus are
almost always of a three-headed dog. In some
accounts he possesses a serpent’s tail.
Cerberus allowed the newly deceased to
enter the realm of the dead but permitted
none of them to leave. Only a few living souls
ever managed to sneak past the creature: Or-
pheus, the master musician, lulled Cerberus to
sleep by playing his lyre. Heracles, the im-
mensely strong hero and demigod, dragged
Cerberus briefly to the land of the living as the
last of his Twelve Labors. In Roman mythol-
ogy, the Trojan Prince Aeneas bribed Cerberus
with a drugged honey cake.
Cerberus also appeared in Dante Alighieri’s
A romanticized bronze statue from Hadrian’s villa in fourteenth-century epic poem The Divine Com-
Rome, Italy, portrays a centaur as a noble savage edy, in the section called Inferno. The three-
rather than as a wild being. The statue may be of Chiron,
considered the only truly civilized centaur. (Scala/Art headed dog is the guardian at Dante’s third
Resource, NY) circle of hell, where he torments the gluttons.

88 Champ/Champy
Portrayals of Cerberus have continued to Reports in 1883 and 1899 described some-
the present day, in the television series The Leg- thing that looked like an enormous snake with
endary Adventures of Hercules, which aired from a finned body. The first photograph of what
1995 to 1999, and the 2005 low-budget horror was claimed to be the long neck and head of
movie Cerberus. some unknown creature was taken in 1977.
Many people believe that this was actually a
See also: Dogs. photograph of the fin of a rolling whale.
Sources Joseph W. Zarzynski is the founder of the
Hesiod. Theogony, Works and Days. Trans. M.L. West. New Lake Champlain Phenomenon Investigation in
York: Oxford University Press, 1999. New York, which has been studying Champ for
Homer. The Odyssey. Trans. W.H.D. Rouse. New York: more than twenty years. Zarzynski has con-
Signet Classics, 1999. vinced the state and local governments that
Virgil. The Aeneid. Trans. Robert Fitzgerald. New York:
Vintage, 1990. Champ should be a legally protected species.
If nothing else, the Champ phenomenon is
good for the local tourism industry. There are a
Champ/Champy number of theories about Champ’s identity,
ranging from a dinosaur, such as a plesiosaur,
to some sort of primitive whale, or simply a sin-
(North American) gularly large fish, such as a lake sturgeon. All
C hamp is the legendary monster that is said

to inhabit Lake Champlain. Attempts to
prove Champ’s existence have been thwarted
theories have yet to be proven.
See also: Lake Monsters.

in part by the sheer size and depth of Lake
Champlain. The lake, which is located be- Sources
tween New York and Vermont and extends into Danziger, Jeff. Champlain Monster. Plainfield, VT: Lanser,
1981.
Canada, is 109 miles (175 kilometers) long and Zarzynski, Joseph W. Champ—Beyond the Legend. 2nd ed.
up to 400 feet (122 meters) deep. Wilton, NY: M–Z Information, 1988.
Some accounts state that the French ex- ———. Monster Wrecks of Loch Ness and Lake Champlain.
plorer Samuel de Champlain was the first to Wilton, NY: M–Z Information, 1986.
sight Champ, in 1609. He described it as a
serpent, “thick as a barrel with a head like a
horse.” Other accounts, however, place this Chapbooks
sighting off the coast of the Saint Lawrence
River estuary, miles from Lake Champlain.
In 1819, settlers near Port Henry, New
York, reported a monster living in Lake Cham-
C hapbooks were inexpensive collections
of popular literature that were published
from the sixteenth through the nineteenth cen-
plain. There were no more documented sight- tury. These small pamphlets with soft bindings
ings until 1873, when members of a railroad were sold for as little as half an English penny
crew were sure they had spotted the head of by so-called chapmen, or traveling peddlers.
what looked like a huge serpent rising out Storytellers and scholars value chapbooks
of the water. That same year, farmers started re- because many of them contain folktales, such
porting missing livestock, claiming that there as “Cinderella” or “Jack the Giant Killer,” bal-
were tracks that seemed to indicate that the an- lads, and folk songs. Many selections were illus-
imals had been dragged into the lake. Phineas trated with rough woodcuts that are considered
Taylor Barnum, P.T. Barnum of circus fame, of- folk art in their own right. Other chapbooks
fered a reward to anyone who could catch or contain such diverse works as almanacs, unoffi-
kill the “great Champlain serpent.” No one took cial abridged versions of novels, such as Daniel
him up on the offer. DeFoe’s Robinson Crusoe (1719), and sensational

Charlemagne and His Peers 89
“true” stories, similar to the scandal sheets of and two fifteenth-century Italian epics,
later days. Orlando Inammorato and Orlando Furioso.
It was not until the eighteenth century that • Rinaldo of Montalban, Roland’s cousin,
chapbooks for children were produced. Chil- had his own story and also played a
dren’s chapbooks are of interest to storytellers large role in both Orlando Inammorato
because they often include collections of and Orlando Furioso.
rhymes or feature “histories” of nursery-rhyme
characters such as Mother Hubbard. • Namo, Duke of Bavaria, served as a
The term chapbook is still in use, but the royal adviser to Charlemagne and
meaning has changed. A modern chapbook is appeared in the story of Huon of
usually a small but professionally published col- Bordeaux.
lection of short stories or poetry by multiple • Salomon, king of Brittany, was another
authors. historic figure. The real Salomon, how-
ever, probably was not connected with
See also: Broadside Ballads. Charlemagne’s court.
Sources • Turpin, the warrior and archbishop of
Helm, Alexander. The Chapbook Mummers’ Plays: A Study of Reims, was a historic figure who was
the Printed Versions of the North-West of England. Leices- added to the Charlemagne cycle by
ter, UK: Guizer, 1969. medieval storytellers.
Stockham, Peter. Chapbook ABC’s: Reprints of Five Rare and
Charming Early Juveniles. New York: Dover, 1974. • Astolpho of England was described as
Weiss, Harry B. A Book About Chapbooks, the People’s Liter- “the handsomest man living.” In spite
ature of Bygone Times. Trenton, NJ: Edwards Broth- of his beauty, in Orlando Furioso, he was
ers, 1942.
turned into a tree by a sorceress who
grew bored with him. Astolpho re-
Charlemagne and turned to his former self in time to help
retrieve Orlando’s lost wits.
His Peers • Ogier the Dane may or may not be
based on a historic figure. Ogier was
the hero of his own epic, which is at-
C harlemagne (742–814 C.E.) is the name
given by later generations to Charles, king
of the Franks, who became the first monarch of
tached to the Charlemagne cycle to a
degree but is mostly independent of it.
the Holy Roman Empire. • Malagigi the Enchanter, the only sanc-
Like King Arthur of Britain, Charlemagne tioned magician in the group, gener-
had a circle of favorite and trusted knights, ally acted as adviser to the others and
known as his peers, around which a folk cycle is provided them with magical tools.
centered. While Charlemagne is a true historic • Florismart was a loyal friend to Or-
figure, many of his peers, like Arthur’s knights, lando and was faithful to his chosen
are fictional. The twelve peers had free access to lady, Flordelis.
the palace and were true companions to the
king. • Ganelon, or Gano, of Mayence was
Some of these characters and their stories the treacherous enemy of all the rest.
are listed here: In the Song of Roland, it was Ganelon
who was responsible for the ambush
• Roland, or Orlando, was Charle- that led to Roland’s death, a treason he
magne’s favorite nephew. Based on a paid for with his life.
real warrior, he was the hero of many Storytellers might enjoy sharing not
works, among them the Song of Roland only the stories full of adventure, magic, and

90 Charon
The Emperor Charlemagne is seated on his throne and surrounded by his most important officials, as the scholarly
Alcuin presents him with several manuscripts. French artist Jules Laure (1806–1861) painted this work in 1837.
(Réunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Resource, NY)
derring-do that these larger-than-life charac- (Night), he ferried the souls of the dead over
ters inhabit, but the historical tales of Charle- the river Acheron, or in some myths the Styx
magne as well. River, to the underworld.
Charon took only those souls whose bodies
See also: Epics. had received the rites of burial and carried the
proper fee. This fee was a coin, called an obol,
Sources which was placed in the mouth of the corpse
Barron, W.R.J. English Medieval Romance. New York: during burial. Those unfortunate souls who did
Longman, 1987.
Bulfinch, Thomas. The Age of Chivalry and Legends of
not have proper payment never crossed to the
Charlemagne: Or Romance of the Middle Ages. New underworld but were left to wander forlornly
York: NAL, 1962. and eternally on the river’s bank.
Calin, William. The Epic Quest: Studies in Four Old French Charon is usually portrayed as a grim, tac-
Chansons de Geste. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Uni-
iturn old man wearing a black, hooded cloak
Moncrieff, A.R. Hope. Romance and Legend of Chivalry: or a sailor’s cape. His ancestry is open to ques-
Myths and Legends. New York: Gramercy, 1995. tion, as he is not mentioned in the earliest
mythologies.
It is possible that the name Charon is actu-
Charon ally a corruption of the Etruscan Charun, the
name of the demonic guardian to the under-
world. Charun, however, has wings, which
(Greek) might have been misinterpreted by the Greeks
I n Greek mythology, Charon was the ferry-

man of the dead. The son of Erebus and Nyx
as a cloak. Charun also has a beaked nose, like
that of a vulture, and carries a weapon.

Chaucer, Geoffrey 91
Whether or not Charon and Charun are While he had planned to write 116 or more
one and the same, Charon survives in modern tales, he worked on only twenty-four, and not
Greek folklore as the Charos. This dangerous all of these were completed at the time of his
black figure, bird, or winged being carries his death.
prey to the underworld. The format and many of the individual
tales in The Canterbury Tales were inspired
See also: Death. by previously written texts, most notably
Boccaccio’s Decameron. But The Canterbury
Sources
Athanassakis, Apoltolos N., trans. Hesiod: Theogony, Works
Tales is unique in its inclusion of characters
and Days, Shield. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univer- that are true to life and represent all the
sity Press, 1983. social classes of Chaucer’s time. The Cant-
Buxton, Richard, ed. Oxford Readings in Greek Religion. erbury Tales are regarded by scholars as a
fertile source of information about the social
Powell, Barry B. Classical Myth. 3rd ed. Princeton, NJ:
Prentice Hall, 2000. classes, class stereotypes, and rituals of the
Middle Ages.
Some scholars also believe that Chaucer’s
Chaucer, Geoffrey text has a real and functional oral nature,
meaning that the text was meant to be
read aloud to its medieval audience. Schol-
(c. 1342–1400) ars also have noted the use of oral formula,
T he English poet Geoffrey Chaucer created

texts ranging from short poems to tellings
of dream visions. His frame narrative The Can-
terbury Tales is considered one of the greatest
poems in English literature.
Many of Chaucer’s contemporaries wrote
in French or Latin, but Chaucer wrote in the
vernacular English of his time, which is now
known as Middle English. In addition to using
the common language of his country, much
of the material in his narratives derives from
everyday life.
Chaucer had strong connections to the
English court and held a number of impor-
tant posts. He began as a page and went on
to become controller of customs in London
and a member of Parliament. His early work
is frequently connected to specific persons
at court. His Book of the Duchess, written in
about 1369–1370, commemorated the death
of Blanche, wife of John of Gaunt, the Duke
of Lancaster. The courtship rituals engaged
in by birds in his work The Parliament of Foules
(c. 1372–1382) may be a subtle commentary Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales was a best seller from
on some of the human “rituals” that Chaucer its initial publication in the early fourteenth century C.E.
observed at court. This portrait is believed to be the only known likeness
of Geoffrey Chaucer, despite the fact that it dates to the
Chaucer is believed to have begun work fifteenth century—nearly 100 years after his death.
on The Canterbury Tales sometime around 1387. (Image Select/Art Resource, NY)

92 Chickens
repetitions, and other storytelling memoriza- An earthier folk belief is that if a hen lets a
tion aids throughout the individual tales. dropping fall on someone, it means bad luck,
Chaucer died on October 25, 1400. He was while rooster droppings mean good luck.
laid to rest at Westminster Abbey. In both Europe and North America, there
are sayings that link hens and roosters to ap-
Judith Mara Kish propriate human behavior. Countries with a
history of sexual inequality have sayings such
See also: Canterbury Tales, The. as “Hens that crow like roosters are a sign of
Sources misfortune” or “It is a sad house where the
Benson, Larry D., ed. The Riverside Chaucer. Boston: hen crows louder than the cock.” A version
Houghton Mifflin, 1990. collected from England and the United States
Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Canterbury Tales. Boston: Houghton claims, “Whistling girls, like crowing hens,
Mifflin, 2000.
always come to some bad ends.”
Lindhal, Carl. Earnest Games: Folkloric Patterns in the
Canterbury Tales. Bloomington: Indiana University A more recent verse retorts, “Girls who
Press, 1987. whistle and hens who crow / Will have fun
wherever they go.” And a folk saying claims,
“The rooster crows, but it’s the hen that deliv-
Chickens ers the goods.”
In the modern world, the term henpecked
H ens and roosters are the focus of many

folktales, proverbs, and folk sayings, in
which they appear as both good and evil
refers to a husband who is dominated by his
wife. This probably comes from the common
chicken behavior of a hen pecking angrily at
figures. a rooster.
Perhaps the best-known Western folktale A chicken’s cackling is also mentioned
involving a chicken is the story of Chicken Lit- in certain folk beliefs. In Germany, a girl who
tle, who panicked all the other animals when wishes to know if she will marry in the next year
he cried, “The sky is falling!” This story has must knock on the chicken coop on Christmas
entered the common idiom, and alarmists Eve at midnight. If the hen cackles, the girl will
often are compared to Chicken Little. remain single, but if the rooster cackles, she will
Another story, which originated in Spain marry.
and has spread across Hispanic cultures, is that The quick agitation of chickens when they
of “The Half-Chick.” In this tale, a baby chick sense danger has led to the comparison of a
was born with only half a body, one leg, one coward to a chicken. The phrase “fly in the face
wing, one eye, half a head, and half a beak. of danger” refers to a hen trying to fend off
This helpless creature went out to find his place an attacking animal. And a hen’s maternal na-
in the world and became the first weathervane. ture has become a symbol of motherly love—
For the most part, the tales and folk beliefs to be “taken under someone’s wing” refers to
about chickens vary from culture to culture, the way a hen protects a chick.
but some are shared. For example, a black hen In modern folklore, chicken tales abound.
generally is considered bad luck. A Hungarian The story of a flock of chickens that was living
folktale tells of a small energetic devil with on the Los Angeles Freeway became part of
vampiric tendencies called Liderc. This crea- urban lore. Dozens of tales were told of the
ture was said to have hatched out of the first flock’s origin and why it landed in such an un-
egg of a black hen that had been incubated in usual spot. And the ubiquitous joke, “Why did
a human’s armpit. the chicken cross the road?” continues to in-
In Germany the sight of all hens is con- vite ridiculous answers.
sidered bad luck and signals the arrival of
bad news, while roosters mean good luck. See also: Cockatrice.

Chiron 93
Sources raised money and wrote articles, broadsides,

Ada, Alma Flor. Mediopollito/Half-Chicken. Trans. Rosalma and ballads in support of the Union.
Zubizarreta. New York: Doubleday Books for Young Child’s English and Scottish Popular Ballads is
Readers, 1995.
Dundes, Alan. Life Is Like a Chicken Coop Ladder: A Study
impressive in its exhaustive scholarship. Child
of German National Character Through Folklore. De- chose 305 ballads as seminal and studied and
troit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1989. described their structure and variations with
Smith, Page, and Charles Daniel. The Chicken Book. great care. Unlike other scholars, Child worked
Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2000.
with the actual manuscripts of ballads rather
than with published editions that might have
added errors. He also hunted for songs and sto-
Child, Francis James ries in other languages that bore relationships
to the English and Scottish ballads.
Child’s other works include The Poetical
(1825–1896) Works of Edmund Spenser (1855) and Observations
F rancis James Child was an American folk

musicologist and literary scholar. His five-
volume work, The English and Scottish Popular
on the Language of Chaucer and Gower (1863). He
was also the general editor of a series on British
poets, which was begun in 1853 and reached
Ballads, also known as The Child Ballads, is con- 150 volumes.
sidered the first important publication in the In 1893, Child was in a carriage accident
field of English ballad scholarship. from which he never fully recovered. He died
Child was born on February 1, 1825, the on September 11, 1896, and was buried in
son of a Boston sailmaker. The family was Stockbridge, Massachusetts. His work remains
poor, so Child attended Boston public schools. invaluable to folklorists, folk musicians, and
Through the generosity of Epes Sargent storytellers.
Dixwell, the principal of the Boston Latin
School, Child was able to enter Harvard Uni- See also: Ballads.
versity. He graduated first in his class in 1846.
Child then took a professorship in mathemat- Sources
ics at Harvard, followed by professorships in Cheesman, Tom, and Sigrid Rieuwerts, eds. Ballads into
Books: The Legacies of Francis James Child. Bern,
history and political economy. In 1851 he was
Switzerland: Peter Lang, 1977.
named the Boylston Professor of Rhetoric Child, Francis J. The English and Scottish Popular Ballads.
and Oratory, a position he held for twenty- Mineola, NY: Dover, 1960.
five years.
Always interested in folklore, specifically
in folk music, Child collected ballad books
in many languages throughout his tenure at
Chiron
Harvard, and he corresponded with scholars
around the world. Thanks to his efforts, the
(Greek)
Harvard library houses one of the largest
folklore collections in existence.
In 1860, Child married Elizabeth Ellery
I n Greek mythology, Chiron is a centaur, a
half-horse, half-human creature. Chiron was
the only one of these beings that was truly civi-
Sedgwick. They had three daughters and one lized, kind, intelligent, and highly learned. His
son. Child was described as a charming man superior character was attributed to his ancestry.
with a good sense of humor who was nick- Chiron was the son of the primal god Cronos,
named Stubby Child due to his height and who took the form of a stallion and sired Chiron
stooped shoulders. Unable to serve in the with the nymph Philyra.
American Civil War because of poor health— Chiron was a brilliant scholar, a great
he suffered from gout and rheumatism—Child healer, and a teacher to princes and heroes.

94 Chupacabras
Chiron also appears in Dante’s fourteenth-

century epic The Divine Comedy as the guardian
of the seventh circle of hell. He is also a char-
acter in John Updike’s 1963 novel, The Centaur.
In astronomy, Chiron is the name of an un-
usual object, possibly a comet or a planet, that
orbits between Saturn and Uranus. Other ob-
jects, which are probably true asteroids and or-
bit between Neptune and Jupiter, are known
as centaurs. It is fitting that the astronomical
Chiron lies separate from the other centaurs in
the sky, just as the mythical Chiron did at his
home at the foot of Mount Pelion.
See also: Centaurs.
Sources
Buxton, Richard. The Complete World of Greek Mythology.
London: Thames and Hudson, 2004.
Evlin, Bernard. The Greek Gods. New York: Scholastic,
1995.
Rose, Herbert J. Gods and Heroes of the Greeks. New York:
Meridian, 1958.
Chiron was the wise, kind, civilized centaur who taught New York: New American Library, 2001.
the hero Jason. Chiron is shown here in a somber por-
trait from a Roman fresco that was recovered from
the buried city of Herculaneum. (Erich Lessing/Art
Resource, NY) Chupacabras
Jason, who was later to go on a quest for the
(Latin American)
Golden Fleece, was a student of Chiron’s.
Other students were Hercules, who sought Chir-
on’s help in completing his twelve labors, and
C hupacabras are mythical monstrous preda-
tors that attack farm animals, especially
goats, and drain their blood. This behavior
Achilles, the great warrior of the Iliad. Chiron earned them the name “goat suckers,” which
also taught the god Asclepios the art of healing is a literal translation of chupacabras.
and founded the Chironium, which was a heal- Chupacabras entered contemporary folk-
ing temple on Mount Pelion, Chiron’s home. lore in 1975, when several Puerto Rican
Chiron’s death was accidental. He was farm animals were found drained of blood,
wounded by a stray arrow during Hercules’s with punctures on their necks. In the 1990s,
fight with a group of drunken centaurs. The there were reports of hundreds of these attacks
arrow was poisoned, but Chiron was immor- on animals.
tal and could not die. In terrible pain, he will- The descriptions of this nocturnal crea-
ingly traded his immortality for the life of ture vary widely. It has been said to be 2 to 5
Prometheus, who was chained to a rock for feet (.5 meters to 1.5 meters) tall, with red, or-
endless torment as punishment for giving fire to ange, or black eyes, and a wolflike jaw, full
humankind. Prometheus was freed, and Her- of sharp fangs. Some claim that its dark gray
cules released Chiron from his suffering with a skin is covered with coarse hair, while others
merciful arrow. Chiron became the constella- say the skin can change color. Its short fore-
tion Sagittarius. arms end in two three-fingered, clawed hands,

Collective Unconscious 95
and some claim to have seen quills or spikes dragonlike wyvern, and something like a
running down its back that allow it to fly or cockerel.
at least glide. Some reports include batlike The cockatrice was just as vicious and ven-
wings. omous as the basilisk, its breath just as poison-
A chupacabra either walks upright on pow- ous, and its gaze just as deadly. As with the
erful, clawed feet or hops like a kangaroo. The basilisk, only the weasel was immune to the
chupacabra also hisses, a sound that apparently cockatrice’s poison, and the two would some-
can nauseate those who hear it. Some people times battle.
have recorded that chupacabras give off a sul- The one sure way to kill a cockatrice was to
phuric stench. hold up a mirror to reflect its image back at it. It
Theories about the creature’s origin have would either be killed by its own evil gaze or be
ranged from aliens leaving the creatures be- so overcome by the sight of its own hideousness
hind to genetic experiments gone awry. Many that it would instantly die.
people, however, are certain that chupacabras
exist only in the imagination. See also: Bestiary; Chickens.
Toward the end of the twentieth century, Sources
there were reports of chupacabras throughout Elliott, T.J., trans. A Medieval Bestiary. Boston: David Go-
the Caribbean, in Mexico and Central Amer- dine, 1971.
ica, and into Florida, Texas, and Arizona. Gilmore, David D. Monsters: Evil Beings, Mythical Beasts,
and All Manner of Imaginary Terrors. Philadelphia:
They were even reported in major U.S. cities,
including New York and San Francisco. There White, T.H., ed. The Book of Beasts. Mineola, NY: Dover,
have been few reported sightings of chu- 1984.
pacabras since the turn of the twenty-first
century.
See also: Urban Legends.

Collective Unconscious
Sources
Cass, Andre. El Chupacabra. Indian Hills, CO: Amber
T he collective unconscious is a set of ideas
that is inherited, not learned, and is con-
sistent in all cultures. This concept was intro-
Quill, 2003.
Coleman, Loren. Cryptozoology A to Z: The Encyclopedia of duced by Swiss psychiatrist and founder of
Loch Monsters, Sasquatch, Chupacabras and Other Au- analytical psychology Carl Gustav Jung.
thentic Monsters. New York: Fireside, 1999.
In the early years of the twentieth cen-
Corrales, Scott. Chupacabras and Other Mysteries. Murfrees-
boro, TN: Greenleaf, 1997. tury, Jung was struck by the universality of
many stories, images, and themes. He saw
that the characters and archetypes of human
Cockatrice dreams and stories did more than transcend
the dreamer’s or teller’s culture: They were
innately present in every human mind even be-
(European) fore an individual was exposed to a specific
I n medieval times, the image of the leg-

endary serpent known as the basilisk began
to change. It gained legs, a predatory beak,
culture.
The conscious part of the mind involves
only what a person is actively aware of—the
wings, and a coiling tail. waking state. The unconscious is where the
This new monster was said to come from a thoughts, emotions, experiences, and informa-
rooster’s egg that had been hatched by a rep- tion that rarely reach the conscious level reside.
tile. The cockatrice, the result of this unlikely Both the conscious and unconscious levels of a
engendering and hatching, looked something human mind belong to the individual’s psyche,
like a basilisk, something like the two-legged regardless of outside influences. Jung divided

96 Comets
the unconscious into two parts—the personal to them. The Chinese kept careful records of
and the collective. the comet’s visit. In Europe, the comet’s visit
The personal unconscious is made up of inspired terror, since people there saw it as an
those things that have been built up in the psy- omen of war and the death of rulers. William
che during development. The contents of the the Conquerer of Normandy, however, saw it
collective unconscious, however, are not ac- as a sign of his victory. In fact, after his victory
quired through experience but inherited. In over King Harold II at the Battle of Hastings
this way, a person is linked to the species and in 1066, the comet was embroidered into the
to the past of the species. Within the collective famous Bayeux Tapestry, which depicts that
unconscious are the psychological archetypes, battle.
the basic images, figures, or patterns, such as In folk belief, comets always have been
the Wise Old Man or the Trickster, that are omens of dread. In the sixteenth-century Swiss
part of each of us. illuminated manuscript known as the Lucerne
Chronicles, the 1456 appearance of Halley’s
See also: Jung, Carl Gustav. Comet was blamed for earthquakes, illness, a
Sources mysterious red rain, and the birth of two-
Ellenberger, H. The Discovery of the Unconscious: The His- headed animals. Pope Calixtus III is said to
tory and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry. New York: have excommunicated the comet as an instru-
Basic Books, 1970. ment of the devil.
Hannah, B. Jung: His Life and Work. New York: Putnam, In the United States, the 1835–1836 ap-
1976.
Jung, Carl G. The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious.
pearance of Halley’s Comet was blamed for
2nd ed. Trans. R.F.C. Hull. Princeton, NJ: Princeton the massacre at the Alamo and a large fire in
University Press, 1980. New York City. In 1910, astronomers at the
University of Chicago’s Yerkes Observatory
used spectroscopy to study Halley’s Comet.
Comets They discovered that the comet’s tail con-
tained poisonous cyanogen gas. People pan-
I n antiquity, comets were seen as eerie mes-

sengers of change or even doom. In the mod-
ern world, where the scientific explanation for
icked when they learned that Earth would
pass through the “deadly” tail on its next visit.
Some people committed suicide, and others
them is known, there are still those who see bought comet insurance.
comets as harbingers of dread. As recently as the late twentieth century,
The seemingly unpredictable appear- people continued to fear comets. A rumor cir-
ance of comets and the mystery surrounding culated during the 1985–1986 appearance of
them filled the ancients with awe. The comet’s Halley’s Comet claimed that the comet would
shape was also seen as a portent. Some cul- crash into Earth and kill everyone. Its next
tures interpreted the long, streaming tail as the appearance is predicted to be in 2061.
blade of a sword—a prophecy of war—while
others saw it as trailing hair, which was related See also: Fates.
to mourning. Sources
The comet named for the seventeenth- Levy, David H. Comets: Creators and Destroyers. New York:
century English astronomer Edmund Halley Touchstone, 1998.
was first recorded around 240 B.C.E. The 1066 Sagan, Carl, and Ann Druyan. Comet. New York: Ballan-
reappearance of Halley’s Comet was recorded tine, 1997.
Tyson, Neil de Grasse. Merlin’s Tour of the Universe: A Sky-
around the world. The Anasazi of the Ameri- watcher’s Guide to Everything from Mars and Quasars to
can Southwest left a carving of it on an Arizo- Comets, Planets, Blue Moons, and Werewolves. New York:
nan cliff, without any clues as to what it meant Doubleday, 1997.

Con Man or Woman/Con Artist 97
Compassion myths such as the story of Eros and Psyche, to

African and Asian folklore. No matter where
in the world a story takes place, compassion is
F or all of the dazzling variety found in world

folktales, fairy tales, and myths, the one ele-
ment that appears with remarkable consistency
one of the universal lessons taught through
stories. Genuine kindness, respect, and gen-
erosity toward all living things are every bit as
is compassion. important to the heroic character’s success as
The hero or heroine of any tale, whether is a fearless heart.
setting off on a quest, seeking his or her for- Shanti Fader
tune, or being driven out into the world by a
jealous stepmother, must show compassion to See also: Motifs.
everyone and everything he or she encoun-
ters, or there is no chance of living happily Sources
ever after. This compassion can take the form Green, Thomas, ed. Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Beliefs,
Customs, Tales, Music, and Art. Santa Barbara, CA:
of sharing food with a stranger, no matter how ABC-CLIO, 1987.
little the hero or heroine may have, saving the Thompson, Stith. Motif-Index of Folk-Literature. Bloom-
life of an animal, or picking fruit from an over- ington: Indiana University Press, 1989.
burdened tree. The stranger will offer invalu-
able advice, the animal will appear to help the
protagonist accomplish an impossible task, or Con Man or Woman/
the tree will shower him or her with gold.
Those who scorn the beggar, slay the animal Con Artist
who cries for mercy, or ignore pleas for help
will find themselves at the very least failing at
their quest and, at worst, cursed, disfigured,
stripped of their wealth or title, or killed.
A con man or woman, also known as a con
artist, is someone who tricks, or cons, a
gullible person into parting with his or her
Compassion goes hand in hand with gen- money. The term confidence man was coined in
erosity. The courtesy, the food, or the service an 1847 U.S. newspaper story. It was used to
must be given freely and without thought of re- describe a persuasive person who could win
ward, or it will not redound to the hero’s or the confidence of a stranger in order to cheat
heroine’s credit. Most of the time, it is very ob- him or her.
vious when good deeds are done for base mo- These tricksters are sometimes viewed as
tives. The good fairy, magical animal, or other modern Robin Hoods, choosing as their vic-
supernatural helper easily sees through deceit, tims only those who have wronged others.
as does the reader. Bad characters who do good They generally are portrayed either as so-called
deeds usually do them grudgingly and ungra- city slickers who prey on newcomers or as wan-
ciously and are impatient for their reward. derers who run a con and then leave town. De-
Human characters are more easily fooled spite the romantic Robin Hood view of such
by these impostors, however, and many tradi- swindlers, there is no safe haven for them, and
tional tales find the compassionate protagonist their only motive for stealing is their own per-
tricked out of a reward until he or she can un- sonal gain.
mask the usurper. Often this is accomplished Con men and women are similar to the
with the help of those to whom the protagonist German folk hero Till Eulenspiegel in their ar-
had earlier shown compassion. rogance. They usually are the heroes, and at
This motif can be found in stories ranging least the protagonists, of their stories. Novelist
from familiar Western fairy tales, such as “The Herman Melville was the first American writer
Water of Life” or “Mother Holle,” and Greek to use a con man as a protagonist, in his sharply

98 Contendings of Horus and Seth, T he
satiric novel The Confidence-Man: His Masquerade The Text

(1857). Con artists also are the heroes in such
award-winning feature films as Paper Moon Horus went before the sun god Re-Horakhty
(1973) and The Sting (1973). to claim the office of his late father, Osiris,
king of Egypt. Most members of the ennead,
See also: Tricksters. which was a group of nine gods, and Thoth,
god of wisdom, supported Horus’s claim, but
Sources Re-Horakhty was angry with them. The sun
Lindberg, Gary H. The Confidence Man in American Litera-
ture. New York: Oxford University Press, 1982.
god preferred to give the kingship to Seth,
Maurer, David W. The Big Con: The Story of the Confidence Osiris’s brother, who was a grown man and
Man. New York: Anchor, 1999. stronger than young Horus. The Re-Horakhty
Melville, Herman. The Confidence-Man: His Masquerade. summoned two gods, Ptah and the ram god
1857. New York: Penguin Classics, 1991.
Banebdjet. Banebdjet suggested that a letter
be written asking the goddess Neith what to
Contendings of Horus do about the matter.
Neith replied that if Horus was not made
and Seth, The king, she would crash the sky to the ground.
She explained that Seth should be given double
his current possessions as well as the goddesses
(Egyptian) Anat and Astarte (daughters of Re-Horakhty)
as his wives. This reply enraged Re-Horakhty,
T he Egyptian myth The Contendings of Horus
and Seth recounts the conflict between two
Egyptian gods, Horus and Seth. In ancient
who called Horus weak and too small for the
kingship.
Egypt, Horus was a solar deity, and Seth, his When one of the other gods insulted Re-
uncle, was the god of the desert wastes. Horakhty, he retired to his tent and lay alone
Evidence dating to the late Old Kingdom for a day. The goddess Hathor, in an attempt
(c. 2404–2191 B.C.E.) suggests that the two to cheer him up, approached her father and
gods were originally peers and brothers. In stripped off her clothes. Amused by his daugh-
the earliest tellings, two key mutilations took ter, Re-Horakhty recovered his mood and sum-
place: Horus lost an eye and Seth lost his moned the gods once again. He called upon
testicles. The former was of primary impor- Horus and Seth to speak for themselves.
tance, as it symbolized kingly power. The
Egyptians saw the conflict between these two
Seth’s Claim to the Throne
gods as a defining moment for humankind, in Seth claimed to be strongest of the gods. He as-
which conflict itself entered the universe— serted that only he could slay the enemies of
before Horus and Seth injured each other, the sun as the solar barque, the sun’s boat, trav-
there was no anger, shouting, conflict, or eled through the netherworld each night, and
confusion. so he deserved to be king. This convinced the
The single most elaborate and cohesive ennead and Banebdjet, but Thoth and another
narrative of the events that make up The Con- god protested that the office held by the father
tendings of Horus and Seth can be found in Pa- must be given to the son. Isis also protested.
pyrus Chester Beatty I, which is the collection The ennead promised that justice would be
of antiquities that were the property of the Irish done.
mining magnate Sir Alfred Chester Beatty. The Angered, Seth threatened to slay them all
details of the text demonstrate one form that with a 4,500-pound scepter. Re-Horakhty de-
the story had taken by the reign of Ramses V cided to withdraw the court to the Island-in-the-
(1160–1156 B.C.E.). The details of this account Midst and barred Isis from the proceedings.
follow. In the guise of an old woman, Isis bribed a

Contendings of Horus and Seth, T he 99
ferryman to take her across to the island. Once returned to Re-Horakhty, who had tired of the
there, she turned herself into a beautiful young bickering. He demanded that everyone dine
woman who caught Seth’s eye. She explained to together and make peace.
the god that she was a widow whose son tended But the battle did not cease there. Seth in-
the cattle of his late father. She told Seth that a vited Horus for a feast. That night, as Horus
stranger had entered their stall and was threat- slept at Seth’s house, his uncle attempted to
ening to beat her son and claim the cattle. Seth impregnate him. Horus caught the semen in
was outraged and undoubtedly wished to win his hand and took it home to show Isis. Fright-
the favor of this beautiful young woman. He ened, Isis severed Horus’s hand, threw it into
proclaimed, “Should the cattle be given to the water, and fashioned a replacement for his
a stranger when a man’s son is present?” The lost hand. She then manually aroused Horus,
Egyptian words for cattle and office are put the resulting semen in a pot, and took it to
homonyms, so Isis had tricked Seth into pro- Seth’s garden to pour onto the lettuce growing
claiming that Horus deserved the kingship. there, knowing that Seth would eat it for his
Isis took the form of a kite and pro- breakfast.
claimed victory, while Seth lamented that Isis Seth and Horus appeared in court once
had tricked him into saying such a thing. By again. Seth proclaimed that he should be given
now, even Re-Horakhty had lost sympathy Osiris’s office because he had “done a man’s
for Seth and proclaimed that the crown deed” to Horus. When the appalled ennead
should be awarded to Horus. But again, Seth spit at Horus, the youth laughed. They should,
protested. Re-Horakhty capitulated, agreeing he said, find the semen of Seth. Thoth called
to Seth’s suggestion of a series of contests be- upon the semen of Seth, and it answered from
tween the candidates. the marsh. Thoth called upon the semen of Hor-
us. The semen of Horus emerged as a solar
disk from the head of Seth. Thoth claimed the
The Contest disk for himself, and the ennead awarded the
In the first contest, Seth and Horus trans- kingship to Horus.
formed into hippopotamuses. They were to Seth proposed one last contest: They would
remain submerged for as long as possible, build and race boats of stone, and the winner
and the first to surface would lose the trial. would rule Egypt. Horus built a boat of wood
Afraid for Horus, Isis made a harpoon and plastered to look like stone. Seeing Horus’s ves-
tried to catch Seth but stabbed (and released) sel afloat, Seth built a ship of stone, which sank.
Horus on her first attempt. When she did Seth turned into a hippopotamus and wrecked
catch Seth, he called out that he was Horus. the boat of Horus, who speared him. The en-
Overcome with pity, Isis released him. Hor- nead finally put an end to this contest.
us, outraged by his mother’s action, cut off Horus sailed his boat to the goddess
her head and carried it into the mountains, Neith to complain to her about the contest,
where Isis transformed herself into a headless which had lasted eighty years. Thoth told Re-
statue. News of all this enraged Re-Horakhty, Horakhty to write to Osiris, who would judge
and he ordered the ennead to punish Horus between them. Osiris expressed outrage at
severely. the current state of affairs. Why had the gods
Later, Seth found Horus at an oasis. The denied Horus his rights when Osiris was the
stronger god tore out Horus’s eyes and buried only one who could nourish the gods by pro-
them in the mountain, where they grew into viding grain and cattle? Re-Horakhty replied
lotuses. Seth then returned to Re-Horakhty, that these things would exist even if Osiris
claiming not to have found the young god. In had never been born. Osiris then threatened
the meantime, Hathor had come across the in- the gods when they entered his realm in the
jured youth and healed his eyes. The rivals west (the netherworld).

100 Counting-Out Rhymes
The matter between Seth and Horus was Eenie, meenie, minie, mo,
settled at last. Seth challenged Horus to one Catch a robber by the toe.
more contest, but the throne was awarded to If you catch him, don’t you cry,
Horus, and Seth was brought to the court and Just you call the FBI.
shackled. Re-Horakhty took pity on Seth and
granted him a reward, making him the thun- Scholars have argued about the first line of the
der in the sky. rhyme. Is it a corrupted form of Gaelic, a
Noreen Doyle phrase from a medieval magician’s patter, or
simply nonsense?
Sources Counting-out rhymes also may help chil-
Griffiths, J. Gwyn. The Conflict of Horus and Seth from Egypt- dren learn to count or learn the days of
ian and Classical Sources. Liverpool, UK: Liverpool
the week and the months of the year. Often
Lichtheim, Miriam. Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of they have no meaning, besides the counting-
Readings. Vol. 2. Berkeley: University of California out function, other than to get in the insults
Press, 1976. that children seem to love inflicting on each
other:
Counting-Out Rhymes Inka bink,

A bottle of ink.
C ounting-out rhymes are formulaic rhymes

generally used by children to help them
choose sides for games. The rhymes are re-
The cork fell out,
And you stink.
cited while one child, the chooser, points to or Storytellers who want to engage children
touches the others in turn with each word. The in their tales find that incorporating counting-
child touched at the last word is the one picked out rhymes into their repertoires is often the
to participate, or in some cases, the one who is key to their success.
rejected.
See also: Cumulative Rhymes and Tales;
These rhymes often are created by chil-
Retellings: A Grain of Corn; The Gingerbread Boy.
dren, and they may be passed from child to
child across a country or from generation to Sources
generation. As a result, counting-out rhymes Bronner, Simon J. American Children’s Folklore. Ameri-
vary little within linguistic groups but show can Folklore Series. Little Rock, AR: August House,
changes over the generational transfers, of- 2006.
Sherman, Josepha, and T.K.F. Weiskopf. Greasy, Grimy
ten reflecting social changes. For example, Gopher Guts: The Subversive Folklore of Children. Little
one of the most popular counting-out rhymes Rock, AR: August House, 1995.
in the United States is “Eenie, meenie, minie,
mo.”
Creation Stories
Eenie, meenie, minie, mo,
Catch a tiger by the toe. of Mesopotamia
If he hollers, let him go.
My mother says to pick this one . . .
Prior to the 1960s, the third word in the

I n ancient Mesopotamia (c. 9000–500 B.C.E.),
there were several universal myths of cre-
ation. Within each civilization that occupied
second line was not the innocuous tiger but a the region, a myriad of myths and at times
racial epithet. The same rhyme also changed conflicting traditions were used to explain the
after the 1960s to reflect changing mores: mystery of existence.

Creation Stor ies of Mesopotamia 101
Little is known about the first Sumerian An and Enlil, who separated out the parts of
myths, written during the third millennium the universe from an initial mass.
B.C.E. The surviving material is fragmentary,
and the documents so far discovered are diffi-
cult to interpret. Nevertheless, as far as can be
Sumerian Creation Myths
determined, Mesopotamian texts from the ear- The origins of humankind are dealt with in a
liest times to the decline of the cuneiform tra- Sumerian poem from the second millennium,
dition in the first centuries B.C.E. do not appear “The Song of the Hoe.” This composition com-
to address the question of creation. The primal pares the creation of humankind to the growth
existence of the gods is assumed rather than of plants. After the god Enlil separated heaven
explained, with heaven and Earth created by from Earth and Earth from heaven, he made
the god Enlil, the head of the Sumerian pan- the human seed spout forth like a plant from
theon. the soil at a sacred place called Where Flesh
There is one exception, however, a myth Came Forth. Humans were then assigned the
in which heaven and Earth were separated be- task of worshipping the gods, a common
fore the existence of the gods Enlil and his Mesopotamian mythological theme.
spouse, Ninlil. A text written in the city of Ur Another Sumerian poem, “The Disputation
(in what is now Iraq) explains that in its begin- Between Ewe and Wheat,” describes primeval
nings Earth was dark. There was no light or Earth as initially being barren. People went
vegetation, and no water emerged from the about naked, eating grass as if they were sheep,
deep. Another Sumerian composition, pre- for wheat and bread did not yet exist. Without
served in a copy from the early part of the sec- ewes and goats, there was also no weaving,
ond millennium B.C.E., entitled Gilgamesh and cloth, or clothing.
the Netherworld, contains a prologue that de- An explanation of how Earth came to be
scribes the formation of the world by the gods ordered is given in the Sumerian myth Enki
Marduk was the hero-god who slew Tiamat and began creation. This model of the sanctuary in Marduk’s temple
at Babylon shows how it may have looked at the time of King Nebuchadnezzar II, who ruled from 604 to 562 B.C.E.
(Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz/Art Resource, NY)

102 Creation Stor ies of Mesopotamia
and the World Order. Enki, one of the main unable to function. Ninmah was confounded.
deities in the Sumerian pantheon, was assigned She could not find a suitable profession for the
responsibility for the organization of the world, being to earn its daily bread. The myth con-
including the fates of the land of Sumer, the cludes with the exclamation that Ninmah was
foreign lands, and the Tigris and Euphrates not the equal of the great Enki.
rivers. To manage his work, he entrusted vari-
ous gods with specific responsibilities. Selected Babylonian Traditions
deities were charged with management of the
Babylonian theologians and poets also incorpo-
twin rivers and surrounding marshes, the sea,
rated stories about the creation of humans and
rains, irrigation and crops, construction and ar-
the world in texts to justify and glorify kingship.
chitecture, wildlife on the high plain, herding
The best-known myth of this type was Enuma
of domestic animals, oversight of the whole of
Elish, or When on High. Created at the end of the
heaven and Earth, and woman’s work.
second millennium B.C.E., it contains a story of
a battle among the gods that was used as a char-
Enki and Ninmah ter myth for the emergence of a new political
order. The story centers on the exploits of Mar-
The Sumerian myth Enki and Ninmah gives
duk, a god who was elevated to supremacy in
an explanation for the creation of humankind.
the city of Babylon at the end of the second
In the time after heaven and Earth were
millennium B.C.E.
separated, there was a shortage of food. A so-
The myth tells of Marduk obtaining his po-
lution was found by assigning minor gods the
sition as the chief god of Babylon and reflects
task of producing food by farming. To do so,
on the unchallenged power of the Babylonian
they had to undertake the burdensome job
ruler. The story begins with the existence of an
of digging canals and dredging clay. The work
immense expanse of sweet (apsu) and salt (tia-
was so difficult that the junior gods complained,
mat) waters that existed before the universe and
and finally, fed up with all the work, they de-
first gods came into being. Out of the mingling
cided to rebel.
of these primeval waters, the gods emerged in
The senior god Enki, fast asleep at the
pairs. Like young children, the gods were ram-
time, was roused from his slumber. Realizing
bunctious, and they so upset the god Apsu that
the need for a creative solution, Enki decided
he decided to destroy the young deities. The
to create humankind. Humans would then
clever god Ea came to their rescue and killed
bear the burden of working the soil and creat-
Apsu.
ing produce. The goddess Namma was asked
to knead clay from the fresh waters that were
under the earth and place it in her womb. She
Marduk
then gave birth to the first humans. Described as perfect and unequaled, the god
In the second part of this myth, Enki and Marduk was born to Ea and his wife, Damkina.
the goddess Ninmah became inebriated at a Marduk, as a leader of the younger generation,
banquet and challenged each other to a con- was selected by the gods to be their com-
test. The goddess began by creating people mander. He became their supreme leader and
who were disabled and challenged Enki to champion, charged with defending the lesser
solve their problems and provide for their deities against the fury of the goddess Tiamat.
welfare. Enki responded by assigning them The goddess was upset at all the noise and com-
professions so that they could be independent motion, and she was determined to avenge the
and earn their own livings. Enki in turn chal- slaying of her husband, Apsu. Marduk, armed
lenged Ninmah. He molded clay and placed with an array of winds, heroically battled Tia-
it in the womb of a woman, creating a being mat, a symbol of the old order.

Culture Heroes 103
Victorious in battle, Marduk needed to dis-

pose of Tiamat’s body. He split it in two like a Culture Heroes
dried fish and fashioned the upper part as
heaven and the lower part as Earth. Afterward,
he created the constellations and the nether- A culture hero is a mythological or histori-
cal character that is of major importance
to a specific culture, group, or nation. Often,
world. He also brought forth the Sun and
Moon, organized the calendar, and was given legend or folklore is built up around the lives
the authority to care and provide for the sanc- of these characters. A culture hero is some-
tuaries. times responsible for changing the world, or
Finally Marduk, thankful for the benefits he may act as protector or savior of a people.
granted by the gods and their submissiveness The Greek Titan Prometheus is an example
to his rule, decided to ease their burden by of a culture hero that changed the world. He
creating humans from the blood of a slain re- tricked the gods and stole fire to give as a gift to
bellious god. The myth employs this episode humankind. Prometheus also can be classified
to explain that humans were created to sustain as a trickster. Coyote is a culture hero of many
the gods and release them from their menial American Indians of the Southwest. Hare is
labors. This provided a rationale for human- both a trickster and the culture hero of certain
ity’s rebellious nature. Marduk also gave the groups in the American Southeast.
gods new roles by assigning them to various Historical figures who have become cul-
positions in heaven and on Earth. ture heroes are found throughout the world.
The great Onondaga peacemaker Hiawatha is
one such hero. Another is the pacifist leader of
The City of Babylon
India, Mahatma Gandhi. Religious leaders also
In the next episode of Marduk’s story, he de- can be culture heroes, such as Moses, Jesus,
manded that the gods build him a capital city, and Buddha.
Babylon. He also requested a temple, Esagila, A number of celebrated early Ameri-
in which he would dwell and administer the cans are culture heroes. These include George
affairs of the gods. Washington, Benjamin Franklin, and Davy
In gratitude to Marduk, the gods com- Crockett, and folklore has been passed down
plied. They prostrated themselves before him, through generations about all three. George
pledged obedience to their unquestioned leader Washington never did cut down a cherry tree
and commander, and confirmed his kingship. or claim to “never tell a lie,” but the story
The myth continued with the gods pronounc- carries on.
ing the fifty names of Marduk, each an aspect American cowboys are culture heroes with
of his power and character. The story con- numerous legends attached to them. A typical
cludes with Marduk as the victor and absolute example is the loner who saves the day, the
ruler. town, or the heroine from evil. The villain usu-
ally is a ruthless rancher or townsman.
Sources Sports figures, however, are not culture
Dalley, Stephanie. Myths from Mesopotamia. New York: heroes. Although they may be temporarily
Oxford University Press, 1991. adored, they lack the other necessary attrib-
Foster, Benjamin R. Before the Muses: An Anthology of Akka-
dian Literature. 2nd ed. Potomac, MD: CDL, 1996. utes of culture heroes.
Jacobsen, Thorkild, trans. and ed. The Harps That
Once . . . : Sumerian Poetry in Translation. New Haven, See also: Achilles; Baby Cast Adrift;
CT: Yale University Press, 1987.
———. The Treasures of Darkness: A History of Mesopota-
Dongmyeongseong/Chumong (Korean); El
mian Religion. New Haven, CT: Yale University Cid; Enmerkar; Etana; Gilgamesh; Havelock
Press, 1976. the Dane; Horus; Ilya Murometz/Ilya of

104 Cumulative Rhymes and Tales
Murom; Joe Magarac; John Henry; Johnny Ap- That killed the rat
pleseed; Lugalbanda; Maui; Ninurta/Ningirsu; That ate the malt
Sundiata; Superman; Telepinu/Telepinus; The- That lay in the house that Jack built.
seus; William Tell; Wonder Woman; Yoshit-
sune; Ziusudra; Retelling: Cuchulain and the And so on. Another popular cumulative tale is
Green Man. the “Old Lady Who Swallowed a Fly.” This
has a “gotcha” ending that comes after more
Sources and more animals are swallowed:
Carlyle, Thomas. On Heroes, Hero-Worship and the Heroic
in History. New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1893.
Eliot, Alexander. The Universal Myths: Heroes, Gods, Trick- There was an Old Lady who swallowed
sters and Others. New York: New American Library, a horse.
1990. She died, of course.
Savage, William W. The Cowboy Hero: His Image in Ameri-
can History and Culture. Norman: University of Okla-
homa Press, 1979. A subcategory of the cumulative tale is the
jump tale, a spooky but simple story that has
one major purpose: to make the listener jump
Cumulative Rhymes with fear at the end. “Who’s Got My Golden
Arm” is one example. Much of the tale is the
and Tales repetition of the phrase “Who’s got my golden
arm?” At the end, the teller points to a mem-
ber of the audience and shouts, “You do!”
C umulative rhymes, also known as cumula-
tive verses, and cumulative tales are closely
related forms of storytelling.
Cumulative tales and rhymes are likely to
be enjoyed by people of all ages for genera-
Cumulative rhymes add a line or two with tions to come.
each new verse, after repeating the information
Sources
presented in the earlier verses. As a result, each
Bronner, Simon J. American Children’s Folklore. American
new verse is longer than the previous one. The Folklore Series. Little Rock, AR: August House,
subject of a cumulative rhyme may be serious 2006.
and created for adults, as in some Hebrew Jacobs, Joseph. English Fairy Tales. Mineola, NY: Dover,
chants, or silly and aimed at both adults and 1967.
Sherman, Josepha, and T.K.F. Weiskopf. Greasy, Grimy
children. Gopher Guts: The Subversive Folklore of Children. Little
Cumulative tales are simple stories with Rock, AR: August House, 1995.
repetitive phrases. These tales unwind and then Steel, Flora Annie Webster. Tales of the Punjab: Told by the
rewind and repeat, with new elements added People. New York: Macmillan, 1894.
with each repetition. The rhythmic structure
of these tales is very appealing, especially to
children. Curses
The following is a sample of cadence and
repetition from the rhyme known as “This Is
the House That Jack Built.” C urses are magic spells that are directed at a
person, place, or object in order to bring
about harm. Curses are believed to result in
This is the house that Jack built. failure, injury, illness, or even death. Curses ap-
This is the malt pear in both folklore and real life, in the Bible
That lay in the house that Jack built. and the Koran, in the ancient world and the
This is the rat modern. There are different forms of curses, in-
That ate the malt cluding those that are spoken and those that are
That lay in the house that Jack built. invoked with a look, a form of curse commonly
This is the cat known as the evil eye.

Curses 105
Effigies and Other Objects theme in New Orleans and other locations
where voodoo is practiced.
Of the various methods by which curses are Animal and human hearts, animal corpses,
placed, perhaps one of the oldest is the use of or any other objects that will quickly decom-
effigies. These are crude figures that represent pose also have been used for placing curses.
targeted individuals. The idea is that as an ef- These are buried in the ground with an invoca-
figy is injured or destroyed, so, too, would the tion stating that as the objects rot away, the vic-
victim suffer and die. tim of the curse will die.
Wax effigies have been found at ancient In Ireland, there are so-called cursing
Egyptian and Indian sites, among others. Later stones, which are turned to the left as a curse
examples were made of clay, wood, or stuffed is recited.
cloth and painted to look as much as possible
like the victim. During the reign of the Egypt-
ian Pharaoh Ramses III (c. 1184–1153 B.C.E.), Cursed People, Places, and Things
conspirators against him were found to have There are certain people, places, and objects
wax effigies in their arsenal. that are said to carry a curse.
In ancient Greece, curses were called The famous curse of King Tut was placed
katadesmoi. To the Romans, they were tabulae on anyone who disturbed the tomb of Tu-
defixiones. In both cases, the curses included tankhamen. It was said that an inscription on a
an invocation to a god or demon. They were clay tablet found within the tomb read, “Death
written on a solid material, such as lead, and will slay with its wings whoever disturbs the
buried where it was believed their power peace of the pharaoh.” Earl Carnarvon, who
would be activated, such as in a cemetery or funded the excavation of the tomb, and archae-
near a sacred well. In the fourth century B.C.E., ologist Howard Carter, who opened the tomb
the Greek philosopher Plato wrote in his book in 1922, were believed to be the victims of
The Republic, “If anyone wishes to injure an en- this curse. Six months after he entered the
emy; for a small fee [sorcerers] will bring harm tomb, Carnarvon was dead, and rumor makers
on good or bad alike, binding the gods to serve spread the word. Although six members of the
their purposes by spells and curses (performed team did die suddenly, others, including Carter
on effigies).” who simply dropped out of public view, went
Wax figures also were used in Europe on to live long and normal lives. The mysteri-
during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. ous tablet was never found and likely never ex-
King James I of England broadened the isted. Ancient Egyptians were not known to
Witchcraft Act, bringing penalty of death write on clay tablets or refer to “winged death.”
to anyone who invoked evil spirits or com- The first curse recorded in the Bible ap-
muned with familiar spirits. These activities pears in the Book of Genesis, when the ser-
were described in King James’s book Dae- pent is cursed to crawl upon its belly. In other
monologie (1597): references, as in the Book of Proverbs, unde-
served curses are said to have no weight and
To some others at these times [the may be turned to a blessing by God.
Devil] teacheth how to make pictures A famous curse protects William Shake-
of waxe or clay. That by the roasting speare’s grave. It says, in part, “Curst be he
thereof, the persons that they beare the who moves my bones.”
name of, may be continually melted or There are also supposedly cursed places.
dried away by continuall sicknesse. One such place is the Bermuda Triangle, a re-
gion in the Atlantic Ocean in which many
Effigies are sometimes stuck with pins or people, along with ships and aircraft, have dis-
knives. So-called voodoo dolls play on this appeared without a trace. Within the Bermuda

106 Curses
Triangle lies the Sargasso Sea. The lack of wind admitted to placing the curse on him and was
over the sea and the proliferation of sargassum sentenced to death.
weed, which can entangle vessels, may con- Curses often are found in folktales. In
tribute to the mysterious happenings. “Sleeping Beauty,” an evil fairy foretold that
The Hope Diamond was said to be cursed, the heroine would prick her finger on a spin-
supposedly bringing about the demise of sev- dle and die. This curse was softened when a
eral of its owners. But a twentieth-century gem good fairy altered the punishment to a sleep of
dealer confessed to making the story up in an at- 100 years. In “The Frog Prince,” a handsome
tempt to make the diamond seem more exotic. young prince is cursed to remain a frog until
The Boston Red Sox were said to suffer a princess can break the spell, either with a
from “the curse of the Bambino.” Babe Ruth kiss or, more violently, by hurling him against
(aka the Bambino) placed a curse on the team a wall.
when he was sold to the Yankees in 1920. The
curse stated that the Red Sox would never Breaking Curses
win another World Series. This held true until
There are as many ways to break a curse as
more than eighty years later, when the Red
there are types of curses. The power of an ef-
Sox won the series in 2004.
figy or other cursed object can be taken away
Many old families are thought to be cursed.
with a ceremony in which the object is de-
A recent example is the Kennedy curse. The
stroyed. Other rituals can be performed to ban-
family’s patriarch, Joseph Kennedy, supposedly
ish curses. Protective talismans or amulets also
had a curse placed on him that has affected
can be worn to ward off curses like the evil eye.
many of his male descendants.
See also: Black Magic.
Curses in Folk Belief
Sources
The power of the curse became firmly fixed in
Cohen, Daniel. Famous Curses. New York: Dodd Mead,
European folk belief during the Middle Ages 1979.
and the Renaissance. In England, a case came Klein, Edward. The Kennedy Curse: Why Tragedy Has
to trial in March of 1612 about a curse placed Haunted America’s First Family for 150 Years. New
by Alison Device on John Law, a peddler who York: St. Martin’s, 2003.
Pinch, Geraldine. Magic in Ancient Egypt. Austin: Univer-
had refused to open his pack for her. Law be- sity of Texas Press, 1994.
lieved that he had been cursed and collapsed Shaughnessy, Dan. The Curse of the Bambino. New York:
with what was very likely a stroke. Device Penguin, 2004.

D
D
Dahut/Ahes
(French)

ahut (who is sometimes known as Ahes)
was the beautiful but treacherous and
this day, a statue of King Gradlon on his horse,
looking out to sea to where his city once stood,
stands in the town. According to legend, Dahut
still swims the seas, transformed into a siren, a
woman whose beautiful voice lures sailors to
their deaths.
The story of Dahut has inspired musicians
lascivious daughter of Gradlon, the king of and authors over the years. Le Chant du Dahut
the city of Ys, also called Ker-Ys. She is a fig- is a symphonic poem composed by Manuel
ure in the folklore of Brittany, a Celtic corner Hernandez in 1986. Science fiction writers Poul
of France that lies on the coast of the Atlantic and Karen Anderson wrote The King of Ys
Ocean. (1986–1988), a fantasy series based on the leg-
The legendary kingdom of Ys lay below end of Ys. The third volume of the series,
sea level, as do many real cities in that re- Dahut, recounts the story of Dahut and the
gion. The ocean was held back by a series of drowning of the city.
walls and powerful sluice gates. Dahut, who
had taken many lovers, fell madly in love with See also: Ys/Ker-Ys.
a man who some versions of the story say was
the ocean personified. Dahut, who would Sources
Denis-Dunepveu, H. Contes Breton. Paris: F. Lanore, 1948.
willingly do whatever her lover asked of her, Guyot, Charles. La Légende de la Ville d’Ys. Paris: Édition
stole the keys of the sluice gates from her fa- d’Art, 1926.
ther. Her lover then opened the gates, and the Spence, Lewis. Legends and Romances of Brittany. Mineola,
city was engulfed by the sea. NY: Dover, 1997.
King Gradlon fled on horseback, with his
daughter riding behind. Dahut clung desper-
ately to her father. But beside them rode Saint Danish Traditional Tales
Guenole, the king’s confessor, who knew of
Dahut’s sin. As the waters nearly overtook
them, Guenole told Gradlon what had hap-
pened, and the horrified king threw Dahut
D anish traditional tales are learned and
transmitted by traditional means. They
include texts and genres that are counted as
from his horse into the waves. part of the broader category of Scandinavian
King Gradlon escaped to dry land, landing traditional narratives, as well as stories that are
near the modern city of Quimper, France. To unique to Denmark.
107

108 Danish Traditional Tales
History First Collection of Tales

Denmark’s early literary history includes Svend Grundtvig (1824–1883) was an impor-
Norse mythology and ancient epic poetry. tant philologist and folklorist who created
As the Viking age ebbed by 1066 C.E., the the earliest scholarly collection of Danish tra-
old sagas were replaced by Christian sacred ditional tales. His two-volume work, Danske
texts. Eventually, new storytelling genres that Folkeæaventyr, was compiled between 1876 and
were derived largely from northern Europe- 1883. Grundtvig’s main area of interest was the
an traditions took hold in the Danish popular study of ballads, or narrative songs. The system
imagination. By the nineteenth century, Den- that Grundtvig developed for classifying the
mark had become known for the vitality of ballads provided the basis for Francis James
its tale-telling. Child’s catalog of the ballads of England and
There are several distinctive genres of Scotland. Grundtvig also constructed the first
Danish traditional tales that have been pre- system for categorizing folktales into types. His
served in various ways. The nineteenth- system was likewise expanded by other folk-
century Danish historian Svend Grundtvig lorists who created indexes for tale types and
collected hundreds of folktales. Hans Christ- motifs.
ian Andersen reworked and compiled fairy The tales in Grundtvig’s collection were
tales. And the vibrant oral tradition features a based on oral traditions. He assembled them us-
wide range of folktales, including a unique ing his own memory combined with the work
variety of European numskull stories called of a network of other Danish writers. Grundtvig
Molboer tales. took a scholarly approach to the stories because
The famous Danish author Hans Christian Andersen based many of his popular stories on Danish traditional tales
and other European folktales. (Snark/Art Resource, NY)

Danish Traditional Tales 109
he recognized their value to the study of lan- folklorists carefully document stories as they
guage, culture, and history. He was, however, are actually told. Many of the studies of Danish
highly influenced by a literary bias that elevated folklore are included in larger collections of
the written text over the spoken word. Conse- Scandinavian studies. Traditional genres such
quently, he reworked the stories according to as legends, household tales, jokes, and others
his own artistic ideals, and the compilation does constitute a rich body of Danish lore within the
not necessarily represent how these tales were larger context of Scandinavian tradition.
actually told. Nevertheless, his stories are ex- Some of the Danish folktales include stories
cellent renditions of Danish folktales, and his of the nisses. These little sprites often play tricks
work provides an important foundation for the on unsuspecting members of a household.
study of folklore. Another indigenous genre is the Molboer
tale. Set in the Jutland community of Mols,
Hans Christian Andersen these tales center on a fantasy village of rural
peasants. Mols is portrayed as a backward area
Hans Christian Andersen (1805–1875) achieved
populated by well-intentioned but naive fools.
worldwide fame as a compiler, performer, and
Ed K. Andersen, who emigrated from Den-
writer of folktales and fairy tales. The son of
mark’s island of Falster to Audubon, Iowa,
a poor shoemaker, Andersen was born in the
knew a number of Molboer tales and told one
slums of Odense, a city on the island of North
that is characteristic of this genre:
Fyn. His mother, Anne Marie Andersdatter,
worked as a washerwoman and was likely re-
A Molboer was out working on his farm
sponsible for introducing the young Hans to
one day. He became upset because he
traditional folktales.
saw a stork smashing down the grain
The stories that readers associate with An-
with his big feet. He started chasing him
dersen are rooted in the Danish tales that he
out of the field, but this didn’t do any
heard throughout his life. But Andersen was
good because he was tramping down
primarily a literary artist, and he reworked tra-
the grain with his own big feet. He just
ditional and printed tales to meet the aesthetic
didn’t know what to do.
sensibilities of his audience. Stories such as “The
So one of his neighbors said, “I’ve
Ugly Duckling” reflect themes found in both
got a solution. What we’ll do is get this
traditional Danish folktales and Andersen’s own
big gate, and we’ll carry him around on
childhood experiences. Other stories, such as
top of the gate so that he doesn’t smash
“The Little Mermaid,” are literary renditions in-
the grain down with his big feet.”
spired by European märchen, or “wonder tales.”
Although Andersen used Danish texts and
As seen in this example, the humor of Mol-
genres in much of his work, he also reworked
boer tales is quite subtle, and may be an ac-
stories from other nations. “The Emperor’s
quired taste. Some storytellers find themselves
New Clothes,” for example, is a Danish folktale
clarifying the joke. Andersen explained, “You
that is rooted in Turkish traditional stories. In
see, they wound up smashing down more grain
addition to his beautiful anthology of stories,
by having four farmers carry the gate.”
Andersen created literary works that exemplify
Other Molboer stories are more direct
the creativity and imagination that can emerge
and the humor more obvious, but often the lis-
in folkloric expression.
tener is left to figure out the foolish action by
completing the joke. A good teller of these tales
Current Scholarship frequently draws from a vast repertoire and
Whereas Grundtvig and Andersen substan- strings one Molboer tale onto another. The droll
tially reworked traditional texts to create humor is characteristic of this variety of num-
highly polished literary works, contemporary skull, or noodle, tale.

110 De Iside et Osir ide
Molboer tales, stories of the nisse, and a va- had only had 360 days. On the first new day,
riety of other narrative forms remain impor- Osiris was born; on the second, Aroueris, an
tant components of a storytelling tradition that Egyptian solar deity; on the third, Typhon, god
stretches back to the origins of Danish culture. of the desert waste; on the fourth, Isis; and on
the fifth day, Nephthys.
Gregory Hansen Osiris and Aroueris were the sons of Helios,
Hermes fathered Isis, and Cronus fathered Ty-
See also: Norse Mythology. phon and Nephthys. Osiris and Isis fell in love
with each other while still within the womb,
Sources where they conceived Aroueris. Isis also gave
Frank, Diana, and Jeffrey Frank, eds. and trans. The Sto-
ries of Hans Christian Andersen. Boston: Houghton
birth to Aroueris while still within Rhea’s
Mifflin, 2003. womb. Other sources claim that Aroueris was
Grundtvig, Svend. Danish Fairy Tales. Trans. J. Grant the son of Helios.
Cramer. Mineola, NY: Dover, 1972. Typhon and Nephthys were wed, possibly
Kvideland, Reimund, and Henning K. Sehmsdorf, eds.
also within the womb, but Nephthys’s son,
All the World’s Reward: Folktales Told by Five Scandina-
vian Storytellers. Seattle: University of Washington Anubis, was not fathered by Typhon. Osiris
Press, 1999. had mistaken Nephthys for her elder sister,
———. Scandinavian Folk Belief and Legend. Minneapolis: Isis, and slept with her. Nephthys abandoned
University Press of Minnesota, 1988. the child of this union for fear of her hus-
band’s wrath. With the help of dogs, Isis found
Anubis and raised him as her own son.
De Iside et Osiride
(Roman) Osiris and Isis
D
Osiris, the mythic king of Egypt, introduced
e Iside et Osiride is a literary work written
agriculture, laws, and religion to the Egyptians
in Roman times by the Greek philoso-
and then to the entire world. He traveled with-
pher and historian Plutarch (c. 46–120 C.E.). In
out weapons, using instead music and poetry
this work, Plutarch retold and interpreted the
to win the hearts of humankind.
myth of the Egyptian deities Isis and Osiris,
During the time that Osiris was traveling,
and explained wider aspects of Egyptian myth,
Isis watched over Egypt. Typhon took the op-
belief, cult practices, and etymology.
portunity to hatch a plot with some seventy
Plutarch’s teacher was likely an Egyptian,
minions and the Ethiopian queen, Aso, to de-
and it is speculated that Plutarch was an early
feat Osiris. He commissioned the construc-
follower in the cult of Isis. He was a priest of
tion of a handsome chest made to fit Osiris’s
Delphi from about 100 C.E. until his death.
body perfectly. During a feast, he offered
the chest to anyone who was able to lie down
Children of Rhea inside it. Once Osiris was in the chest, Ty-
Although Helios, the Egyptian sun god, warned phon shut him inside, bolted the lid in place,
Rhea, the sky goddess, against having inter- and dumped the chest in the river. It floated
course with Cronus, the Egyptian earth god, she through the Tanitic mouth of the Nile and out
did so anyway. Helios then decreed that Rhea to sea.
would not give birth on any day of the year. Isis learned of this and cut her hair in
Hermes, the Egyptian scribe god and moon mourning. She wandered the countryside
god, who had also had relations with Rhea, anonymously, asking children if they had seen
gambled at dice with the Moon and won a bit of the chest, until she learned that it had come
the Moon’s light. From this, he fashioned five ashore at the Syrian city of Byblos. By the time
additional days of the year, which until this time Isis discovered this, a tree had grown up

Deals with the Devil 111
around the chest, which Malcanthros, king of ———, ed. Plutarch’s De Iside et Osiride. Cardiff, UK:
Byblos, had cut down to make a pillar for his University of Wales Press, 1970.
palace. Osiris’s chest was within this pillar.
Once she arrived in Byblos, Isis wept by a
fountain until her divine fragrance attracted Deals with the Devil
the attention of the queen. The queen invited
the mysterious woman to serve as nursemaid
for the baby prince.
Isis suckled the baby on her finger and at
T he theme of humans making deals with the
devil or with some other supernatural be-
ing is common throughout the Judeo-Christian
night lay him in the fire to burn away his mor- world. Usually, the human ends up getting the
tal parts. She took the form of a swallow and better of the devil, but there are exceptions,
flew around the pillar, lamenting her husband such as in the story of Jean Dubroise.
entombed within. The queen caught Isis plac-
ing the baby in the fire and snatched up the The Devil’s Church
child, which cost him immortality.
In the Polish tale “The Devil’s Church,” a her-
Isis then revealed herself and demanded
mit in league with the devil sold his soul. When
the pillar, which was given to her. She wailed
the hermit realized death was near, he offered
so loudly that one of the king’s sons died of
the devil his soul if the devil would fulfill a few
fright. Another prince accompanied Isis back
wishes. The devil agreed.
to Egypt, where he too died of fright when he
The hermit asked the devil to fell an oak
saw Isis embrace her dead husband.
forest and build a church and a coffin for him.
Isis then took the pillar to Buto, where her
All this was to be completed before the clock
son Aroueris was being raised. While hunting
struck midnight. But the devil could not finish in
one night, Typhon found the chest, cut Osiris’s
time. Just as he was beginning the church tower,
body into fourteen parts, and scattered them.
the clock struck twelve, and he had to leave.
Isis went out in a papyrus boat to find and
The hermit recovered his health and con-
bury each piece. She was successful thirteen
fessed his sins. As for the church, it did not
times, but a fish had eaten Osiris’s penis, so
stand long. In that same year, it was struck by
she fashioned a new one.
lightning and burned completely to the ground.
The dead Osiris, now resurrected since all
It is said that every midnight, the devil’s angry
his body parts had been buried together, re-
howls still can be heard.
turned to train Aroueris for battle. Aroueris
fought Typhon. At one point in their battle, Isis
found her brother bound and set Typhon free.
The Master Smith
This enraged Aroueris, and he tore the crown In the Norwegian folktale “The Master Smith,”
from Isis’s head. Hermes replaced the crown a blacksmith made a bargain with the devil
with a helmet in the shape of a cow’s head. that the fiend could have his soul after seven
Typhon then made a legal challenge, years. Until that time, the smith was to be the
claiming that Aroueris was illegitimate. But master of all masters in his trade. The devil
the gods ruled in Aroueris’s favor. agreed, and the smith placed a sign over the
Here the tale ends. door of his forge that read, “Here is the master
Noreen Doyle over all masters.”
God and Saint Peter, however, stopped
See also: Isis; Osiris. by and showed the smith the error of his
boast. He asked for and was granted the fol-
Sources
Griffiths, J. Gwyn. “Plutarch.” In The Oxford Encyclopedia
lowing three wishes: Anyone the smith asked
of Ancient Egypt. Vol. 3. Ed. D.B. Redford. New York: to climb up into his pear tree would be stuck
Oxford University Press, 2001. there until the smith let him come down;

112 Deals with the Devil
anyone who sat in the smith’s chair would one of his three daughters. The elder two re-
stay there until the smith let him get up; and fused to marry such a horrible figure, but the
anyone the smith asked to creep into his steel youngest consented. Bearskin offered her a
purse would stay there until the smith let him token—half of a ring. (This is a traditional
out again. theme in folklore; the two halves are to be re-
When the seven years were up, the devil joined when the lovers meet.) Bearskin then left
came to fetch the smith. The smith told him to to complete the remainder of the devil’s
climb up into the pear tree for a nice, ripe pear sentence.
to eat. The devil did this and was unable to When the seven years were over, the devil
come down. The smith kept him up there for cleaned up Bearskin and dressed him as a rich
four years. noble. Bearskin returned to the house of his
The smith then released the devil from the bride, and the eldest daughters immediately
tree. He invited the devil to rest a while in his fell in love with him. When they discovered
chair. Once the devil was seated, he could not that he was the same man they had rejected
get up. Again, the smith kept him in place for years before, they were so overcome by jeal-
four years. ousy that they killed themselves.
Now the devil was really ready to take the When the devil arrived, he released
smith. But the smith asked if it was true that Bearskin from their deal because he had re-
the devil could become as small as he pleased. ceived two souls, the suicides, in exchange
The devil proved it by climbing into the for one.
smith’s steel purse. The smith promptly put
the steel purse in his forge’s fire. Then he be-
gan to beat the steel purse as he would any hot
How Jack Beat the Devil
metal. The devil yelled and bellowed and fi- In the African American folktale “How Jack
nally agreed that if the smith released him, the Beat the Devil,” a character named Jack bet his
devil would never come near him again. The soul during a gambling match with the devil.
smith agreed, and let the devil go. Jack lost the wager but was given a chance to
Now that he had barred himself from hell, save his soul. The devil would release Jack if he
the smith decided to see if heaven would have was able find the devil’s house, which lay be-
him. He reached the heavenly gates just as yond the sea, before the Sun set on the next day.
Saint Peter was beginning to close them. The Jack met an old man who advised him
smith hurled his hammer at the opening . . . about what to do. The next morning, Jack
and no one knows if he got in. caught a huge eagle and climbed aboard the
bird for a ride. Even though Jack fed the bird
bits of meat to keep it going on its flight, the
Bearskin eagle ate Jack’s arm and leg. Jack pressed on
In the German tale “Bearskin” from the Broth- and reached the devil’s house. When the ea-
ers Grimm, a soldier without the means to earn gle landed, Jack’s missing arm and leg were
a living met the devil and made a deal: The replaced.
devil would give the soldier a jacket with pock- Jack’s next trial was to clear a field in one
ets that were always full of gold. In return, the day. The devil’s daughter, who had fallen for
soldier had to wear the skin of a bear and not Jack, put her father to sleep so he wouldn’t
wash, groom himself, or pray for seven years. interfere. The next morning, when Jack awoke,
The soldier agreed. the job was already done.
After a number of years, the now filthy and Jack’s next task was to recover a ring from
bedraggled soldier, called Bearskin, helped an the bottom of a well. Once again, the devil’s
old man out of his financial difficulties. In ex- daughter put both her father and Jack to sleep.
change, the old man offered him the hand of When Jack awoke in the morning, the job was

Death 113
already done. Finally, Jack was to pluck two See also: Flying Dutchman; Freischutz; Tale
geese at the top of a tall tree. Again, the job Types.
was done as Jack slept.
Jack married the devil’s daughter. That Sources
Benét, Stephen Vincent. The Devil and Daniel Webster.
night, they had to flee because the devil meant
New York: Washington Square, 1967.
to kill Jack. The devil finally caught up with Hunt, Robert. Popular Romances of the West of England; or,
them, and the devil’s daughter changed Jack The Drolls, Traditions, and Superstitions of Old Corn-
into a log. The devil found the log, but Jack wall. London: J.C. Hotten, 1865.
prayed aloud and drove the devil away. Hurston, Zora Neale. Mules and Men. New York: Peren-
nial Library, 1990.
Irving, Washington. Tales of a Traveler. New York: May-
The Devil and the Lazy Man nard, Merrill, 1895.
The French-Canadian tale “The Devil and the
Lazy Man” features a lazy man named Jean
Dubroise, who had the finest crops and animals
Death
even though he never did any work. One night,
a neighbor discovered the truth. Dubroise had
made a deal with the devil to send loups-garous D eath is one of the great inevitabilities for
all living creatures. Despite this universal-
ity, death is still shrouded in mystery.
(werewolves) to do Dubroise’s farmwork under
cover of night. Religious systems provide various explana-
As soon as it was safe, the neighbor rushed tions for what occurs after death, from reincar-
to the local priest. While Dubroise was in town nation in Buddhism to the concepts of heaven
the following day, the priest had Dubroise’s and hell in Christianity. Death is sometimes
farm sprinkled thoroughly with holy water. portrayed as a specific figure. These specters
That night, when the devil and the loups- range from the Western stereotype of a black-
garous appeared, the holy water drove them robed skeleton with a scythe to an angel, as in
off. The furious devil was sure that Dubroise Jewish lore.
was trying to break their pact and dragged him Many cultures are reluctant to accept the
away. inevitability of death. So outwitting or cheating
The priest broke the spell on the loups- death has become a common folk theme.
garous, which turned them back to mortal
men. But Dubroise was gone for good. Capturing Death
Many stories feature the capture and impris-
Modern Tales onment of a personified Death. Once Death is
Deals with the devil also have been portrayed seized, no one is able to die no matter how old
in modern fiction. Washington Irving’s story or ill. The captor sees that Death is necessary,
“The Devil and Tom Walker” was published and releases him.
in 1824. The Devil and Daniel Webster, by In some versions, such as one from Nepal,
Stephen Vincent Benét, was published in 1937. the captor longs for death and releases the pris-
Benét’s work was the basis for a play by oner. In another version from Scotland, the
Archibald MacLeish, an opera, and two films. captor tries to keep Death trapped so that his
In 1979, the Charlie Daniels Band recorded old mother can continue to live. In this case, it
“The Devil Went Down to Georgia,” a song is the sight of his mother’s suffering that causes
about a young musician, Johnny, who accepts the captor to release Death.
the devil’s challenge and beats him in a fiddling
contest. The continued popularity of the song
Tricking Death
is evidence that this theme will continue to There are also folktales from around the world
inspire songs and stories for years to come. on the theme of trying to trick death. In a

114 Decameron
Sephardic Jewish tale, King David nearly suc- from the Greek words for “ten days.” This work
ceeds in outwitting the Angel of Death. of 100 stories is organized into themes and pre-
In the ancient Near Eastern Epic of Gil- sented as the storytelling efforts of a group of
gamesh, the hero attempts to gain immortality people.
and learns of a plant growing underwater that The Decameron begins with a framework
can restore youth to a man. Gilgamesh finds story about ten young people, three men and
the plant, picks it, and begins the long journey seven women, who flee Florence in 1348 and
home. But as Gilgamesh bathed in the cool go to a country villa to avoid a plague out-
water of a well, a serpent rose up and snatched break. To help pass the time, they decide to
away the plant. Gilgamesh is forced to accept hold daily storytelling sessions. Each day, the
the inevitability of death. In a hidden mes- ten elect a king or queen for the day to decide
sage, the snake shows nature’s pattern of re- what the general theme of the stories will be
generation in sloughing its skin. for the following day.
There are also many stories of attempts to The 100 stories vary from romantic to
return a dead lover to life. In the Greek myth satiric and include characters from every ele-
of Orpheus, the hero attempts to return his ment of fourteenth-century Italian society.
beloved wife, Eurydice, to life. But his own Some stories critique the clergy. Some ex-
weakness causes him to fail. There are vari- amine the eternal battle between men and
ants on this theme in which the dead lover women.
warns away the living lover from excess grief. There are also clear parallels to folklore
In others, the living lover willingly dies in or- tale types and motifs. Some of these parallels
der to be reunited with the dead lover. are gruesome, such as the tale of the cuck-
One tale stands out among those of failed olded husband killing his rival and forcing his
returns. In the Indian Mahabharata, husband wife to eat the lover’s heart, a folklore tale
and wife Satyavan and Savitri so love each type that turns up in French medieval lore.
other that when he dies, she goes after him. Sav- Others have worldwide parallels, such as
itri follows the god of death, Yama, so insistently in the tale of Dioneo. On the eighth day of
that he relents and returns Satyavan to life. the Decameron, Dioneo recites a story of a fel-
low who thinks he is clever but finds himself
See also: Abassi/Abasi and Atai; Ajok; Anubis/ being tricked by someone who is even more
Anpu; Banshee; Charon; Erra; Hel; Nergal; cunning, a tale very similar to an eighth-
Retelling: Orpheus and Eurydice. century folktale from India.
Sources See also: Boccaccio, Giovanni.
George, Andrew, trans. The Epic of Gilgamesh: The Baby-
lonian Epic Poem and Other Texts in Akkadian and
Sumerian. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1999. Sources
Henderson, Joseph L., and Maud Oakes. The Wisdom Boccaccio, Giovanni. The Decameron. Trans. G.H.
of the Serpent: The Myths of Death, Rebirth, and Resurrec- McWilliam. New York: Penguin, 1996.
tion. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990. ———. The Decameron. Trans. John Payne. London:
Merh, Kusum Pradeep. Yama, the Glorious Lord of the Lawrence and Bullen, 1893.
Other World. New Delhi, India: DK Printing, 1996.
Decameron Demeter and Persephone

(Greek)
(Italian)
T he Decameron, written by Giovanni Boccac-

cio in about 1349–1353 C.E., takes its name
I n Greek mythology, Demeter, who was
called Ceres by the Romans, was one of the
children of Cronos and Rhea and a sister of

Demeter and Persephone 115
Zeus. She was the goddess of the earth, fertil-

ity, and grain. It was she who taught farmers
to plow and plant, and she called the crops
forth from the tilled earth. Demeter and her
daughter, Persephone, goddess of spring, were
honored in the highly secretive Eleusinian
mystery rites, cult celebrations that took place
in the Greek city of Eleusis, north of Athens.
When Persephone was a young maiden,
Hades, the god of the underworld and brother
to Zeus, fell in love with her. He stole her away
to his kingdom beneath the earth and made
her his reluctant queen.
Distraught at the loss of her daughter,
Demeter appealed to the gods, but she was
told that it was a good match and that she
should be happy. In despair, Demeter dis-
guised herself as an old woman and wandered
the earth, lamenting and refusing to allow any-
thing to grow.
At one point in her wanderings, Demeter
came to the land of Eleusis, where she served
as a nursemaid to the king’s son. When Deme-
ter attempted a ritual to grant the child im- In a Greek sculpture dating to 440 B.C.E., earth goddess
mortality, she was interrupted and her divine Demeter (left) offers Triptolemos (center) a sheaf of
wheat, symbolizing the dawn of agriculture. Demeter’s
nature was revealed. Demeter stayed and taught
daughter Persephone, goddess of spring, is seen on
the people of Eleusis the secrets of agriculture, the right. (Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY)
and gave them the rites that came to be known
as Eleusinian.
Meanwhile, mortals and gods alike were Nobody was entirely happy with this
suffering because Demeter continued to with- arrangement, but they all agreed to it. Perse-
hold the earth’s fertility. Without her blessing, phone returned to Demeter, and Demeter al-
nothing grew, flowered, or bore fruit. Mortals lowed the earth to bloom once more. Each
starved, and there was nothing to offer to the time Persephone returned to the underworld,
gods in sacrifice. however, Demeter grieved anew and the earth
Finally, Gaia, the earth herself, appealed lay barren until her daughter returned to her.
to Zeus. Despite his earlier approval of the
match, Zeus gave in and sent Hermes to order Shanti Fader
Hades to return Persephone to her mother.
Persephone was delighted, however, when See also: Mother Goddess/Earth Mother.
she was in the underworld she had eaten six
Sources
seeds from a pomegranate given to her by Evslin, Bernard. The Greek Gods. New York: Scholastic,
Hades. Since nobody who had eaten food in 1995.
the underworld could return entirely to the Homer. The Homeric Hymns: A Verse Translation. Trans.
world of the living, Hermes proposed a com- Thelma Sargent. New York: W.W. Norton, 1973.
Rose, H.J. Gods and Heroes of the Greeks: An Introduction to
promise: Persephone would spend half of the Greek Mythology. New York: Meridian, 1958.
year with Demeter and the other half of the year Rouse, W.H.D. Gods, Heroes and Men of Ancient Greece.
with Hades. New York: New American Library, 1981.

116 Digenis Acr itas
In the end, with all his enemies defeated,

Digenis Acritas Digenis was able to settle down in the palace
he built for himself and live out his life in
(Greek) peace.
D igenis Acritas, a historical epic with fantastic

elements, is named for its hero. It was writ-
ten in Greek by an anonymous author of the
See also: Epics.
Sources
Hull, Denison B., trans. Digenis Akritas, The Two-Blood
twelfth-century Byzantine Empire, which con-
Border Lord. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1972.
sisted of lands in Asia Minor, Greece, Bulgaria, Mavrogodato, John, trans. Digenes Akrites. Oxford, UK:
Romania, and part of Italy. The Byzantine Em- Clarendon, 1956.
pire was the eastern Roman Empire, and it ex- Norwich, John Julius. Byzantium. New York: Alfred A.
isted for a thousand years after the fall of the Knopf, 1994.
western empire. The epic’s plot is based on his-
torical events, including the occasional Arab in-
vasions of Byzantine lands and the reconciliation Dilmun
of Byzantine Christians with Muslims.
The conflicts between the Byzantine Em- (Sumerian and Babylonian)
pire and the Arabs began in about the seventh
century C.E. and lasted until the early eleventh
century. The acrites were the Byzantine mili- D ilmun is the name given in several
Mesopotamian stories to what is now the
island of Bahrain in the Persian Gulf. Ancient
tary forces that safeguarded the frontier regions
of the imperial territory from external enemies literary and economic sources indicate that it
and adventurers who operated on the fringes was home to merchants who developed exten-
of the empire. sive trade contacts with the Sumerians during
Digenis Acritas is in two parts. The first part, the third millennium B.C.E.
known as the “Lay of the Emir,” describes the The Sumerian myth Enki and Ninhursanga
invasion of Cappadocia by an Arab emir. The describes Dilmun as both an idyllic place, holy
emir carried off the daughter of a Byzantine and pure, and a trade center for merchants.
general. Love bloomed between them, and the The epic Sumerian flood hero Ziusudra was
emir agreed to convert to Christianity for her given immortality and settled in a faraway
sake. They settled down in what is now Roma- place called Dilmun.
nia and had a son, named Digenis Acritas. The mythic story of conflict between En-
The second part of the work, “Digenis merkar, a legendary king of Uruk, and his en-
Acritas,” is about the hero’s life. It tells of his emy, the Lord of Aratta, begins by explaining
superhuman feats of bravery and strength. that in ancient days before Dilmun existed,
Among other feats, the hero kills a dragon and trade also did not exist.
defeats the three leaders of a group of bandits
See also: Flood, The; Gilgamesh.
in single combat.
One story in this second section claims that Sources
Digenis gripped the Pentadaktylos (Five Fin- Dalley, Stephanie, ed. and trans. Myths from Mesopotamia.
gers) mountain range in Arab-occupied Cyprus Rev. ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
to gain leverage so he could leap to Asia Minor. Foster, Benjamin R. Before the Muses: An Anthology of
No one matched Digenis in martial skills and Akkadian Literature. 2nd ed. Potomac, MD: CDL,
1996.
strength. The female warrior Maximu chal- Jacobsen, Thorkild, trans. and ed. The Harps That Once . . .:
lenged him and was defeated. Later, the two Sumerian Poetry in Translation. New Haven, CT: Yale
had an adulterous affair. University Press, 1987.

Djinn/Djinni/Jinn/Genie 117
Djinn/Djinni/Jinn/Genie called the Star of David, is also known as the

Seal of Solomon, the symbol of his power over
the djinn.
(Arabic)
Tales of the Djinn
T he djinn, according to Arabic tradition, are
a race of beings that existed thousands of
years before the arrival of humans. These be-
Dust devils are small desert whirlwinds that
carry sand or dust. They can grow into tall,
ings were created out of the hot desert wind. spinning pillars that folk belief says are caused
Some of the djinn were obedient to the will of by the swift movement of the djinn.
God. Others were evil. The Afrits were the The djinn could be chased away by crying
most powerful class of evil spirits. out “Iron! Iron!” The djinn, like other super-
The djinn lived long lives, but they were not natural beings, could not endure proximity to
immortal. They could be slain by other djinn that metal; even the mention of it scared them
or by humans, or even by a shooting star. When away.
a djinn was mortally wounded, the fire of its Anecdotes about the djinn abound. One
blood would ignite, leaving nothing but ash. of the most familiar tales, from The Thousand
Like humans, the djinn needed to eat, and One Nights, or The Arabian Nights, is that of
drink, and take mates. Sometimes they mated “The Fisherman and the Genie.” In this trick-
with humans. The resulting offspring usually ster tale, a fisherman released a vengeful and
had aspects of both parents. dangerous djinn from a bottle. He then tricked
Djinn were also shape-shifters. They were the being back into the bottle by insisting that
able to take on the form of animals and humans it was impossible for so large a djinn to ever fit
at will. The evil djinn gave themselves away by into so small a space. Another famous and less-
their monstrous forms when they attempted to threatening djinn appeared in the story “Al-
appear human. The djinn also could become addin and the Magic Lamp.”
invisible or change their size at will. Other tales of the djinn include the story of
a shepherd who was on good terms with the lo-
Origins of the Djinn cal djinn. One of his sheep was stolen by a wolf.
When the shepherd called on the djinn for
Traditionally, the djinn resided in the moun- help, a voice cried out, “Wolf, restore him his
tains of Khaf, in what is now Iran. But many sheep!” The wolf meekly returned the sheep.
are said to have lived wherever they wished— The thirteenth-century Arab historian Ibn
in deserts, underground, or even in abandoned al-Athir recounted a story that took place near
human houses. the city of Mosul in which a djinn woman lost
The djinn also wandered through rivers, her son to a local disease. Only by mourning
towns, or even in the lower levels of the heav- with her could humans escape being stricken
ens, where they could eavesdrop on what the by the same disease.
angels were saying. This gave them foreknowl- In medieval Iraq, near the Turkish border,
edge that could be passed on to any humans a group of hunters saw a group of djinn mourn-
who were clever and bold enough to deal with ing and heard them crying, “The great king of
the djinn. the djinn is dead!”
Certain human monarchs are said to have Stories of the djinn have been told for cen-
ruled over the djinn, including King Solomon turies, and retellings of such classic tales as The
of ancient Israel. Tradition claims that King Thousand and One Nights seem likely to keep
Solomon was a magician as well as a wise man. them alive in storytelling.
The djinn are said to have obeyed him with-
out argument. The six-pointed Jewish star, also See also: Arabic Storytelling.

118 Dobr ynya Nikitich
Sources to Kiev, where he snatched up Zabava, the

Bushnaq, Inea. Arab Folktales. New York: Pantheon, 1986. niece of Prince Vladimir. Dobrynya Nikitich
Keightley, Thomas. The Fairy Mythology. London: H.G. went after the dragon to rescue Zabava. This
Bohn, 1850.
Zipes, Jack, ed. The Arabian Nights. Trans. Richard Bur-
time, Dobrynya Nikitich showed the dragon
ton. New York: Signet Classics, 1991. no mercy. He killed Zmei Gorynytch and
brought Zabava safely home.
In another adventure that celebrated Do-
Dobrynya Nikitich brynya Nikitich’s diplomatic skills, the hero set
off to negotiate with another ruler for a bride
for Prince Vladimir. While Dobrynya Nikitich
(Russian) was away, another bogatyr, the nasty-tongued
I n the Russian folk ballad epics, called bylini,

Dobrynya Nikitich is one of the most im-
portant of the bogatyri, the knights of Prince
Alyosha Popovitch, started a rumor that Do-
brynya Nikitich had died during the journey.
Everyone believed the gossip, and Prince
Vladimir of Kiev. He is an epic hero—a mighty Vladimir promised the hero’s wife, Nastasya,
warrior who is second in might and power, to someone else. Dobrynya Nikitich returned
after Ilya Muromets. when the wedding was in progress, stopped the
Dobrynya Nikitich was probably based on ceremony, and “thumped” Alyosha Popovitch
a real prince, who was the uncle to the historic thoroughly for causing trouble.
Prince Vladimir. As a member of the nobility,
Dobrynya Nikitich was more sophisticated See also: Bogatyr/Bogatyri; Bylina/Bylini;
than the other bogatyri. He was able to read, Kievan Cycle.
sing, and play chess, and he served as a diplo-
mat as well as a warrior. In one bylina, Do- Sources
brynya Nikitich went on a diplomatic mission Bailey, James, and Tatyana Ivanova. An Anthology of Rus-
sian Folk Epics. Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 1999.
for Prince Vladimir that turned into a battle Costello, D.P., and I.P. Foote. Russian Folk Literature. Ox-
with a Mongol tsar, Batur. He won the bat- ford, UK: Clarendon. 1967.
tle and forced Tsar Batur to pay tribute to Hapgood, Isabel Florence, trans. The Epic Songs of Russia.
Prince Vladimir. New York: Scribner’s, 1886.
Dobrynya Nikitich’s most famous feat in-
volved the flying, fire-breathing dragon called
Zmei Gorynytch, who had been warned by an Dogs
omen that Dobrynya Nikitich would be the
one to kill him. On a warm day, the hero de-
cided to cool off by bathing in a river. Zmei
Gorynytch attacked Dobrynya Nikitich while
D ogs have been living with humans as
helpers and companions for thousands of
years. Dogs were among the first domesticated
he was separated from his sword. The hero animals and are descendants of a more myste-
fought the dragon, using only his bare hands rious canine, the wolf. This duality may ex-
and a sand-filled hat as weapons. plain the mixed folklore and myths that exist
After a great struggle, Dobrynya Nikitich about dogs. They are variously presented as
won. As he was about to grab his sword and friends to humans, supernatural entities, or
cut off the dragon’s head (or heads, in some even dark, menacing creatures.
variants), Zmei Gorynytch begged for mercy, Dogs were part of domestic life in an-
swearing never to hurt another Russian. Do- cient Egypt. They are depicted on many
brynya Nikitich’s heart softened, and he let wall reliefs as hunters or pets. But the closest
Zmei Gorynytch go. approximation to a true dog in Egyptian
The evil dragon had lied to Dobrynya mythology is the god Anubis. This jackal-
Nikitich. Upon being released, he flew directly headed guardian of the afterlife guided the

Dogs 119
souls of the dead. Dogs were considered sa- in Arthur Conan Doyle’s The Hound of the
cred to Anubis. Baskervilles (1902) was based on the folktale of a
black dog on Dartmoor in Devon.
Dogs in Greek Mythology There is also a popular dog story attached
to the town of Beddgelert in Wales. In this tale,
In Greek mythology there was a powerful, su-
a man comes home to find his baby’s crib
pernatural watchdog, the three-headed Cer-
empty and blood on the mouth of the faithful
berus. This beast guarded the passage to the
family dog. Certain that the dog has murdered
underworld. Only two mortals were able to get
his baby, the man kills the dog. He finds out
past Cerberus. The miraculous bard Orpheus
too late that the baby is safe under the crib and
used his music to charm Cerberus into letting
the blood was from a wolf the dog had killed.
him pass, and the hero Hercules took Cerberus
The town where this sad event is said to have
captive.
occurred was named for the dog, Gelert.
Another dog in Greek mythology was the
unfortunate Laelaps. This magical canine was
destined to always catch its prey—until it tried
Asian Canines
to catch the Teumassian fox. This fox was des- In China, Korea, and Japan dogs are generally
tined never to be caught. The result of the seen as kindly and protective. This was not al-
chase was a paradox, which Zeus resolved by ways good news for dogs in ancient times. It
turning both animals to stone. was customary in China and Japan to pour
Greek mythology immortalized dogs in dog blood over the frame of a new house to
the constellations of Canis Major (Greater protect it against evil or illness. In about 676
Dog) and Canis Minor (Lesser Dog). These B.C.E., King Teh, the ruler of Ch’in, the king-
dogs are said to be owned by the hunter dom that was to give China its name, had four
Orion, whose constellation is nearby. dogs killed at the four gates of his city to ward
Argos was the name of Odysseus’s dog in off evil. A less gruesome custom was to wear
the Odyssey (c. 700 B.C.E.). Argos was the first straw images of dogs as protective amulets.
to recognize his master when he returned On Japan’s Oki Islands, supernatural dogs
from his epic travels, even though Odysseus were said to help wizards gain wealth. In the
was in disguise. mythology of the Tinguian people of the
Aesop’s fables include “The Dog in the Philippines, the supernatural dog called Kimat
Manger.” In this tale, a greedy dog refuses to is the companion to Tadaklan, the god of
share, even though what he has grabbed is not thunder. The belief is that when Kimat bites,
edible. lightning strikes.
Dogs of the British Isles Other Traditions

Great Britain has many tales of mythic or fairy The most important canine in Norse mythol-
dogs. In Welsh mythology, the Cwn Annwn, ogy is the terrible Fenris, although it is a wolf
“Hounds of Annwn,” are the white, red-eared rather than a dog. Garm is a huge, four-eyed
hounds that belonged to Annwn, the ruler of dog that is frequently described as being cov-
the land of the dead. Fairy dogs are also usu- ered with blood. Garm guards the entrance of
ally depicted as white with red ears. An excep- Helheim, land of the dead, for his mistress, Hel.
tion to this is the Cu Sith, or Fairy Hound, a Supernatural guard dogs are found in
large hound that is dark green and carries its many myths and stories. In Persian mythology,
long tail stylishly curled up. two four-eyed dogs guard the Chinvat Bridge,
Great Britain is rife with tales of phantom which leads to paradise. In Hindu myth, the
black dogs. Nearly every county has at least Sun and Moon dogs guard Indra, the chief of
one example of such a beast. The black dog the Vedic gods.

120 Dogs
• If a dog whines at night, that means it

sees Yama, the god of death, and there
will be a death in the house (Punjabi).
• A dog howling or barking at night
means a death in the house (world-
wide).
• A dog howling at night predicts an
earthquake ( Japan).
• A dog that climbs onto a roof predicts
fire ( Japan).
• Black dogs are unlucky (Great Britain).
• White dogs are lucky and three white
dogs together are even luckier (Great
Britain).
• A strange dog visiting a house means
a new friendship (Scotland).
• Meeting a spotted dog on the way to
a business appointment is lucky (Great
Cerberus was the three-headed dog that guarded the
entrance to Hades, the Greek underworld. In this
Britain).
image from a Greek vase dating to 575 B.C.E., Cer- • Dogs on a boat are unlucky (Great
berus chases off an intruder. (Erich Lessing/Art Re-
Britain and the United States).
source, NY)
• Dogs at a gambling table are unlucky
Judaism and Islam view dogs as unclean (Great Britain).
scavengers. The term dog as an insult comes • If a dog licks a newborn baby, the baby
from Islamic tradition. In Christian belief, the will be a quick healer (United States).
dog represents faithfulness. • Dogs protect babies from sickness
(China).
Urban Legend and Superstitions • A dog’s death means that its master has
In modern folk beliefs, dogs generally ap- been spared from death (Philippines).
pear as heroes. “The Choking Doberman”
is perhaps the best known of the urban tales The history of dogs is closely linked to that
about dogs: A family returns home to find of humans, and so dogs play roles in many
their dog, usually a Doberman pinscher, chok- stories and folk beliefs around the world.
ing on something. It turns out to be the fin-
ger of a burglar the dog attacked and chased See also: Anubis/Anpu; Black Dogs; Kludde;
off. Retelling: The Story of Gelert.
There are many superstitions about dogs:
Sources
• Dogs can see the supernatural (Wales, Brunvand, Jan Harold. The Choking Doberman and Other
“New” Urban Legends. New York: W.W. Norton, 1984.
Scotland, China, Japan, and others). Hausman, Gerald, and Loretta Hausman. Dogs of Myth:
• Dogs can foresee evil (Greece). Tales from Around the World. New York: Simon and
Schuster, 1999.
• Dogs can chase away evil spirits ———. The Mythology of Dogs: Canine Legend and Lore
(China). Through the Ages. New York: St. Martin’s, 1997.

Dongmyeongseong/Chumong 121
Leach, Maria. God Had a Dog: Folklore of the Dog. New A domovoi also could be prophetic. A
Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1961. sleeper rousing from slumber to feel a gentle
hand touching him knew that he had received
a sign of good fortune. If the touch was cold
Domovoi/Domovois or rough, then bad fortune was imminent.
The domovoi had to be invited into a new
home when a family moved. This was done by
(Russian) taking coals from the hearth of the old house
D omovois were male house spirits that were

said to live in Russian homes—usually
the homes of peasants.
and using them to start a fire in the hearth of
the new house. It was also considered respect-
ful for the head of the family to walk into the
Domovois were not evil, but they could be new house with bread and salt.
mischievous or moody, particularly if the fam- Today, some people still believe—or at least
ily in question failed to keep a clean house. claim to believe—in the domovois. Home-
If the family was good to the domovoi and owners sometimes make respectful offerings
treated the house well, keeping it properly to them.
clean and tidy, then the domovoi would serve
as their protector. See also: Brownies; Slavic Mythology; Tomte/
A certain amount of respect had to be Tomten/Tomtar.
shown to the domovoi. In addition to keeping
Sources
a clean house, people had to be careful to Afanasiev, Alexander. Russian Folktales. New York: Pan-
keep places like the center of the room and theon, 1976.
the threshold of the house clear at night, since Haney, Jack V. Russian Wondertales: Tales of Heroes and Vil-
that was when the domovoi liked to move lains. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2001.
Ivantis, Linda. Russian Folk Belief. Armonk, NY: M.E.
about.
Sharpe, 1992.
The various noises heard in a house at
night were said to be the sounds of a domovoi,
although he preferred to stay invisible. Moans
or loud noises were a sure sign of a displeased
Dongmyeongseong/
domovoi, while sounds of music or laughter
were good signs. Some of the domovoi’s night-
Chumong
time activities consisted of tending to the
livestock and keeping outside spirits from in-
(Korean)
truding on and interfering with his family.
Although domovois preferred to remain in-
visible, they could take various forms as
D ongmyeongseong, also called Chumong,
was a Korean ruler who lived at the turn
of the first century C.E. He was the founder
it pleased them, including anything from a frog of the Goguryeo Kingdom in 37 B.C.E. In
to a copy of the human master of the house. If Korean mythology, Dongmyeongseong was
someone really did wish to see his or her do- the son of Haemosu, the Sun deity, and of
movoi, he or she had to wait until Holy Week Yuhwa, the oldest daughter of the water de-
or Easter Sunday. At this time, the individual ity, Habaek.
had to take butter made from the milk of the Haemosu impregnated Yuhwa, and she
first seven cows to be milked for the first time bore not a child but an egg from her left armpit.
and smear it on his or her head, wear all new The king, understandably uneasy about this
clothing and footwear to church, and, during strangeness, tried to destroy the egg. But he
the liturgical service, turn around. There and could not. He eventually gave up and returned
then, the domovoi would reveal himself. the egg to Yuhwa.

122 Don’t Count Your Chickens Before T hey Are Hatched
Out of the egg hatched the young Dong- Defeat of Songyang

myeongseong, who could speak after only a
month. He asked his mother for a bow and The land Dongmyeongseong chose already had
arrows and became a marvelous archer. When a king, called Songyang. When the two met,
he was nearly grown, he often went hunting Songyang challenged Dongmyeongseong to
with the king’s seven sons. When the princes an archery contest.
caught just one deer, Dongmyeongseong would Songyang ordered a servant to set a
catch many. The eldest prince was envious drawing of a deer a hundred paces away.
and warned his father that this strange boy Songyang took aim first, but his arrow missed
was dangerous. the mark. Dongmyeongseong’s arrow hit the
target.
Dongmyeongseong ordered his servant to
Out into the World place a jade ring at a hundred paces away.
The king tried to break Dongmyeongseong’s Again, Songyang took aim first and missed.
spirit by ordering him to work as a stable boy. Dongmyeongseong broke the ring with a sin-
But the boy refused. He told his mother that as gle arrow.
the son of a god, this was no way for him to live. Songyang was defeated and Dongmyeong-
He would, instead, head south and found his seong commanded the rain to fall. It poured
own kingdom. His mother agreed, and found a down for seven days and washed away Song-
good horse for him. Dongmyeongseong fled yang’s palace. Dongmyeongseong’s palace was
south, but the king’s troops followed him until erected in its place in another seven days. Thus
he came to a great river that was impossible to he founded his kingdom.
cross.
Dongmyeongseong looked up to the heav- See also: Culture Heroes; Habaek and
ens and cried that he was the son of Haemosu, Haemosu.
the son-in-law of Habaek, and that the gods Sources
should have mercy on him and show him the Chun Shin-Yong, ed. Folk Culture in Korea. Seoul, South
way to cross. He struck the water with an ar- Korea: International Cultural Foundation, 1974.
row and all the turtles rose to the surface, Hwang Pae-Gang. Korean Myths and Folk Legends. Trans.
forming a bridge. Dongmyeongseong quickly Han Young-Hie and Se-Chung Kim. Fremont, CA:
Jain, 2006.
crossed the river. When he reached the other Jai Hyon Lee. Korean Lore. Pickerington, OH: Athena,
side, the turtles dove back down. All the men 2003.
chasing him were drowned.
Once he was safely across the river,
Dongmyeongseong had a chance to rest, so
he took out his mother’s parting gift. She had
Don’t Count Your
given him many different seeds of grain, but Chickens Before They
now he realized that he had lost the barley
seed. At just that moment, a pigeon flew by, Are Hatched
and Dongmyeongseong knew his mother had
just sent him another barley seed. Sure
enough, when his arrow brought down the
bird, he found a barley seed in its beak.
T he adage “Don’t count your chickens be-
fore they are hatched” is a lighthearted
warning not to lose oneself in a daydream of
Dongmyeongseong put the pigeon into the what might be rather than actually doing some-
water, and it was instantly returned to life thing to achieve one’s goals. Other phrases of
and flew away. Dongmyeongseong knew that this type include “chasing castles in the air,”
this was the place to found his nation, and so and “first catch your hare.” Many other vari-
it came to be. ants exist from around the world.

Doomed Pr ince 123
The Panchatantra of India tells of a man who

possessed a pot of gruel. He dreamed of selling Doomed Prince
the gruel during a famine and buying goats with
the gold he would receive in exchange. His (Egyptian)
daydream continued: From the goats would
come kids, which he would trade for cattle. The
cattle would surely calve, and he would sell the
calves and buy horses. This would lead to great
T he ancient Egyptian story of the doomed
prince dates to the reign of Seti I or
Ramses II (c. 1314–1237 B.C.E.). The tale con-
wealth and a beautiful wife and son. But then tains several folk motifs, including “the child
the man dreamed that his wife ignored their kept in a secret tower” and “the princess in
son, so he kicked her to get her attention, and, the glass [or in this case stone] tower.” The ul-
in doing so, broke the pot and lost the gruel. timate fate of the protagonist has not been
In a Swedish folktale, a boy came across preserved.
a fox lying sound asleep. The boy day- A king begged the gods for a son. When
dreamed of killing the fox and selling its pelt one was finally born to him, the Hathors, who
in the market, then buying rye seed with the were nature spirits that gathered to plan the
money. From the rye seed he would produce life of a child, visited to declare the child’s
a fine crop. But then, he thought, people fate: “He will die by the crocodile, the snake,
would want to steal the crop, and so he imag- or the dog,” they claimed. To protect his son,
ined warning people to stay away from his the king ordered a stone house to be built
harvest. The boy shouted aloud, making so in the desert, and the boy was forbidden to
much noise that the fox woke up and zipped leave the house.
off into the forest. The boy was left with The boy grew up with everything he de-
nothing. sired, until one day, gazing down from his
One of Aesop’s fables tells of a farmer’s rooftop, he saw a man walking along with an
daughter who returned from milking the unfamiliar animal. Upon learning it was a dog,
cows with a pail of milk balanced on her the prince asked for one, and the king ordered
head. The girl daydreamed as she walked, that he should receive a puppy.
thinking that from the milk would come As a young man, the prince grew restless.
cream, which she would churn into butter. The prince was fully aware of his decreed fate
Then, she thought, she would sell the butter as he went out into the world. He traveled
to buy eggs, which would hatch and produce with a chariot, weapons, a servant, and his
a fine yard of chickens. With the money from dog. He headed northwest and lived on wild
selling some of those chickens, she would game. Eventually, quite footsore, he came to
buy a fine gown so that all the young men the land of Naharin, also known as Mitanni, a
would come courting her. But she would just kingdom situated on the upper reaches of the
toss her head at them. And with that move- Euphrates River.
ment of her head, the pail and milk went fly- A number of Syrian princes were assem-
ing. Aesop ended this tale, as usual, with a bled there to vie for the hand of the princess of
moral: Don’t count your chickens before Naharin. The king kept his daughter in a
they are hatched. house with windows that were 1,200 feet (ap-
proximately 70 Egyptian cubits) from the
See also: Tall Tales. ground. She would be permitted to marry a
man who was able to leap up to the windows.
Sources When the prince arrived, the Syrian suitors
Aesop. The Complete Fables. Trans. Olivia Temple and
Robert Temple. New York: Penguin, 1998.
were practicing to accomplish this feat. The
Ryder, Arthur W., trans. The Panchatantra. Chicago: Uni- group welcomed the prince, who introduced
versity of Chicago Press, 1964. himself as the son of an Egyptian officer and

124 Doppelganger
claimed that he was fleeing a wicked step- Lichtheim, Miriam. Ancient Egyptian Literature; A Book of
mother. Readings. Vol. 2. Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1976.
The youth rested his weary feet awhile,
and when they had healed sufficiently, he too
attempted to leap at the princess’s window. He
succeeded. The princess immediately fell in
Doppelganger
love with him, but her father became angry
when he heard that the successful suitor was a
mere fugitive from Egypt and not a prince.
T he German word doppelganger means
double-walker or, literally, double-goer.
In folk belief, a doppelganger is a double—a
His daughter threatened to kill herself if the normally invisible shadow-self that is said to
Egyptian was sent away or murdered. Upon accompany every human.
meeting the dignified young man, the ruler of Different variants of this folk belief con-
Naharin revised his opinion and accepted him flict as to what a doppelganger actually is.
as his son. Sometimes the doppelganger is described as
The prince and the princess lived in an es- the human soul embodied. Other tales claim
tate, which the princess, whom the prince had that it is an astral projection, the spirit tem-
told of his decreed fate, would not let him porarily leaving the body. It is also described
leave. She asked him to have the dog killed for as a shadowy being with a life of its own.
fear that it would bring about his death. The A doppelganger typically casts no reflec-
prince scoffed at this, refusing to slay his child- tion and can rarely be seen by anyone or any-
hood companion. thing other than the occasional dog or cat. It
Unbeknownst to the prince, a crocodile usually stands behind its human, occasionally
had followed him from Egypt. It lived in a whispering advice, both good and bad. It is
lake near the estate but was occupied fighting bad luck for a doppelganger to be seen, partic-
a demon. ularly by its human counterpart: The sight
The prince’s other threat, the snake, ap- of one’s doppelganger is said to foretell immi-
proached him when he lay in a drunken nent death.
sleep. His wife caught the snake by offering Queen Elizabeth I of England is said to
it beer, making it drunk, and having it cut have seen a vision—possibly a doppelganger—
into pieces. This turn of events pleased the while lying on her deathbed shortly before she
prince. died. The German author Johann Wolfgang
Sometime later, while they were out walk- von Goethe and the English poet Percy Bysshe
ing around the estate, the dog announced, “I Shelley also claimed to have seen their doubles.
am your fate.” The prince tried to escape by Catherine the Great of Russia saw her double
plunging into the lake, where the crocodile heading toward her and simply had her sol-
seized him. The crocodile offered the prince a diers shoot at it until it disappeared.
bargain. If the prince agreed to help him de- English folk belief states that those who
feat the demon, the crocodile would let him want to know who in their village will die in
live. The prince agreed. the coming year need only wait near the
The conclusion of the tale has been lost, church door on the night of April 24. This
but it is generally assumed to have an ulti- date marks the eve of the feast day of St.
mately satisfactory outcome for the prince. Mark. At midnight, the doubles of all those
See also: Tale Types. who will die in the coming year are said to file
into the church in solemn procession. There is
Sources always the danger, of course, that observers
Hoffmeier, James K. “Fate.” In The Oxford Encyclopedia of will see their own doubles in this procession.
Ancient Egypt. Vol. 1. Ed. D.B. Redford. New York:
Oxford University Press, 2001. See also: Motifs.

Dragons 125
Sources uchadnezzar commissioned a Babylonian artist

Green, Thomas, ed. Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Beliefs, to create reliefs of animals on glazed bricks
Customs, Tales, Music, and Art. Santa Barbara, CA: for the structures associated with the Ishtar
ABC-CLIO, 1997.
Webber, Andrew J. The Doppelganger: Double Visions
Gate. Among the lions and bulls found on
in German Literature. Oxford, UK: Clarendon, the blue-glazed brick are representations of a
1997. long-necked creature called a sirrush. Other
representations of draconic life found on arti-
facts include a sixth-century urn from Caria
Dragons in Asia Minor, an Egyptian seal bearing the
cartouche of Thutmosis III from around
1400 B.C.E., and various mosaics from ancient
T he figure of the dragon, a large, powerful
mythological creature, is familiar to peo-
ple around the world. Dragons in mythology
Egypt and Rome.
and literature guard global hoards of myths, Dragons in Greece

epics, art, and history. In Greek mythology, Zeus slew Typhon, an
immortal of an earlier era that had a hundred
Dragons in the Ancient World snake heads, with his thunderbolt. Typhon left
a descendent, Ladon, who also had a hundred
The tradition of dragons in Western civilization
heads and guarded the golden apples that
begins in the Middle East. Dragonlike creatures
grew in the garden of the Hesperides.
appear in some of the earliest creation myths,
Other serpent-fighters in Greek mythol-
some of which date from between 2600 and
ogy include the following:
2000 B.C.E. The tales originated with the
Sumerian civilization in Mesopotamia between • Apollo, the sun god, who fought
the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, the area that is Python, described variously as a giant
now Iraq and Iran. Ancient Middle Eastern snake or a female dragon with many
dragons are of two types: the monsters that coils, or the serpent that came to serve
gods fight before creation and the monsters that Apollo at his shrine at Delphi.
heroes fight after creation.
In the Babylonian creation story called the • Hercules, whose Twelve Labors in-
“Enuma Elish,” the dragonlike goddess Tia- cluded the destruction of the dragons
mat presided at the founding of the universe. Ladon and Hydra.
She is a chthonic figure, or a creature of the • Perseus, who killed a sea monster sent
deep Earth. Ultimately, one of Tiamat’s off- by the god Poseidon to avenge an
spring, called Marduk, opposed Tiamat. As insult.
she attempted to swallow him, Marduk shot • Jason, who killed the dragon that
an arrow into Tiamat’s mouth and killed her. guarded the Golden Fleece.
From her body, Marduk formed Earth, and so
• Cadmus, subsequently the founder of
life resulted from the belly of the dragon that
Thebes, who fought and killed a
sought to end all life.
golden-crested dragon at the spring of
The Egyptians have a similar story in
Ares and created his city’s population
which either the sun god, Re, or the deity Seth
from the dragon’s teeth.
conquered a snake (or dragon) called Apep.
The Hittites have a tale of a storm god battling
a dragon called Illuyankas.
Dragons in the Bible
Early illustrations of dragonlike creatures The word dragon appears many times in the
have been discovered throughout the Middle Bible. The influence of old Sumerian and Akka-
East. For example, in 600 B.C.E., King Neb- dian creation myths as well as Babylonian

126 Dragons
stories is evident in the Book of Genesis. The friendly toward humans, and often exceed-
Babylonians described “Tiamat, the old dragon ingly wise. Eastern dragons generally vary in
whose movements cause the chaotic stirring of color from gold to green, with a few that are
the ocean.” Babylon’s chief god, Marduk, killed blue or other colors. Some have wings while
Tiamat. Also in the Old Testament, Elohim others have alternating short and long spines
killed the creature known as Leviathan. down their backs and along their tails.
Leviathan is also mentioned in the Book Instead of being hated, these dragons are
of Isaiah: “In that day the Lord with his sore revered. The celestial dragon was the symbol
and great and strong sword shall punish Levia- of China until the coming of communism, and
than the piercing serpent, even Leviathan that Chinese people referred to themselves as lung
crooked serpent; and he shall slay the dragon tik chuan ren, or descendents of the dragon. In
that is in the sea.” Similar mentions of Levia- both China and Japan, it was believed that
than and another sea monster, Behemoth, ap- these supernatural beings controlled the rain
pear elsewhere in the Old Testament. and all manner of flowing water, from rivers
Throughout the Old Testament, the termi- to oceans. Temples and shrines were built to
nology and imagery relating to draconic crea- honor dragons along the banks of rivers and
tures is similar to that of the Mesopotamian the Pacific shore. One famous Chinese shrine
creation myths. Hebrew adaptations of these
old stories include the battle of God against
the water dragons of Chaos in Psalms and Job:
As in the Mesopotamian myths, the death of
the monster is necessary for the creation and
survival of the world. The book of Daniel de-
scribes a creature with ten horns, with eyes
“like the eyes of man, and a mouth speaking
great things.” The beast is slain in an earthly
battle that probably was meant to prophesy
the battle at the end of the world.
Dragons are also found in the New Testa-
ment. The book of Revelation contains twelve
references, including a description of “a great
red dragon, having seven heads and ten horns,
and seven crowns upon his head”; a dragon
ready to devour a newborn child; the “war
in heaven,” in which “Michael and his angels
fought against the dragon”; and references to
unclean spirits coming out of a dragon’s mouth.
Also in Revelation, the parallel of the dragon
with evil is explicit: “And he laid hold on the
dragon, that old serpent, which is the Devil, and
Satan, and bound him a thousand years.”
Dragons of the East and Polynesia

Unlike the fear and loathing felt toward drag- Dragons are benevolent beings in Chinese and Japa-
ons in Western cultures, most Eastern drag- nese mythology. They rule the air, water, and earth.
This passageway, carved with images of dragons, is
ons, primarily those of Chinese and Japanese part of the Temple of Heaven in Beijing, China.
traditions, are considered beautiful, usually (Vanni/Art Resource, NY)

Dragons 127
near modern Beijing was the Black Dragon dragon king, which consists of four separate
Pool Chapel, which was reserved for the em- dragons, each of which rules over one of the
press and her court. four seas—east, south, west, and north.
Eastern dragons have positive associations, Carp fish that successfully leaped over wa-
from the lucky year of the dragon in Chinese terfalls were thought to change into fish-dragons.
astrology to their ability to ward off evil be- A popular Chinese saying is, “The carp has
ings. Yet these creatures are portrayed as rather leaped through the dragon’s gate.” This refers to
vain and are insulted if their advice is not someone’s success and often is applied to stu-
heeded or if they are not honored properly. dents who have passed their exams.
When angered, they might withhold the rain In Chinese mythology, the first humans
or bring floods. were created by a goddess named Nu Kua,
Male dragons were said to mate with other who was part dragon and part human. Nu Kua
kinds of animals. A dragon that mated with a was ancestress to a line of dragons that could
pig would sire an elephant, while the union of a appear in human and animal shape as well as
dragon with a mare would result in a racehorse. in dragon form.
Tradition says that both male and female Even today, dragon lanterns, dragon boats,
dragons mated with humans and that their and dragon dances—especially in Lunar
descendents became powerful rulers. The New Year celebrations—are an important and
Japanese emperor Hirohito, who ruled during beloved part of Chinese folk culture.
World War II, traced his ancestry over a hun-
dred generations to Princess Fruitful Jewel.
She was said to have been the daughter of a
Other Eastern and Polynesian Dragons
dragon-king of the sea. In Japan, Ryujin (Luminous Being) is the
Many emperors in China also claimed to dragon god of the sea. He lives in the palace
have dragon ancestors, so the term dragon was called Ryugu at the bottom of the sea. Ryujin
commonly used to describe them and their be- controls the tides with magical gems, his mes-
longings: dragon throne, dragon bed, dragon sengers are sea turtles, and his daughter Oto-
robe, and so on. It was said that the emperors hime married a human.
consulted with dragons on how to govern The Korean dragon god of the sea is
mankind. The Chinese imperial dragon is the called Yongwang. Korean folklore claims that
only one with five claws instead of four. Under the dragons of this culture are the original
penalty of death, no one other than the em- dragons.
peror was permitted to wear a depiction of a In the Hindu myths of India, a serpent
five-clawed dragon. dragon called Vitra coiled around a mountain
and absorbed the cosmic waters from the uni-
verse. To bring water to gods and humanity,
Chinese Dragons Indra, the storm god, battled Vitra, killing him
There are several major types of Chinese drag- with a thunderbolt and releasing the waters of
ons: the horned dragon; the winged dragon; life.
the coiling dragon, which lives in water; the In Indian Buddhism, the dragon Apalala
yellow dragon, which once emerged from lived in the Swat River and was converted by
water and presented the legendary Emperor Fu the Buddha. Apalala attempted to convert the
Hsi with the elements of writing; the celestial other dragons, but they drove him away.
dragon, which supports and protects the man- In the Pacific Islands, specifically in Bor-
sions of the gods; the spiritual dragon, which neo, a dragon named Kinabalu was said to live
generates wind and rain for the benefit of at the summit of Mount Kinabalu. He guarded
mankind; the dragon of hidden treasures, which an immense pearl that the emperor of China
keeps guard over concealed wealth; and the coveted.

128 Dragons
In Hawaii, the mother of all dragons is

called Mo-o-inanea, which means the self-
reliant dragon. She is said to have brought
dragons to Hawaii. She lived on the island as a
demigoddess, sometimes in dragon form and
sometimes as a woman.
Dragons in Medieval Europe

In Christian iconography, the archangel
Michael is the dragon fighter. Some medieval
saints, including Saint Martha of Bethany and
Saint George of Anatolia, also defeated drag-
ons. The latter was an early fourth-century In Western mythology, dragons usually are seen as
evil beings. Saint George is shown killing a dragon with
martyr who became England’s patron saint his lance in this painting by Italian Vittore Carpaccio
and warrior symbol. (1455–1525). (© Cameraphoto/Art Resource, NY)
The story of Saint George and the dragon is
probably the most famous account of dragons in
Europe. The story has two principal versions. In
Dragons in Germany and Scandinavia
the first, a dragon appeared at the village of While dragons in German folklore and
Cappadocia and threatened to destroy the re- mythology tend to be hostile to humans, there
gion. At first, the dragon fed off the village’s is one notable exception. In Heidelberg, local
sheep. Eventually the villagers sacrificed maid- tradition claimed that the dragons who once
ens to the dragon, until only the princess re- lived in the area were friendly and even al-
mained. She was tied to a stake when Saint lowed some people to ride them. The female
George happened by and killed the dragon. In dragons were said to help fishermen. There
the other version of the story, instead of killing was also a race of dwarf flying dragons that
the dragon, Saint George lectured him on how lived on the warm hillsides. The stories claim
evil it is to eat people and how much better it that Heidelberg’s dragons were driven out by
would be if he became a Christian. Saint George the church.
and the princess then leashed the dragon and A more traditional dragon, Fafnir, appears
led him back to the town. The dragon was offi- in the Norse epic the Völsunga Saga and the
cially converted and then left the area. In a vari- closely related German Nibelungenlied. In the
ation on this version, Saint George led the Völsunga Saga, Fafnir was originally a dwarf,
dragon back to town but then killed him. but his lust for gold turned him into the dragon
The French dragon Tarasque was said to that was eventually slain by the hero Siegfried.
be bigger than twelve elephants, with teeth the
size of swords, scales harder than iron, and
breath of fire. Tarasque destroyed or drove off
Dragons in England
all the knights and heroes that attempted to After ruling for twenty years, the hero of Be-
slay her. After twenty-one years, Saint Martha owulf, the eleventh-century Old English epic,
arrived dressed in white and armed only with faced a dragon. Beowulf learned of a dragon
faith and a jar of holy water. She led Tarasque that had lived underground in a barrow by the
into the town, where the dragon was hacked sea for 300 winters, terrorizing the people by
to pieces. A church was built in Saint Martha’s filling the night skies with flame. The dragon
honor, and the town’s name was changed to had amassed a great hoard of treasure, but a
Tarascon, after its local dragon. thief had stolen a gold cup. The dragon woke,

Dragons 129
realized that the cup was missing, and rose, cir- Dragons and Modern Literature
cling his barrow restlessly. At nightfall the
dragon flew out and burned down homes for Some of the most fully realized dragons in
miles around. modern fantasy are found in the works of
The news of this destruction was brought to the English author J.R.R. Tolkien. His novella
Beowulf. He prepared to battle the dragon. Farmer Giles of Ham (1949) includes a dragon
Armed with an iron shield, because he knew called Chrysophylax Dives. This dragon has
that a wooden one would not withstand a the power of speech, a certain low cunning, and
dragon’s fire, Beowulf went to the dragon’s a fondness for caves and hoards. Chrysophylax
barrow. Beowulf ordered his men to remain be- is tamed by a farmer who becomes a king.
hind and entered the barrow, shouting a chal- Another well portrayed dragon is Smaug in
lenge. Upon hearing a human voice, the dragon The Hobbit (1937). Although Smaug, like Chryso-
attacked. Its fire struck Beowulf’s shield, which phylax, has the gift of speech, enjoys riddles, and
held only long enough for him to strike the has a certain sarcastic humor, it is very much a
dragon a blow that failed to kill it. For the first dragon in the medieval tradition. Smaug lives in
time in his life, Beowulf had to retreat. a cave beneath the earth, guards a hoard, and is
The dragon pursued the hero, renewing its hostile to anyone who disturbs it or its treasure.
fire. Beowulf’s comrades fled, except for Wiglaf, As in Beowulf, a burglar rouses the dragon, and it
a young noble who bravely entered the barrow. destroys Lake Town. Smaug is killed by Bard of
Beowulf attacked again, but this time Naegling, Lake Town, a descendant of the old kings. This
his ancient sword, snapped. Seizing its opportu- deed is taken by the people of Lake Town as
nity, the dragon caught Beowulf in a rush of proof that Bard should become king.
flame and sank its fangs into his neck. Wiglaf J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter book series
charged and struck the dragon’s belly with his (1997–2007) contains a number of “classic”
sword, causing its fire to diminish. The mortally dragons. The author has enhanced her de-
wounded Beowulf drew a knife and killed the scriptions of the dragons by creating new and
dragon. Giving his torque, his mail, and his witty dragon taxonomy.
helm to Wiglaf, the last of his kin, Beowulf died. Another modern invention is the friendly
In the History of the Kings of Britain, the dragon, such as Puff in the folk song “Puff the
twelfth-century cleric, historian, and storyteller Magic Dragon” (1963) by Peter, Paul, and
Geoffrey of Monmouth recounted stories of Mary. Another friendly dragon is featured in
Merlin and his prophecies. As a youth, Merlin, the current science fiction series Dragonriders
who had no father, was brought before the of Pern, by author Anne McCaffrey.
Celtic King Vortigern, whose sages had fore- In Ursula K. Le Guin’s novels of Earthsea,
told that only the sacrifice of a fatherless boy the dragons are less “tame” than McCaffrey’s
could stop the collapse of the royal fortress. dragons. Le Guin’s dragons are a combination
The boy Merlin avoided being sacrificed of Western and Eastern traditions. They are as-
when he had a vision of a cave beneath the sociated with water, can speak, and can serve as
fortress with a pool within it. In the pool were benefactors or turn on people and incinerate or
two dragons, one red and one white, which devour them. Le Guin emphasizes not just
woke and began to fight. The red dragon over- dragons’ transcendent beauty but also their role
came the white dragon. Merlin explained his as symbols of magic and enchantment.
vision to the king: The white dragon symbol-
ized the Saxon invaders and the red dragon Susan M. Shwartz and Josepha Sherman
symbolized Britain, the Pendragon line, and
the coming of King Arthur. Merlin’s prophe- See also: Dragon-Slayer; Typhon; Zmeys and
sies came true. Zmeyitsas.

130 Dragon-Slayer
Sources When the hero meets up with the dragon,

Bates, Roy. Chinese Dragons. New York: Oxford Univer- there is a fight to the death in which the hero al-
sity Press, 2002. ways wins. The hero may win on his own or
Heaney, Seamus, trans. Beowulf, A New Verse Translation.
New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 2000.
with the aid of the princess or his animal
Ingersol, Ernest. Dragons and Dragon Lore. Mineola, NY: helpers. When there is a heroine, she may use
Dover, 2005. trickery to weaken the dragon, possibly getting
Le Guin, Ursula K. The Language of the Night: Essays on him drunk, or she may pretend to be the sacri-
Fantasy and Science Fiction. Ed. Susan Wood. New
ficial maiden so that she can get close enough
York: Putnam, 1979.
Tolkien, J.R.R. “Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics.” to slay him.
In The Tolkien Reader. Ed. Peter Beagle. New York: The story often ends with the death of the
Ballantine, 1966. dragon, but some variants add a further com-
Visser, Marinus Willem de. Dragon in China and Japan. plication. The hero may cut out the dragon’s
Kila, MT: Kessinger, 2003.
Yuan Ke. Dragons and Dynasties: An Introduction to Chinese
tongue or take its head to prove he killed it,
Mythology. Ed. Kim Echlin and Nie Zhixiong. New and then fall asleep from exhaustion. An im-
York: Penguin, 1993. poster, someone who is jealous of the hero or
desiring of fame or the princess, may claim to
be the dragon-slayer, only to be proven a liar
Dragon-Slayer when the hero reveals his token of victory.
Perhaps one of the best-known stories of
this type is that of Saint George and the dragon.
(European) Saint George, the patron saint of England, was
F olktales in which a hero slays a dragon are

common in Europe and North America.
The hero, or occasionally the heroine,
likely a soldier in the Roman army about 300
C.E. He saved a princess from being sacrificed
to a dragon and led the dragon into the city us-
may be of either noble or common birth. Of- ing the princess’s belt as a leash. Some versions
ten the hero has one or more animal helpers, of the story have him convert the dragon to
usually dogs or horses, as companions. The Christianity. Other versions have him simply
dragon-slayer’s motivation might be the need slay the dragon.
to save a princess or a kingdom, or, occasion-
ally, the desire to gain the dragon’s treasure. See also: Dragons; Tale Types.
The dragon usually breathes fire, may have
more than one head, and is sometimes able to Sources
Aarne, Antti, and Stith Thomson. The Types of the Folktale:
fly. It may or may not be able to speak, but is
A Classification and Bibliography. 2nd rev. ed. Helsinki,
always hostile toward humans. The dragon im- Finland: Academia Scientiarum Fennica, 1987.
perils the land with flame or devours people Mercatante, Anthony S. The Facts on File Encyclopedia of
or their livestock. Often it possesses a hoard World Mythology and Legend. 2nd ed. New York: Facts
of treasure. Other heroes already may have on File, 2004.
Rose, Carol. Giants, Monsters, and Dragons: An Encyclope-
died trying to slay the monster. The hero in dia of Folklore, Legend, and Myth. Santa Barbara, CA:
these tales is often the only one who will dare to ABC-CLIO, 2000.
confront the dragon.
Another element of these stories is a sacri-
fice, most often the princess, who is to be the
dragon’s meal or, less often, the dragon’s bride.
Dumuzi
Her purity usually is stressed and her hand in
marriage is often promised to her liberator. She
(Sumerian)
may be the last in a line of sacrifices of more
common-born maidens, or she may have vol-
unteered to save the other young women.
T he Sumerian shepherd god Dumuzi,
known as Tammuz in the Bible, was the
patron and protector of mortal shepherds and

Dumuzi 131
son of the sheep goddess, Duttur. In the him that he was his brother-in-law and ap-
Sumerian kings list, an ancient text listing the pealing to his sense of family obligation. Du-
kings of Sumer, he is identified as a shepherd- muzi asked Utu to turn him into a gazelle so
king who lived just after the great flood. In that he could swiftly flee from the demons.
myths, Dumuzi was known as a fertility god. Utu showed mercy and changed Dumuzi into
a gazelle. Dumuzi escaped, but the demons
The Sumerian Text pursued and captured him again.
Once again Dumuzi appealed to Utu, who
In the Sumerian poem “Dispute Between the
changed him back into a man. Dumuzi es-
Shepherd and the Farmer,” Dumuzi, the pas-
caped the demons and sought refuge at the
toralist, and Enkimdu, the god of irrigation and
home of an old woman. Entering her house,
cultivation, were both suitors for the hand of the
he told her that he was not just a man but the
goddess Inanna. The god Utu, Inanna’s brother,
husband of a goddess. He asked for food and
favored the shepherd, citing him as a good
drink and begged for help.
provider. But Inanna preferred the farmer. Du-
After pouring out water for him and sprin-
muzi responded by claiming his animal prod-
kling flour, the old woman left the house. When
ucts were better than the farmer’s produce.
the demons came near and saw the woman out-
The two suitors met on a riverbank, and
side, they reasoned that Dumuzi must be inside
Dumuzi provoked a quarrel. Enkimdu, who
the house. They captured him and once again
was the god-king of the dyke and canal, re-
bound his hands and arms. Dumuzi raised his
fused to compete any further. Dumuzi, confi-
hands toward heaven and repeated his prayer
dent that he would win the hand of the
to Utu. Utu again turned him into a gazelle and
goddess, offered friendship to his foe.
helped him to escape.
Enkimdu accepted the offer and said he
Finally, Dumuzi sought refuge in the sheep-
would bring wheat and beans and barley
fold of his sister, Geshtinana. Upon seeing him
from the threshing floor to Dumuzi. As for
approaching, Geshtinana began to scream. Her
Inanna, he would bring her whatever she
outcry was so loud that it covered the heavens.
pleased. Though the end of this story has
She lacerated her eyes, face, ears, and buttocks.
been lost, it is clear from other stories that
All of her wailing attracted the attention of the
Dumuzi marries Inanna.
demons. One by one, seven demons entered
the sheepfold. They destroyed the animals and
Dumuzi’s Dream killed the shepherd god.
The death of the shepherd god is recounted
in several myths. In the poem “Dumuzi’s
Dream,” the god went out into the country-
Dumuzi in the Underworld
side, where he had a terrible dream. Terrified, Dumuzi’s entrance into the underworld is re-
he called upon his sister, Geshtinana, to inter- counted in the Sumerian myth The Descent of
pret it for him. She told him that the dream Ishtar. The goddess Ishtar, the Akkadian coun-
foretold his death. Dumuzi was then hunted by terpart of Inanna, decided to go to the nether-
evil demons. He fled into the tall grasslands, world, a place of no return. There she was
telling only his sister and a friend of his hiding stripped naked, like a dead person, and turned
place. His sister remained loyal, but his friend, into a corpse to be hung on a hook like a piece
who was bribed by the demons, revealed his of meat.
whereabouts. Revived by magical attendants sent to the
The demons encircled Dumuzi as if he netherworld by the god Enki, Ishtar was per-
were an animal and tried to snare him in their mitted to leave on condition that she would
nets. Finally, they captured and bound him. provide a substitute in her place. Arriving back
Dumuzi prayed to the sun god, Utu, reminding in heaven, she found that her husband,

132 Dumuzi
Dumuzi, was dressed in festive rather than Sumerian hero-king, is equated with that of
mourning garments. Dumuzi.
Determined to punish him for such inso- Dumuzi is also featured in the Akkadian
lence, she designated Dumuzi as her substi- myth of Adapa. After being called to account
tute. Demons attempted to bring him to the due to his misguided action against the south
netherworld. Once again, as in the poem “Du- wind, Adapa is ordered to appear in heaven,
muzi’s Dream,” the shepherd god appealed to where he encounters Dumuzi as a gatekeeper
his brother-in-law, the sun god, Utu, for aid. to heaven.
Utu came to Dumuzi’s rescue and helped him Storytellers can use these myths in several
escape. ways, emphasizing the feminist elements of
The text is broken at this point, but it ap- Ishtar’s quest, and even the shamanistic paral-
pears that Dumuzi was recaptured, made a lels. In addition, Dumuzi should be familiar to
prisoner, and returned to the netherworld. those who are familiar with the Greek tale of
Ishtar, who now repented, wept bitterly for her Persephone, but the Sumerian tales also can
husband, but to no avail. Dead in the nether- make exciting telling on their own.
world, he was left to spend six months of the
year there, alternating his term of imprisonment See also: Adon/Adonis; Inanna/Ishtar.
with his sister, Geshtinana.
Sources
Other Tales of Dumuzi Alster, Brendt. Dumuzi’s Dream: Aspects of Oral Poetry in
a Sumerian Myth. Copenhagen, Denmark: Akademisk
In a poem called “Inanna and Bilulu,” the Forlag, 1972.
goddess seeks revenge against an old woman Black, J.A., G. Cunningham, J. Ebeling, E. Flückiger-
known as Bilulu. Inanna believed that Bilulu Hawker, E. Robson, J. Taylor, and G. Zólyomi. The
had killed her beloved Dumuzi. She killed the
old woman and turned her into a water skin to Jacobsen, Thorkild, trans. and ed. The Harps That
hold cold water when traveling in the desert. Once . . . : Sumerian Poetry in Translation. New Haven,
Thenceforth, Inanna was a protective goddess CT: Yale University Press, 1987.
of the desert. Sefati, Yitschak. “Love Songs in Sumerian Literature.”
In Journal of Near Eastern Studies 61:2 (April 2002):
Dumuzi’s residence in the underworld 131–34.
was also mentioned in the Sumerian myth The Sladek, William R. Inanna’s Descent to the Netherworld. Ann
Death of Gilgamesh. The role of Gilgamesh, the Arbor, MI: University Microfilms, 1974.

E
W
Ears

hile King Midas of Greek mythology is
best known for his nearly fatal touch of
gold, he is also known for a peculiar aspect of
his anatomy—animal ears. This folk motif oc-
full growth, they began whispering, “King Mi-
das has donkey ears,” and have kept doing it
for all to hear from that day to this.
King Mark’s Ears/King March’s

Ears (Welsh and Breton)
curs in stories from other parts of the world as
well. Some sample tales follow. King March, whose English name is Mark,
had horse’s ears. Nobody knew this except for
his barber. The barber dared not tell this se-
cret to anyone or he would, so the king had
King Midas Has Donkey warned, lose his head.
Ears (Greek) The secret weighed and weighed on the
barber, making him quite ill. When the doctor
When King Midas made the mistake of ques-
discovered that it was not disease but a secret
tioning the god Apollo’s musical judgment,
that was killing the barber, he told the barber
the angry deity gave him the ears of a donkey.
to confess the secret to the earth.
The mortified king hid them under a turban.
The barber did as the doctor ordered, and
Like every other man, Midas needed the ser-
he soon became well. Fair reeds grew in that
vices of a barber, so the royal barber was sworn
place, and at the time of a high feast, the pipers
under penalty of death not to reveal the truth
of Maelgwn Gwynedd, now northern Wales,
about the royal ears.
came there and saw the fair reeds. The musi-
But the secret wore and wore on the bar-
cians cut the fair reeds, made them into pipes,
ber until he found it too much to bear to keep
and played the pipes before the king. But all
such a secret. So he went out into the meadow
those pipes would play was “King March of
and dug a hole in the ground. Stooping down,
Merichion has horse’s ears.”
he whispered the story, covered it up, and
then went on his way, greatly relieved to be
rid of the secret. The Emperor Has Goat’s
But that was not the end of the matter. Be-
fore long, a thick bed of reeds sprang up in the
Ears (Serbian)
meadow, particularly over the spot where the Once upon a time, there lived an emperor
hole had been. As soon as the reeds had gained whose name was Trojan, and he had ears like
133

134 E ar s
a goat. Every morning, when he was shaved, he Then the emperor knew that even the earth
asked if the man saw anything odd about him. gave up its secrets. He granted the young man
Each barber replied that the emperor had goat’s his life.
ears and was at once ordered to be put to death.
After this state of things had lasted a good The Prince with Ox Ears (India)
while, there was hardly a barber left in the town
Once upon a time, a fine young son was born
to shave the emperor, save for one apprentice
to a certain raja—but the child had the ears of
barber. The poor young man noticed the em-
an ox. The raja kept this shame a secret, and
peror’s goat ears, but when the emperor asked
made the royal barber vow not to tell anyone
him the usual question about anything odd
of what he had seen.
about his appearance, the apprentice wisely
So the barber went away, but the secret
said that he noticed nothing odd. This pleased
that he might not tell had an unfortunate ef-
the emperor, who promptly made the young
fect. It made his stomach swell to an enor-
apprentice his personal barber.
mous size. As the barber went along in this
From this time on, the apprentice went reg-
unhappy condition, he met a low-caste drum-
ularly up to the palace, receiving each morn-
mer who asked why his stomach was so
ing twelve ducats in payment. But after a while,
swollen. The barber said that it was because
his secret, which he had carefully kept, burned
he had shaved the raja’s child and had seen
within him, and he longed to tell it to some-
that it had the ears of an ox. As soon as he
body. At last he went to a meadow outside the
had blurted out the secret, his stomach re-
town, dug a deep hole, then knelt and whis-
turned to its usual size.
pered to it three times over, “The Emperor Tro-
The drummer cut down a tree and made a
jan has goat’s ears.” And as he said this, a great
drum out of the wood. He went about playing
burden seemed to roll off him. He shoveled the
on the drum and begging. He came to the raja’s
earth carefully back and ran lightly home.
palace, where he drummed and sang, “The son
Weeks passed, and there sprang up in the
of the raja has the ears of an ox.”
hole an elder tree with three stems, all as
When the raja heard this, he was very an-
straight as poplars. A shepherd cut one stem
gry and swore to punish the barber, who must
and made a flute out of it. But all the flute
have broken his vow. But the drummer as-
would play was, “The Emperor Trojan has
sured the raja that he knew nothing about the
goat’s ears.”
barber, that it was the drum that sang the
Of course, it was not long before the
words, not he, and that he had no idea what
whole town knew of this wonderful flute and
they meant. So the raja was pacified, and the
what it said, and, at last, the news reached the
barber was not punished.
emperor in his palace. He immediately sent
Why this particular tale type should be so
for the apprentice and accused him of telling
popular is unknown, but it certainly is a world
tales.
tale. A storyteller could very easily add a lesser-
The apprentice frantically tried to explain
known version to the repertoire.
that all he had done was to whisper the words
to the earth. The emperor commanded his See also: Tale Types.
coach to be made ready, took the youth with
him, and drove to the spot, for he wished to Sources
see for himself whether the young man’s con- Bompas, Cecil Henry, trans. Folklore of the Santal Par-
fession was true. Sure enough, when another ganas. London: David Nutt, 1909.
Lang, Andrew. The Violet Fairy Book. New York: Long-
stem was cut and made into a flute, all it would mans, Green, 1901.
play was, “The Emperor Trojan has goat’s Rhys, John. Celtic Folklore: Welsh and Manx. New York:
ears.” H. Frowde, 1901.

Elf Shot/Elf Arrow 135
El Cid did not care for these young men, the hero
would not refuse his lord’s wishes.
In the last portion of the epic, “Cantar de
(Spanish) la Afrenta de Corpes” (“Song of the Insult
of Corpses”), the sons-in-law of the Cid were
T he historic El Cid was the Spanish noble-

man and military leader Rodrigo Diaz de
Vivar. His popular name, El Cid, means lord.
proven to be cowards. In humiliation, they
beat their wives to the point of death. The
Cid sought redress for these assaults, which
At least a century after de Vivar’s death, an the king eventually provided, and the daugh-
unknown Spanish author wrote an epic poem ters were wed to better men, from the noble
about his exploits. El Poema de Mio Cid— houses of Aragon and Navarre.
literally the Poem of My Cid, but more often El Cid, the hero, was an ideal lord—
translated in English as The Song of the Cid— generous to his followers and respectful of
made de Vivar a national hero in the centuries- them. No mention is made in the epic of the
long fight against Muslim control of Spain. Cid fighting as a mercenary for the Moors.
De Vivar was born about 1043, at which Instead, he gains territory for his king at their
time Spain was partitioned between the Chris- expense.
tians and the Moors, who were Muslims from In short, in The Song of the Cid, the his-
North Africa. He was raised in the court of toric man is turned into the perfect hero for
King Ferdinand I, where he soon proved his medieval Spain.
military ability and became a mercenary, act-
ing independently of any royal control. De Vi- See also: Culture Heroes; Epics.
var worked for the Muslim rulers of Saragossa Sources
and then went on to conquer the Moorish king- Fletcher, Richard. The Quest for El Cid. New York: Ox-
dom of Valencia in 1094. He ruled Valencia ford University Press, 1991.
until his death in 1099. Mitchell, Ian, ed. The Poem of the Cid: A Bilingual Edition
The Song of the Cid recounts and embell- with Parallel Text. New York: Penguin, 1985.
Nicolle, David. El Cid and the Reconquista 1050–1492.
ishes many historic events. The fictional El Cid Oxford, UK: Osprey, 1998.
is an exemplary hero and vassal, and an ideal
medieval Spanish lord. He is a Christian hero,
subject to a Christian king.
The first part of the poem is titled “Cantar
Elf Shot/Elf Arrow
del Destierro” (“Song of the Exile”). The hero,
accompanied by family members and retain-
(British)
ers, was sent into exile by Alfonso VI. This
was to punish the Cid for accusing Alfonso of
gaining the crown by murdering his brother,
B ritish folk tradition claims that elves shot
cursed or toxic stone arrowheads at hu-
mans. Elf shot also refers to a disease, proba-
Sancho. After leaving his family in the care bly stroke, which was caused by such an arrow
of the abbot of Cardeña, the Cid departed to wound.
fight the Moors. Alfonso’s heart softened to- This folk belief grew up around the Ne-
ward the Cid after he received quantities of olithic flint arrowheads that have been found
booty from the hero’s conquests. throughout Great Britain and parts of Europe.
In the second portion, called “Cantar de las Many of these arrowheads, especially those
Bodas” (“Song of the Marriage”), the Cid con- known by archaeologists as bird shot, were
quered Valencia and settled his family there. small and finely worked. Nonscientists who
Both of the Cid’s daughters were married to came upon these artifacts attributed them to
princes at the request of the king. Though he the fairy folk. Some people even claimed that

136 Elm Trees
the arrowheads were designed to break off from to elm wood’s pliability. But folk belief still
the shaft and embed themselves in a human claimed that witches shunned elm trees.
body. People have always been wary of elm trees,
During the witch trials in Great Britain, due to their habit of dropping large boughs
bizarre elements were added to this story, such without warning. In time, a folk belief evolved
as a team of elf-boys working on the arrow- that the trees deliberately dropped their limbs
heads under the supervision of the devil. and tried to kill humans below. The saying
“Elm hateth man, and waiteth” arose from this
See also: Abatwa. belief. Another claimed that “elum do hate”
Sources those who walk out late.
Briggs, Katharine M. An Encyclopedia of Fairies: Hob- Elm trees also have folk medicinal values.
goblins, Brownies, Bogies, and Other Supernatural Crea- The inner bark is still used to treat colds and
tures. New York: Pantheon, 1976. sore throats, while boiled bark was sometimes
———. The Fairies in Tradition and Literature. London: used to treat burns.
Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1967.
Keightley, Thomas. The Fairy Mythology, Illustrative of the
See also: Apple Trees; Ash Trees.
Romance and Superstition of Various Countries. Lon-
don: H.G. Bohn, 1850.
Sources
Mac Coitir, Niall. Irish Trees: Myths, Legends and Folklore.
Elm Trees Cork, Ireland: Collins, 2003.

Martin, Laura C. The Folklore of Trees and Shrubs. Old Say-
brook, CT: Globe Pequot, 1992.
Porteous, Alexander. The Forest in Folklore and Mythology.
E lm trees are featured throughout the world’s

mythology and folklore. The elm is pre-
sented as more sinister than many other trees
Mineola, NY: Dover, 2002.
that are mentioned in myth. It has a strong con-

nection with death and the underworld.
Eloquent Peasant,
In Greek mythology, the bard Orpheus
broke a vow, causing his wife, Eurydice, to
Tale of the
spend eternity in the underworld. Orpheus had
rescued her and had been instructed by Hades,
(Egyptian)
god of the underworld, not to turn back to look
at her. He could not help himself and broke the
promise, so she returned to death. The first elm
T he entire Tale of the Eloquent Peasant has
been preserved in separate parts among
four papyri that date from between 2061 and
tree is said to have sprouted on the spot where 1665 B.C.E. This story, about the peasant Khun-
she met this fate. Anup, raises important questions about the
Celtic mythology associated elm trees with role of deities in the granting of justice. The
the underworld, as well as with the otherworld text contains irony and even satire.
of faerie. Elms were said to grow near any pas- Khun-Anup, a peasant who lived in the
sages leading out of this world to either the Wadi Natrun region of Egypt, loaded up his
underworld or the otherworld. donkeys with goods and walked to the Nile
May Day dances in Britain were held Valley to trade his wares. Along the riverbank,
around the so-called Dancing Elms of Devon. he met a man named Nemty-Nakht, who cov-
These celebrations were strongly linked to fer- eted the birds, herbs, and other items Khun-
tility, so elm trees were linked to both life and Anup had brought. Nemty-Nakht had his
death. servant stretch a cloth in the roadway. Rather
The wych elm, a species also known as than walk on the linen, Khun-Anup drove his
Scots elm, was not named for any association donkeys into the field, and Nemty-Nakht
with witchcraft. The ancient word wych refers accused him of trespassing. As the two men

Enki/Ea 137
argued, one of Khun-Anup’s donkeys took a Rensi had Khun-Anup’s speeches read
mouthful of Nemty-Nakht’s barley. Nemty- aloud and brought to the king. King Nebkaure
Nakht accused the peasant of stealing his bar- was greatly pleased by the peasant’s fine words.
ley, and he seized the donkeys and their load At last, the king ordered Rensi to make judg-
as repayment for the loss. When Khun-Anup ment in the case. Khun-Anup not only re-
threatened to go to the high steward, Rensi, couped what he lost to Nemty-Nakht but was
Nemty-Nakht beat him. awarded some of his accuser’s belongings.
For ten days, Khun-Anup pleaded with
Nemty-Nakht to return his donkeys and goods, Noreen Doyle
to no avail. So Khun-Anup went on to the
town where Rensi lived. Rensi heard his com- Sources
plaint and denounced Nemty-Nakht to the Parkinson, R.B. “Literary Form and the Tale of the Elo-
quent Peasant.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 78
magistrates, who were not sympathetic. They
(1992): 163–78.
believed that Khun-Anup was one of Nemty- ———, trans. The Tale of Sinuhe and Other Ancient Egyptian
Nakht’s peasants with an unjustified gripe. Poems, 1940–1640 BC. Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1997.
Khun-Anup praised Rensi most poetically,
pleading with him to settle the case. Rensi was
so impressed with the peasant’s eloquence that
he reported the incident to King Nebkaure. In-
Enki/Ea
trigued, the king ordered Rensi not to give an
answer to the peasant. Instead, Rensi was in-
(Sumerian)
structed to keep Khun-Anup pleading and
record his speeches. Rensi was also to provide
the peasant and his family with what they
T he Mesopotamian god known as Enki in
Sumerian and Ea in Akkadian was the
god of the subterranean freshwaters, which
needed, without letting them know the source were called the abzu. In Sumerian and Akka-
of their good fortune. dian mythology, he was a wise god and deter-
Khun-Anup made eight more petitions miner of destinies. Enki was also the deity of
before Rensi, who did not reply until after magic and incantations, and he played a role
the third petition. The response was the order in the creation myth.
that Khun-Anup should be beaten. In each pe- Enki is sometimes described as the son of
tition, the peasant praised those who upheld the sky god, An. Other myths identify him as
maat (truth, justice, rightful order) and criti- the offspring of Enlil, god of the winds and
cized those who turned their backs on it. Khun- wisdom. At other times, he is the issue of the
Anup’s pleas become more desperate and goddess of the sea, Nammu.
personal. By the eighth petition, he called Rensi Enki’s main cult center, called E-abzu
selfish and a thief. Rensi, he said, might be an (Abzu House), was located in the southern
important man of wealth, but maat is eternal. Mesopotamian city of Eridu. The temple, ac-
Khun-Anup begged Rensi to speak and to fol- cording to a Sumerian tradition, was the oldest
low maat. shrine in Mesopotamia. In the Sumerian myth
Finally, at the end of his ninth petition, Enki’s Journey to Nippur, the shrine was described
Khun-Anup accused the high steward of not lis- as built from precious metal and lapis lazuli.
tening. Unable to find justice, Khun-Anup an- An early second-millennium Sumerian tale,
nounced that he would complain to the god of Enki and Ninhursanga, described a sacred land
the dead, Anubis. (Certain scholars have inter- called Dilmun, in which “the raven was not yet
preted this as a reference to suicide.) At this cawing, the partridge not cackling. The lion did
point, Rensi ordered the guards to bring Khun- not slay, the wolf was not carrying off lambs,
Anup in to see him. The peasant was afraid that the dog had not been taught to make kids curl
this would be the end of him. up, the pig had not learned that grain was to

138 Enkidu
be eaten.” This land was virginal and pristine, Kramer, Samuel Noah, and John Maier. Myths of Enki, the
a place where there was no disease, death, or Crafty God. New York: Oxford University Press,
1989.
old age.
The latter part of the story revolves around
Enki, the mother goddess Ninhursanga, and
their offspring and descendants, all of whom Enkidu
Enki impregnated. One descendant, the spider
goddess Uttu, had Enki’s semen removed by (Sumerian)
Ninhursanga. From this seed, eight plants grew
that Enki devoured, causing him great pain.
Ninhursanga then healed Enki and gave birth
I n Sumerian mythology dating from between
3000 and 1000 B.C.E., Enkidu was described
as the servant of the king and hero Gilgamesh.
to eight divinities. The composition ends with
In later Akkadian stories, Enkidu was a friend
Enki assigning destinies to each of his offspring.
of Gilgamesh.
Other stories about Enki and creation are found
The most common version of the stories
in two other Sumerian compositions, Enki and
states that the young King Gilgamesh was wild
Ninmah and Enki and the World Order.
and dangerous, causing fights and despoiling
Enki was depicted in art as a water god,
women. His behavior caused his people to pray
friendly to humanity, with streams of freshwater
to the gods for help.
flowing from his shoulders to the ground. In the
The gods created Enkidu as a wild man
myth of Atra-hasis, Enki helped the mortal hero
who lived in the forest with the animals. He was
Atra-hasis to avoid the dire consequences of
tamed when a woman was sent to him. He lay
plague, famine, and flood. In the epic story of
with her and learned that he was human.
Gilgamesh, Enki helped the hero Uta-napishti
In a test of strength, Enkidu and Gilgamesh
to escape the flood and gain immortality.
wrestled fiercely. When the fight ended, the two
A Sumerian myth, Enki and Inanna, tells of
became fast friends. Enkidu helped Gilgamesh
the attempt by Inanna, the goddess of sex and
in several adventures, including the destruction
love and daughter of Enki, to visit her father
of the monstrous Humbaba and the recovery of
in his temple at Eridu. Her goal was to obtain
lost objects from the underworld. Enkidu was
greater powers through possession of the me
slain by the gods to punish Gilgamesh for his ar-
(pronounced may), the divine standards that
rogance. When Enkidu died, Gilgamesh began
underlie human civilization. Inanna received
his quest for immortality.
the me from her father while he was drunk. In
Enkidu has been interpreted as a symbol
spite of Enki’s attempts to stop her, she
of the loss of innocence or the separation of
brought them to her home city of Uruk. It is
humanity from nature. He was also the first in
unknown whether Enki ever got the me back.
a long line of wild man characters, including
Enki fits into the general storytelling ar-
the modern fictional heroes Mowgli, of Rud-
chetype of the trickster.
yard Kipling’s Jungle Book (1894), and Tarzan,
Ira Spar created by Edgar Rice Burroughs around 1912.
See also: Flood, The; Wise Man or Woman. See also: Faithful Companion; Gilgamesh.
Sources Sources
Black, J.A., G. Cunningham, J. Ebeling, E. Flückiger- Dalley, Stephanie. Myths from Mesopotamia. New York: Ox-
Hawker, E. Robson, J. Taylor, and G. Zólyomi. The ford University Press, 1991.
Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature. http:// Foster, Benjamin R. Before the Muses. Potomac, MD:
etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/. CDL, 1996.
Jacobsen, Thorkild. The Harps That Once . . . : Sumerian Jacobsen, Thorkild. The Harps That Once . . . : Sumerian
Poetry in Translation. New Haven, CT: Yale Univer- Poetry in Translation. New Haven, CT: Yale Univer-
sity Press, 1987. sity Press, 1987.

Enlil 139
Enlil several more times. The myth ends with praise

to the mother, Ninlil, who conceived Enlil’s
children, and with a celebration of Enlil as
(Sumerian) bringer of fertility and prosperity.
The story implies that even though Enlil
E nlil was one of the chief gods of the
Sumerian and Babylonian pantheons. Ac-
cording to some myths, he was the offspring
raped and deceived Ninlil, she continued to
follow him to fulfill her craving to be a wife
and to produce children. The story also im-
of An, the primary Sumerian god. Enlil was
plies that, even though he wronged Ninlil and
also identified as the brother of the mother
became an outcast, Enlil was never perma-
goddess Aruru and the god of wind, or the
nently barred from returning to civilization.
sky between Earth and heaven.
According to one interpretation, Enlil was
Enlil’s spouse was Ninlil, who was called
god of Earth and of the moist winds of spring.
Sud in Sumerian myth. His offspring include
The myth was used to explain Enlil’s disap-
the goddess Inanna, the queen of heaven; the
pearance at the end of the long, dry summer
god Ishkur, a storm god known in Babylonian
and his return in the spring as the god who
sources as Adad; Suen, a moon god called
brought fertility and productivity to nature.
Sin in Akkadian; Nergal, an underworld deity;
Ninurta, principally a god of war, also known
as Ningirsu; Nuska, Enlil’s minister who was Enlil and Sud
also a god of fire; Utu, the sun god, known as
A similar myth, Enlil and Sud, also relates
Shamash in Akkadian; Zababa, a war god; and
the story of the young god Enlil’s search for a
Ennugi, the canal inspector.
wife. The poem describes Enlil’s infatuation
The cult of Enlil was centered in the E-kur,
with the beautiful young Sud (another name
the mountain house, in the Sumerian religious
for Ninlil), their courtship, and their subse-
capital of Nippur on the northern border of
quent marriage.
Sumer. Major stories about Enlil are found in
The story begins with Enlil, the great god
two Sumerian myths: Enlil and Ninlil and Enlil
of heaven, in search of a wife. He spotted Sud,
and Sud. Copies of these myths were found in
a young girl who was the daughter of the god-
excavations at Nippur.
dess Nisaba, in the street in front of her house.
Enlil assumed that the girl must be disrep-
Enlil and Ninlil utable or she would not have been alone in the
The myth Enlil and Ninlil begins as Enlil spots street. Taken with her beauty, Enlil promised
the beautiful goddess Ninlil bathing in the to rehabilitate her, give her proper clothing,
pure canal. He approached her and offered and make her a lady. Sud was taken aback by
kisses and love, but the goddess demurred, Enlil’s disrespectful speech and tried to brush
explaining that she was young and innocent. him off. Enlil persisted, saying he wished to
If her parents found that she had an affair, express his love for her. Sud was shocked by
they would punish her. Nevertheless, Enlil this brash behavior and went into the house.
persevered and finally impregnated Ninlil. Enlil did not give up. He instructed his
Word of Enlil’s rape of the goddess was emissary, Nuska, to go to the girl’s house laden
reported to the assembly of the gods, and he with bridal gifts to ask her mother for her
was declared to be unclean. He was seized and daughter’s hand. Nuska arrived and, in the
banished from the city. Despite the impropriety name of Enlil, asked the goddess for the hand of
of Enlil’s advances, Ninlil stayed by his side, her daughter. The great goddess was flattered
determined to be with him and to bear him that Enlil wished to marry Sud. She responded
more children. Enlil tried to get away, but that Enlil’s behavior would be forgiven and she
Ninlil followed him and Enlil slept with her would gladly become his mother-in-law.

140 Enmerk ar
After the wedding, the finest perfumes ern mountain territory known as the land of
were poured over Sud, and she and Enlil con- Aratta. In the epic tale Enmerkar and the Lord
summated the marriage. Enlil then blessed his of Aratta, Enmerkar is described as the king of
wife. He decreed that she would be known as Uruk and the son of the sun god, Utu. En-
Nintu, Lady Who Gives Birth. Nintu was then merkar was united in a sacred marriage with
placed in charge of all the secrets pertaining to Inanna, the goddess of Uruk. Inanna chose En-
women. Nintu became a great fertility goddess merkar to be closest to her heart, yet the lord
and was given a second name, Ninlil, which of Aratta also claimed to be her spouse.
means “goddess of full-grown wheat.” She was The tale is set in ancient days, before the
also given the role of mistress of the scribal arts. E-ana temple of Inanna was founded or com-
Not only does this myth show Enlil as a merce between Sumer and the peoples of the
love-struck young man rather than a remote mountains had commenced.
deity, but it also contains the Mesopotamian Enmerkar ordered a messenger to go to
view that a woman’s role was to be fertile and Aratta and tell the inhabitants and their lord to
to manage her husband’s household. submit to the yoke of Uruk. The messenger
traveled over seven mountains, reached the
Ira Spar lord of Aratta, and delivered the message. Af-
ter the messenger had spoken, the lord of
See also: Adon/Adonis; Dumuzi. Aratta insisted that it was he who had been
chosen by Inanna. The lord refused to acqui-
Sources esce to Enmerkar’s outrageous demands and
Black, J.A., G. Cunningham, J. Ebeling, E. Flückiger- challenged Enmerkar to a contest of wits. The
Hawker, E. Robson, J. Taylor, and G. Zólyomi. The
Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature. 2006. victor would be the ruler of Utuk and Aratta.
Jacobsen, Thorkild. The Harps That Once . . . : Sumerian
Poetry in Translation. New Haven, CT: Yale Univer- Aratta’s Challenge
sity Press, 1987.
The lord of Aratta sent Enmerkar’s messen-
ger back with instructions to tell Enmerkar
Enmerkar that he would have to relieve the famine that

had gripped Aratta by providing grain. The
barley, according to the challenge, was not
(Sumerian) to be poured into sacks in the normal man-
ner and then delivered in carts. Instead, it
E nmerkar was the second king of the First
Dynasty of Uruk, according to the Sumer-
ian kings list, the ancient text that lists the
was to be poured into nets and loaded onto
pack asses. Upon reaching the lord’s court-
yard, the grain was to be heaped up in a
kings of Sumer. He was said to have reigned
great pile.
for 420 years after the flood, in the early part
Enmerkar accepted the challenge. He or-
of the third millennium B.C.E.
dered the nets to be filled with green malt.
The two stories that follow were part of a
The malt germinated and filled in the mesh
series of four about the “matter of Aratta.”
of the nets. Grain from the storehouse was
They were probably composed in the city of
loaded into the nets with an extra measure
Ur during the last century of the third millen-
added to account for loss by locusts. The grain
nium B.C.E.
was dispatched with a message for the lord of
Aratta that he must submit and accept En-
Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta merkar’s scepter. He was then to snap off a
Several stories deal with the conflict between splinter from the scepter and hold it in his
Enmerkar and the lord of the legendary east- hand as symbol of his vassalage.

Enmerk ar 141
But the lord of Aratta held firm. He flict and contest of wills between Enmerkar,
would surrender only if Enmerkar’s scepter the lord of Uruk, and his rival, the lord of
was made from something other than wood, Aratta. In this tale, the lord of Aratta is named
gold, copper, silver, or precious stone. “Then Ensuhgirana.
let Enmerkar bring it to me,” said the lord of The lord of Aratta sent a message to En-
Aratta. merkar, demanding that he submit and bear
the yoke of vassalage. Ensuhgirana further
Enmerkar’s Victory taunted Enmerkar, claiming that only he was
the true bridegroom of the goddess Inanna.
With advice from the wise god Enki, Enmerkar
Enmerkar rejected Ensuhgirana ’s claims
solved this riddle as well. He grew a special
and maintained that he was the true lover of
reed, nurtured it for ten years, then split it with
the goddess Inanna as well as the true king,
an axe and sent it to Aratta.
ruling with the authority granted to him by
The lord of Aratta was taken aback by En-
the gods.
merkar’s cleverness, but he proposed one last
When Enmerkar’s response reached the
challenge—a duel between two champions,
ears of his rival, Ensuhgirana was perplexed,
one from Aratta and one from Uruk. His only
unable to make an immediate reply. He called
condition was that the man from Uruk should
together a council of his priests and attendants
be one who wore a garment of no known
to advise him. They urged him to back off
color. Enmerkar provided his fighter with an
from his aggressive position, calm down, and
undyed garment that had no color.
seek compromise. But Ensuhgirana rejected
Enmerkar prepared to send a messenger
this advice and defiantly stated that he would
demanding once and for all that the lord of
continue to oppose Enmerkar even if his city
Aratta submit. But his message was too long,
was destroyed. He would never submit to the
and the messenger tired as he attempted to
lord of Uruk.
learn it. So Enmerkar inscribed the message
on a tablet and sent it to Aratta.
The message was written in cuneiform The Sorcerer and the Wise Woman
signs that the lord of Aratta was unable to
A sorcerer volunteered to help Ensuhgirana,
read. The lord became angry but realized he
claiming that he had the power to make Uruk
had been defeated by a superior intellect.
submit to Aratta. Happy to hear the sorcerer’s
Suddenly, Inanna’s brother, the storm god
boast, Ensuhgirana rewarded him with silver
Ishkur, brought rain to Aratta. The famine was
and promised further payment when the men
over. Barley began to sprout on the mountain-
of Uruk were taken captive.
sides, and chickpeas and wheat began to grow.
The sorcerer arrived in Uruk and dried up
The lord of Aratta’s self-assurance returned.
the milk of the cows and goats. The milk, butter,
He was overjoyed that the goddess had not
and cheese of the livestock provided for the cult
abandoned him and his people but remained
of the goddess Nisaba. Despondent, Nisaba’s
by their side.
shepherds and cowherds called for help.
At this point in the story, the lord of Aratta
A wise old woman named Sagburu from
allowed that Enmerkar had triumphed. Unfor-
the city of Eresh challenged the sorcerer to a
tunately, the ending is fragmentary and the
battle to decide whose magic was stronger. Both
purpose for which the story was created re-
threw fish spawn into the river. The sorcerer
mains debatable.
turned the fish spawn into a large carp, a ewe, a
lamb, a cow, an ibex, a wild sheep, and a
Enmerkar and Ensuhgirana gazelle kid. The wise woman turned the fish
The composition Enmerkar and Ensuhgirana re- into predators able to capture and kill the sor-
lates another episode in the continuing con- cerer’s creations.

142 Ennead of Heliopolis
Defeated, the sorcerer begged the old The number nine, or three times three,
woman for mercy, but she refused; his offense also might indicate a “plural of plurals,” or,
was too great. The sorcerer was thrown from simply, many gods. But generally an ennead
the bank of the Euphrates River to his death. was a group of exactly nine.
The news of the defeat and death of the sor- In the Heliopolitan version of creation,
cerer broke Ensuhgirana’s spirit. He admitted Atum, who created himself and then the world,
defeat and acknowledged the superiority of begot Shu and Shu’s sister Tefnut. These two
the king of Uruk. represented the air and moisture, respectively.
The stories of Enmerkar incorporate sev- Shu and Tefnut gave rise to Geb (earth) and
eral ancient story elements and therefore are his sister Nut (sky). Geb and Nut, in turn, gave
of great interest to folklorists and storytellers. birth to the four other pairs of male and female
In the first tale, for example, the messenger gods who embodied the balanced forces of or-
traveled the magical seven mountains, as oc- der and disorder and played direct roles in the
curs in many folktales of heroic journeys. The created universe.
riddle contest and magicians’ duel are tale Noreen Doyle
types that are featured in world folklore.
Sources
Ira Spar
Egyptian Creation Accounts. New Haven, CT: Yale
Egyptological Seminar, 1988.
See also: Culture Heroes. Quirke, Stephen. Ancient Egyptian Religion. London:
British Museum Press, 1992.
Sources Tobin, Vincent Arieh. “Myths: Creation Myths.” In The
Berlin, Adele. Enmerkar and Ensuhkeshdanna: A Sumerian Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Ed. D.B. Red-
Narrative Poem. Philadelphia: Occasional Publica- ford. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
tions of the Babylonian Fund 2, 1979.
Black, J.A., G. Cunningham, J. Ebeling, E. Flückiger-
Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature. 2006. Epics
Foster, Benjamin R. Before the Muses: An Anthology of
Akkadian Literature. 2nd ed. Potomac, MD: CDL,
1996.
Jacobsen, Thorkild. The Harps That Once . . . : Sumerian Po-
A n epic is a long narrative verse that is gen-
erally majestic in theme and style. These
poems deal with legendary or historical events
etry in Translation. New Haven, CT: Yale University of national or universal significance, usually fo-
Press, 1987. cusing on the exploits of a single individual.
Most, though not all, epics share certain
elements: supernatural forces that shape the
Ennead of Heliopolis action, physical combat, conventions such as
the ship lists of the Iliad or other listings of par-
(Egyptian) ticipants, and speeches couched in elevated
language. There are two main types of epics,
I n ancient Egyptian religion, an ennead
was a group of nine gods. The principal en-
nead was the Great Ennead of Heliopolis.
folk and literary.
This group included the gods Atum, Shu,

Folk Epics
Tefnut, Geb, Nut, Osiris, Isis, Seth, and Neph- Folk, or popular, epics depict events from
thys. These nine can be considered the em- mythology and folklore. These works may have
bodiments of the basic elements of life as set been consolidated or synthesized by a known
forth in Egyptian creation myth: life, sky, poet, such as the Greek Homer, or by some
earth, and so on. unknown hand. Well-known examples of folk

Epics, French 143
epics are the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf, written Lusiads, The; Mahabharata; Odyssey; Popol Vuh;
sometime between the eighth and tenth cen- Rolandslied; Saga of the Volsungs; Song of Igor’s
turies; the German Nibelungenlied, or Song of the Campaign; Song of Roland; Sundiata; Telegonia;
Nibelungs, penned during the thirteenth cen- Retellings: The Ramayana; Shah-nameh.
tury; and the Indian epics, the Mahabharata
of the Bharata dynasty (400 B.C.E.–400 C.E.) Sources
Fenik, Bernard. Homer and the Nibelungenlied: Comparative
and the Ramayana, which dates to the third
Studies in Epic Style. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni-
century B.C.E. versity Press, 1986.
The story material depicted in folk epics Ker, W.P. Epic and Romance: Essays on Medieval Literature.
is usually based on legends or events that oc- Mineola, NY: Dover, 1957.
curred long before the epic was composed. Newman, John K. The Classical Epic Tradition. Madison:
University of Wisconsin Press, 1986.
The characters and episodes in many folk
epics were first the subjects of folk-song cy-
cles. The French folk epics known as chan-
sons de geste, or songs of heroic deeds, were
Epics, French
composed from the end of the tenth century
to the middle or end of the eleventh century.
The Chanson de Roland (The Song of Roland, T he epic poems of France are called chan-
sons de geste, or songs of deeds. This me-
dieval term refers to the songs of the trouvères
c. 1100 C.E.) is one of the finest examples of
in the north and the troubadours in the south.
this type of epic.
Manuscripts of these works that date from
Other great folk epics include the
the twelfth to the fifteenth century survive,
eleventh-century Spanish El Poema de Mio Cid
but the events they describe took place in the
(The Song of the Cid ) and Russia’s Slovo o Polku
eighth and ninth centuries, during Charle-
Igoreve (Song of Igor’s Campaign, c. 1187). From
magne’s reign.
Mali came Sundiata, which honors the exploits
In their earliest form, the chansons de geste
of a hero-king of the twelfth century. Sundiata
were invariably in verse, but over the years,
was passed down through oral tradition for
the most popular were turned into lengthy
centuries by the griots, who were the bards of
prose romances. Many of the hundred or more
West Africa.
chansons de geste that are still preserved were
Literary Epics composed in the northern dialect, or langue
d’oil. Although similar epics existed in the
Literary epics generally convey contemporary langue d’oc, the dialect spoken in and around
attitudes and were often written for a patron. Provence, only fragments survive.
They include The Divine Comedy (1307–1321)
by the Italian poet Dante Alighieri, which ex-
presses the faith of medieval Christianity. The
Three Cycles
Faerie Queene (1596) by the English poet Ed- There are three great cycles, or groups, of
mund Spenser was written to honor his patron, French epics: the cycle of France, the court
Elizabeth I, queen of England. The English poet epics, and the Matière de Rome la Grand
John Milton’s Paradise Lost (1667) represents the (Matters of Great Rome).
ideals of Christian humanism. The cycle of France deals with Charle-
magne and his knights. The finest epic of this
See also: Aeneid; Antar; Argonautica; Beowulf; cycle is the famous Chanson de Roland (Song of
Charlemagne and His Peers; Digenis Acritas; Roland ). Others include Guillaume d’Orange, Les
El Cid; Gesta Danorum; Gilgamesh; Gudrun/ Quatre Fils d’Aymon (The Four Sons of Aymon), and
Kudrun; Hervarar Saga; Iliad; Iliou Persis; Jour- Ogier le Danois (Ogier the Dane). The depiction
ney to the West/Monkey; Kalevala; Kievan Cycle; of Charlemagne in these works varied from age

144 Epics, French
Other short works that were written in the

same period include those known as lais. The
tale called Aucassin et Nicolette is an anonymous
work that is one of the most familiar of these.
The author Marie de France wrote many lais
in the twelfth century.
The third great epic cycle, the Matière de
Rome la Grand (Matters of Great Rome), is also
known as the antique cycle. These epics are
Christianized versions of the stories found in
works such as the Iliad, Odyssey, Aeneid, Thebais,
Alexandreid, and so on. In their prose forms,
the Roman de Thèbes (Book of Thebes), Roman de
Troie (Book of Troy), and Roman d’Alexandre (Book
of Alexander) contain, besides innumerable me-
dieval embellishments, the first mention in
French of the quest for the fountain of youth.
Two of the kings immortalized in French epic poems

are King Arthur (left) and Charlemagne. Both are Animals, Allegory, and History
depicted in this fifteenth-century painting by Italian
Jaquerio Giacomo (fl.1403–1453). (Scala/Art Re- By the late Middle Ages, other types of epics
source, NY) appeared. The animal, or beast, epics were
particularly popular in France. These stories
used animal characters to satirize human soci-
to age. Charlemagne in the Chanson de Roland ety. The stories of Reynard the Fox, in Roman
was a heroic figure, but by the late Middle du Renard (The Book of Renard ), were known in
Ages, he had become an object of contempt Holland and Germany but were most popular
and ridicule, as in Les Quatre Fils d’Aymon. with the French. Allegorical epics also devel-
The second group of French epics is the oped at this time. In Le Roman de la Rose
court epics. The most famous exponent of (The Book of the Rose), abstract ideas were per-
these was the poet Chrétien de Troyes, who sonified in characters such as Hope, Slander
used King Arthur as the focus of his tales. The (Malebouche), and Danger.
principal poems of this cycle are Launcelot du During the Renaissance, semihistorical epic
Lac, Ivain le Chevalier au Lion (Ivan the Knight of poems, such as those written by the poet Pierre
the Lion), Erec et Enide, Merlin, Tristan, and Perce- de Ronsard, became popular. His epic Franci-
val. These poems tell of chivalry and love in a ade claimed that the Franks were lineal de-
world of magic and have been translated many scendants from Francus, a son of Priam, thus
times into English. Also included in this epic connecting French history with the Trojan War.
cycle are Gérard de Roussillon, Hugues Capet, French poets of the seventeenth and eigh-
Macaire, and Huon de Bordeaux. teenth centuries wrote epics that became fairly
A subcategory of this group is often re- popular in their time. Jean Desmarets de Saint-
ferred to as the crusade epics, in which the Sorlin attempted to describe the divine origin
stock topics are quarrels, challenges, fights, of the French monarchy in Clovis ou la France
banquets, and tournaments. Among these are Chrétienne. Joan of Arc was a popular subject,
Les Enfances de Godefroi (The Children of God- and poems were written about her, such as
frey), Antioche, and William of Tudela’s Chanson Jean Chapelain’s La Pucelle.
de la Croisade Albigeoise (Song of the Albigensian Voltaire’s La Henriade is a half-bombastic,
Crusade). half-satirical account of the wars of Henry IV,

Epics, German 145
in which the English king attempted to gain a false rumor of Hildebrand’s death reached
the crown of France. The most popular of all Hungary. By that time, Hadubrand had grown
the French prose epics was François Fénelon’s into a young man and had achieved great
Télémaque, an account of Telemachus’s jour- renown as a warrior.
neys to find some trace of his long-absent Hadubrand met his father, deemed him an
father, Ulysses. impostor, and fought with him. Unfortunately,
The creation of French epics ended in the rest of the Hildebrandslied epic is lost, so it is
the nineteenth century, with Les Martyrs by not known whether it has the traditional tragic
François René de Chateaubriand and Victor ending of the father slaying the son. In the ninth
Hugo’s La Légende des Siècles (The Legend of the century, the Emperor Charlemagne had a col-
Centuries). lection of these ancient epic songs compiled,
but his son and successor, Louis I, deemed
See also: Epics. them unsuitable for Christians and had the
collection destroyed.
Sources
Bulfinch, Thomas. The Age of Chivalry and Legends of
Charlemagne: Or Romance of the Middle Ages. New Christian and Historic Epics
York: NAL, 1962.
Ferrante, Joan, ed. Guillaume D’Orange: Four Twelfth-
By the time of Louis I (814–840 C.E.), a series of
Century Epics. New York: Columbia University Press, Christian epics had been written in German,
1974. including reworkings of biblical tales such as
Fundenburg, George Baer. Feudal France in the French the Exodus. There were also some historical
Epic. Port Washington, NY: Kennikat, 1966.
epics. These included the Ludwigslied, a fic-
Gravdal, Kathryn. Vilain and Courtois: Transgressive Parody
in French Literature of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Cen- tionalized history of the invasion of the Nor-
turies. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989. mans, and the story of Walter von Aquitanien,
Ker, W.P. Epic and Romance: Essays on Medieval Literature. an epic of the Burgundian-Hunnish cycle
Mineola, NY: Dover, 1957. written by Ekkehard of Saint Gall before 973.
Palfrey, Thomas Rossman, and William C. Holbrook,
eds. Medieval French Literature: Representative Selec- By the twelfth century, the crusades had
tions in Modernized Versions. New York: D. Appleton- revived the epic memories of Charlemagne
Century, 1934. and Roland and of the triumphs of Alexan-
der. This renewed interest inspired a Rolands-
lied (Song of Roland), revised and translated
Epics, German into German, and an Alexanderlied. The leg-
end of Herzog Ernst, which was also inspired
G erman epics include several cycles, each

of which clusters around a particular
hero. Some of the more familiar heroes of
by the crusades, remained popular in Ger-
many through the nineteenth century. This
work relates the adventures of Ernst, a duke
these works are Ermenrich the Goth, Dietrich of Bavaria, and his pilgrimage to Jerusalem.
von Bern, Theodoric the East Goth, Attila the
Hun, and Siegfried. The Lombard Cycle
The Lombard cycle, which is named for
Hildebrandslied the Lombard dynasty, contains the tales of
The earliest epic cycle, dating from about 800 King Rother, King Otnit, and Wolfdietrich.
C.E., is the Hildebrandslied (Lay of Hildebrand), a The tale of King Rother, who is traditionally
collection of epic songs that relate the adven- considered to be Charlemagne’s grandfather,
tures of the warrior-king Hildebrand. After is a court epic of this cycle. This epic tells of
spending thirty years in Hungary, Hildebrand King Rother’s quest to have the emperor of
left his wife and infant son, Hadubrand, and Constantinople’s daughter for his bride. Rother
returned to northern Italy. Several years later, abducted and married her, but the emperor

146 Epics, Greek
brought her back home. Rother pursued and Perhaps the most important work to draw
recaptured her. inspiration from the old German epic mate-
Another epic in the Lombard cycle is Ot- rial was nineteenth-century composer Richard
nit, which tells of the marriage of King Otnit Wagner’s great cycle of mythic operas known
to a heathen princess (with the help of a noble as the Ring Cycle.
dwarf). The bride’s father gave the couple a
gift of dragon’s eggs. The monsters hatched, See also: Epics.
ultimately caused the death of Otnit, and in-
fested Teutonic lands with their progeny. The Sources
Armour, Margaret, trans. The Ring of the Niblung. New
legends of Hug-Dietrich and Wolf-Dietrich
York: Doubleday, Page, 1923.
are also part of the Lombard cycle and con- Gentry, Francis G., ed. German Medieval Tales. New York:
tinue the adventures of Otnit up to his death. Continuum International, 1982.
Gentry, Francis G., and James K. Walter, eds. German
Nibelungenlied Epic Poetry. New York: Continuum, 1995.
Vries, Jan de. Heldenlied en Heldensage. Utrecht, The
The German epic considered to be the great- Netherlands: Spectrum, 1959.
est of all is the twelfth-century Nibelungenlied.
This poem conveys the tragic tale of Siegfried
the Dragonslayer and his wife, Kriemhild. Epics, Greek
Siegfried is portrayed as a doomed hero who
was murdered by his wife’s family.
The work has been referred to as the Iliad
of Germany. In the related epic called Gudrun,
A ncient Greek epics generally center on
the real or mythological Trojan War or
on mythological themes such as epic voyages
Siegfried’s widow takes revenge on his mur- and the adventures of mythic heroes.
derers. The latter work is considered the Ger- Perhaps the most familiar Greek epics are
man answer to Homer’s Odyssey. the Iliad and the Odyssey. These works are at-
tributed to Homer, who is said to have lived
Courtly Epics sometime between 1050 and 850 B.C.E. The
question of whether Homer actually created
The so-called courtly epics flourished in the late
the epics or merely recited extant verses has
twelfth and early thirteenth centuries. These po-
been hotly disputed since the second century
etic tales of King Arthur and his court include
B.C.E.
Wolfram von Eschenbach’s Parzival and the
works of Gottfried of Strassburg, such as the un-
finished Tristan. Hartmann von Aue wrote four
The Trojan Cycle
extended narrative poems, including Erec and Many Greek epics have, unfortunately, been
Iwein. entirely lost; for others, only fragments re-
At this time, epics were also sung. Min- main. A group of these ancient epics form
nesingers were German minstrels who were what is termed the Trojan Cycle, because all of
active from the twelfth through fourteenth them relate in some way to the Trojan War.
centuries. Their songs, called Minnesang, told Among these short works is the Cypria, by
of courtly life, especially the legends of King Stasimus of Cyprus (or possibly by Arctinus of
Arthur, the Holy Grail, and Charlemagne. Miletus). This poem relates the god Jupiter’s
Many of these epics were compiled in the frustrated wooing of Thetis, her marriage with
fifteenth century by Kaspar von der Rhön in Peleus, the episode of the golden apple, the
the Heldenbuch, or Book of Heroes. Another col- judgment of Paris, the kidnapping of Helen,
lection, known as the Volksbücher (Book of the the mustering of the Greek forces, and the
Folk), presents such famous tales as that of main events of the first nine years of the Tro-
Doctor Faustus. jan War, ending with the funeral of Hector.

Epics, Roman 147
Arctinus of Miletus continues the story in work called Thebais. The cycle relates the sto-
his Aethiopia. The poet describes the events ries of Oedipus; the Seven Against Thebes,
surrounding the arrival of Penthesilea, queen who were killed fighting against Thebes after
of the Amazons. She came to aid the Trojans the death of Oedipus; and the tales of the
but was killed by Achilles. Achilles was sub- Epigoni, the sons of the dead Seven.
sequently slain by Apollo and Paris. This Epic poems were also written about the
epic concludes with the famous dispute be- labors of Heracles and the life of Alexander.
tween Ajax and Ulysses for the possession of The epic Alexandra by Lycophron (270 B.C.E.)
Achilles’s armor. is a sequel to the Iliad, in which Alexander is
The Little Iliad, the authorship of which represented as a descendant of Achilles. In
has been ascribed to several poets, including 110 C.E., Callisthenes attempted to prove that
Homer, describes the madness and death of Alexander descended directly from the Egypt-
Ajax, the arrival of Philoctetes with the arrows ian god Jupiter Ammon or from his priest
of Hercules, the death of Paris, the purloining Nectanebus.
of the Palladium, the stratagem of the wooden Hesiod’s epic Theogony is a summary of
horse, and the death of Priam. Greek mythology that gives the story of the
In the Ilion Persis, or Sack of Troy, by Arcti- Greek creation myth and the origins and ac-
nus of Miletus, the poet describes the Trojans’ tivities of the Greek gods.
hesitation over whether or not to convey the In 194 B.C.E., Apollonius Rhodius, or
wooden steed into their city, and includes the Apollonius of Rhodes, wrote the Argonautica,
tales of Sinon and Laocoon. The work ends which relates the adventures of the hero Jason
with the taking and sacking of the city, the mas- and his quest for the Golden Fleece. A lighter
sacre of the Trojan men, and the Trojan women work, a burlesque epic in Greek called the
being carried off into captivity. Bactrachomyomachia (Battle of Frogs and Mice), is
In the Nostroi (Homeward Voyage), by Agias often attributed to Homer. Only some 300
of Troezene, the sons of Atreus, Agamemnon lines of this work remain.
and Menelaus, argue. While Agamemnon de-
lays his departure to offer propitiatory sacri- See also: Epics.
fices, Menelaus sets sail for Egypt, where he is
Sources
detained. The poem also tells of Agamemnon’s Bowra, C.M. Ancient Greek Literature. New York: Oxford
return, his assassination, and the revenge taken University Press, 1967.
by his son Orestes. Burgess, Jonathan S. The Tradition of the Trojan War in
The Telegonia of Eugammon of Cyrene de- Homer and the Epic Cycle. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
scribes events that occur after Homer’s Odyssey
Murray, Gilbert. The Rise of the Greek Epic. 4th ed. New
ends. According to the Telegonia, Ulysses re- York: Oxford University Press, 1960.
newed his adventures and visited Thesprotia. Schwab, Gustav. Gods and Heroes: Myths and Epics of An-
The story ignores Ulysses’s marriage to Penel- cient Greece. New York: Pantheon, 1946.
ope and has him marry another woman
whose name has not been preserved. Ulysses
eventually leaves his wife and son. Upon his Epics, Roman
death, his two sons battle. Another sequel, or
addition, to the Odyssey, is the Telemachia, but
only the name of this work remains. T he epic works of Roman literature were in-
spired to a large degree by Greek compo-
sitions. Numerous Latin translations of the
Iliad and Odyssey were written. The first and
Other Themes most famous of these was by Livius Androni-
Another series of Greek poems is the Theban cus, who lived in the third century B.C.E. An-
cycle. These poems comprise the anonymous dronicus also created what was probably the

148 Epics, Spanish
first wholly Roman epic, a narration of Roman

history that has been lost. Epics, Spanish
The Roman poet Naevius lived and
worked a century later. He composed the
Cyprian Iliad as well as a heroic poem on the T he true Spanish epics were created during
the eleventh and twelfth centuries as the
people fought to regain control of their coun-
first Punic War. In the second century B.C.E.,
Ennius wrote an epic of Rome’s founding, and try after years of Arab rule.
the poet Hostius penned another epic. Only Unfortunately, few complete epics remain
fragments of each of these works survive. from those early days, save for the eleventh-
Caesar Augustus fostered the arts during century El Poema de Mio Cid (The Song of the Cid).
his reign, and many epic works resulted. Considered one of the great literary classics of
Publius Terentius provided a Latin transla- Spain, this story has been retold in opera and
tion of the Greek Argonautica, the adventures film. Additions to the original epic were made
of Jason and the Argonauts. The greatest of in such works as the Cronica Rimada of the thir-
the poets of that Augustan age (43 B.C.E.–18 teenth century, which gives an account of the
C.E.) was Virgil, whose most important work Cid’s youth and includes the episode in which
was The Aeneid. This epic described the wan- he slays the father of his fiancée, Ximena.
derings and descent into the underworld of Fragments of two other epics concern
the legendary Trojan warrior Aeneas. Virgil the princesses of Lara and Prince Fernan
became a revered figure, and by the Mid- Gonzales. These works, and others that have
dle Ages he was a folk hero with a cycle of been almost completely lost, were popular-
tales about his powers, not as a poet but as a ized in Spain by the juglares—the Spanish
magician. minstrels—who invented heroes such as
The poet Lucan, a contemporary of Virgil, Bernardo del Carpio. Unfortunately, all the
created the historical epic Pharsalia, which poems about this fictional hero have per-
chronicled the rivalry between Caesar and ished, and his fame is preserved only in the
Pompey. Around the same time, Statius cre- prose chronicles.
ated two epics based on the Trojan War, The- Chivalric romances about fictional heroes
bais and the unfinished Achilleis. living in a world of magic became popular in
Quintius Curtius, who wrote in the second the Middle Ages. Amadis de Gaule was ex-
century C.E., composed an epic on Alexander. tremely popular in its own time and led to a
In the third century C.E., Juvencus penned the host of sequels and imitations. It was this type
first Christian epic, using the life of Christ as of work that the novelist Miguel de Cervantes
his theme. later mocked in Don Quixote.
Claudianus wrote mythological epics on Like other Western Europeans, the
Greek themes in the fifth century, which in- Spaniards also created works based on the life
cluded the story of Persephone’s abduction. of Alexander and on the various Arthurian
This work can be said to mark the end of characters and the quest for the Holy Grail. By
Roman epic literature. the eighteenth century, more than 200 reli-
gious and political epics had been written.
See also: Epics.
See also: Epics.
Sources
Boyle, Anthony, ed. Roman Epic. New York: Routledge, Sources
1993. Green, Otis H. Spain and the Western Tradition: The Castil-
Slavitt, David R. Broken Columns: Two Roman Epic Frag- ian Mind in Literature from El Cid to Calderón. Vol. 1.
ments. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1963.
Press, 1997. O’Connor, John J. Amadis de Gaule and Its Influence on
Von Albrecht, Michael. Roman Epic: An Interpretive Intro- Elizabethan Literature. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers
duction. Boston: Brill, 1999. University Press, 1970.

Erra 149
Simpson, Lesley Byrd, trans. The Poem of the Cid. Berke- While repairs to the statue were being
ley: University of California Press, 1957. made, Erra stationed himself as guardian of the
temple and schemed to usurp Marduk’s pow-
ers. When Marduk returned, Erra’s help as a
Erra guardian was no longer required.
Erra unleashed a barrage of rage and ha-
(Babylonian) tred, praising his own ability to create terror.
He released the Seven to begin his violent
T he underworld god Erra was a violent de-

ity associated with warfare, anarchy, and
plague in Babylonian literature. His activities
campaign.
are known mainly from a myth called Erra and Erra’s Contempt for Humanity
Ishum, preserved in copies produced in the Ishum tried to calm Erra, asking why he was so
first millennium B.C.E. The myth, written on determined to attack both gods and humans.
four tablets, is concerned with the sources of Erra, replied, full of contempt, that humans
violence. were stupid and that when Marduk had left his
dwelling, kings and princes were negligent in
Erra and Ishum their duties to the gods. The bond between the
The myth begins with the introduction of people and the deities was thus broken.
Ishum, a minor deity of the Mesopotamian Ishum then described in detail the havoc,
pantheon who dwelled in the underworld, and plunder, atrocities, and destruction that were
Erra, a warrior of the gods. Both were restless occurring on Earth. All of humankind was suf-
and itching to do battle. fering: the strong and the weak, the young and
The demons referred to as the Seven were the old, the priests, the rulers, and the righ-
presented to Erra by the god Anu and were to teous as well as the unrighteous.
be used to crush the noise of humans when Satisfied that his power was recognized,
they threatened the balance between mortals Erra decreed that the enemies of Babylon
and their gods. According to some interpreta- should fight one another. Afterward, only
tions, the noise refers to humankind’s bent for Babylon would remain to rule. Erra instructed
violence and strife, behavior that threatens the Ishum to do as he wished with the Seven.
world order. Ishum set out for the mountain lands of the Su-
The Seven complained that they were rest- taeans, the archenemies of Babylon. With the
less. In response, Erra suggested to Ishum that Seven before him, Ishum devastated Babylon’s
they begin a campaign to destroy the people. enemies. He destroyed their cities, obliterated
Ishum objected, but Erra insisted that the black- their wildlife, and returned the people to clay.
headed people, meaning the Mesopotamians, At last, Erra was calmed. He addressed the
would not listen to the god Marduk’s com- gods, saying that he had erred in his anger and
mands and deserved to be punished. had slain without distinction between good
and evil. He apologized for his frenzy and loss
of reason and praised Ishum for his restraint.
Erra and Marduk Erra then instructed Ishum to begin the work
Erra went to Marduk, the king of the gods, os- of restoring the fertility of the land and sea
tensibly seeking advice. Erra’s real intention and, using the booty from the Sutaeans, to
was to depose Marduk and rule in his place. rebuild its temples.
Marduk was away from his palace because his The poem ends with praise to the warrior
statue had been damaged and was in need of Ishum.
repair. With the absence of the god from his
abode, the lesser gods became terrified. Ira Spar

150 Estonian Stor ytelling
See also: Death; Hel; Nergal. in choirs, and joined various societies. All of
this change resulted in the loss of the story-
Sources telling tradition and the disappearance of cer-
Cagni, Luigi. The Poem of Erra: Sources from the Ancient
tain types of stories.
Near East. Malibu, CA: Undena, 1997.
Dally, Stephanie. Mesopotamian Myths. New York: Oxford The traditional fairy tales, stories of wonder
University Press, 1989. and witches, were the first to disappear, and
Foster, Benjamin R. Before the Muses: An Anthology of folktales of local events survived only slightly
Akkadian Literature. 2nd ed. Potomac, MD: CDL, longer. The folktales were shorter and therefore
1996.
easier to present, and carried fewer limitations
than the fairy tales. For example, in telling folk-
Estonian Storytelling tales, the storyteller could say that his or her
story actually happened to someone he or she
knew firsthand. But eventually belief in the
E stonia, a European nation that lies near the
Baltic Sea, has been home to farmers, fish-
ermen, and hunters for thousands of years. Un-
truthfulness of folktales also disappeared.
The repertoire of jokes and anecdotes was
also altered after the war. Prior to the war, hu-
til the twentieth century, families lived together morous stories were generally about farmers
in wooden huts, and the whole village worked and lords of the manor or village pastors, mas-
and had fun together. Living and working un- ters and help, shepherd boys, and traveling
der one roof meant that children soon had a craftsmen, especially tailors. Stories related in-
clear picture of adult life and of their own fu- cidents between members of extended families,
ture. The people’s heritage was passed from such as mothers-in-law and daughters-in-law,
generation to generation and thus remained in- about rich and poor people in the village, and
tact for centuries. about spinsters and bachelors who wanted to
To tell any story, three elements are get married at any cost. Today, the anecdote
required—a subject, a storyteller, and an audi- repertoire contains jokes from the news, some
ence. The repertoire of Estonian folk story- of which have been translated from other lan-
tellers has consisted of fairy tales, folktales, guages, including political jokes.
humorous tales, and true stories. The villagers In the twentieth century, when the older
who shared certain stories and songs became wonder tales disappeared, new, more realistic
the spiritual elite of the village. They had to be types emerged that were linked with specific
eloquent, quick to react, familiar with the local events, people, or places. Stories are told about
repertoire, and able to find new stories to tell. modern professions, different age groups, so-
Stories were passed on as people worked to- cial and religious groups, historic events, and
gether paving roads, logging, building houses, friends and family. Modern Estonians generally
making hay, threshing, and taking part in any live in small family groups, far from their ex-
number of joint activities common to village tended family’s place of origin, so stories about
life. a family’s past have a special meaning that de-
termine personal identity.
The Stories
After World War I, Estonian society changed
from a patriarchal culture of manor owners
The Storytellers
and villagers to one in which people owned Good storytelling skills have long been a valu-
their own homes. Due to developing industry, able asset. This was particularly true before
many people moved to the cities, where they World War I. The ability to spin a tale has
formed groups according to their occupa- helped many tellers to make contact with other
tions, economic connections, and hobbies. people, gain trust in new situations, and even
People read newspapers and magazines, sang earn a living.

Estonian Stor ytelling 151
There are stories of beggars who were val- cially true on Thursdays, which had become
ued visitors due to their eloquence. Leena the traditional storytelling night. One old
Udam was a storyteller in the early twentieth adage says, “You should not work in the twi-
century who went begging with her father light; in the twilight you must sit and talk; then
when she was young. Her father would tell the crops will be good.”
fairy tales for his hosts in the evening in ex- The first through tenth days of November
change for a place to stay. were special nights, called jäguõhtud, in the
Estonian men traditionally were the story- coastal areas of Kuusalu and Jõelähtme.
tellers in a village. They brought stories home Throughout Estonia, storytelling was also part
from their travels to markets in places such as of the Christmas celebration, which was
Riga, Pskov, and Saint Petersburg. They spent nearly two weeks long.
the nights in taverns along the way, telling sto- In southeast Estonia there was a strictly
ries and making music. When they returned fixed time for stories—a period before Christ-
home, people came to hear the stories they had mas when the cattle had not yet had their
collected or invented during their travels. Some young. Once the first calf was born, story-
villages had so-called story houses, where peo- telling and riddles were strictly forbidden until
ple gathered to tell and to hear stories. after the calving season. The reason for this lay
A storyteller named Miku Juhan lived in in the belief that storytelling at an inappropri-
Tartu County in south Estonia in the nineteenth ate time would attract evil spirits, which are es-
century. It is said that when he got carried away pecially dangerous to young animals. This was
by the urge to tell stories, he could forget even a remnant of an ancient belief that storytelling
the most urgent jobs. Occasionally, when had magic functions. Telling stories was hoped
Miku’s wife brought lunch to workers in the to bring success in hunting and fishing, as well
field, she would find Miku telling his tales for as in farming and raising cattle.
the workers from the village, keeping them
from their tasks. And when a beggar happened
to come from a place far away, there would be
Research and Current Trends
a storytelling feast at Miku’s farm, where peo- Estonian folktales came to the attention of
ple told stories well into the night. folklorists at the beginning of the nineteenth
In Kuusalu, northern Estonia, people tell century. Many audio recordings were made of
of spike traders, people who traded honey- storytellers between the end of that century
suckle spikes that were used to make rakes and the middle of the twentieth. Most of the
and other tools, receiving fish in return. Some early repertoire also has been written down.
of these tradesmen were great storytellers. Studies of Estonian folklore have been for-
One of them talked with an old man named mally conducted since the 1920s. By the be-
Eerige for two days, and still there was more ginning of 1987, there were more than 115,000
to talk about. From this story came an old Es- manuscripts of folk narratives cataloged at the
tonian saying about people who talk for too Archive of Estonian Folklore, located at Tartu.
long. They are said to be “like the old man A small part of the collection has been pub-
Eerige and the spikes trader.” lished in anthologies, collections, and chil-
dren’s books, and as individual texts.
Traditional storytelling has been altered
Venues and Audiences drastically in the modern age. Current lifestyles
The dark autumn and winter months were the world over do not present many opportuni-
considered especially suitable for storytelling. ties for this traditional pastime. The numbers of
During that time, it was customary to sit in the stories and storytellers are dwindling. To keep
twilight, allowing for a rest period before light- the tradition alive, organizations such as the
ing pine splinters or oil lamps. This was espe- Estonian National Culture Center provide

152 Etana
training courses, counseling, events, and pub- roots. The two were friends and swore a mu-
lications to entice Estonians of all ages back to tual oath of friendship before the sun god,
the art of storytelling. There is a movement in Shamash, each promising to take care of the
Estonia to revive this vital art form, and the other’s young.
graduates and teachers of the culture center’s At first, both the snake and the eagle re-
School of Fairy Tales bring the joy of the spected the terms of their pact, each taking
genre to the people. turns hunting wild animals to feed their young.
Storytelling clubs also have appeared One day, after his young had grown, the eagle
in Estonia. These include the Solstice Club, plotted evil, determining to eat the serpent’s
formed in 2001 by a group of kindergarten children. The eagle’s littlest fledgling, one who
teachers. They have designated the first day of was wise, tried to dissuade his father, but to no
spring as the Day of All Storytellers. The avail. The eagle devoured the serpent’s young
founders created the club so that there would and destroyed the nest with his talons.
be a place for people who are interested in sto- Upon his return from a hunting trip, the
rytelling and stories to tell, hear, and ex- serpent found that his offspring were gone. He
change stories so that the stories might live on. turned to the god Shamash, imploring the god
Contemporary storytelling helps to de- of justice to punish the evil eagle and avenge
velop eloquence and expression through the his loss. The divine judge advised the serpent
regeneration of traditional stories and creation to hide in the carcass of a wild ox and lie in
of new ones. wait for the ravenous bird. When the eagle
Pille Kippar and Piret Paar came to eat, the snake should attack his foe
and punish him for his offense.
Sources Unaware of the trap and ignoring the
MacDonald, Margaret Read, ed. Traditional Storytelling warning given to him by his wise little fledg-
Today: An International Sourcebook. Chicago: Fitzroy ling, the eagle circled above and then swooped
Dearborn, 1999.
Ülo Valk. Traditional Legends in Contemporary Estonian
down on his prey. At that moment, the serpent
Folklore. Tartu, Estonia: University of Tartu Press, emerged from his hiding place, seized the ea-
n.d. gle, clipped his wings, plucked out his pinion
and tail feathers, and imprisoned him in a bot-
tomless pit.
Etana Left to die of hunger and thirst, the eagle
entreated Shamash for help, but to no avail.
The god denounced the eagle’s wickedness
(Babylonian) and abominable deed. Months went by. Fi-
E tana was a legendary Babylonian king who

ruled in the Sumerian city of Kish after
the great flood. The myth of Etana, written in
nally Shamash heeded the eagle’s call and de-
veloped a plan to send a human agent to help.
In the city of Kish, Etana had been pray-
Akkadian in the first millennium B.C.E., was ing to Shamash to grant him an heir. In a
known in antiquity as They Planned Out a City dream, Etana heard the voice of the god of
or The Series of Etana. The narrative revolves justice telling him to go to the aid of the eagle,
around the interaction among an eagle, a ser- who in return for his assistance would help
pent, and Etana. him find a mythical plant of fertility. Etana
The gods had established the city of Kish crossed the mountains and found the pit with
and appointed Etana as its king. Etana built a the crippled eagle inside.
shrine for the storm god, Adad, in the shade Etana stood at the edge of the pit and told
of a poplar tree. An eagle lived in the tree’s the eagle that he would save his life in return
crown, and a serpent built its nest in the tree’s for information on the plant of birth. The bird

Ethiopian Mythology 153
agreed. Etana filled in the pit so that the eagle rectly from King Solomon and Balkis. The story
could climb out, and the eagle flapped his of Menelik I is likely pure myth. There proba-
wings, ready to fly. The two set out in quest of bly was a queen of Sheba, but she would have
the plant of birth. Etana mounted the bird, his ruled over the land of Saba in southern Arabia.
hands on the wing feathers. They flew aloft and She and King Solomon probably never met, let
ascended to the heavens. Etana began to panic. alone had the love affair that produced this son.
He could no longer see the land or find the
great sea. Etana begged the eagle to descend. Illalei
The preserved part of the story ends with
Ethiopia is primarily an Islamic nation, but
Etana’s return from his flight. The tablet that
traces of the region’s mythology still remain.
bears the myth is broken in key spots. It is not
Some people continue to follow the older reli-
known whether Etana’s quest for the plant of
gions, and their lore is worth pursuing by those
birth was successful, although another text
interested in stories.
refers to his offspring who succeeded him on
Illalei is the Supreme Being and creator
the throne as king of Kish.
among the Burji-Konso tribes of Ethiopia. He
Ira Spar is elsewhere called Wak. He lives in the clouds
and keeps the heavens at a distance from the
See also: Culture Heroes. earth. A kindhearted god, it is Illalei who put
stars in the heavens to keep the night alive.
Sources When the world was first made, Illalei saw
Foster, Benjamin R. Before the Muses: An Anthology of Akka- that it was too flat. He told the first man to
dian Literature. 2nd ed. Potomac, MD: CDL, 1996.
Novotny, Jamie R. The Standard Babylonian Etana Epic.
build a coffin, shut Illalei in it, and bury the
State Archives of Assyria Cuneiform Texts 2. Helsinki, coffin. The first man did this. Illalei drew down
Finland: Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project, 2001. a rain of fire for seven years, which formed the
mountains. Then Illalei sprang back to life.
The first man grew lonely, so Illalei formed
Ethiopian Mythology a woman out of his own blood. The first
man and woman had thirty children but hid
T he hardships of life in Ethiopia and Er-

itrea, which split off from Ethiopia as a
separate nation in 1993, are known around
half of them from Illalei. The god was so an-
gry at this deception that he changed the fif-
teen hidden children into the animals and the
the world. This bleak land and its people carry demons.
a long history and rich mythology.
Other Mythical Figures
Menelik I The three chief gods, in their order of rank, are
The ancient Aksumite kingdom flourished in Beher, the god of the sea, Mahrem, the warrior-
northern Ethiopia from approximately 100 to god, who was supreme god in the Axumite Em-
600 C.E. The city of Aksum is believed to be pire, and Astar, the sky god. The earth spirit is
where Menelik I, the supposed son of the called Medr, and Ekera, in the religion of the
queen of Sheba, or Balkis, and King Solomon Oromo of Ethiopia, is the afterworld.
brought the Ark of the Covenant from Current events show continuing problems
Jerusalem. For the people of Ethiopia, the city, in Ethiopia and its neighboring countries. Yet
which is now in ruins, is still regarded as the in spite of this adversity, the mythology of this
ancient residence and capital city of Balkis. land survives.
The Emperor Haile Selassie, who reigned
until 1963, was believed to have descended di- See also: Ethiopian Storytelling.

154 Ethiopian Stor ytelling
Sources to the public storytellers and singers found in

Balandier, George, and Jacques Maquet, eds. Dictionary every village. The latter sometimes passed
of Black African Civilization. Oceanside, NY: Leon along political commentary by reciting a spe-
Amiel, 1974.
Laird, Elizabeth. When the World Began: Stories Collected in
cific form of verse called a kinae, which con-
Ethiopia. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. tained both obvious and hidden meanings.
Scheub, Harold. A Dictionary of African Mythology: The Today, public entertainers are known as
Mythmaker as Storyteller. New York: Oxford Univer- azmari, or singers, who accompany their tales
sity Press, 2000.
and poems with the masengo, a one-stringed fid-
dle, or the krar, a type of lyre. These perform-
ers still pass along both praise and social
Ethiopian Storytelling commentary in their work, which is performed
in bars or on street corners.
S torytelling has always been a central com-

ponent of Ethiopian culture. Even today,
despite political and economic difficulties, in
See also: Ethiopian Mythology.
Sources
the midst of war and famine, storytellers con- Courlander, Harold, and Wolf Leslau. The Fire on the
tinue to entertain, transmit history, and spread Mountain, and Other Ethiopian Stories. New York:
traditional wisdom. Henry Holt, 1950.
Most of the stories are still passed on Marcus, Harold G. A History of Ethiopia. Berkeley: Uni-
versity of California Press, 2002.
orally. Tales commonly told in Ethiopia in- Price, Christine, ed. The Rich Man and the Singer: Folktales
clude the expected variants on world tales, from Ethiopia told by Mesfin Habte-Mariam. New York:
such as those in which the “little guy” gets the E.P. Dutton, 1971.
better of the overlord. In one Ethiopian exam-
ple, a clever man (or sometimes a boy) and a
selfish rich man argued. The selfish rich man Evil Eye
claimed that a poor man did not have to share
in his meal but could be nourished by the scent
alone. The clever man pointed out that a dis-
tant fire does not provide the same heat as one
T he evil eye is said to be a dark gift pos-
sessed by a man or woman whose deliber-
ate glance brings sickness, bad luck, or death
up close. to a targeted individual.
Local or national tales that may be based on The belief in the evil eye is common
historical incidents include one about the dis- around the world. The ancient Romans called
covery of coffee. Tradition states that a goatherd it fascinum, which may be the root word for
discovered its effects when he saw his goats the modern English word fascinate. In He-
prance about after eating coffee beans. This tale brew, the evil eye is called the ayin harah, and
has spread throughout the United States within in Jewish folklore, continuing into modern
the last decade, thanks in part to the prolifera- times, the Yiddish phrase keyn aynhoreh, or no
tion of coffeehouses. evil eye, is often said to ward off bad luck af-
Specific cultures within Ethiopia have their ter good news is announced or praise is given.
own stories and lore. The Ethiopian Jews, for In French, the evil eye is called the mauvais
example, passed Judaic stories along within veil, in Germany it is boser blick, and in Italy it
Ethiopia for generations. Coptic Christians also is malocchio.
have their religious tales, which tend to be sim- The Greeks call the evil eye baskania, or
ilar to the great body of world Christian tales matiasma. There is a tradition that may have
and are separate from the folklore of the gen- originated in ancient Greece of painting a
eral population. large eye on the prow of a ship that sails in
In earlier days, each lord or ruler within the Mediterranean. This is meant to let the
Ethiopia had his own storyteller, in addition ship see where it is headed and to ward off

Evil Eye 155
any evil eye by staring the ill will back at the

sender.
To fight the evil eye, a number of magical
mirrors and amulets can be used. The Italian
corno, or curved horn, and figga, a clenched
hand with the thumb stuck through the mid-
dle and fourth finger, are two examples. An-
other warding-off sign is an outstretched hand
with forefinger and pinky extended to form
horns. (The same “horns” gesture was some-
times made to mock a man whose wife was
cheating on him.)
Throughout the Near East, glass balls or
disks with a blue circle painted on the outside
and a concentric black circle inside it are con-
sidered folk talismans. A blue eye also can be
found on some forms of the “Hand of Fatima”
or hamsa, which is an Islamic folk amulet
against the evil eye.
See also: Black Magic.
Sources
Dundes, Alan. The Evil Eye: A Casebook. Madison: Uni-
This amulet, intended to provide protection to a woman versity of Wisconsin Press, 1992.
in childbirth, includes symbols and phrases against the Elworthy, Frederick Thomas. Evil Eye: The Origin and
evil eye, demons in general, and Lilith, an Assyrian fe- Practices of Superstition. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger,
male demon, in particular. The amulet comes from 2003.
Jerusalem and dates to the late nineteenth century. Ulmer, Rivka. Evil Eye in the Bible and in Rabbinic Litera-
(Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY) ture. Hoboken, NJ: KTAV, 1994.

F
F
Fables
ables are brief fictitious stories that teach
a moral.
In most fables, the characters are not hu-
for their stinging portrayal of the anxieties of
modern life.
See also: Aesop and Aesop’s Fables; Berekhiah

ben Natronai ha-Nakdan; La Fontaine, Jean de.
mans. They are animals, plants, or some nor- Sources

Edgerton, Franklin, trans. The Panchatantra. Delhi, India:
mally inanimate object that talks and acts like Hind Pocket Books, 1973.
a person. Fables are written both in prose and Krylov, Ivan A. Krylov’s Fables. Trans. Bernard Pares.
in verse. Westport, CT: Hyperion, 1977.
Most of the Greek fables that remain po- La Fontaine, Jean de. Fables. Trans. Sir Edward Marsh.
New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001.
pular in the West today are credited to a Greek
Thornton, Helene. Fables. New York: New American Li-
slave named Aesop, who lived about 600 B.C.E. brary, 1986.
Some of these stories actually came from an- Thurber, James. Fables of Our Time. New York: Harper
cient India and were included with the Greek and Row, 1983.
fables by early Western publishers. The Indian
fables also are compiled in a work from the
second century B.C.E., called the Panchatantra. Fabliau/Fabliaux
In the seventeenth century, French writer
Jean de La Fontaine retold Aesop’s fables for
adults. He made his versions vessels for biting
political and social commentary.
F abliaux are brief comic tales in verse that
were popular in France in the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries. These parodies about or-
Many writers of the nineteenth and twen- dinary people, usually of the lower or middle
tieth centuries created new fables or retold class, were set in everyday places.
the classic tales. Ivan Krylov, a Russian poet The plots of these short tales were often
of the early nineteenth century, translated La satirical or bawdy. They frequently centered on
Fontaine’s fables into Russian and added many the cleverness (and sexual enthusiasm) of the
of his own. Krylov’s fables had been in- hero or heroine and the gullibility of the victim.
tended for adults, but they became very popu- A fabliau might have a social edge, pointing at
lar children’s stories. members of the clergy or institutions such as
In the twentieth century, American hu- marriage.
morist James Thurber revived the fable as a Marie de France’s “A Woman and Her
form of social criticism. His fables are noted Paramour” of the early twelfth century and
156

Fair y Midwife and Demon Midwife 157
Boccaccio’s mid-fourteenth-century Decameron godmothers, per se, but other helpful charac-
are prime examples of fabliaux. Several of ters take on a similar role. In a Jewish version of
Geoffrey Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, such as the Cinderella story, for example, it is the
“The Reeve’s Tale,” drew from this genre. prophet Elijah who helps the heroine.
The high age of the fabliau ended in the But it is Perrault’s fairy godmother charac-
fourteenth century. Its popularity was already ter that continues to hold the most influence in
waning by the time Chaucer used the form at modern tales, with the addition of certain con-
the end of that century. These bawdy tales are temporary characteristics. The fairy god-
rarely used today. mother in the 2004 animated movie Shrek 2,
for example, is a conniving businesswoman.
See also: Fables. The term “fairy godmother” is used today
in everyday language to describe a philanthro-
Sources pist.
Benson, Larry D., and Theodore M. Andersson. The Lit-
erary Context of Chaucer’s Fabliaux: Texts and Transla- See also: Motifs; Wise Man or Woman.
tions. Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1971.
Bloch, R. Howard. The Scandal of the Fabliaux. Chicago: Sources
University of Chicago Press, 1986.
Harrison, Robert L. Gallic Salt: Eighteen Fabliaux Trans-
lated from the Old French. Berkeley: University of Cali-
Perrault, Charles. The Fairy Tales of Charles Perrault. Har-
fornia Press, 1974.
mondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1957.
Muscatine, Charles. The Old French Fabliaux. New Haven,
Sherman, Josepha. A Sampler of Jewish-American Folklore.
Little Rock, AR: August House, 1992.
Fairy Godmothers Fairy Midwife and

Demon Midwife
T he fairy godmothers of folktales and fairy
tales are a combination of a human
godmother—a woman who promises to aid a
child, particularly in religious instruction—
and a magical fairy being.
I n the folklore of cultures ranging from Celtic
to Jewish, the fairy (or demon) midwife is a
mortal woman taken to a strange land or eerie
The most memorable fairy godmother location to deliver a nonhuman or part-human
character for Western readers is the character baby.
in French courtier and author Charles Per- The basic story is the same, regardless of
rault’s fairy tale “Cinderella.” It is this fairy the culture. The midwife has just gone to bed
godmother who transformed a pumpkin into a when she hears a frantic knocking on the door.
coach, rats into coachmen, and Cinderella into A mysterious man, who is either cloaked or
an elegant lady. This type of fairy godmother, otherwise disguised, begs for her help—his
almost always an elegant older woman, ap- wife is in labor.
pears in another French Cinderella tale by Per- The midwife goes with him to what is ei-
rault, “Peau d’Ane,” or “Donkeyskin.” Other ther another realm or a cave that has been en-
types of fairy godmothers are found throughout chanted to look like a palace. In most versions,
world lore. the midwife is unable to see through the illu-
The role of the fairy godmother may be sion at first and takes the splendor for reality.
played by the ghost of the heroine’s dead The woman in labor is often a human
mother, a tree spirit (the mother’s body lies married to a fairy being, though in Jewish folk-
buried under the tree), or, as found in a Russian lore a female demon is in labor. (In Jewish
tale, a doll that comes to life when the heroine folklore, the word demon means an amoral be-
prays. In some cultures, there are no fairy ing, somewhat like a nature spirit, rather than

158 Faithful Companion
an evil creature.) The midwife says nothing the prince wishes to wed. As they are carrying
and delivers the child. her home across the seas, Faithful John over-
In most versions of the basic tale, the mid- hears some crows, whose language he under-
wife is then given a magic ointment to rub on stands. The crows foretell three dangers to the
the baby’s eyes. She touches a little of the oint- prince, from which Faithful John can save
ment to her own eyes and can then see through him only by sacrificing his own life.
the fairy enchantment. The first danger would threaten the prince
In all versions, the midwife is rewarded for as soon as their ship reached port. The prince
her labors and is safely returned to her home. would see a horse, but if he mounted it,
One interpretation of the tale is that both fairies he would lose his bride forever. If someone
and demons are rarely fertile, and as a result killed the horse, the prince would be saved.
have no idea what to do in the rare event of a But if the one who killed the horse told the
birth. Another is that the tale represents a real prince the reason why, he would be turned to
interaction between two cultures, one more stone from toe to knee.
advanced than the other. The second danger was to occur before
the wedding. A bridal garment would lie be-
See also: Tale Types. fore the prince. If he were to put it on, it would
poison him. Whoever threw the shirt into the
Sources fire and told the prince the reason would be
Briggs, Katharine M. An Encyclopedia of Fairies. New
York: Pantheon, 1976. turned into stone from knee to heart.
Keightley, Thomas. The Fairy Mythology: Illustrative of the Finally, during the wedding festivities, the
Romance and Superstition of Various Countries. Lon- queen suddenly would swoon. Unless some-
don: H.G. Bohn, 1850. one took three drops of blood from her right
Sherman, Josepha. A Sampler of Jewish-American Folklore.
breast, she would die. But whoever did this
and told the prince the reason would be turned
into stone from head to foot.
Faithful Companion Faithful John saved the prince from the first
two dangers, but he did not have to reveal the
reasons for his actions. At the wedding feast,
T he faithful companion is a human folklore
character who helps the hero and never
betrays him, regardless of any threat of per-
the prince misinterpreted Faithful John’s mo-
tive in bleeding his wife and ordered him to be
hanged. On the scaffold, Faithful John told his
sonal danger or even death. This character is
story. As the saddened prince mourned, his
found in tales from around the world.
noble friend was turned to stone.
One of the earliest examples is in the
Sumerian and Babylonian epic of Gilgamesh.
The hero-king’s companion is Enkidu. He helps Lakshmana/Luxman
Gilgamesh in several adventures, including the
In the Indian epic the Ramayana, Rama’s
destruction of the monstrous Humbaba and the
brother Lakshmana was his closest friend and
recovery of lost objects from the underworld.
companion. They were exiled together and res-
Enkidu is slain by the gods to punish Gilgamesh
cued Rama’s wife, Sita, from the demon king
for his arrogance.
Ravana.
In South Indian folklore, Lakshmana is
Faithful John called Luxman. He rescued Rama and Sita
The character Faithful John, from the German from various perils, including falling tree limbs
folktale of the same name, is the companion to and a cobra. When Luxman killed the snake
a prince (in some versions, a king). John follows with his sword, a drop of toxic cobra blood fell
the hero on a quest for a beautiful maiden that onto Sita’s forehead. Luxman hastily licked it

Familiar/Familiar Spir it 159
off. When Rama saw this, he though Luxman In Greek mythology, Queen Clytemnestra
was kissing his wife and scolded him so sav- and her lover, Aegisthus, plot to kill her hus-
agely that Luxman, overwhelmed with grief at band, King Agamemnon, and succeed. The
this unjust condemnation, was turned to stone. murdered king is avenged by his son Orestes,
who puts the treacherous couple to death.
Modern Companions In the Welsh Mabinogion, there is the story of
Lleu Law Griffes, who, because of a curse, could
The faithful companion is found in literature as
not wed a mortal woman. Instead, he married a
well as in modern stories, movies, and televi-
woman magically made of flowers who be-
sion. In literature, Miguel Cervantes’s addled
trayed Griffes with a lover. The deceitful couple
would-be knight Don Quixote had comical
killed Griffes, but he was magically returned to
Sancho Panza as his faithful companion. Sir
life by his father, a powerful magician. The
Arthur Conan Doyle’s brilliant detective Sher-
wife’s punishment was to be turned into an owl.
lock Holmes had Dr. Watson as his cohort and
A related theme is that of the faithless wife
chronicler. Other modern examples of faithful
who attempts to seduce a man who rejects her
companions are the Lone Ranger’s friend
advances; she accuses him of rape. In the Old
Tonto, Batman’s “boy wonder” sidekick Robin,
Testament, Potiphar’s wife (who is not named)
and Gabrielle, the faithful companion of Xena,
tries and fails to seduce Joseph and accuses
Warrior Princess.
him of rape. This accusation leads to Joseph’s
See also: Tale Types. immediate arrest but later fame at the royal
court. The theme also appears in the ancient
Sources Greek story of Theseus. His wife, Phaedra,
Cervantes, Miguel. Don Quixote. Trans. Edith Grossman. tries and fails to seduce Theseus’s son Hip-
New York: Harper Perennial, 2005. polytus, then accuses the young man of rape,
Grimm, Jakob, and Wilhelm Grimm. The Complete Fairy
an accusation that leads to his death.
Tales of the Brothers Grimm. Trans. Jack Zipes. New
York: Bantam, 2003. In modern popular fiction, there are many
Thompson, Stith. The Folktale. Berkeley: University of Cal- examples of the faithless wife theme, including
ifornia Press, 1977. the 1944 movie Double Indemnity, with Barbara
Stanwyck as the wife and Fred MacMurray as
her lover.
Faithless Wife
See also: Tale Types.
K nown throughout the world, the ancient

folktale type of the faithless wife features a
wife who deceives her husband with a lover.
Sources
Aarne, Antti. The Types of the Folk-tale: A Classification and
Her actions sometimes lead to her punishment Bibliography. Trans. Stith Thompson. Helsinki, Fin-
land: Academia Scientiarum Fennica, 1987.
at the hands of her husband or his relatives or Aeschylus. The Oresteia. Trans. David Grene and Wendy
to her husband’s death. Doniger O’Flaherty. Chicago: University of Chicago
The faithless wife and her lover are a com- Press, 1989.
mon team both in mythology and in popular Gantz, Jeffrey, trans. The Mabinogion. New York: Penguin,
1976.
fiction. The earliest known written version of
this tale type dates to Egypt in the first millen-
nium B.C.E., and it is generally known by
the title “The Two Brothers.” In this version of Familiar/Familiar Spirit
the tale, the faithless wife plots with her lover
about killing her husband, but the treacher-
ous duo is defeated by the husband’s loyal
brother.
I n folk tradition and particularly during
the English witch trials of the early seven-
teenth century, a familiar, or familiar spirit,

160 Fantasy
was a helpful spirit that assisted a witch or fear in the reader. Fantasies tends to be more
magician. uplifting, with good generally winning out
The word familiar in this sense comes from over evil.
the Latin familiares, which refers to a familiar Scholars have often considered fantasy
or household spirit. In folk tradition, a familiar to be the earliest genre in all literature. The
was similar to an animal helper. These magical earliest complete epic available, the Sumer-
animals assisted heroes or heroines to accom- ian saga of Gilgamesh, tells of magical events
plish their goals. and divine interventions and can therefore
In the case of witch trials, it was believed be characterized as fantasy. Homer’s Odyssey
that the devil gave each witch a familiar as a also features a great many magical and divine
helper. These companions usually aided the events.
witch in nefarious deeds of black magic. Famil- Many of the epic romances of the Middle
iars took ordinary shapes, such as a cat, dog, Ages fit into the category of fantasy as well.
or bird. It is likely that during the period of These include the Spanish Amadis of Gaul, with
witch hunts in England, many women were its swashbuckling hero, and the Italian Orlando
afraid to walk outside with a pet, since this Furioso, which features wizards and magic
could be taken as a sign that she was a witch. galore.
In the modern world, especially in mod- Modern fantasy is often divided into two
ern pagan communities, the concept of a fa- categories: low and high. Low fantasy generally
miliar spirit is again that of a helper. takes place in the real world with the addition
of magic and the supernatural. Terry Pratchett’s
See also: Black Magic; Motifs; White Magic. novels about Discworld fall into this category.
Many of these stories are set in a city that is
Sources believably seedy. They also fall into the subcat-
Grimassi, Raven. The Witch’s Familiar: Spiritual Partner- egory of humorous fantasy, in which the ele-
ship for Successful Magic. St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn,
2003. ment of comedy is often predominant.
Jolly, Karen, Catharina Raudvere, and Edward Peters. High fantasy has an epic sweep. Often,
Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: The Middle Ages. the themes are mythic, and the heroes must
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002. overcome great ordeals to prove themselves
Kors, Alan Charles, and Edward Peters. Witchcraft in Eu-
rope, 400–700: A Documentary History. 2nd ed.
worthy of a goal that is generally nothing less
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001. than victory over evil. J.R.R. Tolkien’s trilogy
Tyson, Donald. Familiar Spirits: A Practical Guide for Lord of the Rings (1954–1955) is a fine exam-
Witches and Magicians. St. Paul, MN: Llewellyn, 2004. ple of high fantasy.
Today, the fantasy genre has a strong pres-
ence in popular culture. Books such as the
Fantasy Harry Potter series, a wide range of comic
books, television programs such as Medium
F antasy is a literary genre that relies on

magical and supernatural phenomena that
fall outside the natural laws of the present
and The Dresden Files, and fantasy role-playing
games are just a few examples. Some scholars
believe that the more serious the world seems,
world. the more there is a need for relief through
Fantasy shares certain characteristics with fantasy.
the genres of science fiction and horror. All
three involve strange, sometimes otherworldly, See also: Horror; Mystery Stories; Romance;
settings and characters. Science fiction differs Science Fiction.
from fantasy in that it is set in the future and is Sources
generally based on some aspect of science and Jackson, Rosemary: Fantasy: The Literature of Subversion.
technology. Horror relies primarily on arousing London: Routledge, 1981.

Faust, Dr. Johann 161
Martin, Philip. The Writer’s Guide to Fantasy Literature: From were named Nona, Decuma, and Morta. Like
Dragon’s Lair to Hero’s Quest. New York: Watson- their Greek counterparts, they controlled the
Guptill, 2002.
destiny of an individual.
Stableford, Brian. Historical Dictionary of Fantasy Litera-
ture. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow, 2005. In Norse mythology, there were the three
Norns who tended the world tree, Yggdrasil.
The Norns were Urd (fate), Skuld (necessity),
Fates and Verdandi (being). These three controlled
the destinies of the gods as well as mortals,
I n the world’s mythology, there is a recurrent

theme of three spiritual or supernatural be-
ings that are said to control a person’s destiny
and they even directed the unchanging laws of
the cosmos. The Norns were said to attend
every birth and assign the fate of each newborn
and life span. These are known as the Fates. baby.
The ancient Egyptians first believed that In Lithuanian mythology, three supernat-
fate was determined not by three but by seven ural women called Laima, Karta, and Dekla
female deities, called the Hathors. The seven were responsible for determining destiny.
Hathors were seen as a single force, responsible The Three Weird Sisters are the Anglo-
for a human’s life span and manner of death. Saxon Fates. The term wyrd in the Anglo-Saxon
The goddess Meskhenet decided status and language means destiny, as in “every man has his
career, and the goddess Renenet determined weird.” Shakespeare’s three witches of Macbeth
material fortune or misfortune. (The ancient were derived from the Anglo-Saxon tradition.
Egyptians also believed that it was possible for
a determined human, or one aided by the gods, See also: Archetype; Meskhenet.
to change his or her destiny.) By the second half
of the second millennium B.C.E., the ancient Sources
Egyptians had adopted the concept of a triad of Davidson, H.R. Ellis. Gods and Myths of Northern Europe.
Baltimore: Penguin, 1964.
such deities. Grant, Michael. Myths of the Greeks and Romans. Cleve-
In Greek mythology, these beings were land, OH: World, 1962.
known as the Moirai. Originally, there was only Greimas, Algirdas J. Of Gods and Men: Studies in Lithua-
one Moirai, then a pair, but eventually the nian Mythology. Trans. Milda Newman. Blooming-
ton: University of Indiana Press, 1992.
magical number of three came into the belief.
Hesiod. Theogony. Trans. M.L. West. New York: Oxford
The three Moirai were named Clotho, Lach- University Press, 1988.
esis, and Atropos. The poet Hesiod states that Velius, Norbertas, comp. Lithuanian Mythological Tales.
the Moirai were born of a union between Zeus Trans. Birute Kiskyte. Vilnus, Lithuania: Vaga,
and the Titan Thetis. The Moirai often were 1998.
portrayed as mature or even old women.
The three Moirai were said to appear
whenever a new life and its fate were made. Faust, Dr. Johann
Clotho held the distaff on which the fabric of
life was wound. Lachesis spun the thread that
gave a newborn its fate. Atropos cut the thread
to end life. Lachesis sang of the things that
D r. Johann Faust lived in Germany at the
beginning of the sixteenth century.
Faust, sometimes called Faustus, was a med-
were, Clotho of those that are, and Atropus of ical doctor as well as a student of alchemy,
the things that would be. The prophecies set astrology, and philosophy. Probably because
by the Moirai could not be changed. No one of his academic prowess, rumors began to
lived beyond the time they were allotted or circulate about him even while he was still
escaped the destiny that was set for them. alive that claimed he practiced black magic.
The Romans also had their triple Fates. The date and circumstances of Faust’s death
Known as the Parcae, or Tria Fata, the three are unknown, but soon after his passing

162 Faust, Dr. Johann
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s two-part drama Faust is based on the medieval Faust legend. Here, the newly
youthful Faust meets the innocent maiden Gretchen. In the background, the devil Mephistopheles, disguised as a
wealthy man, seduces Gretchen’s chaperone. (Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY)
stories were being told about his making girl he seduced. The second part of the drama
a pact with the devil. was published after Goethe’s death.
One of the earliest collections of these sto- The Faust story also inspired several musical
ries was the Historia von Doctor J. Faustus, pub- works. The German composer Richard Wag-
lished in Germany in 1587 by Johann Spies. ner created A Faust Overture in 1844. In 1857,
According to the stories in this collection, Franz Liszt finished composing A Faust Sym-
Faust made a pact with the devil, exchanging phony, which contains musical portraits of Faust,
his soul for riches and knowledge. The tales Gretchen, and Mephistopheles, the devil who
were quickly translated into several languages seizes Faust’s soul. The story of Faust also in-
and became popular across Europe. spired two operas, French composer Charles
In the late 1500s, the English playwright Gounod’s 1855 Faust and Italian composer Ar-
Christopher Marlowe wrote the highly suc- rigo Boito’s 1868 Mephistophele.
cessful play The Tragical History of the Life and This ubiquitous story even inspired a chil-
Death of Doctor Faustus. This dramatic adapta- dren’s rhyme in England:
tion of the story also featured the pact with the
devil and the devil seizing Faust’s soul. Doctor Faustus was a good man,
At the end of the seventeenth century, the He whipped his scholars now and then,
German playwright Johann Wolfgang von When he whipped them he made them
Goethe saw puppet shows featuring the story dance,
of Faust and was inspired. His first attempt at Out of Scotland into France,
retelling the Faust story dates to 1780, but the Out of France into Spain,
play, Faust, Part I, appeared in 1808. It was And then he whipped them back again!
Goethe who added a love story between Faust
and Gretchen (or Margarite), the unfortunate See also: Deals with the Devil.

Ferdowsi/Firdawsi/Firdusi/Firdousi 163
Sources dwarves. What the dwarves wrought was

Bett, Henry. Nursery Rhymes and Tales: Their Origin and Gleipnir, a chain as thin as a spider’s strand. It
History. London: Methuen, 1924. was made out of the footstep of a cat, the roots
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. Faust I and II. Ed. and
trans. Stuart Atkins. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Uni-
of a mountain, the beard of a woman, the breath
versity Press, 1994. of fishes, the sinews of a bear, and the spittle of
Marlowe, Christopher. Doctor Faustus and Other Plays. a bird. It was stronger than any other chain.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. The gods lured Fenrir to the Island of Lyngvi
and challenged him to break Gleipnir. By
now, Fenrir was suspicious, and he would not
Fenrir allow them to bind him. Finally, Tyr offered to
put his right hand into Fenrir’s mouth to show
there was no trickery involved.
(Norse) The gods bound Fenrir with Gleipnir.
F enrir was a terrifying wolf being in Norse

mythology. He was the unlikely offspring
of Loki, the trickster deity of fire, and a female
When he could not break free, he bit off Tyr’s
hand. But the gods had won. They tied Gleip-
nir to another chain and tied that to a boulder,
giant named Angrboda. which they drove deep into the earth. Then
Fenrir was the oldest of three siblings. The they placed a sword in Fenrir’s mouth, with
other two were Jormungand, the giant serpent, the hilt resting on his lower jaw and the point
and Hel, a sister who was literally half alive against the roof of his mouth.
and half dead—one side of her body was liv- There Fenrir was to remain until Rag-
ing, the other a corpse. narok. A further prophecy foretold that when
The Norse gods feared all three of these that final battle occurred, Fenrir’s chain would
monstrous beings, so they captured them in break and he would attack and kill Odin, the
the middle of the night from Angrboda’s hall. chief Norse god. Odin’s son, Vidar, would
The gods brought the three monsters back to then slay Fenrir.
their home in Asgard. There, they threw Jor-
mungand into the ocean and Hel into Nifl- See also: Norse Mythology.
heim, the underworld. Hel ruled the world of Sources
the dead until Ragnarok, the final battle at the Crossley-Holland, Kevin. The Norse Myths. New York:
end of the world. Fenrir remained in Asgard. Pantheon, 1981.
The gods learned of a dangerous prophesy Hollander, Lee M., trans. The Poetic Edda. Austin: Uni-
versity of Texas Press, 1962.
that claimed that Fenrir and his kin would one
Lindow, John. Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes,
day bring about Ragnarok. They caught Fen- Rituals and Beliefs. New York: Oxford University
rir and caged him before he was fully grown. Press, 2002.
Tyr, god of war, was the only one who had the Young, Jean I., trans. The Prose Edda of Snorri Sturluson:
courage to feed and take care of the fierce Tales from the Norse Mythology. Berkeley: University of
California Press, 1992.
creature.
As Fenrir grew into his full, terrible size, the
gods knew they must take further action before
he broke free. They made a chain of iron links,
Ferdowsi/Firdawsi/
called Laeding, and challenged Fenrir to try to
break free. Fenrir easily broke Laeding. The
Firdusi/Firdousi
gods made a second chain, far thicker and
stronger than the first, and called it Dromi. Fen-
(935 C.E.–C. 1020 C.E.)
rir broke that chain, too, with frightening ease.
The gods then realized that they had to use
magic. They ordered a magic chain from the
F erdowsi, also spelled Firdawsi, Firdusi, or
Firdousi, is the pseudonym of the Persian
poet Hakim Abol Qasem Ferdowsi Tousi. He

164 Filipino Mythology
is the author of Shah-nameh (Epic of Kings), which The Preface

has become the Persian national epic.
Ferdowsi was born in 935 C.E. in the small At Shahreyar’s court, Ferdowsi composed a
village of Khorasan. He became a landowner satire of 100 verses about Sultan Mahmoud
and received a comfortable income from his and put it into the preface of the Shah-nameh.
estates. But his income was not sufficient to He read it to Shahreyar and offered to dedi-
provide for his daughter’s future, so Ferdowsi cate the poem to him, since Shahreyar was a
decided to write an epic for a sultan. He true descendant of the ancient kings of Persia,
hoped to be paid handsomely for this task, unlike Mahmoud.
which occupied him for more than thirty Shahreyar, however, persuaded Ferdowsi
years. to dedicate the epic to Mahmoud and remove
the satire. Shahreyar purchased the satire
from Ferdowsi, and it has survived intact.
The Shah-nameh Mahmoud eventually regretted treating
The poem was based mainly on a prose work Ferdowsi shabbily. He sent the poet some
called the Khvatay-namak, a history of the kings 60,000 dinars in indigo, purportedly at just
of Persia from mythical times to the reign of about the time that Ferdowsi died, somewhere
Khosrow II (590–628 C.E.). The Shah-nameh between 1020 and 1026.
was written for the court of the Samanid
princes of Khorasan, who had revived Persian See also: Rustam; Retelling: Shah-nameh.
culture after the Arab conquest of the seventh
Sources
century. But during Ferdowsi’s lifetime, this dy- Atkinson, James. Shah Nameh or The Persian Poet Firdausi.
nasty was conquered by the Ghaznavid Turks, Whitefish, MN: Kessinger, 2003.
and the new ruler of Khorasan, Mahmoud of Ferdowi, Swietochowski, Marie Lukens, and Suzanne
Ghaznavi, was not interested in Ferdowsi or Boorsch, eds. A King’s Book of Kings: The Shah-Nameh
of Shah Tahmasp. New York: Metropolitan Museum
his work.
of Art, 1972.
Ferdowsi went to Sultan Mahmoud in per- Gottheil, Richard J.H., ed. Persian Literature; Comprising
son and secured the ruler’s acceptance of the The Shah Nameh, The Rubaiyat, The Divan and The
finished poem. But Ferdowsi was a Shi’ite and Gulistan. New York: Colonial, 1902.
the court was Sunni, so when Mahmoud con-
sulted some of his people as to the poet’s re-
ward, they said that that Ferdowsi should be Filipino Mythology
given only 50,000 dirhams, which was a rela-
tively small amount. Mahmoud, a fervent
Sunni, agreed with them, and paid Ferdowsi
even less, only 20,000 dirhams. Stories claim
T he Philippines has developed a mixed
culture from the blending of foreign influ-
ences with several indigenous elements. The
that the bitterly disappointed poet went to the religious beliefs are as varied as the people, with
baths. There he had a draft of beer, and (to about sixty different ethnic groups inhabiting
show how paltry the payment was) split the the archipelago. The majority of Filipinos are
entire petty sum between the bath attendant Christians, but there are still some followers of
and the beer seller. older beliefs.
Word of this disrespectful gesture reached A few of the more important deities are
the royal court. Fearing the sultan’s anger, Fer- listed here, as are some of the supernatural
dowsi fled. First he went to the city of Herat, beings that are related to Filipino mythic be-
where he stayed in hiding for six months. From liefs. Many of the concepts and deities are
there, he traveled to Mazanderan, where he common to more than one ethnic group, but
found refuge at the court of Mahmoud’s rival, those identified with only one group are listed
Shahreyar. separately.

Filipino Mythology 165
The Bagobo People Together Tadakan and Agemem created

the Sun, the Moon, Earth, and the stars. The
Eugpamolak Manobo is the chief deity and cre- Sun married a mortal woman, Aponibolinayen,
ator. He lives in the heavens and watches who lives in the heavens with her husband.
over humans. Any human who does not make
proper offerings to him (he dislikes bloody
sacrifices) is punished. Eugpamolak Manobo Mythic and Folkloric Beings
is invited to every Bagobo ritual. There are a number of helpful, or at least harm-
less, beings in Filipino mythology. These in-
The Bilaan People clude Agta, a small, black, solitary being that
Mele, or Melu, is the creator of the world and of is generally helpful to fishermen and likes to
humanity. He lives in the heavens and does not smoke cigars; the bagat, a large, harmless dog
meddle in human affairs unless the people pray that can be seen on the night of a full Moon or
to him and make him offerings. Aiding Mele after a rain; and diwatas, the tree or nature
in the creation were the lesser deities Diwata, spirits that bless those who help the forest but
Fiuweigh, and Saweigh. In some accounts, Di- curse those who harm it. There also are the
wata is Mele’s wife. In others, Diwata is Mele’s dwende (the name means dwarf in Spanish).
brother. These small beings may be related to Europe-
an folk-beings; they are very similar to the
helpful house spirits of Europe.
The Kapampangan People The kama-kama are the Filipino “little
Malyari and Sinukuan are two hermaphrodite people.” They hoard treasure and come out
deities that are forever at odds with each other. only at twilight. If humans treat the kama-
Malyari rules the night and the Moon, and kama kindly, they do no harm. But they give
Sinukuan rules the day and the Sun. Their powerful, painful pinches to any human who
never-ending conflict keeps the balance of life angers them.
and nature. The mantyo is a tall, thin forest being with
Malyari, whose home is in Mount Pinatubo, long hair. It lives among tall trees, prefera-
is said to have been responsible for the eruption bly near kapok trees, and usually is friendly
of the volcano that occurred in June 1991. to humans.
The batibat, which bears a resemblance to
The Tagalog People the dryads of Greek myth, also lives in the for-
est. This female tree spirit resembles a big,
Bathala is the creator of the universe. Some
fat woman. If her tree is left alone, she is harm-
accounts state that another god, Kabunian,
less. But if her tree is cut down, she will follow
created people because he was lonely.
the wood. If the wood is made into a bed, the
Bathala’s spouse is Lakapati, deity of fertil-
batibat will cause nightmares for anyone sleep-
ity and cultivation. In some myths, Lakapati
ing in that bed. If the sleeper can wriggle his
begins creation and Bathala finishes the job.
or her big toe during the nightmare, or bite his
Mayari, goddess of the Moon, is their daughter.
or her thumb, the batibat will leave and pre-
sumably look for another tree.
The Tinguian People There are many malicious creatures in Fil-
The Tinguian people live in the mountains of ipino mythology, some of which are deadly to
central Luzon. Tadaklan, their thunder god, humans. The aswang is a ghoul that disguises
lives in the sky with his wife, Agemem. Tadak- itself as a harmless animal during the day and
lan’s dog Kimat causes lightning. At Tadaklan’s becomes a gaunt monster searching for hu-
command, Kimat will bite a house, meaning it man prey at night. The boroka, a hybrid mon-
is struck by lightning. ster with the head of a woman, the body of a

166 Fingernails
horse, and the wings of an eagle, preys on chil- The number of white spots on a fingernail
dren. The dila is a spirit tongue that slips up is said to predict the number of offspring or
between the bamboo planks of a house’s floor friends to come, or even how many years one
to lick people to death. In the ocean, the ukoy, has to live. Other traditions relate to the place-
which resembles an octopus, sometimes kills ment of those spots. For instance, a white spot
swimmers if they come too close. or spots on the thumbnail mean a coming gift.
The manananggal is a vampire that looks Still others claim that a white spot on a nail
like a wild-eyed woman. She can split herself in signifies a lie told.
half during the time of the full Moon. The upper The action of cutting or paring of finger-
half then grows wings and flies at night seeking nails is also attached to folk beliefs. It is said
blood. The way to destroy the manananggal is that a baby’s fingernails should not be cut.
to find the lower half and cover it with garlic or They should instead be bitten off until the
salt, making it impossible for the manananggal child is a year old, or the baby will grow up to
to rejoin its two halves. Once day breaks, the be a thief.
divided manananggal will die. In Western cultures, fingernails should not
Somewhat similar to the vampiritic man- be cut on a Friday or a Sunday. Nails cut on a
ananggal is the marmanhig. This undead being Monday mean news; on Tuesday, new shoes;
hunts humans, tickling them to death before on Wednesday, travel; and on Thursday, ill-
devouring them. A marmanhig, though, can ness. Nails cut on a Saturday prophesy meet-
be slain by throwing water on it. ing a lover on Sunday.
With so many strange and exotic beings In Central Asia, to cut one’s fingernails at
and so many possible stories, the world of Fil- night is to court death. In some African and
ipino mythology and folklore is a rich source African American beliefs, having a dream
for storytellers. about cutting one’s fingernails means disap-
pointment.
Sources Fingernails, once cut, should always be
Barton, Roy Franklin. The Mythology of the Ifugaos. burned, buried, or cast into running water so
Philadelphia: American Folklore Society, 1955.
Eugenio, Damiana L., comp. Philippine Folk Literature:
that no evil spells can be worked over them.
An Anthology. Diliman, Quezon City: Folklore Stud- In folk magic, the nails of a sick person might
ies Program, University of the Philippines, 1981. be cut and the clippings tossed into a fire so
Miller, John Maurice. Philippine Folklore Stories. Boston: that the illness would burn away and leave the
Ginn, 1904.
person healthy.
Tiemeyer, Bertram, trans. The Culture of the Subanans:
Their Mythology, Their Beliefs and Their Rituals and Vampires are said to have long, curving
Prayers: As Narrated by the Subanans of the Salugon fingernails. This folk belief is probably linked
Tribe. Manila, Phillipines: Kadena, 2003. to the also folkloric belief that the fingernails
on a corpse continue to grow for a time.
A modern folk belief falling into the cate-
Fingernails gory of urban folklore states that a fancy de-
partment store or cosmetic company will pay
T here is a great deal of world folklore at-

tached to the homely human fingernail,
from its shape, to the markings on it, to how it
for women’s long fingernails. This story has
been proven false, yet it has not been com-
pletely eliminated.
is trimmed.
The shape of fingernails is said to signify See also: Hands.
important information about an individual.
Sources
Someone with well-shaped nails is trustwor- Axelrod, Alan, and Harry Oster. The Penguin Dictionary of
thy, while someone with crooked fingernails American Folklore. New York: Penguin Reference,
is not. 2000.

Fish and Fishing Folklore 167
Radford, Edwin, and M.A. Radford. The Encyclopaedia of

Superstitions. Chester Springs, PA: Dufour Editions, Firebird
1969.
Waring, Philippa. The Dictionary of Omens and Supersti-
tions. London: Souvenir, 1978. (Russian)
Fink, Mike T he Firebird is a magical bird in Russian

folklore, perhaps the size of a peacock,
with feathers that shine like gold or flame and
eyes that gleam or blaze. Its feathers are said to
(c. 1770–1823) be so bright that if it lands in a garden at night,
the entire garden is lit up more brightly than
A merican folk hero Mike Fink was a river-
boatman who ran keelboats up and
down the Ohio and Mississippi rivers in the
day. A single Firebird feather can light a room.
The Firebird appears in several Russian
folktales as the goal of the hero’s quest. The
early nineteenth century. Possibly born in
hero generally finds a glowing feather. He is
1770 near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Mike Fink
warned by a helper that trouble will come from
is an example of how folklore can overwhelm
taking the feather. The czar finds out about the
fact.
hero’s discovery and asks him to capture the
Fink first appeared as a folk character
bird. Related tales from other Slavic countries
in the late 1820s. The stories about him
change the Firebird to a golden peahen.
feature a boisterous and hard-drinking boat-
The Firebird is not described as a talking
man. He was also a scout and excellent marks-
and intelligent being in the folktales. Instead,
man.
it is a symbol of beauty and of the quest.
Fink’s tales were characterized by brawls
Igor Stravinsky’s 1910 ballet titled The Fire-
and overblown boasts that are related to the
bird gave the bird a more active role. The hero,
swashbuckling bombasts of early Celtic war-
Prince Ivan, captured the Firebird. The Fire-
riors. For example, he is said to have declared,
bird begged for her life and promised to assist
“I can outrun, out-jump, out-shoot, out-brag,
him if he spared her. Any depictions in stories
an’ out-fight, rough-an’-tumble, no holts barred,
of the Firebird as a shape-shifter or a magical
any man on both sides the river from Pitts-
helper with human intelligence are not authen-
burgh to New Orleans an’ back ag’in to St.
tic lore but are modern inventions that derive
Louiee.”
from Stravinsky’s work.
Davy Crockett, another historic person-
age who became a folk hero, is said to have
See also: Slavic Mythology.
given Mike Fink the label “half horse and half
alligator.”
Fink is said to have been killed in the Sources
Rocky Mountains by one of his companions, Guterman. New York: Pantheon, 1976.
in a fight over one of Fink’s many paramours. Ivanits, Linda J. Russian Folk Belief. Armonk, NY: M.E.
He died in 1823. Sharpe, 1989.
Machal, Jan. “Slavic Mythology.” In Mythology of All
See also: Tall Tales. Races. Vol. 3. New York: Cooper Square, 1964.
Sources
Battle, Kemp P. Great American Folklore: Legends, Tales,
Ballads and Superstitions from All Across America. New
York: Doubleday, 1986.
Fish and Fishing Folklore
Blair, Walter, and Franklin J. Meine, eds. Half
Horse, Half Alligator: The Growth of the Mike Fink
Legend. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1956.
T ales of magical fish and fishing folk be-
liefs, myths, and folktales exist all over the
world, wherever there are fish and fishermen.

168 Flood, T he
Sometimes, the magical fish can talk and longer. The Scots believed that if the catch
supplies vital information to the hero. In other looked to be poor, the cure was to throw one
tales, the fish grants a wish or wishes to the in- of the fishermen overboard, then pull him up
dividual who saves it. “The Fisherman and as if he were the start of a good catch. Fisher-
His Wife” is a common world tale in which a men in both England and the United States
poor fisherman saves a magical fish and is believed that if a man stopped his fishing to
promised three wishes. The fisherman’s greedy count his catch, he would catch no more fish
wife wishes for so many powers that with the that day.
third wish, the couple is back where they Finally, there are the tall tales told by al-
started, wiser but no richer than when the tale most every fisherman about the fish larger and
began. more wonderful than any other—the classic
In mythology, a magical fish may be more “fish story” about “the one that got away.”
than it seems. In a Hindu myth of the great
flood, Manu (or Manu Vaivasvate) saves a tiny Sources
Andersen, Johannes Carl. Myths and Legends of the Polyne-
fish, which promises to return the favor. Manu sians. Mineola, NY: Dover, 1995.
puts the fish in a pot, but it grows so quickly Bierhorst, John. Mythology of Mexico and Central America.
that he moves it to a larger tank, then to a lake, New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
and at last to the sea. There the fish warns O’Suilleabhain, Sean. Irish Folk Custom and Belief. 2nd ed.
Cork: Mercier Press for the Cultural Relations Com-
Manu to build a boat, since a great flood is
mittee of Ireland, 1977.
coming that will wash everything away. Manu Waring, Philippa. The Dictionary of Omens and Supersti-
builds his boat, and the fish tows it to a safe tions. London: Souvenir, 1978.
haven. The fish, it is revealed, is the god Vishnu
in his incarnation as Matsya.
In Polynesia, Tinirau, the shark god, is god Flood, The
of the ocean and fish. He is either a fearsome
shark ready to devour any prey or a half-shark, (Mesopotamian)
half-man being. In the latter incarnation, his left
side is in shark form, and the right is human.
In the Hawaiian Islands, the shark god S tories about a great flood are known in
many civilizations. The earliest written ex-
ample is in Sumerian literary sources that date
was called Ukupanipo. He could drive the fish
to the shores if people pleased him, or drive to the end of the third millennium B.C.E.
them away if he grew angry. In Central Amer- The Sumerian kings list, a literary compo-
ica, Chac Uayab Xoc was the Mayan fish god, sition probably written in the twenty-first cen-
who could give men fish or sink fishing boats tury B.C.E., contains a list of eight kings of five
and devour fishermen. cities from the presumed beginnings of king-
In Islamic folk tradition, Labuna is the name ship to the time of the flood. The last ruler was
of a gigantic fish that swims forever around the a sage named Ziusudra, who is called Atra-
ocean, bearing on its head a giant bull that holds hasis or Uta-napishti in other Mesopotamian
the earth between its horns. In the beliefs of the sources. The kings list indicates that the Sume-
Central Asian peoples, the world is supported rians believed the flood to have been a local-
directly by three fish: one holds up the East, one ized event that occurred early in the third
the West, and one the center. millennium B.C.E.
Fishermen have their own folk beliefs.
Many cultures hold that if the first fish of the
Sumerian Flood Myth
day is female, it prophesies a good catch. Stories about the beginnings of the flood may
In Ireland, if there was a good herring be attributable to the annual spring flooding
season, the custom was to eat herring from of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, or possibly
tail to head to make the herring season last changes in ancient sea levels. A Sumerian

Flood, T he 169
flood story dating to the beginning of the sec- the god Ea intervened on behalf of humans
ond millennium B.C.E. begins after the gods and told the hero Atra-hasis to placate the
created the black-headed people, the Sumeri- plague god with offerings. The plague ended,
ans. Animals multiplied everywhere, and gods and the people became more numerous than
were assigned to rule over the cities of Sumer. before.
The gods were displeased with the people Enlil ordered the rain to stop and induced
and set out to destroy them. A storm began famine. But again, Ea came to the aid of hu-
and a great flood swept over the land for seven mankind and sent rain to end the drought.
days and seven nights. Ziusudra, whose name Frustrated, Enlil decided to bring about a
means “life of distant days,” was the only flood to destroy all of humankind. This time,
Sumerian to survive the flood. He and the ani- Ea advised Atra-hasis to build an ark. The an-
mals were safe in his ark. When the floodwater imals and Atra-hasis’s family were placed on
receded, Ziusudra was granted eternal life by board, and the storm began.
the gods An and Enlil. Ziusudra settled in the For seven days and seven nights, the storm
land of Dilmun. raged. After the flood subsided, Atra-hasis
The final story in the epic of Gilgamesh, made a sacrifice to the gods. When Enlil saw
called The Death of Gilgamesh, includes an ex- the vessel, he demanded to know how the hu-
cerpt about the flood. According to this myth, mans had survived. Ea confessed that he was
in remote days the divine assembly created responsible.
the deluge in order to destroy humankind. At the end of the story, Enlil decided that
Only one human, Ziusudra, survived the on- only Atra-hasis and his wife would be granted
slaught. From that time forward, human life eternal life. As for the rest of humankind, their
was finite. Only the gods possessed eternal life. days would be numbered, and the human
population would be controlled through the
creation of women who were unable to bear
Babylonian Myth children.
Sumerian stories of the flood probably influ-
enced the later Babylonian versions. The story
of the hero Atra-hasis begins before the cre-
The Epic of Gilgamesh
ation of the human race. A detailed version of the flood story is found in
The junior gods had the task of configur- the eleventh tablet of the Babylonian text The
ing the earth by digging rivers, canals, and Epic of Gilgamesh, which was composed at the
marshes. These deities felt that their work end of the second millennium B.C.E. The hero
was too difficult and decided to revolt. They in this version is called Uta-napishti, which
marched to the dwelling of Enlil, the chief god means “I found life.” He was warned about the
of Earth. The senior god Enki suggested that flood by the god Ea and told to abandon his
the gods create humans to relieve the junior property and wealth and build a ship. Uta-
gods of their burden. The birth goddess was napishti built an ark six decks high. He loaded
summoned, and she created humans out of everything he owned onto the ship, including
clay. The people were able to reproduce but all of his gold and silver. He allowed his ani-
were immortal, so an explosion of human pop- mals, family, and artisans to join him on board.
ulation occurred. The storm began the next morning. For six
Enlil became even more disturbed by days and seven nights, the wind blew, and the
events on Earth. The noise from the people deluge flattened the land. On the seventh day,
was so overwhelming that he could not obtain the storm ended, and the ocean grew calm.
his needed rest. Enlil decided that the creation Uta-napishti’s boat ran aground on a mountain.
of humans had been a mistake, and a drastic After seven more days, Uta-napishti sent
solution was needed. Enlil sent a plague, but out a dove that returned after finding no other

170 Flying Dutchman
place to land. He then sent forth a swallow, others were instructed to return to Babylon, res-
but it, too, returned. Finally, a raven was sent cue the buried writings, and pass them on to
out. The bird discovered that the waters had their descendants. This idea of protecting wis-
receded, found food, and did not return. Uta- dom is unique to the Greek version of the story.
napishti made an offering to the gods. There are countless other flood myths from
When Enlil discovered that people had other cultures. Most share the common ele-
survived the deluge, he was furious. Calmed ment of a hero and an ark. In some more
by Ea, Enlil decreed that from that time for- mountainous regions, such as the Pacific North-
ward only Uta-napishti and his wife would be west of the United States, the hero and his
endowed with eternal life. The time of all companions survive by climbing to the top of a
other humans on Earth would be limited. mountain.
Ira Spar
Biblical Flood See also: Dilmun; Ziusudra.
The Gilgamesh version of the flood closely par-
allels the biblical accounts found in the book of Sources
Genesis. The story of Noah’s ark, however, Black, J.A., G. Cunningham, J. Ebeling, E. Flückiger-
contains unique theological elements not found Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature. 2006.
in any of the Mesopotamian versions. http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/.
In Genesis, the flood was sent to punish hu- Dalley, Stephanie. Myths from Mesopotamia. New York:
mans for their evil behavior, rather than for Oxford University Press, 1989.
Foster, Benjamin R. The Epic of Gilgamesh: A New Transla-
overpopulating the earth. In the aftermath of tion, Analogues, Criticism. New York: W.W. Norton,
the biblical flood, the hero, Noah, is not granted 2001.
immortality. Also, the Bible emphasizes the He- George, Andrew, trans. The Epic of Gilgamesh: The Baby-
brew god Yahweh’s promise to never again lonian Epic Poem and Other Texts in Akkadian and
Sumerian. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1999.
destroy his creation. Noah and his family were
Jacobsen, Thorkild, trans. and ed. The Harps That
favored with divine blessing and told to “be fruit- Once . . . : Sumerian Poetry in Translation. New Haven,
ful and multiply, and fill the earth.” CT: Yale University Press, 1987.
———. The Treasures of Darkness: A History of
Greek Myth Mesopotamian Religion. New Haven, CT: Yale Uni-
The most recent Mesopotamian version of the
flood story was written in Greek by Berossos,
a priest of the god Bel, in about 275 B.C.E. The Flying Dutchman
hero in this version is called Xisuthros, echo-
ing the name of the Sumerian hero, Ziusudra.
The Greek god Kronos appeared to Xisuthros
in a dream and warned him of a flood. The
T he Flying Dutchman is perhaps the most fa-
mous of all the phantom or ghostly ships
that sail the seas. The ship usually is sighted in
hero was ordered to dig a hole and bury all stormy weather off the Cape of Good Hope,
the writings in the city of Sippar. He was then South Africa, but it occasionally has been seen
to build a boat and fill it with his kin, friends, in other locations.
birds, and animals. The Dutch captain of the ship, who is of-
After the flood, the boat was moored on a ten given the name Captain van der Decken
mountain. Xisuthros disembarked and made (or Vanderdecken, Van Demien, Van Straaten,
sacrifices to the gods. Xisuthros and his family or Ramhout van Dam), attempted to round
disappeared, leaving behind those who had ac- the ever-treacherous Cape of Good Hope dur-
companied them on the boat. A voice told the ing a horrific storm. Some versions date the
survivors that Xisuthros, his wife, and the boat story to 1641, when a Dutch ship is said to
pilot would henceforth dwell with the gods. The have sunk in the region. The sailors wanted to

Flying Dutchman 171
turn back, but the captain refused, holding his The most prestigious sighting of the Flying
course and swearing that he would continue to Dutchman was made on July 11, 1881. Aboard
sail even if God or the devil tried to stop him. the Royal Navy’s HMS Bacchante, the mid-
He shouted out, “I will round this cape, should shipman, who would later become King
I need to sail until doomsday!” George V, recorded that the lookout man and
Those rash words brought down a terrible the officer of the watch had seen the Flying
curse upon the captain and his men. They were Dutchman: “A strange red light as of a phantom
doomed to sail the oceans for all eternity. ship all aglow, in the midst of which light the
In an alternate version of the story, the cap- mast, spars and sails of a brig 200 yards distant
tain swears at the devil, who then condemns stood out in strong relief.” There have been
him to sail forever. In this case, only a woman’s other sightings of the ghost ship since then, in
love could break the curse. 1939 and in 1942.
Whatever the cause of the curse, the cap- The cursed captain and his ship captured
tain has been seen piloting his spectral vessel the imagination of German composer Richard
through the centuries. He has been blamed for Wagner. His opera, titled Der Fliegende Hollander
leading other ships onto rocks and hidden (The Flying Dutchman), premiered in 1843.
reefs, and for spoiling sailors’ food supplies. The vision of the Flying Dutchman may be
Perhaps the earliest recorded sighting a trick of certain atmospheric conditions or
of the cursed captain and his ship, the Flying simply the result of the vivid imaginations of
Dutchman, was made by a British sea captain men at sea. No satisfactory explanation of the
and his crew in 1835. They reported the phenomenon has ever been made.
ghost ship as nearly running into their own
ship, then vanishing. See also: Deals with the Devil.
In this dramatic painting from about 1870, a ship at sea comes across the mythical ghost-ship known as the Flying
Dutchman. Sightings of the eerie vessel were believed to forecast disaster. (Fine Art Photographic/Hulton
Archive/Getty Images)

172 Fools
Sources irreverent, bawdy, and disgusting antics. The

Anonymous. “The Flying Dutchman.” Blackwood’s, May heyoka invert everything, saying yes when they
1821. mean no, wearing furs in the summer, and per-
Barker, Frank. The Flying Dutchman: A Guide to the Opera.
New York: Barrie and Jenkins, 1979.
forming everyday tasks backward.
Wagner, Richard. The Flying Dutchman. New York: Si- To the Western sensibility, humor and
mon and Schuster, 1987. mockery have little place in the solemnities of
ritual, but to the cultures in which such clowns
appear, humor is as important as solemnity.
Fools Far from disrupting the spiritual sense of rit-
ual, these fools provide a crucial balance, re-
F ools are accidental heroes, innocents who

stumble through danger and fortune in to-
tal oblivion. Others plot and scheme around
minding participants not to take themselves
too seriously.
these characters, but fools step over the most

elaborate snares without tripping over or even
Simpletons
noticing them. The simpleton frequently appears as the youn-
There are several different types of fool: gest son or daughter in a fairy tale. Often a day-
the jester, the simpleton, the wise fool, and the dreamer who lacks ambition or traditional skills
idiot. The character of the fool is found in every and who spends all his or her time talking to
culture—from Native American sacred clowns animals, the youngest child is scorned and nick-
and the dimwitted heroes of myth and fairy- named Simpleton, Dummling, or some varia-
tale to J.R.R. Tolkien’s hobbits. tion on the same theme. He or she is sent out
with bread and water while his elder siblings
Jesters eat cake and drink wine. But it is this youngest
child who succeeds where the older, more tra-
Jesters are clowns, usually by profession. In
ditionally capable siblings suffer disaster.
story as in history, jesters served in the courts
The simpleton’s success usually turns on
of kings and noblemen. Often they were
the very qualities that once earned the child
dwarves, like the first recorded fool, who served
scorn. The animals the simpleton has be-
an Egyptian pharaoh, or were physically im-
friended come to his or her aid, often perform-
paired.
ing with ease the supposedly impossible tasks
Jesters mocked the solemnity of the royal
set before the child. A simpleton’s lack of
court. They alone could speak freely, often
ambition allows the child to focus only on the
pointing out hard truths to a king who would
task at hand and not be tempted away by gold,
not accept them from any other lips. Humor
fame, or empty pleasure.
softened the blow so the king was able to
In one such tale, the youngest prince wins
laugh at the jest, even as he considered the
a princess by riding to her palace straight
serious point underlying it.
down the center of a road paved with gold.
His brothers, who were more concerned with
Native American Clowns the precious metal gleaming under their
Similar to the Western court jester is the Native horses’ hooves, veered to the side of the road
American sacred clown. Many tribes have and thus were turned away.
clowns, such as the Hopi kachinas, the Sioux The simpleton’s innocent trust can lead to
heyoka, which means “contrary,” the Zuni trouble, however. There are many tales about
newekwe clowns, and the Pueblo koshares. These three brothers, in which the youngest brother
clowns dress outrageously, sometimes cross- is warned to leave his elder siblings in their
dressing, and ridicule religious ceremonies with traps. Out of softheartedness, he frees them.

Fools 173
His trust is then rewarded by treachery: The Fools in Christendom

brothers rob him of his prize, abandon him in a
well or other lonely spot to die, and ride home In the Christian tradition, several saints fit the
to claim all the credit and reward. Once again, profile of the wise fool. Saint Francis, who
however, the animals or a sage once helped by talked to animals and preached to birds, “mar-
the simpleton come to his rescue, and he is ried” poverty in a very literal wedding cere-
freed to expose his brothers’ treachery and re- mony and ran naked through the streets. Saint
claim his reward. Simeon sat atop a column in the desert to
Sometimes, the simpleton stumbles into preach. And Saint Philip of Neri wore his
fortune quite by accident. The hero of clothes wrong side out and shaved half his
the Grimms’ tale “The Golden Goose” walks head.
through town oblivious to the train of greedy Women, such as Saint Lucy, would destroy
townsfolk who have tried to steal his goose, only their beauty to scare off unwanted suitors so
to wind up stuck to it and to each other. The they could dedicate their lives to God. Count-
hero is also unaware that a moody princess’s fa- less other saints may not have gone to such
ther has offered her hand to anyone who can lengths, but nevertheless made themselves
make her laugh. Naturally, she laughs at the fools in the eyes of the world by deliberately
spectacle of the goose-boy with his absurd fol- embracing a poor, uncomfortable lifestyle. This
lowers, and they are married (much to the is a choice that can seem baffling, if not insane,
goose-boy’s surprise). to those untouched by religious inspiration.
Another common Christian fool is God’s
Wise Fools clown. He is a monk who, in some versions,
was once a tumbler, juggler, or other common
Wise fools are more commonly found in myth entertainer. He secretly performs in front of an
and religious tales than in folktales. Like sim- image of Jesus (or in some versions the Virgin
pletons, they are unworldly and take no inter- Mary). When his fellow monks discover him
est in the usual pursuits of wealth, fame, and doing this, they are horrified. But far from see-
pleasure. But where a simpleton’s lack of ing the clown’s crude offerings as blasphemy,
sense comes from innocence and inexperi- the divine figure bestows grace upon him,
ence, the wise fool deliberately turns his or her often appearing at the moment of his death.
back on the world, renouncing a material life
in favor of a spiritual one. Arthurian Fools
The Arthurian legends of Great Britain give us
Zen Fools the sheltered would-be knight Perceval. In his
The Zen tradition of Japan features many wise most famous story, Perceval is too naive to ask
fools. The practice of Zen involves riddles, the wounded Fisher King the one question that
the answers to which defy traditional logic. The would free both the king and his dying lands.
riddles serve to shock the listener out of con- Suddenly, the castle vanishes, and Perceval is
ventional thought patterns with unpredictable forced to wander for years until he can find the
masters and seemingly random violence. castle again and undo his mistake.
The Zen master Seiogyu often is painted Another fool-knight is Gareth, youngest
riding backward on an ox, as is Lao-tzu, the brother of Sir Gawain. Gareth did not wish to
fifth-century Chinese author of the Tao Te Ching, ride on his celebrated brother’s fame and came
one of the primary texts of Taoism. There are to Camelot under an assumed name. He
also several Zen poets, including Ikkyu Sojun, worked his way up from a kitchen boy to a
Hajuin Ekaku, and Taigo Ryokan, whose name knight on his own merits. Gareth is mocked
means “great fool.” and ridiculed by Kay the seneschal, by most of

174 Fools
the Round Table knights (though, notably, Simpletons can grow in wisdom, but
King Arthur treats him with courtesy and re- teaching and experience alike roll off the idiot
spect), and by Dame Lyonors, whose quest he without the slightest effect. This sort of fool is
undertakes. Gareth endures this abuse pa- more likely to appear in folktales or fairy tales
tiently. Eventually, his deeds earn the respect of rather than myth or religious texts. Generally
Dame Lyonors and of the entire Round Table. a commoner, the idiot is low in rank and in
the esteem of neighbors. Where the traditional
Eastern Fools hero survives by strength, skill, and (usually)
magical aid and the trickster survives by wit,
Sometimes, the wisdom of fools is, or at least
the idiot survives by pure dumb luck.
seems to be, inadvertent. The Persian couple
There are cases, however, in which the id-
Laila and Majnu are fools for love, not God.
iot does not survive. Sometimes, often in cau-
Majnu is famous for kissing the feet of a dog
tionary or teaching tales, idiots are destroyed
that walked on the street where his beloved
due to their utter lack of comprehension of the
Laila lived. Readers of this doomed romance
world around them. The Grimm brothers’
have drawn parallels between it and the love
tales, and similar folktales told across Europe
of the divine, for which all rules of decorum
and America, are full of idiots who avoid ca-
and propriety are thrown aside. This is the di-
tastrophe by being too stupid to react to a bad
vine ecstasy that led to the poetry of Rumi and
situation in the conventional way. This is a
the whirling dance of the dervishes.
truly inspired idiocy—separated from wisdom
Mullah Nasreddin is another Middle East-
only by the fact that it is entirely accidental
ern fool. Usually identified as either Persian or
and often, ironically, is seen as wisdom by
Turkish, Nasreddin appears in stories that
those who witness it.
originate from nearly every nation and culture
in the region. Nasreddin is a master of the
ridiculous.
Tricksters as Fools
Some of Nasreddin’s antics include the fol- Tricksters are closely related to fools, in that
lowing: He searches for a missing key under a both often do their work through humor.
streetlight because “the light is better here” Some characters play both roles, but the two
than where he actually lost it; he does not rec- are usually very different creatures. The trick-
ognize himself when someone changes clothes ster plots and schemes; if he gets into trouble,
with him; like Lao-tsu and Seiogyu, he rides it is because he has entangled himself in his
backward on his donkey; and he commits hor- own devious snares. The fool does not play
rible social blunders, then hides to try to such an active role; instead, he is carried by
avoid their consequences. Nasreddin does not his story.
appear to be acting out of any deliberate wis- Many of the Native American animal
dom, but his antics mirror the everyday tricksters also play the part of the fool: Coyote,
absurdities of the human condition and his Inktomi the Spider, Rabbit, and Tortoise, to
contorted logic shows us the limits of ordinary name just a few. Whether they are tricksters or
reasoning. fools depends on which tribe is telling the sto-
ries and on what lesson the stories are meant
The Idiot to teach. It is a tribute to the depth and flexi-
bility of these animal figures that they can
Unlike the jester, who masks wisdom in humor,
move from one role to another with such ease.
the simpleton, who acts out of pure innocence,
and the wise fool, who deliberately ignores so-
ciety’s rules, the idiot is just plain stupid—
Fools in Jewish Lore
someone to laugh at, not with. He is often the In Jewish lore, which is renowned for laughing
butt of a trickster’s jokes and schemes. at itself and its tribulations, there is an entire

Frame Stor ies 175
town of fools. It is said that in the beginning Welsford, Enid. The Fool: His Social and Literary History.
two angels flew over the world, one with a London: Faber and Faber, 1935.
sack of wise folk and the other with one full of
fools, scattering equal numbers of each in
every land. As they flew over the Polish town Frame Stories
of Chelm, the bag of fools ripped open,
spilling out the entire population of the town.
There are numerous stories about the fools
of Chelm. The ridiculous situations they find
F rame stories are unifying narratives that
hold one or more stories within their begin-
nings and endings. Other stories, which may or
themselves in, or get themselves into, are made may not be related to the frame story, are pre-
even more amusing by the self-importance of sented between these story “bookends.”
the townsfolk and their firm belief that they and An early example of a frame story is the
their actions are the epitome of wisdom. They first century C.E. Roman poet Ovid’s work, the
try to capture the Moon in a water barrel so it Metamorphoses. In this narrative poem, several
can light their streets every night and not only stories are nested, one within another.
when it “feels like it.” They punish an insolent One of the most famous examples of a
carp who slapped the rabbi with its tail. (The frame story is The Thousand and One Nights (c.
“punishment” involved keeping the carp pris- 800 C.E.). The character Scheherazade tells a
oner in a bathtub rather than making it into series of stories to the king over the course of a
gefilte fish. The carp was eventually dumped thousand and one nights. Within this work is
into the sea.) The people of Chelm have end- the “Tale of Sinbad,” which is also a frame
less debates over who is the wisest. They com- story—Sinbad the sailor tells the stories of his
bine foolish behavior with pseudo-intellectual adventures to Sinbad the landsman.
posturing, and all of this is seasoned with a Another famous frame story is found in
healthy dose of dry Jewish wit. Geoffrey Chaucer’s fourteenth-century The
Whatever the type, fools serve a decep- Canterbury Tales. The frame in this work is the
tively simple purpose: to make people laugh. story of a group of pilgrims passing the time
But to laugh at a fool is to laugh at oneself. on their journey to Canterbury by telling sto-
The fool turns a symbolic mirror on his audi- ries. The same style of frame story appears in
ence, like the German clown Till Eulenspiegel Giovanni Boccaccio’s mid-fourteenth-century
did, literally, to the victims of his jests. Decameron.
In laughing at the fool, we are gently led Frame stories are sometimes used in amus-
to admit the frailties and follies that are a part ing ways. American author Washington Irving
of being human, whether we acknowledge pretended that his Sketch Book (1819–1820) was
them at the time or not. written by an imaginary fellow named Geof-
Shanti Fader frey Crayon. Irving may have used this device
to allow his narrator to voice opinions that
See also: Noodle Tales/Simpleton Tales; Wise were not necessarily Irving’s own.
Men of Chelm. There are several examples of the frame-
story technique in twentieth-century literature.
Sources Joseph Conrad’s novel Heart of Darkness (1902)
Kelsey, Alice Geer. Once the Mullah: Persian Folk Tales.
New York: Longmans, 1954. took place on the deck of a British ship. Ini-
Kodama, Misao, and Hikosaku Yanagishima. The Zen tially, the story is presented by an anonymous
Fool Ryokan. Rutland, VT: Charles E. Tuttle, 1999. narrator who introduces Captain Marlow. The
Otto, Beatrice K. Fools Are Everywhere: The Court Jester rest of the novel is narrated by Marlow.
Around the World. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 2001.
Edgar Rice Burroughs, creator of Tarzan
Radin, Paul. The Trickster: A Study in American Indian and many other characters, used frame stories
Mythology. New York: Schocken, 1972. in several of his works. In A Princess of Mars

176 Freischutz
(1912) Burroughs pretends to be reading the could improve his aim, he would lose both the
story written by the protagonist, John Carter, so honor of being a forester and the hand of his
it is essentially a story within a story. William beloved Agathe. Another forester, the grim,
Goldman wrote The Princess Bride (1973) under forbidding Kaspar, told Max about the magic
the pen name of S. Morgenstern. The narrator bullets that never miss and promised that if
is supposedly Morgenstern’s grandfather, who Max met him in the Wolf’s Glen that night, he
tells the young Morgenstern the story of the would make him some of these bullets. Max
princess bride. agreed.
Max was unaware that Kaspar had sold his
Sources soul to Samiel (or Zamiel) the Wild Huntsman
Boccaccio, Giovanni. The Decameron. New York: Pen-
and planned to hand Max over to the devil in
guin, 2003.
Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Canterbury Tales. Trans. David his place. Together, the two men molded seven
Wright. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985. magic bullets. Six would fly true; the seventh
Goldman, William. The Princess Bride: S. Morgenstern’s would go where the devil wished.
Classic Tale of True Love and High Adventure. New Sure enough, the next day, six bullets flew
York: Ballantine, 1998.
Mandelbaum, Allen, trans. The Metamorphoses of Ovid.
true for Max. Only the seventh, the devil’s bul-
New York: Harcourt Brace, 1993. let, remained. Max shot at a dove—but realized
too late that he had aimed at Agathe’s white
dress. She fell but had merely fainted. The sev-
Freischutz enth bullet sped past her to the true target, Kas-
par. He was instantly slain, and the devil claimed
him. Max confessed what he had done, was
(German) forgiven, and won Agathe’s hand.
T he term freischutz means free shooter. It

refers to a German folktale in which a
marksman makes a pact with the devil.
See also: Deals with the Devil; Operas and
Their Stories.
In this tale, Satan took the form of Samiel,
the black huntsman of Wolf ’s Glen. The marks- Sources
man was given seven magic bullets, six of Ranke, Kurt, ed. Folktales of Germany. Trans. Lotte Bau-
mann. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966.
which would hit whatever the marksman Weber, Carl Maria von. Der Freischütz. Stuttgart, Ger-
wished. The seventh bullet, though, was con- many: Verlag Philipp Reclam, 1974.
trolled by the devil.
In a less dark variation on the folktale, a
marksman sold his soul to the devil in order to
improve his shooting. In this bargain, the dev-
Frey and Freya
il was supposed to return seven years later to
claim the marksman’s soul. But the marksman
(Norse)
could be taken only if the devil could identify
the creature at which the man aimed. When
the devil returned, he came upon a weird-
I n Norse mythology, Frey and his sister
Freya are the children of Njord, god of the
wind and sea. They are the most beautiful of
looking creature. It was the man’s wife, who the Vanir, the race of peace-loving gods.
had covered herself with molasses and then When the Aesir, the main Norse deities,
with a coating of feathers. The devil was un- merged with the Vanir, Frey became known
able to identify this strange creature and was as the Lord of the Aesir.
forced to vanish without the man’s soul. Frey was the Norse deity of the Sun, rain,
Carl Maria von Weber’s opera Der Frei- and plentiful harvests. He also ruled the alfar,
schütz tells the story of Max, a forester who lost the elf folk. Rather than living in Asgard, the
to a villager at target practice. Unless Max home of Norse deities, Frey lived in Alfheim,

Frey and Freya 177
The brother and sister gods of Norse fertility, Frey and Freya were the most beautiful of the peace-loving Norse
gods. These bronze depictions are from the Viking age. (Both images: © Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY)
or elf-home, and he was married to the giant of the alfar. It is said that Freya was once mar-
Gerd. Frey fell so madly in love with Gerd that ried to a deity named Od, but he disappeared,
he gave up his sword in exchange for her and she cried tears of gold.
hand. This left him unarmed for Ragnarok, the Freya had several magical and valuable
mythic end of the world. As a result, Frey items. The necklace of the Brisings, called the
would be the first god to die. Brisingamen, made Freya irresistible to men
Frey rode in a chariot pulled by a magical and gods. The necklace also supported any
golden boar, called Gullinbursti, which means army that Freya favored on the battlefield.
“golden-bristled.” The dwarves made Frey a Freya also possessed a cloak of bird feathers
magical ship, called Skinbladnir, or “wooden- that allowed anyone wearing it to change into
bladed.” Skinbladnir steered itself and was able a falcon.
to shrink down to pocket-size. Freya’s chariot was pulled by two great
Frey’s shield-bearer and servant was cats. She lived in Folkyang, or the field of folk.
Skirnir, who received Frey’s sword in ex- In this beautiful palace, love songs were always
change for his help in securing Gerd’s hand. played. Women of worth resided at Freya’s hall
Frey’s other servant was Beyla, goddess of after death.
bees. Since Frey was a fertility god, he was
often portrayed as bluntly sexual, and his See also: Norse Mythology.
cult was said to include actions that shocked Sources
later Christians. The center of his cult was Branston, Brian. Gods and Heroes from Viking Mythology.
Uppsala in Sweden. New York: Peter Bedrick, 1994.
Freya, Frey’s sister, was the beautiful young Davidson, H.R. Ellis. Gods and Myths of Northern Europe.
Baltimore: Penguin, 1964.
goddess of love and fertility, who watched over Lindow, John. Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes,
the crops and new life. Freya loved all things Rituals and Beliefs. New York: Oxford University
bright, from flowers to music, and she was fond Press, 2002

178 Fr igga/Fr igg
Frigga/Frigg to disguise themselves as men, using their long

hair to make fake beards, and to turn Odin’s
bed around. When he woke up, Odin was sur-
(Norse) prised to see so many long-bearded men. He
called them Langobards (long beards), or Lom-
F rigga, or Frigg, was one of the chief god-

desses of Norse mythology. She was one of
the Aesir, the principal race of Norse gods. Her
bards. The Winnilers took that new name, and
Odin was forced to grant them the victory.
husband was Odin, the supreme god. Frigga See also: Mother Goddess/Earth Mother; Norse
was the goddess of love and fertility, as well as Mythology; Odin/Odhinn.
the patron of marriage, motherhood, the do-
Sources
mestic arts, and household management. Davidson, Hilda E. Roles of the Northern Goddess. New
Frigga had a gift for prophecy and knew York: Routledge, 1998.
every person’s destiny, but she never told what Lindow, John. Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes,
she knew. As Odin’s wife, she was the only Rituals and Beliefs. New York: Oxford University
Press, 2002.
other deity who was permitted to sit on his
Simek, Rudolf. Dictionary of Northern Mythology. Trans.
throne, called Hlidskjalf. From this vantage Angela Hall. Rochester, NY: D.S. Brewer, 1993.
point, she could look out over the universe.
Frigga’s hall in Asgard was called Fensalir,
which means “water halls” or “marsh halls.” Frogs and Toads
Frigga’s companion was Eir, goddess of heal-
ing, and her attendants were Hlin, a protective
goddess, Fulla, a fertility goddess, and Gna, her
messenger, who rode through the sky on the
F rogs and toads undergo an amazing trans-
formation as they develop from tadpole to
adult. Many types also shed their skin as they
horse Hofvarpnir. These attendants may be per- grow, some even eating the shed skins. These
sonified aspects of Frigga; the mythology is not intriguing creatures have played major roles
clear on that point. in the myths and folktales of many world cul-
In Scandinavia, the stars known as Orion’s tures, often as symbols of fertility and renewal.
Belt are called Friggarock, or Frigga’s distaff. In ancient Egypt, the reason for such vener-
The distaff, together with the spindle and ation may be that frogs thrived after the annual
keys, are Frigga’s symbols. flooding of the Nile River. The hieroglyph for
Frigga and Odin’s son, Balder, was the god the number 100,000 is a frog. Frogs were often
of light and peace. Frigga attempted to prevent mummified, and frog figures were placed in
Balder’s death by extracting oaths from every temples. A frog was the symbol of the goddess
object in nature not to harm him, but she forgot Heqit, who ruled conception and birth, and
the mistletoe, which the mischievous god Loki Egyptian women often wore amulets in the
used to kill him. form of frogs.
As queen of the gods, Frigga was clever Tlaltecuhti, the mother goddess of the
about getting her own way. One myth tells of Aztec people of Mesoamerica, was portrayed
two warring tribes of mortals, the Vandals, as a toad or a half-human, half-toad hybrid.
who were favored by Odin, and the Winnil- The Olmec people, also Mesoamerican, por-
ers, whom Frigga favored. Odin and Frigga ar- trayed a toad-god of rebirth, which was pic-
gued heatedly over their choices. Finally, tured eating its shed skin.
Odin swore that he would grant victory to the In Western culture, the frog as a symbol
tribe he saw first upon waking. of transformation appears in the “The Frog
Since Odin’s bed faced the Vandal camp, Prince.” In this folktale, a prince is turned into
the bet seemed a sure thing. But Frigga ap- a frog and is rescued when he is kissed by a
peared to the Winniler women and told them princess.

Frogs and Toads 179
Frogs and the Rain a frog or toad caused lunar eclipses by swal-
lowing the moon.
In folk belief, frogs often are associated with In many Chinese folktales, the toad was a
storms and rain. In India, for instance, frogs trickster, or even a magician, that knew the se-
were believed to echo the thunder, and the cret of immortality. One such tale is of the
word frog in ancient Sanskrit means “cloud.” wise man Liu Hai and the three-legged toad
In Mesoamerica, frogs and toads were thought Ch’an Chu. The Japanese version of this tale
to be spirits of rain and were included in ritu- features the wise man Kosensei, who learned
als to encourage precipitation. The Aymara the powers of herbs, including the secret of
people of Bolivia and Peru placed small im- immortality, from his toad friend.
ages of frogs on hilltops to call the rain. If the
rains did not come, the images might be Superstitions
beaten for their perceived failure. Some Aus-
tralian aborigines also believed that frogs sum- There are many superstitions concerning
moned rain. frogs and toads, some of which are still be-
Many traditions, including those found in lieved.
the United States’s Appalachian Mountains, In England and North America, a person
hold that if you kill a frog, a downpour will can supposedly tell what type of year it will
follow. It was even believed that frogs fell with be by the behavior of the first frog seen
the rain. in spring. If the frog is on dry land, the num-
ber of tears that will be shed that year is
Frogs and Toads equal to the number of minutes or seconds it
takes before the frog jumps into the water and
in the Middle Ages swims off.
Not all cultures saw frogs and toads as benefi- In another belief, a frog resting on dry
cial. In much of medieval Europe, for in- land is bad luck if it jumps directly into the wa-
stance, toads were said to be evil creatures ter. But if the same frog jumps away from the
with poisonous blood. Some of these ideas water and toward the observer, it means the
came from Greek and Roman writers, such as observer will have many friends.
Pliny the Elder, who claimed that toads had Some people also still believe that touch-
many strange powers. Pliny also wrote that a ing a frog or toad causes warts, and that rub-
bone from a toad would keep water from boil- bing a frog or toad over these growths can
ing or dogs from attacking. cure them.
It also was believed that there was a magi- Other superstitions related to frogs and
cal jewel within the head of a toad, called a toads are listed below.
toadstone. When this stone was placed in a
ring or a necklace, it would heat up or change • The dried body of a frog worn in a silk
color in the presence of poison. bag around the neck is said to keep off
In medieval Europe, toads often were pic- epilepsy.
tured as imps that aided witches in evil deeds. • A frog brings good luck to any house
There were even cases of toads being put on that it enters.
trial, convicted, and burned at the stake for • If a frog croaks at midnight on a bat-
witchcraft. Toads also were used to represent tlefield, a battle will follow within
romantic jealousy. three days.
Asian Beliefs • If a person swallows a tadpole while
drinking from a spring, the tadpole
The ancient Chinese saw the toad as a female will develop into a frog in the person’s
force, or yin. In Chinese and Burmese lore, stomach.

180 Fur-Bear ing Trout
Pinch, Geraldine. Magic in Ancient Egypt. Austin: Univer-

sity of Texas Press, 1995.
Robbins, Mary E. “The Truculent Toad in the Middle
Ages.” In Animals in the Middle Ages, ed. Nona C.
Flores. New York: Garland, 1996.
Fur-Bearing Trout
(North American)
T he fur-bearing trout is supposed to live in

the icy waters of the American West. Also
known as the furry trout or the beaver trout,
the fur-bearing trout is said to have grown this
thick coat to insulate itself from the cold
rivers of Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, and
parts of Canada. Sightings also have been re-
ported in Vermont. This amazing fish is said
to grow a thick coat of snow-white fur in the
winter, which it sheds during the warmer
months.
There are several theories about how this
In stories such as that of the princess and the en- strange fish came to be. One theory claims
chanted frog prince, a frog or toad represents transfor- simple evolution—“survival of the furriest.”
mation, since he undergoes metamorphosis to become
an adult. This early twentieth-century porcelain figure
Another, more complex explanation is
was created by Ida Schwetz-Lehman. (Erich Lessing/ that the fur-bearing trout was first encountered
Art Resource, NY) by Scottish settlers in Canada in the seven-
teenth century. A letter from one of these set-
• It is very unlucky to kill a toad. tlers commented on the abundance of “furred
• You will stub your toe and stumble if animals and fish,” a possible reference to the
you kill a toad. fur-bearing trout. The story goes on to say that
the settler sent a fur-bearing trout back to Scot-
• If you kill a toad, your cows will go dry.
land. If this ever did happen, there is no evi-
• If you kill a toad or a frog, the milk dence of it.
from your cows will be bloody.
Another account involves the Arkansas
River in Colorado. In the 1870s, the river ran
These are only some of the many worldwide
through a gold-mining town that had an un-
beliefs about the frog and the toad, small ani-
usually large percentage of bald miners. This
mals whose legendary powers in many cul-
caught the attention of a quick-thinking hair-
tures are wide-ranging and great.
tonic salesman from Kentucky, who promptly
See also: Heqat/Hekat/Heket. headed for the camp with four bottles of his
potion for sale. But he slipped on the edge of a
Sources trout stream, and two bottles of the hair tonic
DeGraaf, Robert M. The Book of the Toad: A Natural and fell and broke in the water.
Magical History of Toad-Human Relations. Rochester, Soon afterward, fur-bearing trout began
VT: Park Street, 1991.
to appear. For a while, fishermen caught
Kennedy, Alison Bailey. “Ecce Bufo: The Toad in Nature
and in Olmec Iconography.” Current Anthropology these trout by pretending to be barbers, set-
23:3 (1982): 273–90. ting up their red-and-white barber poles on

Fur-Bear ing Trout 181
the riverbanks. Fur-bearing trout wanting their See also: Tall Tales.
fur trimmed would leap right into the arms of
the fishermen. Sources
Stuffed and mounted fur-bearing trout often Boese, Alex. The Museum of Hoaxes: A Collection of Pranks,
can be seen on the walls of curio stores and in Stunts, Deceptions, and Other Wonderful Stories Con-
photographs and postcards from the mid- trived for the Public from the Middle Ages to the New Mil-
lennium. New York: Dutton, 2002.
twentieth century. The fur-bearing trout even Dorson, Richard M. Man and Beast in American Comic
made an appearance, or at least had its story told, Legend. Bloomington: Indiana University Press,
in the 2001 French film Brotherhood of the Wolf. 1982.

G
E
Gambling
very human culture has some form of gam-
bling, and therefore gambling superstitions
and folk beliefs are found worldwide.
be lucky enough for players. When a group of
players starts losing regularly at a table, it
means that the table is going bad, or losing its
luck, and another table must be picked.
Clothing is also important. Some players
believe in wearing old clothes or a particular
In casinos, male players believe that a outfit at every gambling session. Others pre-
beautiful woman brings good luck to the fer to wear only brand-new clothes each time
gambler she stands beside, but a dog of either to ensure fresh luck. A great variety of good
gender in a casino brings bad luck. Money luck amulets, including rabbits’ feet, four-leaf
borrowed for gambling will always bring good clovers, coins, and religious charms, often are
luck—but it must never be lent to a gambling carried by gamblers.
opponent. A first-time player always will win, Gambling themes appear in fiction and
with beginner’s luck. music. The nineteenth-century Russian author
When playing cards, a player may decide Aleksandr Pushkin wrote a story called Piko-
to sit out a hand to “change” the cards, or en- vaya Dama, or The Queen of Spades, which Rus-
sure luck. A dealer who, because of the laws of sian composer Pyotr Ilich Tchaikovsky turned
averages, seems to be dealing more winners is into an opera. The basic story is of a young offi-
considered lucky. cer’s obsession with gambling and a secret for-
When using dice, the player must never mula for always winning at cards. It leads him
allow them to fall onto the floor. If they do, the to kill an old woman and lose the woman he
next roll will surely be an unlucky seven. But loves. At last, he is driven to his death by his
that jinx can be broken if the person who obsession.
dropped the dice picks them up. If the thrown A far less threatening story is found in the
dice hit someone’s hand, it means bad luck, 1950 musical comedy Guys and Dolls, based
and fresh dice must be used. A virgin shooter loosely on the stories of Damon Runyan. This
is someone who has never thrown dice before. story of gamblers meeting up with members
Female virgin shooters are considered good of the Salvation Army ends happily.
luck, but male virgins are bad luck.
It is considered a sure sign of bad luck for See also: Motifs.
someone to throw money on the table while Sources
the dice are rolling. The table and dice need to Nestor, Basil. Unofficial Guide to Casino Gambling. New
be “warmed up” by handling before they can York: John Wiley and Sons, 1998.
182

Gargoyles 183
Vyse, Stuart A. Believing in Magic: The Psychology of Super- as the bedug. There also may be vocalists, male
stition. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. or female, known as pesindens.
Waring, Philippa. The Dictionary of Omens and Supersti-
During a performance, all gamelan players
tions. London: Souvenir, 1978.
sit cross-legged on a mat. In the wayang kulit
(shadow puppet) show, which lasts an entire
Gamelan night, a gamelan plays a specific set of music
that changes every three hours. The texture of a
performance depends on the size of the instru-
(Indonesian) ments. The small instruments have more elabo-
T he word gamelan means “musical group”

and may come from a Javanese word that
means to strike a percussion instrument. The
rate parts than the large ones. The largest gong,
for example, is played only once per piece.
Even though Western instruments and
term gamelan also refers collectively to one of music have become well known in Indonesia,
more than twenty different kinds of percus- the gamelan remains a popular form of music
sion ensembles and, by extension, to the peo- making.
ple who play in them. Gamelan music often is
used as an accompaniment to story recitations See also: Wayang.
and performances.
Gamelan music is indigenous to the In- Sources
donesian island of Java and dates back thou- Bakan, Michael B. Music of Death and New Creation: Expe-
riences in the World of Balinese Gamelan Beleganjur.
sands of years. One myth states that the gods Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000.
created the first gamelan musician, named Tenzer, Michael. Gamelan Gong Kebyar: The Art of
Lokananta. Gamelan music is an essential part Twentieth-Century Balinese Music. Chicago: Univer-
of all cultural activities in Java, including wayang sity of Chicago Press, 2000.
kulit, or shadow puppet performances, court
dance, and uyon-uyon, or symphony orchestra
performances. Gargoyles
A complete gamelan ensemble must include
the kendang, a double-ended drum beaten with
the hands. This is a major instrument, and the
pengendang, or drummer, is the conductor of
G argoyles originally were waterspouts that
were designed to direct falling rain away
from an exterior wall of a building. Over time,
the gamelan orchestra. Other instruments are these architectural features became elaborate
the saron, a form of glockenspiel played with a carvings of human and animal forms. The ori-
mallet; the boning barung, a double row of bronze gins of these figures can be traced to ancient
kettles on a horizontal frame played with two Egyptian temples. During the Middle Ages, sto-
long drumsticks; the slentem and the gender, both rytellers invented fantastic stories to explain
made up of thin bronze bars over bamboo res- their beginnings.
onance chambers, each played with a padded Gargoyles can be categorized by shape—
drumstick; the gambang, made up of wooden human gargoyles, animal gargoyles, and hybrid
bars on a wooden frame played with drum- forms. Medieval gargoyles took on increasingly
sticks of buffalo horn; and a variety of gongs. grotesque shapes, as artisans created distorted
The largest gong is considered to be the faces of men or the entire bodies of weird ani-
spiritual center of the gamelan. There are also mals and human-animal oddities. Gargoyles are
a variety of xylophones, ranging from the featured on churches as well as secular build-
smallest, gangsas, to the medium-sized ugal, to ings, and they are still included in modern ar-
the largest, the jegogan. In addition, a gamelan chitecture. In New York City, for example,
contains stringed instruments, such as the gargoyles are featured on nineteenth-century
clempung and the rebab, and large drums such townhouses and twentieth-century skyscrapers.

184 Gargoyles
Monstrous or satiric gargoyles can be found on many buildings throughout the world. They date from the Middle
Ages to modern times—from this example found on the west facade of Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris, France, to
gargoyles on New York City’s Art Deco–style Chrysler Building. (© Archive Timothy McCarthy/Art Resource, NY)
One of the most fantastic stories invented A new surge of folklore has sprung up
to explain the origin of gargoyles comes from around the image of the gargoyle, due in part
medieval France. A dragon called La Gar- to an animated television series called Gar-
gouille was attacking ships on the Seine, caus- goyles, which aired from 1994 to 1997. The se-
ing floods. Every year, the people of the city ries featured a living race of gargoyles that
of Rouen offered La Gargouille a human vic- came to life at night and fought crime. Soon
tim for him to devour, but this sacrifice failed after this series debuted, new beliefs about
to calm the dragon. Then, sometime in the gargoyles began to surface.
year 600 C.E., a priest named Romanus swore Although these are clearly based on the
that if the people of Rouen built a church, he series, not on any earlier folk beliefs, many
would rid them of the dragon. The priest tri- people do seem to have accepted these
umphed over the dragon, although the story twentieth-century images as genuine folklore.
fails to say how. La Gargouille’s monstrous It is believed by many that gargoyles can
head and neck were mounted on the town come to life at night and protect sleeping hu-
wall, inspiring generations of gargoyles to mans, can scare off evil creatures, and can re-
come. turn to stone at sunrise. Believers also think
Less fantastic theories state that the gar- that such gargoyles with wings can fly.
goyle is meant to ward off evil or to warn the Whether these recent beliefs will continue
faithful against evil. Some gargoyles are paro- to survive without the influence of the televi-
dies of specific people, carved either in good- sion series or modern-day views of gargoyles
natured mockery or as retribution for a slight will revert to the less dramatic medieval folk
or failure to pay the stone carver. beliefs remains to be seen.

Garuda 185
See also: Motifs. mous bird of prey with a golden body and
bright red wings that were broad enough to
Sources blot out the Sun.
Benton, Janetta Rebold. Holy Terrors. New York: Garuda was fond of killing and eating
Abbeyville, 1997.
Blackwood, John. Oxford’s Gargoyles and Grotesques. N.p.:
snakes and did so every day, until he was
Charon, 1986. taught the value of self-control by a Buddhist
Bridaham, Lester Burbank. Gargoyles, Chimeres, and the prince. Once he mastered the art of self-
Grotesque in French Gothic Sculpture. New York: Da discipline, Garuda brought to life all of the ser-
Capo, 1969.
pents he had eaten in the past.
Called the Bird of Life in Hinduism,
Garm Garuda carried the great Hindu god Vishnu
through the heavens. According to the great
Hindu epic Mahabharata, Garuda had permis-
(Norse) sion from Vishnu to devour bad men. The
bird was also the enemy of the Nagas, the ser-
I n Norse mythology, the monstrous hound
Garm was the servant of the goddess Hel
and guarded the entrance to Helheim, the
pent people. Today, Garuda is depicted as
having a human torso, arms, and legs.
realm of the dead. Garm had four eyes and a
chest drenched with blood. The monster
hound lived in the Gnipa cave, near the en-
trance to Helheim. Anyone who had given
bread to the poor in life could appease Garm’s
anger with a special treat called Hel cake.
On the day of Ragnarok, the final battle, it
was believed that Garm would join the giants
in their fight against the gods. In one version
of the story, Tyr, the god of war, killed the
hound but died from the wounds that Garm
had inflicted.
Garm is often equated with the monstrous
wolf and savage enemy of the gods Fenrir. In
most versions of the story of Ragnarok, it is
Fenrir, not Garm, who slays and is slain by Tyr.
See also: Dogs; Norse Mythology.
Sources
Crossley-Holland, Kevin. Norse Myths. New York: Ran-
dom House, 1981.
Orchard, Andrew. Cassell’s Dictionary of Norse Myth and
Legend. London: Cassell Academic, 2003.
Garuda
The enormous Garuda, called the Bird of Life, carried
the great Hindu god Vishnu through the heavens. Ac-
(Indian) cording to the Hindu epic Mahabharata, Garuda had
permission to devour bad men. The bird also was
G aruda, which probably originated in

Buddhist India, was said to be an enor-
the enemy of the Nagas, the serpent people. (Tim
Graham/Getty Images)

186 Geb
In Thai mythology, Garuda is called the the tale The Contendings of Horus and Seth, Geb
king of birds, and the image of Garuda tearing acted as arbitrator between the two rivals. He
a Naga in two is the symbol of the Thai monar- played the same role with the human kingship,
chy. In Indonesia, Garuda’s name is used by setting the new royal successor in the place of
the national airline, Garuda International. the late king. The kingship is sometimes re-
ferred to as “the throne of Geb.”
See also: Mahabharata. In some Greco-Roman texts, Geb’s attrib-
utes are assigned to the creator god, Khnum.
Sources
Nagar, Shanti Lal. Garuda the Celestial Bird. New Delhi:
Book India, 1992. Noreen Doyle
Noble, Margaret Elizabeth (Sister Nivedita), and
Ananda K. Coomaraswamy. Myths of the Hindus and Sources
Buddhists. Mineola, NY: Dover, 1967. Allen, James P. Genesis in Egypt: The Philosophy of Ancient
O’Flaherty, Wendy Doniger, trans. Hindu Myths: A Source- Egyptian Creation Accounts. New Haven, CT: Yale
book. Baltimore: Penguin, 1975. Egyptological Seminar, 1988.
Frankfort, Henri. Kingship and the Gods: A Study of Ancient
Near Eastern Religion as the Integration of Society and
Geb Nature. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978.
Quirke, Stephen. Ancient Egyptian Religion. London:
British Museum Press, 1992.
(Egyptian)
G eb is the ancient Egyptian earth god. He

was the son of the air god Shu and the
German Storytelling
goddess Tefnut.
Geb was described as lying beneath the
feet of his father while forever lifting his sister,
T here is not much written evidence about
the kinds of stories that were told in Ger-
many by ordinary people before the nineteenth
the sky goddess, Nut, above his head. Artistic
century. There is evidence of a rich, centuries-
representations usually show Geb in this posi-
old oral tradition in Germany in medieval epics
tion with an erect phallus, signaling the fertility
such as the Nibelungenlied, but those were tradi-
of the earth. He was the third mythic king of
tionally the entertainment of nobility, not the
Egypt, after the sun god, Re, and the god of the
common folk.
air, Shu.
Storytelling always has been considered a
The body of Geb was the earth itself. Crops
minor art in Germany, performed casually in
grew on his back or from his ribs, and the bod-
private and informal spaces. Traveling crafts-
ies of the deceased entered Geb. As the earth,
men, merchants, or soldiers would carry a mix-
and therefore one who nourished the living, in-
ture of folktales, anecdotes, and real news from
cluding deities, Geb was called the ka, meaning
place to place. These stories were retold by vil-
“soul,” or “vital force,” of the other gods.
lagers on long winter nights, as families and
From the union of Geb and Nut came the
even whole villages took care of chores such as
gods Osiris and Seth and their sister-consorts,
spinning or mending fishing nets.
Isis and Nephthys. Geb appointed Osiris ruler
of Egypt, which, after Osiris’s death, led Seth
to battle Osiris’s son Horus for the crown.
The Nineteenth Century
According to a text known as the Mem- In the early nineteenth century, Germany
phite Theology (c. 800–700 B.C.E.), Geb di- went through an identity crisis. German artists
vided the country into Upper and Lower Egypt and scientists frantically searched for their
and granted Lower Egypt, or the delta, to Ho- roots. This generation glorified the last univer-
rus and the rest to Seth. He quickly changed his sal culture to precede the Enlightenment—the
mind and awarded the entire land to Horus. In Middle Ages.

German Stor ytelling 187
Out of this came Romanticism. Folktales that it defined the idea of what a folktale should
and folk songs were rediscovered. They were sound like. The public’s fascination with this
sometimes redesigned according to the collec- style remained unchallenged throughout the
tors’ ideas on what constituted true, original following decades.
folklore. The stories are split into four cate- The rising popularity of mass media and
gories: Zaubermärchen (wonder tales), Schwänke the ongoing change of social structures further
(comical tales), Sagen (local legends), and Leg- weakened traditional storytelling by everyday
enden (saints’ legends). people. By the late 1960s, young people knew
very little traditional lore, and even older gen-
The Brothers Grimm erations referred to books as primary sources
for these stories.
The most famous folktale collectors were Ja-
In the late 1960s, social and cultural ideolo-
cob and Wilhelm Grimm. Linguists by profes-
gies changed throughout the Western world. In
sion, they felt obliged to preserve and publish
the former West Germany, this nearly put an
folktales. The seven editions of Kinder- und
end to traditional stories, even in their printed
Hausmärchen, or Children’s and Household Tales,
form. These stories were blamed for the perpet-
were published between 1812 and 1857. These
uation of conservative and outdated values.
successful collections may have prevented
Only a few alternative theaters, called freie The-
some traditional stories from vanishing. This
atre, embraced storytelling with programs of
work has been published in more translations
stories and improvisation. But their efforts fell
and editions all over the world than any other
short of launching a true storytelling revival.
German book.
East Germany followed a different path.
The publication of the Grimms’ tales
In socialism, folktales were considered a gen-
marked a change in public perception of folk-
uine expression of the ordinary people’s long-
tales. Once thought of as told tales, these were
ing for justice, happiness, and peace. As a
now primarily known as written works. The
result, socialist cultural institutions tried to
Grimm brothers also eliminated what they
bring folktales to the modern audience. The
considered offensive subjects and language
government supported the use of traditional
from the stories, as these folktales were meant
tales as source material for movies, plays, and
for children. This suited the current bourgeois
radio productions.
Biedermeier style, which championed peda-
As a reaction against the ever-decreasing
gogic literature.
importance of traditional stories in West
Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm claimed to
Germany, the Gesellschaft zur Pflege des
have written the stories down just as they had
Märchengutes europäischer Völker (Associa-
heard them, as one edition’s introduction
tion for the Care of Fairytales of European
states, “without adding, glossing or changing
Cultures) was founded in 1956. It was later re-
anything.” Literary studies have since proved
named the Europäische Märchengesellschaft
that they did indeed make changes.
(European Fairytale Association), or the EMG.
Their story sources were also limited.
The word European in the name refers to the
Among these sources were individuals with
range of tales, rather than to the association
Huguenot backgrounds, which explains the
members, since nearly all members are Ger-
presence of some nearly unchanged tales of
man speakers. The main interest of the organi-
the French poet Charles Perrault, such as “Lit-
zation is the academic study of wonder tales in
tle Red Riding Hood.”
both literary and psychological contexts.
The monopoly of Grimm’s Fairy Tales and
Loss of the Storytelling Tradition printed sources in general had extended so far
The influence of the work that became known that nearly all tellers recited stories verbatim,
simply as Grimm’s Fairy Tales was so strong which made the storyteller’s performance

188 Gesta Danorum
recitation rather than telling. There was little scious longing for traditional story structures
room for improvisation, which shifted the and intimate listening experiences.
telling into a kind of lecture. The tellers follow- In Germany as in other countries, story-
ing this fashion called themselves Märchenerzäh- telling and its protagonists continue to strive
ler (fairy tale teller) instead of Geschichtenerzähler to find a place in twenty-first-century society.
(storyteller). Its proponents hope that this ancient art form
From the second half of the 1980s, several will find such a place before, as a storyteller
developments unfolded simultaneously. The might say, “our beards have grown long.”
fairy tale movement of the EMG members
spread into regional culture as Märchenkreise See also: Brothers Grimm; Retelling: The Twelve
(fairy tale circles), where folktale enthusiasts Dancing Princesses.
could gather. In some of these circles, the frame
of topics has come to include local legends. Sources
Coury, David N. The Return of Storytelling in Contemporary
In addition, immigrants, mainly from Arab
German Literature and Film: Peter Hanke and Win
countries, recently have introduced their idea Wenders. Studies in German Language and Litera-
of storytelling to Germany. But their contribu- ture. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen, 2004.
tions are generally considered exotic and re- Green, Dennis Howard. Medieval Listening and Reading:
main on the fringes of German culture. The Primary Reception of German Literature 800–1300.
New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
In the last years of the twentieth century, a Phipps, Alison, ed. Contemporary German Cultural Studies.
rising esoteric movement created a storytelling Glasgow, UK: Hodder Arnold, 2002.
school of its own. Its followers started up
Märchenzentren, or fairy tale centers, all over the
country. These centers deal exclusively with
wonder or comic tales, and the performances
Gesta Danorum
combine fairy tales with puppetry, dance, and
meditation.
(Danish)
The Future of Storytelling T he Gesta Danorum, or Story of the Danes, is a

history of Denmark written in Latin by
Saxo Grammaticus in the twelfth century. The
In recent years, increasing contact between sto- work contains both fantasy and fact and in-
rytellers has led to a discussion about the future cludes many tales of interest to storytellers.
of storytelling, about aesthetics and questions of Little is known about the author other
style. Exchanges with storytellers from abroad than that he seems to have had a full academic
have helped to fertilize this process and open education. He was commissioned to write this
new horizons. The German word for story- work at the end of the twelfth century by the
teller, Geschichtenerzähler, is used more fre- archbishop of Lund.
quently. More and more tellers are telling The Gesta Danorum is divided into sixteen
rather than reciting, and they embrace stories books. The first nine deal with the Nordic
completely invented by the teller as well as gods and heroes. Also contained in this work
epics, myths, biographies, and world literature. is the story of Prince Amled, who was the in-
Storytelling as a cultural activity became spiration for William Shakespeare’s Hamlet.
more popular in the 1990s, when the first festi- The second half of the work covers Dan-
vals of storytelling were launched in Berlin, ish history up to the author’s time during the
Remscheid, and Aachen. Yet the existence of reign of King Canute VI. The main purpose of
storytelling as a performing art is still unknown the work was to praise the Danish nation and
to the majority of Germans. The increase in its line of kings, although it does not seem to
fairy tale book and audio book editions in Ger- have been widely known outside of Denmark
many is evidence of what may be an uncon- until fairly recently.

Ghost Stor ies, College 189
See also: Epics. celebrated each spring, and the ghost, repre-
sented by an anonymous student dressed as a
Source skeleton, may disband classes by threatening
Grammaticus, Saxo. The History of the Danes, Books I–IX. to shoot professors with his water pistol.
Ed. Hilda Ellis Davidson. Rochester, NY: D.S.
Brewer, 1998.
At Huntington College in Montgomery,
Alabama, the Red Lady haunts Pratt Hall. She
is said to have been a homesick student who
Ghost Stories, College slit her wrists while dressed in a red robe, cov-
ered by a red blanket.
Numerous other college ghost stories tell
L egends about supernatural entities and in-
explicable events are widespread on col-
lege campuses across America.
of women who committed suicide. Sarah, at
Mansfield University in Mansfield, Pennsylva-
nia, threw herself down a long flight of stairs
Frequently told by upperclassmen to en-
after being rejected by her boyfriend; Edith, at
tering freshmen, these stories serve as a form
the University of Northern Colorado in Gree-
of initiation. As freshmen adjust to the de-
ley, was a resident assistant who killed herself
mands of college classes and social life, they
because the students were so unkind to her;
hear ghost stories about victims of murder and
and Isabella, at Northwestern State University
suicide, casualties of war, and persecution of
in Natchitoches, Louisiana, lost her boyfriend
minority group members, including African
and stabbed herself after becoming a nun.
American slaves and Native Americans.
Another ghost wearing a nun’s habit is the
These stories of sudden death and other
Faceless Nun of Saint Mary-of-the-Woods Col-
tragedies may be compared to ghost stories
lege in Terre Haute, Indiana. She glides through
told by camp counselors to young campers. In
the hall where she used to teach art. The ghost
both camp and college, young people must
of the C.C. White Building at Nebraska Wes-
learn to cope with the stress of a new way of
leyan University in Lincoln also is said to have
life in an unfamiliar environment. In college,
been a faculty member, Clara Urania Mills.
students gain a broader sense of historical and
In 1963, a secretary in the building saw the
psychological horrors, and ghost stories pro-
ghost of a woman in old-fashioned clothing,
vide an outlet to express them.
and when she looked out a window, she saw a
The college ghost story owes some of its
scene from the past.
features to nineteenth-century literary ghost
Gettysburg College in Gettysburg, Pennsyl-
stories and gothic novels. Haunted residence
vania, reputed to be one of the most haunted
halls resemble haunted mansions, with long
places in the United States, is said to be haunted
corridors leading to forbidden rooms and
by Confederate soldiers. In addition to being
specters appearing in mirrors.
seen pacing back and forth as if on duty, the
At Oxford and Cambridge universities in
ghostly soldiers knock posters off the walls of
England, the residential colleges take pride in
students’ rooms.
their ghosts, which often are related to histori-
cal events. The history of American college
ghosts covers a shorter period of time but in- Specters
cludes a number of colorful figures.
Locally known college ghosts include specters
that appear in elevators, bathrooms, hallways,
American Ghosts basements, and mirrors. On some campuses,
A long-standing tradition at Emory University including Binghamton University in New York,
in Atlanta, Georgia, involves a ghost named there have been reports of Native American
Dooley. This ghost has represented student ghosts standing silently near buildings. Other
spirit at Emory since 1899. Dooley’s Week is colleges, including Mount Saint Mary’s in

190 Ghosts, Aviation
Emmitsburg, Maryland, retain stories of the copter; a similar story of a haunted airplane is
ghosts of slaves who suffered at the hands of told in Ohio.
their owners. There are other stories of aircraft, airports,
Avery F. Gordon explains in Ghostly Matters and aviation hangars being haunted by ghosts.
(1997) that many of these stories of spectral vis- In Texas, a hanger in an abandoned World
itors serve to remind us of events in the past War II military base is said to be haunted by a
that should not be forgotten. man who hung himself from the rafters. He
Elizabeth Tucker has been seen peering out the broken win-
dows of the old building. Other stories report
See also: Ghosts and Hauntings. pilots and passengers haunting sites where
they died in aircraft crashes.
Sources
Bronner, Simon J. Piled Higher and Deeper: The Folklore of
Student Life. Little Rock, AR: August House, 1995. Flight 401
Brown, Alan. Shadows and Cypress: Southern Ghost Stories.
Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2000. The most detailed and well-documented avia-
Gordon, Avery F. Ghostly Matters: Haunting and the Socio- tion ghost story is related to the crash of an
logical Imagination. Minneapolis: University of Min- Eastern Airlines Lockheed 1011 on December
nesota Press, 1997.
Hauck, Dennis W. Haunted Places: The National Directory.
29, 1972. Flight 401 quickly became the source
Rev. ed. New York: Penguin, 1996. of rumors throughout the airline industry.
Yeates, Geoff. Cambridge College Ghosts. Norwich, UK: Flight attendants and pilots on other planes
Jarrold, 1994. told of “seeing” the images of the dead crew
members. They witnessed a face in the win-
dow of a galley oven or a ghost sitting in
Ghosts, Aviation the passenger cabin in uniform. Occasionally,
these specters were even witnessed performing
T here are a number of supernatural stories

related to the field of aviation.
Ghost planes have been spotted in En-
crew duties.
The main cause of the plane crash was the
inadvertent disconnection of the automatic pi-
gland. In 1997, a group out comet watching in lot control. This caused the aircraft to gradually
Sheffield, an area where numerous planes had descend while the pilots were preoccupied with
crashed during World War II, reported that a what turned out to be a minor maintenance
propeller plane flew low over their heads and problem. Traveling at night over the Florida
crashed nearby, but searchers found nothing. Everglades, there were no visual clues to give
In 2004, about thirty eyewitnesses claimed the pilots enough warning to pull up prior to
they saw a ghostly Lancaster bomber move impact. One hundred people perished, includ-
silently across the sky and disappear. ing two of the three pilots: Captain Bob Loft
Also in England, the last Avro Lincoln and Second Officer Don Repo.
bomber in existence is located in the Cosford Though many perished, the aircraft was
Aerospace Museum. The airplane is said to be not totally destroyed. Following the investiga-
haunted by a ghostly pilot in the cockpit. In tion, many of the plane’s salvageable parts
England’s North East Aircraft Museum, a heli- were placed on new Lockheed TriStar aircraft
copter once used for search and rescue is said or in Eastern Airlines’ spare parts inventory.
to be haunted by passengers who died en Eastern Airlines aircraft number N318EA re-
route, and a ghostly soldier wearing a Royal ceived the majority of these reused parts. This
Air Force uniform has been seen by and spo- airplane gained the reputation as the “ghost
ken to visitors in hangar one. In Missouri, a plane” where most of the paranormal sightings
pilot is said to haunt a former U.S. Army heli- took place. Traditionally, spirits are drawn to

Ghosts: A Sampling of Stor ies 191
inanimate objects that have a strong connec- Norway

tion to their lives in the physical world. Captain
Loft seemed to favor sitting quietly in the first- The Draugen is the ghost of a dead fisherman
class cabin, disappearing when confronted. who did not receive a Christian burial. He
Some people speculate that the ghosts of sails in a half-boat with shredded sails. Any-
Loft and Repo were unable to pass on to the one who sees him suffers death by drowning.
next life, because they felt responsible for the
deaths of the passengers. There are many ac- Czech Republic
counts of the ghost of Repo being preoccupied Hans Hagen is the ghost of a German soldier
with the safety of Eastern’s Lockheed 1011s, or secret service agent from World War II. He
particularly aircraft N318EA. In one instance, is said to haunt the so-called Amerika quarry
the apparition of Repo told a captain that he and the surrounding caves near Prague. He
would never let another crash happen. murders or imprisons intruders by causing
This ghost story that circulated in hushed parts of the caves to collapse.
voices among international flight crews for There is also said to be a stalactite that can
years was brought to the public’s awareness be struck like a bell. Anyone foolish enough to
first by John G. Fuller’s book The Ghost of hit it and say, “Hagen, take me!” will die within
Flight 401 (1976), and then later by a television a year.
movie starring Ernest Borgnine as Don Repo.
Singer Bob Welch of the band Fleetwood Mac
wrote a song about the tragedy called “The
Judeo-Christian Tradition
Ghost of Flight 401.” The Book of Enoch, which was written between
Byron Tetrick the Old and New Testaments of the Bible, de-
scribes evil spirits that wander the world end-
See also: Ghosts and Hauntings. lessly yearning for food and drink, even though
they have no mouths. They seek to possess the
Sources spirits and bodies of weak-willed men and
Currie, Jack. Echoes in the Air: A Chronicle of Aeronautical women.
Ghost Stories. Manchester, UK: Crecy, 1998.
Fuller, Elizabeth. My Search for the Ghost of Flight 401.
New York: Berkley, 1978. India
Fuller, John G. The Ghost of Flight 401. New York: Berkley,
1976.
In Hindu belief, pisachas, also known as vetala,
Hudnall, Ken. Spirits of the Border V: The History and are hostile spirits of the dead whose children
Mystery of the Lone Star State. El Paso, TX: Omega, did not perform the necessary funerary rites in
2005. their memory. These spirits haunt cemeteries
Innes, Brian. Ghosts of Flight 401. Austin, TX: Raintree
and ruins, and they can drive people mad, kill
Steck Vaughn, 1999.
children, and cause miscarriages.
Ghosts: A Sampling Thailand

Mae Nak was a beautiful young woman who
of Stories married a man named Tid Mak. While she was
pregnant with their first child, Tid Mak was
S torytellers are familiar with traditional ghost

stories and hauntings that take place in
American and English locations. There are also
called to join the army in northern Thailand.
When he returned, Tid Mak found his family
waiting for him. When he embraced his wife,
many examples from around the world. Here Tid Mak was shocked at how cold Mae Nak’s
are a few. body felt, but he thought nothing of it.

192 Ghosts and Hauntings
When the family sat down to dinner, a sud- This sampling of ghost tales reflects the
den gust of cold wind made Tid Mak drop his universality of the genre and the rich interna-
spoon. Mae Nak lengthened her hand to catch tional sources available to the storyteller.
it. Tid Mak asked her about this action, and
she cried out and told him that she had died. See also: Ghosts and Hauntings.
Only then did Tid Mak realize that his wife
Sources
and child were ghosts.
De Leeuw, Adele. Indonesian Legends and Folk Tales. New
York: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1961.
Indonesia Eriksen, Jan Bergh. Trolls and Their Relatives. Stavanger,
Norway: Dreyer Bok, n.d.
A pontianak is the spirit of a woman who died Grinnell, George B. Blackfoot Lodge Tales: The Story of
in childbirth and comes back to seek revenge a Prairie People. Lincoln: University of Nebraska
Press, 1962.
against the living. She sometimes appears in
Iwasaka, Michiko, and Barre Toelken. Ghosts and the
the form of a beautiful woman, but also mate- Japanese: Culture Experience in Japanese Death Legends.
rializes as a head and neck with dangling in- Logan: Utah State University Press, 1994.
testines. The pontianak takes this hideous Olson, Arielle North, and Howard Schwartz. Ask the
shape when she wants to feed and kill. Bones: Scary Stories from Around the World. New York:
Puffin, 2002.
The only way to stop the pontianak is to Schwartz, Alvin. More Scary Tales to Tell in the Dark. New
plunge a nail into the back of her neck. This York: Harper Trophy, 1987.
traps her in human form so she can be killed. ———. Scary Tales to Tell in the Dark. New York: Harper
Trophy, 1986.
Young Richard, and Judy Dockrey Young. Favorite Scary
Japan Stories of American Children. Little Rock, AR: August
House, 1999.
There are many Japanese ghost stories. One
example is the story of Okiku, who worked as
a maid at the home of the samurai Tessan
Aoyama. One day while cleaning a collection
Ghosts and Hauntings
of ten precious ceramic plates, Okiku acciden-
tally broke one of them. The outraged Tessan
Aoyama killed Okiku and threw her corpse A ghost is the spirit of a person who has
died, a spirit that, for some reason, re-
mains here on Earth. A few distinctive charac-
into an old well.
Every night afterward, Okiku’s ghost rose teristics are common to all ghosts. They are
from the well, counted slowly to nine, and noncorporeal and, as such, are not subject to
broke into heartrending sobs, tormenting the normal physical laws. Ghosts rarely appear in
samurai. Finally, vengeance was wrought when daylight and generally are restricted in their
Tessan Aoyama went insane. movements. Many are confined to a specific
In an alternate version, the samurai place, which they are said to haunt.
wished Okiku to become his mistress and This definition holds whether or not one
falsely accused her of breaking a plate so that believes in the existence of ghosts. The idea
he could offer forgiveness in exchange for her that ghosts exist and that they are the spirits of
love. When she refused, he killed her. the dead is pervasive throughout societies
from around the world. The ancient Babyloni-
ans, Native Americans, Africans, Pacific Is-
Native American landers, and Australian Aborigines all have
In Blackfoot mythology, the stau-au are the a traditional belief in ghosts. All of these cul-
ghosts of wicked people. Usually, the deceased tures agree that ghosts are indeed the spirits of
live in a certain range of hills, but malignant the dead.
spirits loiter near encampments. They cause Belief in ghosts is often tied to religious be-
harm to the living, especially after sunset. liefs. In Christian beliefs, the souls of people

Ghosts and Hauntings 193
who have died are supposed to go to heaven, warned white and Cherokee travelers of the
hell, or purgatory, or at least to rest until Judg- presence of Shawnee raiders. In more modern
ment Day. Spirits that do not follow the usual times, he is said to appear to warn drivers
path are believed to haunt the earth. about icy conditions on the highway.
Why Ghosts Exist Railroad Ghosts

Explanations of why a spirit stays behind usu- Another explanation for the presence of ghosts
ally are related to the manner in which the peris that they have remained to make amends. A
son died or to something that affects those who classic example of this is in Brunswick County,
were near and dear to the deceased. Ghosts of- North Carolina. A mysterious light, known as
ten seek revenge, sometimes against whoever the Maco light, has been seen by many wit-
caused their death. nesses along the railroad tracks.
Some ghosts are believed to have unfin- This light is supposed to be the lantern be-
ished business on Earth. They might remain longing to Joe Baldwin, a conductor who was
on Earth to protect a family member or other riding on the last car of a train on a night in
loved one from disaster. One such ghost is the 1867. The car accidentally uncoupled from the
spirit of an early trapper that haunts U.S. High- rest of the train. Knowing another train was
way 23 near Gate City, Virginia. After the trap- coming, Baldwin stood on the back platform
per was killed in a Shawnee ambush, his ghost and waved his lantern frantically, but the engi-
neer of the oncoming train did not see it in
time. There was a collision, and Baldwin was
killed. His lantern survived unscathed.
The presence of the ghostly Maco light is
explained as Baldwin attempting to prevent
the collision. Another theory is that it is the
ghost of the engineer of the oncoming train,
who remains on Earth to pay for his lack of
attentiveness.
Other mysterious lights are commonly
seen along railroad tracks. Notable accounts
are found in Chapel Hill, Tennessee, and in
Gurdon, Arizona. In both cases, the lights are
said to have originated when a railway worker
was killed and decapitated by a train. Neither
man’s head was ever found, possibly because
of the extreme force of the massive weight of
the locomotive. At both locations, the light is
said to be a lantern carried by a ghost who is,
like the famous ghost in Washington Irving’s
The Legend of Sleepy Hollow (1820), searching
for his missing head.
Haunted Residences
This nineteenth-century illustration depicts a horrified Some ghosts lay claim to a house and attempt
family in the midst of poltergeist activity. While modern to drive intruders away. The ghosts that pur-
science does not accept the existence of ghosts, there
is no proof that they do not exist. (Time & Life Pic- portedly inhabit Bobby Mackey’s Music World,
tures/Getty Images) a nightclub located on the bank of the Licking

River in Wilder, Kentucky, have been said to In many cases a ghost, while seeming to
tell people to “get out.” act intelligently and to have motivations of its
The building that is now occupied by the own, does not appear to have any particular
nightclub has served various purposes. Begin- goal in mind. The supposed ghosts of the vari-
ning as a slaughterhouse, it was reportedly ous queens put to death by England’s King
used as a disposal site in the 1896 murder of Henry VIII and other unfortunate victims of
Pearl Bryan. Her nude and headless body was politics—Anne Boleyn, Lady Jane Grey, and
found nearby. Bryan, who was pregnant by others—have been the subject of sightings by
the son of a notable minister, had been decap- hundreds of people. But, judging by the con-
itated by means of dental tools, which meant tents of the reports, these apparitions are not
her death was protracted and agonizing. Her particularly active and do not seem to want
head was never found. anything in particular. They simply wander
The building became a nightclub in the aimlessly.
1920s, and subsequently was the scene of nu- Recently, there was a similar ghost in Cal-
merous shootings and of a particularly notable ifornia. This ghost supposedly communicated
murder and suicide. Johanna, the daughter of with, became friends with, and even acted as
the man who owned the club at the time, was mentor and advisor to the teenagers who lived
impregnated by a singer who worked there. in the house she haunted. According to this
Johanna’s outraged father used his gangland ghost, she did not know why she had not
connections to have the singer murdered, and “passed on” to the next life. She “woke” after
Johanna subsequently committed suicide. She her death and did not realize she had died. So
was reputed to have worn rose-scented per- she simply returned to the house where she
fume. That scent and songs from the 1930s and had formerly lived.
1940s playing on jukeboxes that are not turned
on are cited as evidence of the haunting.
Bobby Mackey’s wife claims she was ordered
Ghosts and Science
out of the place when she was five months The definition of haunted extends beyond the
pregnant—exactly as far along in her preg- concept of the ghost. A haunted place is one
nancy as both Pearl and Johanna had been. where things happen that do not seem to have
The famous haunted house in Amityville, any natural explanation. Modern science does
New York, which inspired the movie The Ami- not accept the existence of ghosts or haunts
tyville Horror (1979; remade in 2005), also may and holds that these things always have a nat-
fall into this category. But there are so many ural explanation. It is just that the explanation
conflicting claims about this supposed haunt- is not known to the observer.
ing, the truth of the matter is difficult to The problem for scientists is that there is
discern. no proof that ghosts do not exist. There is no
coherent and testable hypothesis concerning
the nature of a ghost. The existence—or
Other Explanations nonexistence—of a disembodied spirit of a
In non-Christian cultures, different reasons for dead person cannot be confirmed in any way.
hauntings are sometimes given. Some Native Many have attempted to confirm the exis-
American tribes, the Pawnee and Wichita in tence of these spirits. Escape artist Harry Hou-
particular, believe that the soul of a person who dini spent much of his life trying to
was scalped could not rest unless certain spe- communicate with the spirit of his mother
cific rituals were performed. If the tribe neg- through mediums. Houdini and his wife Bess
lected to perform the rituals, then the ghost of made a pact that whoever died first would try
that person would remain. These ghosts could to communicate with the living spouse. The
be very troublesome to the tribe. couple created a ten-word code, known only to

Ghosts and Hauntings 195
the two of them, which could be used to verify ied voices being heard, and an attack on one
the communication. After Houdini’s death in of his soldiers by something unseen. Jackson
1926, Bess offered a reward of $10,000 to any and his entourage left hastily the next morn-
medium who could establish contact with her ing. Later, as president, Jackson was quoted as
husband. For ten years, Bess tried to contact his saying, “I’d rather fight the entire British
spirit. Although most of the mediums claimed Army than to deal with the Bell Witch.”
success, none of them was ever able to produce Poltergeists, or mischievous ghosts, are not
the ten-word code. spirits. Poltergeist activity is normally mani-
fested by moving objects, unexplained fires or
floods, and other such events. This activity is
Spirits and Poltergeists distinctly linked to the presence of a disturbed
In essentially every culture where the concept adolescent. These cases are now referred to in
of the ghost is current, there is—or at least the parapsychological literature as cases of re-
was, at some point in the past—a parallel be- current spontaneous psychokinesis.
lief in other types of spirits, such as nature
spirits, angels, and so on. There are, however, Hauntings or Electromagnetics?
no clear-cut criteria that distinguish ghosts from
Even though the explanation of a ghost as the
these other spirits, other than the belief that at
spirit of a dead person remains prevalent,
least some of them are not confined to specific
there is an alternate theory based on lab-
physical areas.
oratory findings by the author Dr. W.G. Roll
There are accounts of events that can be
and others. These researchers believe that
considered ghost stories but feature some sort
hauntings, and by extension ghosts, may be
of intelligence of undetermined nature other
accompanied by disturbances in local elec-
than a ghost. The so-called Bell Witch is one
tromagnetic fields.
such story, although, despite its name, this
These scientific studies are in their infancy,
story is not about a witch.
and any claims that ghosts can be reliably
In 1817 in Robertson County, Tennessee,
detected by observing the local electromag-
settler John Bell came across a strange animal
netic field are grossly exaggerated. This re-
in his cornfield, an animal he described as
search has found, however, that the presence
having a rabbit’s head and a dog’s body. Bell
of ghosts generally is characterized by one or
fired his rifle at the animal but was inexplica-
more of a few fairly common and consistent
bly unable to hit it, and it vanished among the
observations:
corn. That same evening, he and his family
believed they heard odd sounds outside their
house, as if a number of people were beating • Visual sightings of a ghost, which can
on the walls with switches. run from encountering an apparently
From that time on, for the rest of John solid and corporeal person to vague
Bell’s life, he and his family were tormented glimpses of shadowy or translucent
by an entity that manifested itself in a wide va- figures.
riety of ways. It sometimes talked to them and • Hearing the ghost, which can range
was said to be able to foretell the future and from hearing what may seem at the
give details about events that happened hun- time to be ordinary voices to unex-
dreds of miles away. plained footsteps, cries or moans, rat-
In 1819, future president Andrew Jackson tling chains, and so on.
visited the Bell home with a company of sol- • Unexplained physical sensations, in-
diers, determined to find out the truth about cluding the often-cited rising of body
the Bell Witch. He reported odd phenomena hairs, as well as the sensation of en-
such as a wagon refusing to move, disembod- countering cold spots in an otherwise

warm room. Sometimes scents are said Audio versions of pareidolia also occur,
to be indicative of the presence of a such as the supposed satanic lyrics that were
ghost, as in the case of Bobby Mackey’s heard when certain records were played back-
Music World, where Johanna’s rose- ward and the unintelligible voices people
scented perfume commonly accompa- sometimes hear behind white- or pink-noise
nies the phenomenon. sources, such as air conditioners. The current
• Apparently inexplicable events, such interest in the electronic voice phenomenon,
as the spontaneous opening of doors. popularized by the 2005 movie White Noise
and claimed by some to provide proof of life
Simple charges of static electricity can after death, shows how seductive these misin-
cause the rising hairs often cited in these events, terpretations can be.
and the human sensory system attempts to ex-
plain anomalous events in terms of the known Apophenia
senses. Very high-level magnetic fields, for ex-
ample, which can be detected by human beings Apophenia is closely related to pareidolia. It is
and other animals, often are seen and de- the tendency humans have to see patterns or
scribed as a purplish glow, although there is no connections between events that actually are
light being generated by the magnetic source random. For example, disconnected phenom-
and the effect cannot be photographed. ena in a house, such as an unidentified sound
Tens of thousands of purported ghost pho- happening at the same time as a door sliding
tographs exist, but most of these misinterpret open, may be taken to indicate the presence of
simple and well-known phenomena. A classic a ghost.
example is the so-called orb photograph. This Sometimes, houses are moved from their
image is featured on hundreds of Internet sites original locations. This is most common in
and in quite a few books. Orbs may be lens mountainous areas, where dwellings built on
refractions—an effect that is familiar to profes- hillsides move as the hillside is gradually un-
sional photographers—or photos of common dermined by water. These buildings often be-
objects that appear strange under the circum- come distorted by the movement, so that the
stances. Perhaps a moth, photographed at night angles in the rooms no longer measure 90 de-
and illuminated by a flash, is so close to the grees. People subliminally perceive angles that
camera’s lens that it is out of focus. Double ex- measure slightly more or a little less than 90
posures caused by the failure of a camera to degrees, and many are made uncomfortable in
properly advance the film are another frequent such distorted rooms and may describe them
explanation for ghost photographs. And, of as spooky.
course, quite a few such photographs are delib- Recent experiments conducted in haunted
erate fakes. sites in Great Britain revealed that there was
consistency among observers as to which ar-
eas they felt were haunted. Other studies of
Pareidolia haunted houses in Britain have shown that,
Another natural explanation for ghost more often than not, there are disturbances in
photographs—and for ghostly phenomena in the magnetic fields in such places. Also, the
general—lies in the psychological concept of places in those houses where the occupants
pareidolia. This tendency to see order in ran- find they are best able to sleep tend to be those
dom patterns lies behind many reported para- areas that have the most consistent and normal
normal incidents and even such phenomena magnetic field strengths.
as UFOs. The Man in the Moon, faces seen in In support of the theory that electromag-
clouds, or the image of Jesus Christ seen on a nets are associated with ghostly phenomena is
tortilla are all examples of pareidolia. the fact that so-called haunted places usually

Ghosts in T heaters 197
are castles, old houses, and so on. Such loca- ciated with them. Only more research will pro-
tions are considered spooky due to their state vide definitive answers to these questions.
of disrepair or obvious antiquity. Places in
the wilderness may be considered spooky Graham Watkins
due to their wildness, remoteness, or certain
natural features. Linking an electromagnetic See also: Camp Stories; Campfire Story-
association with a spooky location leads the telling; Ghost Stories, College; Ghosts, Avia-
human observer to expect supernatural tion; Ghosts: A Sampling of Stories; Ghosts
events. in Theaters.
If ghosts are indeed the result of unusual
electromagnetic activity, then there is the pos- Sources
sibility that such fields can behave in ways that Warren, Joshua P. How to Hunt Ghosts: A Practical Guide.
New York: Simon and Schuster, 2003.
could easily be interpreted as intelligent. Sev- Watkins, Graham. Ghosts and Poltergeists. New York:
eral scholars have put forward the idea that Rosen, 2002.
these fields could somehow be programmed.
The most common idea is that a discharge of
electromagnetic energy occurs when a person
dies, especially when that person dies vio-
Ghosts in Theaters
lently. Under certain conditions, this could re-
main as an organized field that might react in
specific ways to the presence of another per-
M ost traditional theaters can claim at least
one ghost. The larger-than-life world of
the theater, with its elements of fantasy and
son or animal.
storytelling, is a likely reason for this. The as-
This speculation is based on the fact that
sociation of ghosts with theaters also may be
there is constant electrical activity in the living
traced to the fact that many of these theaters
human body. Some degree of electrical dis-
are unique architectural structures with a good
charge must take place on the collapse of these
deal of history, and wherever there is history,
fields when electrical death—the cessation of
there are ghosts. In the United States, there
brain and other neural activity—occurs. This
are many examples of haunted theaters.
may be particularly true in instances where this
cessation occurs suddenly rather than gradu-
ally, as would be the case in the violent murder
From Coast to Coast
of someone young and healthy. The Pantages Theatre in Hollywood is said to
Another possible explanation for ghosts be haunted by the ghost of a female patron who
lies in the effects of infrasound. Infrasound is died there in the first half of the twentieth cen-
defined as sound emitted at a frequency below tury. She sometimes can be heard singing, and
the threshold of human hearing. Animals that her voice is said to have been heard during a
have hearing thresholds lower than those of musical performed here in 1994. Howard
humans—such as alligators, elephants, giraffes, Hughes’s ghost also may be haunting the the-
and whales—use infrasound to communicate. ater’s second floor, where his office once was.
Sounds at lower frequencies can carry for many Also in Hollywood, the Palace Theater has
miles. Infrasound seems to evoke specific emo- a musical ghost that sometimes plays jazz piano
tions in humans, in particular awe, sorrow, anx- when the theater is closed. There is also a fe-
iety, fear, and even chills. male ghost who leaves behind the scent of her
So, do ghosts exist? They very well may, perfume. And on the main floor, a man with a
but proof of their existence is elusive. The as- transparent face and wearing a tuxedo is said to
sertion that haunted places are real seems to be sit reading his paper from time to time.
more certain, as there are places and structures Sam Warner, cofounder of the Warner
that undeniably have strange phenomena asso- Brothers film company, is said to haunt the

198 Ghosts in T heaters
Warner Pacific Theater on Hollywood Boule- Western States

vard. His ghost has been seen pacing in the
lobby and riding the elevator. He also is said The Sioux Falls Community Theater in Sioux
to move furniture around in offices upstairs Falls, South Dakota, has a ghost known as
and to move or take, sometimes permanently, Larry who appears from time to time. He
tools and electronic items. seems to be trying to communicate with theater
The Little Theater in Jamestown, New people but so far has had no success.
York, seems to have several ghosts, although no In Pleasant Grove, Utah, the Grove The-
names are given. The door to the shoe room ater, formerly the Alhambra Theater, has had
apparently slams shut and locks on its own. A a history of ghostly phenomena. These inci-
male ghost sometimes haunts the practice dents have included strange noises, doors
room and boiler room, and there have been re- opening and closing, and mysterious voices.
ports of a male ghost on stage, moving props In Seattle, Washington, the Harvard Exit
around, though not during performances. Theater is said to harbor a group of ghosts. Two
In New York City, one particularly well- female ghosts are said to haunt the lobby, one
known haunted theater is the Belasco, located ghost has been reported on the second floor,
on West Forty-fourth Street. The theater, built and several supposedly haunt the third floor.
by theater impresario David Belasco, first The Wisconsin Union Theater houses two
opened in 1907. Belasco loved the theater. Af- ghosts. The first is said to be that of a con-
ter his death in 1931, his ghost often appeared struction worker who died during the build-
in what had been his private box, watching ing of the theater in 1939. The second is of a
the performances. percussionist with the Minneapolis Symphony,
who died on March 12, 1950, during a perfor-
mance.
Down South The famous Guthrie Theater in Min-
The Capital Plaza Theater in downtown neapolis, Minnesota, is said to have been
Charleston, South Carolina, was built in the haunted by the ghost of Richard Miller. The
early 1900s on the site of what had been a man- young man, who had worked as an usher in
sion owned by the Welch family. There have the theater, killed himself in 1967.
been reports of ghostly visits by two of the Dayton, Ohio, has two haunted theaters.
Welch children: John, who likes to play tricks Memorial Hall, the home of the Dayton Phil-
on the actors, and Molly, who sometimes sits in harmonic, apparently is haunted by the ghost
the balcony during performances. Some people of a former custodian. Stagehands have re-
have reported feeling cold drafts upon entering ported that the lighting system behaves errati-
the theater. cally, and footsteps sound on the overhead
The Orpheum Theater in Memphis, Ten- (and empty) catwalks. The second of Dayton’s
nessee, has been said to be haunted by the haunted theaters is the Victoria Theater, pur-
ghost of a young woman named Mary. It has ported to be home to at least two ghosts. The
been reported that the actor Yul Brynner once first is the ghost of an actress who disappeared
saw the ghost sitting in her favorite seat in the mysteriously in the early 1900s, and who often
balcony wearing a 1920s-style white dress. leaves behind the scent of rose perfume. The
The Tampa Theater in Tampa, Florida, is other ghost is that of a young woman who
supposed to be haunted by Foster Fink Finley. died in one of the theater boxes. On one occa-
The projectionist died of a heart attack in the sion, a man who dared to enter the box re-
projection booth in 1965. Although in life Fin- ported being slapped across the face by the
ley kept to his projection booth, he is said to ghost.
move objects, make sounds, and perform other In Honolulu, Hawaii, the Dole Cannery
ghostly feats throughout the theater. Signature Theaters have a double haunting.

Giants 199
The first is in Theater 14, in the form of a man In the myths of North America, giants are
in his late fifties who occupies a top corner seat. usually portrayed as primal beings, often de-
The second is in a theater bathroom, where the scribed as made of earth or rock. In these
voices of the victims of a school bus crash that myths, rather than fighting the gods, the giants
happened in the 1980s still can be heard. are the enemies of humankind and often are
destroyed by human heroes.
See also: Ghosts and Hauntings. The bodies of dead giants often play an
important role in creation myths, as they are
Sources used by gods to form the earth or even the
Jacobson, Laurie, and Marc Wanamaker. Hollywood heavens. This occurs in the Norse myth of
Haunted: A Ghostly Tour of Filmland. Santa Monica,
Ymir and the Mesopotamian myth of Tiamat.
CA: Angel City, 1994.
Myers, Arthur. The Ghosthunter’s Guide to Haunted Land- There is a cryptic reference to giants in the
marks, Parks, Churches, and Other Public Places. New Book of Genesis that states “in those days
York: McGraw-Hill, 1993. there were giants in the earth.” Scholars have
Riccio, Dolores, and Joan Bingham. Haunted Houses long debated whether or not literal giants
USA. New York: Pocket Books, 1989.
Smith, Barbara. Haunted Theaters. Edmonton, Alberta, were meant. In the Book of Kings, David
Canada: Ghost House, 2002. fights the giant Goliath, who is a gigantic man,
a champion warrior of the Philistines.
But not all mythological giants are ene-
Giants mies to humankind. In the Mabinogion, the
Welsh medieval collection of ancient tales, the
hero Bran was a giant. He was so powerful
G iants are incredibly large human-shaped
beings. They are found in folklore and
mythology from around the world and are de-
that even after foes beheaded him, his head
protected his men and guided them to safety.
picted as enemies of humans, indifferent to
humans, or, rarely, friends to humans or even Folk Giants
heroes. In folktales, giants are frequently por-
trayed as stupid, often are greedy, and are
Mythic Giants sometimes man-eaters. One of the best-known
The giants of mythology generally are por- lines attributed to a rather dim folkloric giant
trayed as primordial creatures, powerful and appears in the English “Jack and the
sometimes slow moving. They are the person- Beanstalk.” The giant declares:
ification of the earth’s force.
These beings often are described as mem- Fee, fi, fo, fum,
bers of an older race, one that predates hu- I smell the blood of an Englishman.
mankind or even the gods. Such primordial Be he alive or be he dead,
races of giants include the Greek Titans and I’ll grind his bones to make my bread.
the Norse Jotun. The latter were said to reside
in a gigantic realm called Jotunheim. Rather grotesquely, this rhyme is often
These early gigantic beings were at war included in collections of nursery rhymes for
with the newcomer gods and were generally young children.
the losers in such conflicts. The Titans were The fact that at least two English folktales
supplanted by Zeus and his Olympic pan- feature a giant-killer named Jack—“Jack and
theon, while the Jotun were continually fight- the Beanstalk” and “Jack the Giant Killer”—
ing with the Norse deities and were, in fact, adds an interesting twist, since Jack is portrayed
cheated by Odin in a deal to build Asgard, the not as a traditional, sword-swinging hero but as
gods’ home. a trickster. This can be compared to one of the

200 Giants
know was that the hole drained into the sea.

And so Bolster bled to death. The village of
St. Agnes still holds a Bolster Festival every
spring, which includes a puppet show with gi-
ant puppets reenacting the story of Bolster’s
downfall.
Ancient Formations
and Modern Incarnations
Archaeological or geological sites are some-
times attributed to giants. The natural rock for-
mation known as the Giant’s Causeway in
Northern Ireland has been explained as the
work of giants. Finn MacCool supposedly built
the causeway as a means to reach the Scottish
island of Staffa.
Some Neolithic stone circles, including
Stonehenge, are claimed to be the handiwork
Jack the Giant Killer confronts a giant who looks rather
of giants. Many ancient monuments, particu-
unimpressed. This illustration by John Lawson appears larly in Scandinavia, are said to be giants’
in a book of stories by Constance Wilde published in burial sites. And mountains are sometimes
1888. (© Image Select/Art Resource, NY) described as the bodies of sleeping or dead
giants.
In literature, giants often take on more
few mythological examples of a human defeat- satiric roles. In the medieval Scandinavian
ing a giant. In Homer’s Odyssey, when Odysseus epic of Arrow-Odd, a giant girl takes the hero
defeats the one-eyed giant, Cyclops, it is not by for a doll and picks him up. The story takes a
force of arms but by trickery. more ribald turn when she discovers he is
Folklore does include some friendly gi- alive. In Jonathan Swift’s 1726 work, Gulliver’s
ants, particularly in Great Britain. The English Travels, the feckless hero has a somewhat sim-
giant of Grabbist liked humans and saved the ilar experience as the pampered pet of the
crews of ships in trouble. He also was said to giants.
have tossed the devil into the Bristol Channel. In the modern world, giants have lost most
Another friendly giant was the giant of Carn of their mythic power. They might appear as gi-
Galva in Cornwall, who protected the people ant robots in movies such as the 1999 animated
from bandits. Finn MacCool, the Irish folk feature The Iron Giant, or in advertisements sell-
hero, whose stories may date to the first or sec- ing vegetables as the Green Giant, a kindly and
ond century C.E., is featured in later Celtic beneficent being.
folklore as a giant.
Christian folklore also has tales of giants. See also: Upelluri/Ubelluris; Ymir.
In the Cornish tale of Saint Agnes, a giant
named Bolster was enamored of her and fol- Sources
lowed her around. Saint Agnes was unable to Briggs, Katharine. An Encyclopedia of Fairies: Hobgoblins,
get rid of Bolster, so she challenged him. He Brownies, Bogies, and Other Supernatural Creatures.
New York: Pantheon, 1976.
was to prove his love for her by filling up a Gordon, Stuart. The Encyclopedia of Myths and Legends.
hole in the rocks with his blood. Bolster London: Headline, 1993.
agreed. What the unfortunate giant did not Teale, Sarah. Giants. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1979.

Gilgamesh 201
Gilgamesh sought the counsel of the city elders, who rec-

ommended submission. He rejected their ad-
vice and rallied the support of the city’s young
(Sumerian and Babylonian) men to prepare for war. Soon after, Aka laid
siege and the battle began. Aka’s forces were
G ilgamesh was a legendary king of the
Sumerian city of Uruk who is celebrated
in Sumerian and Babylonian mythology.
defeated, and he was captured. The story con-
cludes with Gilgamesh showing magnanimity
and setting Aka free, allowing him to return to
Stories about his exploits probably began
his city.
as oral compositions during the third millen-
In Gilgamesh and Huwawa, also known as
nium B.C.E. These stories were first recorded
Gilgamesh and the Cedar Forest, Gilgamesh
during the third dynasty of Ur, around
sought glory and fame through an expedition
2111–2004 B.C.E. In the second millennium
to the fabled Cedar Mountain. Gilgamesh and
B.C.E., Babylonian scribes combined elements
his servant Enkidu traveled to the mountain
of the older epics into a new composition,
and encountered the demigod Huwawa, the
called He Who Saw the Deep. This work eventu-
guardian of the forest. Gilgamesh and Enkidu
ally became known as The Epic of Gilgamesh.
managed to confound, capture, and eventu-
The epic uses stories about the hero Gil-
ally slay Huwawa.
gamesh to illustrate themes about the brevity
A third myth, Gilgamesh and the Bull of
and fragility of human life and the responsibil-
Heaven, deals with the antagonistic and per-
ities of leaders.
haps frustrated sexual relationship between
When the stories about Gilgamesh were
Gilgamesh and Inanna, the queen of heaven.
first recorded, Ur-Namma was ruler of the
Inanna, rebuffed by Gilgamesh, implored her
newly formed city-state Ur. Ur-Namma sought
father to grant her control of the Bull of
to stress his connections to his capital city as
Heaven to kill Gilgamesh. Gilgamesh and his
part of his attempt to claim legitimacy for his
servant Enkidu grappled with the bull. Enkidu
new dynasty, Uruk. He invoked the city’s
seized the bull by its tail while Gilgamesh
gods, built temples in their honor, and claimed
lifted his mighty axe and killed the bull. After-
to be the older brother of the legendary Gil-
ward, Gilgamesh gave the meat of the slain
gamesh. (According to tradition, Gilgamesh
bull to the orphans of the city.
was the offspring of the goddess Ninsun.) Ur-
The fourth tale is Gilgamesh and the Nether-
Namma was succeeded by Shulgi, who also
world or Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld.
claimed to be the brother, friend, and comrade
The story begins just after creation, after
of Gilgamesh.
heaven and Earth were separated, mankind
was established, and the overlordship of the
The Five Existing Tales universe was divided among the major gods. A
It is not known how many tales of Gilgamesh great storm blew over a willow tree, which the
were originally recorded. The five surviving goddess Inanna then replanted in her garden.
stories were inscribed on cuneiform tablets As the tree grew, it was inhabited by three
during the eighteenth century B.C.E. by stu- beings—the Snake-That-Knows-No-Charm,
dents who practiced their writing by copying an Anzu bird, and a Demon-Maiden.
texts. The stories are known today by titles The goddess complained to Gilgamesh,
given to them by modern translators. who destroyed the demons, tore the tree out at
In Gilgamesh and Aka, Gilgamesh, king of its roots, and snapped off its branches. Gil-
Uruk, triumphed over his overlord and foe, gamesh gave some of the wood to Inanna to
King Aka of Kish. The story begins with Aka be made into a bed and throne, and he used
sending emissaries to Uruk with the demand the rest to make two playthings, possibly a ball
that the city submit to him. Gilgamesh initially and stick. These playthings fell into a pit that

202 Gilgamesh
led into the netherworld. Enkidu, Gilgamesh’s A nearly complete edition of the epic, the
servant, volunteered to fetch them. so-called standard version, was recorded on
Upon his return to the world of the living, twelve tablets in the seventh century B.C.E.
Enkidu told Gilgamesh about the terrible con- These tablets were discovered by archaeolo-
ditions besetting the dead. He reported that gists in Nineveh at the library of King Ashur-
the only way to avoid such misery was to have banipal of Assyria, in what is now part of
many sons to provide offerings to the gods. northern Iraq.
Those who were childless would suffer the
most, and those who were burned to death
and left no remains would become evil ghosts.
The Epic of Gilgamesh
In the fifth tale, The Death of Gilgamesh, Gil- The epic’s prologue begins at the ramparts of
gamesh lay dying and dreamed that the gods Uruk. King Gilgamesh, born of a human fa-
were meeting to review his life and discuss his ther and a divine mother, had superhuman
destiny. The deities discussed his exploits but strength and lorded it over his subjects. The
agreed that no mortal would be granted eter- gods decided that the best way to dissipate
nal life. The only exception was Ziusudra, the Gilgamesh’s superhuman energies was to cre-
man who had been chosen to survive the epic ate a companion who would be his equal. The
flood. Gilgamesh, like all men, would go to mother-goddess Aruru created the wild man
the netherworld, where he would be reunited Enkidu. At first, Enkidu lived happily among
with his family and, as a lesser god, would sit the wild animals, freeing them from their traps
in judgment over the dead. until a frustrated hunter complained to Gil-
gamesh. Gilgamesh tamed Enkidu by arrang-
ing for him to sleep with a prostitute. This
Babylonian Variants encounter awakened in Enkidu the realization
By the twentieth century B.C.E., if not earlier, that he was human.
Sumerian had ceased to be a spoken language Enkidu entered Uruk and engaged Gil-
and was studied only in schools. But the Gil- gamesh in a fight that ended in a draw. The
gamesh stories continued to circulate and in- two men became inseparable friends. Gil-
spire fresh compositions, such as one written gamesh proposed that they seek fame and
by an unknown poet, called Surpassing All glory by traveling to the monster-guarded
Other Kings. It included parts of Gilgamesh and Cedar Forest. Ignoring the advice of the city’s
the Bull of Heaven and Gilgamesh and Huwawa, elders, Gilgamesh and Enkidu traveled to the
together with new stories about the hero trans- forest. They battled and defeated the monster
lated into the Babylonian language, Akkadian. Humbaba and returned home with cedars and
Unfortunately, the text survives today only in the creature’s head.
fragmentary form. Once back in Uruk, Gilgamesh put on his
Hundreds of years later, during the sec- royal robes and crown. The goddess Ishtar (the
ond millennium, the epic was revised and ex- Sumerian Inanna) became enamored of the
panded into the composition called He Who king and proposed marriage. The hero refused
Saw the Deep. The author of this poem is also Ishtar and taunted the goddess about her pre-
unknown, but later tradition attributed it to a vious lovers, all of whom had suffered terrible
scholar from Uruk named Sin-liqe-uninni. fates. Enraged, Ishtar called on her father,
This, the most famous version of the story, is Anu, to send her the Bull of Heaven to kill the
known as The Epic of Gilgamesh. It was copied king, but Gilgamesh and Enkidu managed to
in many cuneiform versions, and parts have slay the bull. The gods then decided to punish
been found at Hattusa (modern Bo-azköy) in Gilgamesh and Enkidu’s acts of defiance—
Turkey, Ugarit (Ras Shmara) in Syria, and their killing of the bull and cutting down of the
Megiddo in Israel. cedars—and they killed Enkidu.

Goblins 203
Gilgamesh, inconsolable in his grief, went

in search of eternal life. On his quest, he crossed Goblins
high mountains, encountered men in the form
of scorpions, and stumbled upon a garden with (Western European)
trees that contained precious jewels. He finally
tracked down the ferryman Ur-shanabi. On a
voyage fraught with danger, Ur-shanabi took
Gilgamesh across the river of death to Uta-
I n the folklore of Western Europe, goblins
are odd, grotesque fairy creatures that are
capable of mischievous and even outright evil
napishti, the immortal survivor of the great behavior.
flood. Goblins are generally described as small
Uta-napishti warned Gilgamesh that im- creatures, about the size of a fairy tale dwarf.
mortality was reserved for the gods alone, and Beyond that, descriptions vary from tale to
that it was only because Uta-napishti survived tale, except that all tales describe goblins as
the deluge that they had granted it to him. hideously ugly. Some goblins can change their
Uta-napishti then told Gilgamesh where he shape, taking on animal, though not human,
could find a rejuvenating herb at the bottom form.
of the sea. Gilgamesh dove into the sea, found The term goblin may come from the Mid-
the plant, and triumphantly set out with it to- dle English gobelin, which in turn may derive
ward Uruk. But along the way, a serpent stole from the name of a Norman French ghost or
the plant and was promptly rejuvenated, shed- from the Norman word gobe. It also may come
ding its skin. from Medieval Latin gobelinus, ultimately from
Gilgamesh returned to Uruk with the re- Greek kobalos, or rogue. In addition to playing
alization that, even though he had failed to dark pranks, goblins have some other abilities.
attain immortality, his accomplishments as They are said to be able to create nightmares
king of Uruk would be his everlasting legacy. to trouble humans, or to steal away human
Gilgamesh had finally grown up and gained children and sometimes women. The children
wisdom. are sometimes replaced with goblin babies or
Ira Spar changelings.
Goblins are also featured in literature. The
See also: Bull of Heaven; Culture Heroes; Dil- nineteenth-century English poet Christina Ros-
mun; Enkidu; Epics; Inanna/Ishtar; Quests. setti wrote a poem entitled “Goblin Market,” in
which she combines the old tradition that fairy
Sources food is dangerous to mortals with strong cur-
Black, J.A., G. Cunningham, J. Ebeling, E. Flückiger- rents of sensuality. Two English fantasy authors,
Hawker, E. Robson, J. Taylor, and G. Zólyomi. The George MacDonald, in The Princess and the Gob-
Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature. 2006. lin (1872), and J.R.R. Tolkien, in The Hobbit
Dalley, Stephanie. Myths from Mesopotamia. New York:
(1937) and The Lord of the Rings (1954–1955),
Oxford University Press, 1989. portrayed goblins as evil creatures living under-
Foster, Benjamin R., trans. and ed. The Epic of Gilgamesh: ground. Tolkien, however, soon abandoned the
A New Translation, Analogues, Criticism. New York: idea of goblins and replaced them with the
W.W. Norton, 2001.
more vicious orcs. In J.K. Rowling’s Harry Pot-
George, Andrew, trans. The Epic of Gilgamesh: The Baby-
lonian Epic Poem and Other Texts in Akkadian and ter series (1997–2007), goblins are portrayed as
Sumerian. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1999. small, clever, greedy creatures that run
Jacobsen, Thorkild, trans. and ed. The Harps That Gringotts Bank in Diagon Alley.
Once . . . : Sumerian Poetry in Translation. New Haven, Goblins also turn up in fantasy movies,
———. The Treasures of Darkness: A History of Mesopotamian
most prominently in the 1986 film Labyrinth,
Religion. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, which starred David Bowie as the goblin king.
1976. The 1986 film Legend, starring Tom Cruise,

204 Golem
and the animated 1985 feature The Black Caul- your dust.’ ” Within Talmudic literature, this
dron also featured goblins. simple and straightforward telling is the only in-
In the real world, there is a type of shark stance in which a golem is created by a single
known as the goblin shark. But unlike its person. The story points out that if the golem
namesake, it is not evil and does not harm hu- were a true man, Zeira could not have dismissed
mans. It is, however, an unattractive creature. him as quickly as he did. That he was able to do
so, returning the golem to lifeless dust so easily,
Sources and was not punished for such an action proves
Keightley, Thomas. The World Guide to Gnomes, Fairies, that golems are not really living beings.
Elves, and Other Little People. New York: Random
House, 2000.
Rose, Carol. Spirits, Fairies, Leprechauns, and Goblins: An Creation and Deconstruction
Encyclopedia. New York: W.W. Norton, 1998.
Rossetti, Christina. Goblin Market and Other Poems. Mine-
of a Golem
ola, NY: Dover, 1994. Many different methods of creating a golem
are set out in the various texts. One thing they
all have in common is that purity of the cre-
Golem ator’s body and mind, as well as that of the
space and materials involved in the creation, is
paramount. The first step is to create the form,
(Jewish) using soil or, in some cases, clay. It does not
T he golem, a figure from Jewish mysticism

and folklore, was an animated being
formed from inanimate material. It had no
matter if the form is perfect, but it does need to
resemble the thing it will be when finished.
Most “recipes” for golem creation include
soul. a detailed statement of specific letter combina-
The golem is mentioned only once in the tions that are required to bring about the
Bible, in Psalm 139:16: “Thine eyes did see “birth” of a golem. Certain texts call for the
mine unformed substance.” Golme is the He- kabbalist, the expert in this Jewish form of mys-
brew word for “unformed substance,” the hu- ticism, to walk around the form while reciting
man body before the soul is breathed into it. the combinations.
An entire corpus of legend and story has arisen Tradition states that a golem is “born” with
from this single instance. the word emet, which means “truth,” inscribed
The first detailed discussions of golems ap- on its forehead. In some cases, the kabbalist in-
pear in the Talmud, a 2,000-year-old repository scribes the word before commencing with the
of Jewish wisdom, law, legend, and philosophy. ritual; in others, the word appears on its own.
The rabbis of the Talmud speak of golems in a Once the golem is functional, it is given
very matter-of-fact way, as if creating these be- specific tasks. After it has served its purpose,
ings from clay, dust, and incantation was a the creature must be deconstructed. Just as
simple task. For example, one section of the there are various methods of golem creation,
Talmud states that “Rabbi Chanina and Rabbi there are numerous methods of golem decon-
Oshayah would engage themselves in Sefer struction, each of which is connected, in some
Yetzirah (one of the primary mystical texts of way, to the manner in which it was created.
Kabbalah) every [Friday] before the Sabbath, For example, whether the golem is created
[and] would create for themselves a prime through the mental exercise of connecting
calf, and would eat it.” these letters in a circle or through the actual
Another section relates, “Rava created a walking of the circle, the golem is decon-
man and sent him to R. Zeira. The Rabbi spoke structed by doing the exact opposite. The let-
to him but he did not answer. Then he said: ter combinations are repeated in reverse or
‘You are [coming] from the pietists. Return to the circle is traced in the opposite direction.

Golem 205
To complete the deconstruction, the first will always demonstrate that a being is a golem,
letter of the word emet is erased. This leaves as the literature also states that golems cannot
the word met, which means “dead” or “death.” be physically discerned from men.
As the letter is erased, the golem crumbles to
either dust or soil. Superhuman Strength
In some later traditions, a parchment con-
Some of the later golem tales speak of the abil-
taining the word emet is placed under the tongue
ity of the golem to grow to immense propor-
of the golem, either instead of or in addition to
tions, strong enough to subdue all but the
the words inscribed on the forehead. In these
strongest of men. Many golems are put to
cases, the parchment must be removed from
good use as guards, especially as guardians of
the golem’s mouth before the deconstruction is
sacred objects, such as Torah scrolls, or of
complete.
buildings, often synagogues.
Golems, while not human, were still
Jeremiah and Sira bound by Jewish law. They would not take a
person’s life unless it was absolutely neces-
The prophet Jeremiah and his son, Sira, cre-
sary, and they were not capable of falsehood.
ated a golem. The words Yhvh elohim emet,
Through the centuries, numerous powers
which mean “God is truth,” appeared on the
have been associated with golems. They were
golem’s forehead. This newly formed artificial
able to become invisible at will, which made
man had a knife in his hand, and with it he
them better guards. One power that became
erased the first letter of the word emet, an aleph
standard in eighteenth-century golem litera-
(the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet), which
ture was golems’ ability to grow. Many tales
changed the phrase to Yhvh elohim met, mean-
relate that golems would begin their lives
ing “God is dead.”
only a few feet (less than 1 meter) tall and
Jeremiah tore his garments and asked,
slowly grow to tremendous size. One such ex-
“Why have you erased the aleph from emet?”
ample is found in Jacob Grimm’s Journal for
The golem answered, “God has made you in
Hermits:
his image and in his shape and form. But now
that you have created a man like him, people
Every day [the golem] gains weight
will say: There is no God in the world beside
and becomes somewhat larger and
these two!”
stronger than all the others in the
Realizing what they had done, Jeremiah
house, regardless of how little he was
asked, “What solution is there?” The golem
to begin with. But one man’s golem
explained, “Write the alphabet backward on
once grew so tall, and he heedlessly let
the earth with intense concentration. Only do
him keep on growing so long that he
not meditate in the sense of building up, but
could no longer reach his forehead. In
the other way round.”
terror he ordered the servant to take
Jeremiah and Ben Sira did as they were
off his boots, thinking that when he
told to do, and, before their eyes, the golem
bent down he could reach his fore-
turned to dust. Then Jeremiah said, “Truly, one
head. So it happened, and the first let-
should study these things only in order to know
ter was successfully erased, but the
the power and omnipotence of the Creator of
whole heap of clay fell on the Jew and
the world, but not in order really to practice
crushed him.
them.”
This is the only example in all golem litera-
ture of a golem who speaks. Since a golem does
The Golem of Prague
not have an intelligent soul, the tales say, it can- Golems were used to guard against blood libel,
not speak. This lack of speech is one thing that a common form of anti-Semitism practiced in

206 Grail/Holy Grail
the Middle Ages. The story of Rabbi Judah

Loew of Prague tells of a golem that saved Grail/Holy Grail
Prague’s Jews from those who wished to de-
stroy them. (Western European)
Legend has it that in 1580 the rabbi cre-
ated a golem with his son-in-law, Rabbi Isaac
ha-Kohen, and his disciple, Rabbi Ya’akov Sa-
son ha-Levi. This golem successfully under-
T he story of the Holy Grail is perhaps the
most mystical of all the Arthurian ro-
mances. For nearly a thousand years, stories in
took many tasks. The following tale of Rabbi languages ranging from Welsh to French, Ger-
Loew’s golem has been retold in many cul- man, English, and even Hebrew have pre-
tures as the tale of the sorcerer’s apprentice. sented the Grail in many guises: as the chalice
The golem of Prague was given a name, used at the Last Supper, as the cup containing
Yossele. One day, upon leaving his home, drops of Christ’s blood, as the Welsh Celtic
Rabbi Loew instructed his wife, Perele, to Cauldron of Ceridwen, and as a magic platter
leave Yossele the mute alone. Even so, she owned by the sixth-century Welsh King Ryhd-
took it upon herself to put him to work. She derch of Strathclyde.
showed Yossele how to draw water and pour it The word grail derives from the Latin
into a barrel, and then left him to complete the gradale, which means “by degree” or “in
job without further supervision. Yossele re- stages,” and it is used to refer to a dish or plat-
turned time and again to the barrel, never ter brought in at various times during a feast.
stopping, even after the barrel began to over- Whatever form the Holy Grail takes, it is al-
flow. He continued until the rabbi’s house was ways connected with nourishment: It provides
flooded. Upon arriving home, Rabbi Loew those who see it with whatever meat and drink
put a stop to Yossele’s work and told Perele they wish for and also has tremendous healing
that she should never again use Yossele for powers.
household tasks. The earliest surviving manuscript contain-
The figure of the golem has appeared in ing the Grail legend is the twelfth-century
many guises throughout the ages. Mary Woll- Conte del Graal (The Story of the Grail), written
stonecraft Shelley’s novel Frankenstein (1818) is by Chrétien de Troyes. The young knight
essentially a golem tale, and American science Perceval and the Fisher King, the wounded
fiction author Piers Anthony included a golem ruler and keeper of the Grail, beheld a mag-
story, called Golem in the Gears (1986), in his nificent procession. Youths brought forth pre-
series about the fictional realm of Xanth. A cious objects, and a beautiful maiden bore a
golem also was featured in a 1997 episode of chalice, or Grail, wrought of fine gold that
the television series The X-Files. gleamed with precious stones. This cup held a
single Host that sufficed to sustain the Fisher
David M. Honigsberg King.
Robert de Boron of Burgundy composed a
See also: Retelling: The Golem of Prague. trilogy of poems—“Joseph d’Arimathe,” “Mer-
lin,” and “Perceval”—sometime between 1202
Sources
and 1212 C.E. This work borrowed from the
Bader, Gershom. The Encyclopedia of Talmudic Sages.
Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson, 1988. apocryphal, fourth-century Gospel of Nicode-
Idel, Moshe. Golem: Jewish Magical and Mystical Traditions mus, in which the Grail was the cup used by
on the Artificial Anthropoid. Albany: State University Joseph of Arimathea to catch Christ’s blood as
of New York Press, 1990. he was brought down from the cross. Joseph
Kaplan, Aryeh. Sefer Yetzirah in Theory and Practice. York
Beach, ME: Samuel Weiser, 1990.
then brought the Grail to Britain. The Prose
Winkler, Gershon. The Golem of Prague. Philadelphia: Ju- Lancelot, written by an unknown French au-
daica Press, 1980. thor or authors around 1215–1230, calls the

Grail/Holy Grail 207
Grail the Sankgreal, punning on the Old whose sins, deadly wound, and impotence
French words sang real, or royal blood, and san had turned the fertile earth into a wasteland.
Greal, or Holy Grail. Britain’s Sir Thomas Malory made the next
The French Arthurian tradition developed major contribution to the Grail story, in 1485.
the concept of a priestly house that served the In his work, Le Morte d’Arthur, the Grail appears
Grail in a place apart from the world. The in Camelot, and Arthur’s knights vow to find it.
German tradition was based on this concept. This quest ultimately weakens Camelot and ex-
Wolfram von Eschenbach’s Parzival, which poses the human sin that leads, inevitably, to
probably dates from the first part of the thir- the destruction of Arthur’s realm. In Malory’s
teenth century, owes a great deal to Chrétien telling, Lancelot cannot attain the Grail. Al-
de Troyes. Von Eschenbach introduced a though he is the world’s greatest knight, he is a
number of strange variants: He called the sinful man. Lancelot’s pure son, Galahad, suc-
Grail a gemstone, lapis exillis, located the Grail ceeds in attaining the Grail but dies immedi-
castle in Spain, created an evil wizard, Kling- ately thereafter. Perceval sees the Grail and also
sor, and set up a series of adventures for Parzi- dies. Only Bors, who is the loyal kinsman, hus-
val’s father. All of this preceded his story of band, and father, sees the Grail and lives, re-
Parzival. This tale of the Grail quest details the turning to a Camelot that has been much
healing of the maimed Fisher King, Amfortas, weakened by its brush with sanctity. Finally,
The vessel is surrounded by the Grail maidens in this painting by Wilhelm Hauschild (1827–1887). This work, titled
“The Miracle of the Grail,” and other paintings in the romantic style portraying scenes from Arthurian legend are
located at Neuschwanstein Castle in Bavaria, Germany. (Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz/Art Resource, NY)

208 Grateful Dead
a hand removes the Grail from Earth and trans- danger and is rescued by a mysterious figure,
ports it to Heaven. or discovers a wondrous treasure with the aid
The Grail story continues to inspire artists, of the mysterious figure. This figure appears in
composers, and authors. C.S. Lewis’s novel the shape of a man, as a white-clad or shrouded
That Hideous Strength (1945) features a Mr. Fisher figure, or sometimes in animal or bird form.
King, who is a descendant of a Pendragon line No matter the appearance, the figure eventu-
of kings. In Marion Zimmer Bradley’s revision- ally drops its disguise and turns out to be none
ist novel The Mists of Avalon (1983), the Grail is a other than the grateful ghost or spirit of the
vessel borne by a priestess of the Old Religion, dead man for whom the traveler had given an
and Susan Shwartz’s The Grail of Hearts (1991) is honorable burial.
a deliberately heretical account. The Grail ap- More than a hundred grateful-dead stories
pears as a symbol of redemption in Richard exist around the world. Some of them are
Wagner’s nineteenth-century opera Parsifal and purely secular, while others have strong reli-
in the 1991 novel and movie The Fisher King, in gious themes, generally preaching the rewards
which the redemption is personal. of charity and the need for a proper burial.
The importance of such a burial can be found
Susan M. Shwartz in the beliefs of many cultures, including an-
cient Greek, Jewish, and Christian. One of the
See also: Archetype. most important obligations in these cultures is
that of paying proper respect to the dead so
Sources that the soul may find peace.
Jones, Gwyn, and Thomas Jones, trans. The Mabinogion. There is also a related, nonsupernatural tale
New York: Dutton, 1975.
Lacy, Norris J., ed. The Arthurian Encyclopedia. New York:
type. In these stories, a prince or other hero
Peter Bedrick, 1986. pities a prisoner and frees him. Later, after he
Loomis, Roger Sherman. The Grail: From Celtic Myth to has been taken prisoner himself, the hero is re-
Christian Symbol. Cardiff: University of Wales Press, leased by the grateful man who he had freed.
1963.
The band known as the Grateful Dead
Mustard, Helen M., and Charles E. Passage, trans. Parzi-
val: A Romance of the Middle Ages. New York: Vingate, took their name from this folktale type.
1961.
Vinaver, Eugene, ed. The Works of Sir Thomas Malory. See also: Tale Types.
London: Oxford University Press, 1967.
Sources
Gerould, Gordon Hall. The Grateful Dead: The History of a
Grateful Dead Folk Story. Urbana: University of Illinois Press,
2000.
Lindahl, Carl, John McNamara, and John Lindow, eds.
T he theme of the grateful dead is found in

many countries, from Ireland to Turkey,
and even in the apocryphal Book of Tobit.
Medieval Folklore: A Guide to Myths, Legends, Tales, Be-
liefs, and Customs. New York: Oxford University
Press, 2002.
Sherman, Josepha. Rachel the Clever and Other Jewish Folk-
In the basic form of the tale, a traveler tales. Little Rock, AR: August House, 1993.
comes across a corpse that has been denied
burial. Sometimes the reason for this punish-
ment is an unpaid debt. In a Sephardic Jew-
ish version from Turkey, the denial of burial
Gremlins
is due to a false accusation of treason. In all
versions, the traveler takes pity on the dead
(English)
man, satisfies the debt or pays enough to per-
mit a decent burial, and then goes on his way.
The traveler then falls into life-threatening
G remlins are modern mythical creatures
that are similar to imps and mischievous
sprites. They are known primarily for causing

Gr iots/Gr iottes/Jelis 209
malfunctions or unexplainable technical prob- and the sequel, Gremlins 2, in 1990. Spielberg’s
lems in aircraft. Increasingly, they are blamed gremlins started out as fuzzy, big-eared, and
for anything that goes wrong in any mechani- cuddly and morphed into terrifying creatures
cal device that cannot be readily explained. of destruction.
Though tricksters at heart, they are thought to Even in this day of pressurized jet aircraft,
be somewhat malevolent. the mythology of gremlins is prevalent among
Gremlins are a fairly recent invention. pilots. Much that goes wrong in modern air-
They may have originated during British air planes is attributed to computer and electronic
operations in the Middle East in the 1920s, or malfunctions that often cannot be duplicated
possibly during World War I. or traced. Initially, pilots might shrug off prob-
There are several physiological explana- lems in these computerized planes as “stray
tions for the appearance of gremlins. One the- electrons.” But sometimes, especially if the
ory is that pilots who are subjected to long malfunction has an underpinning of frustra-
hours at high altitudes experience a minor tion, the pilots may look at each other and say
bursting of capillaries in the eyes, which one word: “Gremlins.”
causes stimulation of the optic nerve. The hu- Byron Tetrick
man brain is programmed to create patterns
out of chaos. So these random neural firings See also: Tricksters.
may be interpreted as faces and expressions.
This is more likely to occur in times of stress, Sources
such as when an aircraft is malfunctioning. Dahl, Roald. The Gremlins: A Royal Air Force Story. New
York: Random House, 1943.
The British author Roald Dahl claims to Markstein, Don. “Gremlins.” 2006. www.toonopedia.com/
have coined the word gremlin, inspired by his gremlins.htm.
experiences as a Royal Air Force fighter pilot.
A fellow airman who had served in the Mid-
dle East told Dahl stories of inexplicable me-
chanical failures. Dahl’s book The Gremlins
Griots/Griottes/Jelis
was published in 1943.
Two Warner Brothers’ wartime cartoons
(West African)
quickly followed. In Falling Hare, Bugs Bunny
battled gremlins as they dismantled his airplane
while in flight, and Russian Rhapsody satirized a
G riots, or their female counterparts, gri-
ottes, are bards from West Africa, partic-
ularly in Mande and Senegalese society. They
cartoonish Adolf Hitler whose plane has been are also known as jelis.
invaded by gremlins. Around the same time, Like the ancient Celtic bards, the griots
Walt Kelly, the creator of the comic strip Pogo, were a combination of entertainers, praise-
introduced a character called Gremlin Gus. singers, and historians. And like their Celtic
Disney had planned to develop a feature car- counterparts, the griots were once high
toon called The Gremlins, but the project was enough in rank to be councilors to kings and
canceled when the company determined that tutors to princes. They were also the knowl-
gremlins were a fad that had already peaked. edge keepers, those who would remember all
The depiction of gremlins has evolved over of the dates important to a clan or village, such
the years. A popular episode in the Twilight as births, wars, and deaths. A griot might serve
Zone television series featured a malevolent as a judge, mediating arguments and advising
gremlin. The creature destroyed the engine of families, and even arranging the terms of mar-
an airplane while a passenger, played by riage. The griots also were trusted messengers
William Shatner, helplessly tried to warn other to the ruling class.
passengers and the flight crew. In 1984, Steven In the modern world, few families can af-
Spielberg produced the motion picture Gremlins, ford to have their own griots, so one griot may

210 Gudrun/Kudrun
travel from place to place. They no longer a lion—that intended to feed the boy to its
have their formerly high status, although some chicks. The boy escaped by falling out of the
traces linger. In Senegal, for example, the gri- nest when the griffin’s chicks were fighting
ots are the only public performers, and in over their dinner.
Senegalese tradition only griots may speak di- Hungry and frantically dodging the mother
rectly to rulers. The griots are otherwise said griffin, Hagen found shelter in a cave with three
to be below the lowest status, which may be princesses who also had escaped the griffin.
the reason they have such freedom. The small group started home, foraging for
Griots play a variety of musical instru- food. They eventually came upon a ship that
ments, depending on each griot’s personal had been wrecked in a storm. Hagen investi-
taste and training. The oldest instrument gri- gated and discovered armor and a sword on
ots play is the balafon, a wooden xylophone, the ship. With this, he killed all the griffins.
but griots may also play the kora, which is a A ship belonging to the Count of Garadie
harp or lute with twenty-one strings, the ngoni, found the four young people and took them on
a true lute, the xalam, which is played like a board. The count had plans to hold the group
guitar, or the jembe, tama, and sabar, which are for ransom. Furious, Hagen beat off the count’s
three types of drums. warriors and threatened the count. He yielded
and took Hagen and the princesses home.
See also: Jongleurs; Minstrels; Troubadours. Hagen was reunited with his parents, who
also took the three princesses under their pro-
Sources
Hale, Thomas A. Griots and Griottes: Masters of Words
tection. Hagen’s father decided to abdicate,
and Music. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, and Hagen, married to one of the princesses,
1998. Hilde (or Hilda), became king.
Hoffman, Barbara G. Griots at War: Conflict, Conciliation,
and Caste in Mande. Bloomington: Indiana Univer-
sity Press, 2000.
Hagen’s Children
Wright, Donald R. Oral Traditions from the Gambia. The daughter of Hagen and Hilde was also
Athens: Ohio University Center for International
Studies, 1979.
named Hilde. She grew into such a lovely
young woman that Hagen literally had to fight
off all suitors, refusing to accept any of them
Gudrun/Kudrun for his daughter.
King Hetel heard of young Hilde’s beauty
and sent an envoy to win her. In the envoy
(German) were his trusted minstrel, Horant, and his chief
T he Germanic medieval folk epic Gudrun,

sometimes called Kudrun, was probably
written at the start of the thirteenth century
warrior, Wate. After hearing Horant’s song,
Hilde agreed to meet Wate and Horant at their
ship, and she was promptly carried off.
and was likely based on earlier folk stories. The outraged Hagen pursued Hetel and
The story takes place over the course of sev- challenged him. Hilde pleaded with them to
eral generations and has many familiar themes stop fighting, and Hetel, in love with Hilde, lay
that are interesting to folklorists and useful to down his arms. Hagen, impressed that Hetel
storytellers. had risked his life for love of Hilde, accepted
Hetel as Hilde’s husband.
Hagen and the Princesses
The tale begins with the story of Hagan, a
The Third Generation
king’s son who was carried off at seven years The daughter of Hilde and Hetel, Hagen’s
of age by a griffin—a creature with the head granddaughter, Gudrun, was even more beau-
and wings of an eagle and the body and tail of tiful than her mother and was wooed by many

Gudrun/Kudrun 211
suitors. The primary suitors were King Her- Meanwhile, Herwig and the widowed Hilde
wig, King Hartmut, and the Moorish King organized an army and set out to rescue Gu-
Siegfried. Hetel refused all three, but Gudrun drun. In a great battle, Herwig killed Ludwig,
liked Herwig. A battle ensued between Hetel avenging Hetel. The terrified Queen Gerlint,
and Herwig, but when Hetel saw how brave realizing that her foes had taken her castle, fled
and determined Herwig was, he accepted him to Gudrun and begged for mercy. But Wate,
as the one to claim Hilde’s hand. Hetel’s true-hearted warrior, beheaded Gerlint.
Jealous Siegfried then attacked Herwig, Herwig and Gudrun were reunited, and
but Hetel and his army came to Herwig’s aid. he returned her safely back to her mother.
In Hetel’s absence, the third suitor, Hartmut, Hartmut’s life was spared, and he fled the
tried to win Gudrun, but she refused him. In country. In the end, Herwig and Gudrun were
spite of her protests, Hartmut carried her off. joyously married.
When Gudrun’s father learned of this, he set
out in pursuit but was slain by Ludwig, Hart- See also: Epics.
mut’s father.
Hartmut brought Gudrun home with him Sources
and tried to get her to marry him. His mother, Almeding, E.M. The Story of Gudrun: Based on the Third Part
Queen Gerlint, decided to break her spirit. Gu- of the Epic of Gudrun. New York: W.W. Norton, 1967.
Lamszus, Wilhelm. Gudrun. Berlin, Germany: Hermann
drun was treated like a lowly servant, beaten, Hillger Verlag, 1920.
and kept imprisoned. Yet she continued to re- Sachse, Günter. Gudrun und Andere Sagen. Göttingen,
fuse Hartmut’s advances. Germany: W. Fischer, 1972.

H
Habaek and Haemosu

(Korean)
and sea. Haemosu in turn agreed to an official
marriage ceremony, and Habaek officially sent
Yuhwa off to live in the sky with Haemosu.
Yuhwa, however, decided she did not wish
to go. Before Haemosu’s chariot could leave
I n Korean mythology, Habaek was a water de-

ity who lived in the Yalu River, and Haemosu
was the sun deity who traveled across the sky in
the water, she leapt from it and returned to
her father. After all his work, Habaek was furi-
ous. He ordered that Yuhwa’s lips be stretched
Oryonggeo, the five-dragon chariot. These out, which presumably changed her into a fish,
deities are said to be the ancestors of a Korean and she was placed in a stream.
royal family. Yuhwa was eventually caught in a fisher-
Habaek had three daughters, Yuhwa, man’s net and taken to the court of the king.
Hweonhwa, and Wuihwa. Yuhwa, the eldest, There, her lips were cut three times, breaking
was carried off by Haemosu in Oryonggeo to her father’s spell, and she was able to speak
be his bride. It is not recorded whether or not again.
Yuhwa had any say in the matter. While Yuhwa was living in the royal
Yuhwa’s father was angered that Haemosu household, Haemosu came to her in the form
had not bothered to honor him with either an of a sunbeam and impregnated her. Their
official offer of marriage or a proper wedding child is said to have been Dongmyeongseong,
ceremony. Habaek sent a message to or Chumong, a historical figure who lived at
Haemosu demanding that the deity return to the turn of the first century C.E. He went on to
settle matters. found Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms
Haemosu returned to Habaek’s palace, of Korea.
where the two deities tested each other in a
shape-shifting duel. Habaek turned himself into See also: Dongmyeongseong/Chumong.
a carp, but Haemosu quickly turned into an ot-
ter and caught him. Then Habaek changed into Sources
a deer, but Haemosu became a wolf and Chun Shin-Yong, ed. Folk Culture in Korea. Seoul, South
chased him. Habaek hastily turned into a quail Korea: International Cultural Foundation, 1974.
and took flight, but Haemosu changed into a Hwang P’ae-gang. Korean Myths and Folk Legends. Trans.
Young-Hie Han, Se-Chung Kim, and Seung-Pyong
falcon and caught him once again. Chwae. Fremont, CA: Jain, 2006.
This time, Habaek gave up and acknowl- Jai Hyon Lee. Korean Lore. Pickerington, OH: Athena,
edged Haemosu’s supremacy over air, land, 2003.
212

Hand of Glor y 213
Hags folk belief. The Hand of Glory is cut from the

corpse of a murderer and then taken through a
series of elaborate preparations to give it black-
I n modern usage the word hag is used to de-

scribe a crone or old woman and is gener-
ally considered to be an insult. This is not the
magic properties. Its primary power is the abil-
ity to keep the members of a household in an
enchanted sleep.
case in myth and folklore, where hags are To prepare a Hand of Glory, a sorcerer
creatures of power. would sever the right hand of a murderer from
There are different types of hags. In Slavic the corpse as it hung from the gallows, always at
lore, a hag was a mythical being of magical night and sometimes at the eclipse of the Moon.
power, such as Baba-Yaga, who is often able to The hand was then wrapped in a shroud,
control natural forces. In Western Europe, a squeezed until there was no more blood in it,
folkloric hag was hideously ugly and, during and pickled for two weeks in an earthenware
and after the witch trials of the late Middle jar. After that, it was covered with vervain—a
Ages, thought to be associated with the devil. traditional magical herb—and either placed in
The modern image of the hideous witch— an oven or set out in the sun to dry.
seen at Halloween and prominent in popular Meanwhile, special candles were made.
culture, as in The Wizard of Oz—is a descen- These had to be made from the fat of another
dent of that perverse type of hag. murderer, with strands of that murderer’s hair
It was believed during the Middle Ages for wicks. These were called dead-man’s can-
that hags would seize a man as a mount and dles. The candles were fitted between the fin-
“ride” him in his sleep. This gave the victim gers of the hand. Once the candles were lit,
nightmares and pain, and could, it was be- only milk could be used to extinguish them.
lieved, even lead to his death. It was believed that the Hand of Glory
In Celtic mythology, hags possessed some with the candles lit would freeze anybody who
of the same powers as the Slavic hags. They saw it or would put them into a deep sleep.
could sometimes be seen carrying rocks in This was a perfect tool for a thief. Also, if the
their aprons. If the rocks were dropped, hags hand’s thumb would not light, it was a warn-
could create mountains from them. And if two ing that someone in the house was still awake,
hags took to quarreling, wise mortals were immune to the magic. Magical countermea-
warned to take care, as battling crones were sures could be taken against the hand’s magic,
known to hurl trees and boulders. including the smearing of various ointments of
animal blood or fat over a threshold.
See also: Baba Yaga.
In Germany, there was a similar, even
Sources more gruesome version of the Hand of Glory,
Husain, Shahrukh, ed. Daughters of the Moon. Boston: called the Thieves’ Lights. The unborn child
Faber and Faber, 1994. of a pregnant murderess or thief who was
Leeming, David, and Jake Page. Goddess: Myths of the Female killed or had committed suicide was cut from
Divine. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
the dead mother’s body at midnight. The
Puhvel, Jaan. Comparative Mythology. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1987. child’s fingers were then cut off. All of this was
done in utter silence.
The fingers could be lit and extinguished
Hand of Glory by thought alone and would never burn up.
Unlike the Hand of Glory, the Thieves’ Lights
kept their owner invisible but allowed him to
(European) see clearly in utter darkness. Like the Hand of
D espite the name, there is nothing glorious

about the Hand of Glory, an eerie English
Glory, the Thieves’ Lights put everyone within
range into a deep sleep.

214 Hands
Belief in the Hand of Glory and the most always portrayed as being left-handed.
Thieves’ Lights was strongly held in the six- Blessings and the sign of the cross are always
teenth century during the witch hunts. A Scot- made with the right hand.
tish man was tortured into confessing that he In Buddhism, the path to Nirvana, the
had used a Hand of Glory to break into a state of enlightenment and salvation, is divided
church, and two German women were made in two. The left-hand side is the wrong way of
to admit they had used Thieves’ Lights. Belief life, while the right-hand side is the so-called
in the Hand of Glory continued into the nine- eightfold path to enlightenment. In the United
teenth century. States and other countries, it is always the right
hand that is raised when oaths are made.
See also: Black Magic; Hands. There are, however, exceptions to this
rule. The Zuni of the American Southwest
Sources hold that the left hand is wise and that left-
Briggs, Katharine M. A Dictionary of British Folk-Tales in handedness is lucky. And in Western cultures
the English Language. Bloomington: Indiana Univer-
sity Press, 1970. a wedding ring is traditionally worn on the left
Ingoldsby, Thomas. The Ingoldsby Legends; or, Mirth and hand since that hand’s ring finger was be-
Marvels. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1907. lieved to have a direct link to the heart.
Rowling, Marjorie. The Folklore of the Lake District. To-
towa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield, 1976.
Thompson, C.J.S. The Hand of Destiny: Folklore and Super-
stition for Everyday Life. New York: Bell, 1989.
Other Beliefs
In the Philippines, it is believed that to kiss a
sleeping baby’s hands means that he or she
Hands will grow up to be overly sensitive. In Western
cultures, crossed fingers on either hand ward
off bad luck—especially the bad luck that
T he human hand, whether open or
clenched, is one of the most potent world
symbols in mythology, folklore, and supersti-
might come from telling a lie.
There are several hand gestures that mean
different things in different cultures. In the
tion. The various beliefs hold the germs of
West, a thumbs-up gesture means victory or ap-
many story ideas.
proval; this gesture is said to come from ancient
Itching palms, like itchy noses, have a
Roman gladiatorial combat and the signal that
common folk belief: If the right palm itches, it
spared a fighter’s life. But the same thumbs-up
means incoming money, but if the left palm
gesture is considered obscene in many Arab
itches, it means money owed.
countries. The same holds true of the Western
“OK” gesture. The traditional Western “V” for
Left-Handedness victory can mean approval in certain Eastern
Handedness, the tendency of people to be left- cultures if it is made with the palm facing out.
handed or right-handed, is associated with per- With the palm facing in, it has an obscene
haps the largest number of folk beliefs. Most of meaning.
these associate left-handedness with evil. Another hand gesture with many meanings
In Arab countries, the reason is purely is the “horns,” in which the two middle fingers
practical. The left hand was once used for sani- are folded down and the index finger and
tary purposes and is still considered unclean. pinkie are held straight up, forming the horns.
But some Arab countries take that idea even With the hand held up, this is an ancient pro-
further. In Morocco, for instance, a left-handed tective symbol that has been found in carvings
person is thought to be in league with the devil. of the Iranian Sasanian royalty. With the hand
The Inuit people see left-handers as sor- held against the forehead, this same gesture be-
cerers. In Christian folk beliefs, the devil is al- comes the Italian mano cornuta, which is an in-

Hansel and Gretel 215
sult telling a man he has been cuckolded. tween the storm god, Teshub, and his son,
Thrust out from the body, the horns become Telepinu. When the adolescent stormed off in
a threat or cast or repel the evil eye. a fit of rage, Teshub complained to Hanna-
The mano fico, also called figa or the fig ges- hanna. The goddess sent Teshub to search
ture, is a fist with the thumb between the infor his son. When the father was unsuccessful,
dex and middle fingers. Both the Etruscans Hannahanna directed one of her bees to sting
and the Romans used this gesture as a protec- Telepinu awake so that he would return home.
tive amulet. It now has two meanings: It is an Hannahanna also had her own fit of anger
obscene gesture, but it also signifies protection and disappeared for a time. While she was
against the evil eye. The latter is found in gone, cattle and sheep bore no young, and
charms worn by Italians and Hispanics. both human and animal mothers ignored their
An open hand is used on signs to indicate children. It was only when Hannahanna’s
“stop” or “no trespassing.” It also has been anger was sent to the so-called Dark Earth that
found in drawings from the Stone Age on she returned in joy and all was normal again.
cave walls. Hannahanna also made sure that marital
The open hand gesture, called hamesh in affairs ran smoothly. When the daughter of
Hebrew and hamsa in Arabic, is a common the sea god married Telepinu, it was Hanna-
protective amulet. In Jewish tradition, it is also hanna who told Teshub to pay the sea god the
known as the Hand of God, or the Hand of bride price, making the marriage official.
Miriam (sister of Moses), while in Islamic tra-
dition it is the Hand of Fatima (daughter of Ira Spar
Muhammad). An image of this gesture may
show simply an open hand or a hand with a See also: Mother Goddess/Earth Mother.
thumb on either side. Some versions add an Sources
eye to the center of the palm. This is called the Gurney, O.R. The Hittites. Rev. ed. New York: Penguin,
eye-in-hand motif. 1990.
The open hand is also a sign of peace. It Hoffner, Harry A. Hittite Myths. 2nd ed. Atlanta, GA:
shows that the person holds no weapons. And Scholars, 1991.
it leads to the gesture of friendship: the shak- Dover, 2004.
ing of hands.
See also: Hand of Glory.
Hansel and Gretel
Sources
Axtell, Roger E. Gestures: The Do’s and Taboos of Body Lan-
guage Around the World. New York: Wiley, 1998.
(Western European)
H
Morris, Desmond. Bodytalk: The Meaning of Human Ges- “ ansel and Gretel” is one of the most fa-
tures. New York: Crown, 1995.
Napier, John Russell. Hands. Rev. ed. Princeton, NJ:
miliar folktales of those collected by the
Princeton University Press, 1993. Brothers Grimm. Two children, abandoned by
their parents in the wilderness, are captured
by an evil witch who plans to eat them. The
Hannahanna/ children trick the witch, push her into her own
oven, free her captives, and take her treasure.
Hannahannas (Hittite) “Hansel and Gretel” is part of a wider folk-
tale type, called “The Children and the Ogre.”
H annahanna is the Hittite mother of the

gods.
This temperamental matriarch helped to
In this tale type, the witch is replaced by an
ogre or sometimes a devil. In many versions,
the children are captured in the forest and car-
settle domestic issues. She mended a rift be- ried to the ogre’s home in a bag.

216 Harpies
Fairy Tales. Trans. Michael H. Kohm. Boston:

Shambhala, 1992.
Leach, Maria, ed. Funk and Wagnalls Standard Dictionary
of Folklore, Mythology, and Legend. New York: Funk
and Wagnalls, 1949.
Tatar, Maria, ed. The Annotated Classic Fairy Tales. New
York: W.W. Norton, 2002.
Thompson, Stith. The Folktale. New York: Dryden, 1946.
Harpies
(Greek)
The evil witch of “Hansel and Gretel” lived in a ginger-

I n Greek and Roman mythology, the harpies
were creatures who were employed by the
higher gods to carry out punishment for crimes.
bread house. The version of the witch’s house shown The name harpies comes from the Greek
here (c. 1955) was part of a “Fairytale Forest” through
which children could walk and see fairy tale images
word harpuai, meaning “robbers.” Early Greek
“come to life.” (Evans/Stringer/Hulton Archive/Getty myths featured them as winged, beautiful
Images) women. Over time, the image changed from
women to winged monsters with old women’s
On the way to the ogre’s house, the chil- faces and sharp talons. There were three main
dren manage to escape but are recaptured, harpies, called Aello, Ocypete, and Celaeno.
sometimes once, sometimes a ritual three times. These three were either the daughters of a
Once there, the children trick the ogre and gen- nymph, Electra, and a giant, Thaumas, or, in
erally flee, often after three ritual deceptions, other accounts, the offspring of two storm
rather than destroying the ogre. There some- deities.
times is a secondary plot, in which the ogre is The harpies carried criminals off to the un-
fooled into killing (and sometimes eating) his derworld, stealing or fouling their food until the
offspring instead of the human children. wrongdoers starved. King Phineus of Thrace
The Grimm Brothers’ version of “Hansel was punished in this way for his crime of cru-
and Gretel” exists in many editions and elty toward his son and contempt of the gods.
retellings. Their version inspired an 1893 opera Phineus was eventually set free. He helped the
by German composer Engelbert Humperdinck. Greek adventurers known as the Argonauts
Western sensibilities shied away from the origi- to find the Golden Fleece. Calais and Zetes,
nal concept that it was the children’s mother two Argonauts who were the winged sons of
who suggested the abandonment. In these Boreas, were grateful for Phineus’s help and
slightly gentler versions, the mother is replaced drove the harpies away.
by a stereotypical evil stepmother. Today, the word harpy is used to describe a
Versions of this tale type can be found in shrewish woman.
stories from Europe, Asia, and various parts of
Sources
Africa. Evslin, Bernard. Gods, Demigods and Demons: An Encyclo-
pedia of Greek Mythology. New York: Scholastic, 1988.
See also: Brothers Grimm; Tale Types. Grant, Michael. Myths of the Greeks and Romans. Cleve-
Sources South, Malcolm, ed. Mythical and Fabulous Creatures: A
Jacoby, Mario, Verena Kast, and Ingrid Riedel. Witches, Source Book and Research Guide. New York: Green-
Ogres, and the Devil’s Daughter: Encounters with Evil in wood, 1987.

Havelock the Dane 217
Hathor The Greeks called her Athyr and identi-

fied her with their goddess Aphrodite.
(Egyptian) Noreen Doyle
Sources
H athor was one of many ancient Egyptian
fertility goddesses. Playing important
roles in childbirth and nursing, she was prima-
Bleeker, C.J. Hathor and Thoth: Two Key Figures of the
Ancient Egyptian Religion. Leiden, The Netherlands:
E.J. Brill, 1973.
rily a goddess of love and music. Hathor ap- Lesko, Barbara S. The Great Goddesses of Egypt. Norman:
peared in the form of a cow, as a woman with University of Oklahoma Press, 1999.
Vischak, Deborah. “Hathor.” In The Oxford Encyclopedia
a cow’s head, or as merely the horns sur-
of Ancient Egypt. Vol. 2. Ed. D.B. Redford. New York:
rounding a solar disk. Oxford University Press, 2001.
The name Hathor means “House of Ho-
rus.” Hathor was the mother or wife of Horus,
the sky god, and was herself a sky deity, par-
ticularly of the night sky. She also embodied
Havelock the Dane
the eye of the sun god, Re. In this form, she
was not a joyful goddess of love, but a ram-
(English)
paging, violent force. She was sometimes re-
ferred to as the “mistress of drunkenness,”
which indicates both joyful inebriation and a
T he English story of Havelock the Dane is
an example of a medieval romance based
on folklore. The earliest written examples of
more ecstatic and violent state. this story are in Norman French, the literary
The menat (a certain form of beaded neck- language of twelfth-century Britain. The ro-
lace) and the sistrum (a kind of metal rattle) mance places Havelock in the era of King
were dedicated to Hathor, and with these in- Arthur, yet there is no historical evidence that
struments her rage was soothed. Her worship- he ever existed.
pers would celebrate Hathor as “mistress of Havelock was born the son and heir of
the dance, queen of happiness.” Birkabegn, king of Denmark. The king died
Hathor also provided life to those in the soon after the baby’s birth. Earl Godard, who
netherworld. She was patron goddess of the was named regent and guardian to Havelock
necropolis at Thebes and either the mother of and his two sisters, wanted the throne for him-
Re or his daughter. As the divine mother of the self and killed the two girls. He instructed a
king, she suckled Re. In some versions of her fisherman, Grim, to throw the baby boy into
story, she did this in the form of a woman; in the sea.
others, she was a cow. But Grim, who was unaware that the baby
Hathor’s temples and shrines existed was heir to the throne, could not kill the inno-
throughout Egypt and its areas of influence. cent child and took him home instead. In
Some of the more important locations beyond some versions, Godard’s men threw the baby
Thebes were Dendera, Kusae, and Meir. into the sea, and Grim rescued him.
Hathor had close ties with the Syrian city of By- Grim and his wife decided to bring up the
blos, and at mines in the Sinai, she was revered boy as their own. That very night, they saw a
as the “mistress of turquoise.” ray of light shining out of the baby’s mouth as
In the myths of Egypt there were also char- he slept and discovered a royal birthmark on
acters called hathors, often seven in number, his shoulder. For protection, Grim and his fam-
which were the personifications of fate. They ily took the baby to England. There, Havelock
appeared during childbirth and pronounced grew into a fine young man, so strong that he
the destiny of the newborn. won every test of his skills.

218 Heart in the Egg
Meanwhile, King Athelwold of England There are many versions of this tale type.
died, leaving behind his baby daughter, Gold- The basic story begins with someone, usually
borough. On his deathbed, Athelwold told the a princess, or something, such as a magical ob-
new king, Godrich, Earl of Cornwall, that ject, that must be rescued or recovered from
when Goldborough came of age she should be the villain. In the case of the princess, the vil-
wed to the strongest man in England. King lain may be holding her either as a prize or as
Godrich raised the girl. When she was of age, a prospective bride.
he kept the promise he had made to the king. The hero may be a prince or a commoner.
Goldborough married Havelock. He may be wandering lost in the forest and
With money given to him by Havelock, stumble across the villain’s home, or he may
Grim founded Grim’s Town, or Grimby, and be deliberately questing for the princess.
Havelock and his new bride settled there. On Along the way, the hero helps an animal, or
their wedding night, Goldborough dreamed three animals, who promises to help him
that Havelock became king of Denmark. Wak- when he most needs such help.
ing from the dream, Goldborough saw the light The hero may try and fail to kill the vil-
shining from Havelock’s mouth as he slept. lain, or be warned in time not to try. The
The next day, Grim confirmed Havelock’s princess, or the villain’s wife or lover, tells the
birthright, and Havelock returned to Denmark hero where the heart may be found and how
to claim his throne. The treacherous Godard the villain can be slain. There are usually
was put to death. Havelock and Goldborough three to four levels of protection for the heart.
became the rightful king and queen of Denmark For example, the heart may be in an egg in a
and England. They had fifteen children and bird in a fish in a fox.
lived and ruled happily together for sixty years. The hero calls upon his animal helper or
helpers. If there is one helper, the animal
See also: Culture Heroes. helps the hero destroy the layers protecting
the heart. If there are three helpers, then each
Sources in turn destroys one level until the egg is re-
Crossley-Holland, Kevin. Havelock the Dane. New York:
vealed. The hero destroys the egg, and the vil-
E.P. Dutton, 1965.
Loomis, Roger Sherman, and Laura Hibbard Loomis, lain dies.
eds. Medieval Romances. New York: Random House, Examples of this tale type can be found
1957. across Europe and the Near East, as well as in
Skeat, Walter W., ed. The Lay of Havelock the Dane (Three North America and the Caribbean. The Rus-
Old English Prose Texts). London: Early English Text
Society, 2006.
sian composer Igor Stravinsky used this tale
Whistler, C.W. Havelock the Dane: A Legend of Old Grimsby type in his ballet The Firebird (1910). The ballet
and Lincoln. New York: Thomas Nelson and Sons, follows the basic story of the captive princess,
1899. the helpful animal, the deathless villain, and
the hidden soul that the hero destroys.
Heart in the Egg See also: Motifs.
Sources
I n the world folklore tale type “heart in the
egg,” the villain of the story, an ogre, a sor-
cerer, a devil, or some other supernatural be-
Aarne, Antti, and Stith Thompson, trans. The Types
of the Folktale: A Classification and Bibliography.
Helsinki, Finland: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia,
ing, could not be killed because he kept his 1961.
heart, or his life force, hidden apart from his Guterman. New York: Pantheon, 1976.
body. The only way to slay the villain was to Thompson, Stith. The Folktale. Berkeley: University of
find and destroy his heart. California Press, 1977.

Heimdall/Heimdallr 219
Hebat/Hepit/Hepatu Hector, thinking he was facing Achilles,

killed Patroclus. This brought Achilles back
into the battle, seeking revenge for his friend’s
(Hittite) death. Hector’s sense of honor made him fight
Achilles, even though he knew that he would
I n Hittite mythology, Hebat was the wife of
the storm god, Teshub. She was the goddess
of beauty, fertility, and royalty. Hebat is some-
die. And Hector did die by Achilles’s hand.
See also: Achilles.

times depicted standing on her sacred animal,
the lion. Sources
After the storm god’s failed attack on Ul- Homer. The Iliad. Trans. Robert Fagles. New York:
Viking, 1990.
likummi, the stone giant, Hebat was forced out Willcock, Malcolm M. Companion to the Iliad. Chicago:
of her temple and cut off from the other gods. University of Chicago Press, 1976.
As Teshub went to fight Ullikummi again, Wood, Michael. In Search of the Trojan War. Berkeley:
Hebat sat in a high watchtower and worried University of California Press, 1998.
that her husband would be defeated once more.
Finally, Tasmisus, Teshub’s brother, brought
word of Teshub’s victory. Heimdall/Heimdallr
See also: Motifs. (Norse)
Sources
1990.
H eimdall was the Norse god of light. He
was fair of face and had shining golden
teeth. He was sometimes called Guillintani, or
Hoffner, Harry A. Hittite Myths. 2nd ed. Atlanta, GA: Gold Tooth. Heimdall’s primary role was as the
Scholars, 1991.
guardian god who watched over Bifrost, the
Dover, 2004. only entrance to Asgard, the home of Norse
deities. Heimdall protected Asgard from inva-
sion, particularly against the gods’ main ene-
Hector mies, the giants.
Heimdall was said to be the son of nine
mothers. These were either the daughters of
(Greek) Geirrendour the Giant or of Aegir, or nine
I n Greek mythology, Hector, prince of Troy,

was the city’s greatest hero. He played an
important role in Troy’s defense against the
personified waves. Heimdall was born at the
end of the world and raised by the forces of
the earth, on seawater and the blood of a boar.
Greeks during the Trojan War, and he led the Heimdall required less sleep than a bird,
Trojan army into battle. and he could see a hundred miles around him,
Hector was the son of King Priam and by night as well as by day. No sound escaped
Queen Hecuba. He is described in the Iliad his hearing. Heimdall was able to hear the grass
as brave and honorable, a good leader, and a growing and the wool growing on a sheep’s
loving husband. back.
The great Greek warrior Achilles refused Heimdall had a hall on the edge of Asgard
to fight the Trojans after a quarrel with King called Himinbjorg, or Cliffs of Heaven. His
Agamemnon, the Greek commander. Since horse was called Gulltop. Heimdall carried a
Achilles refused to lead the Greek forces, his sword and a horn, called Gjallar. Heimdall
friend Patroclus wore Achilles’s armor and blew this horn in warning when danger threat-
fought in his place. ened Asgard. The sound of Gjallar would

220 Hel
announce the start of the final mythic battle, mungand. The gods abducted Hel and her
Ragnarok. brothers from Angrboda’s hall and cast her
Heimdall was also Rig, or Ruler, the god into the underworld, where she remained.
who created the three basic divisions of hu- Her name means “cover,” in the sense of
man society, thrall (slaves), carl (peasants), earth covering a grave. Hel was usually de-
and earl (noble warriors). Although the story scribed as a horrible figure, half alive and half
is fragmentary, it was almost certainly in his dead, with a gloomy or grim and foreboding
role as Rig that this god rode out to rescue expression. Her face and body were those of a
the Brisingamen. This precious necklace living woman, but her thighs and legs were
of amber gave the lovely goddess Freya her those of a corpse, mottled and moldering. Al-
charms and also victory to whatever army ternate descriptions state that one side of her
she favored. face and body was alive, the other half dead,
The Brisingamen had been stolen by the or one side was a sickly greenish hue and the
trickster deity, Loki, who then disguised him- other dead white.
self as a seal. But Heimdall was able to track Hel was sometimes portrayed as a bringer
down Loki, fight him, and defeat him in the of disease who swept over the land with a
form of another seal. The precious necklace broom or a rake. If she used the broom, there
was returned to Freya. would be no survivors, but the openings be-
From that day on, it was said that Heim- tween the tines of the rake allowed some to
dall and Loki became bitter enemies. Indeed, live.
at the final conflict of Ragnarok, Heimdall was Her throne was a deathbed, and her sub-
to fight and kill Loki, though he would then jects were all those who died of old age, illness,
die from his wounds. or criminal punishment. (In a warrior society
such as that of the ancient Norse, to die of old
See also: Norse Mythology. age or illness rather than in battle was seen as
shameful.) Her manservant was Ganglati, and
Sources her maid was Ganglot. The bloodthirsty hound
Crossley-Holland, Kevin. The Norse Myths. New York:
Garm guarded the entrance to her home.
Pantheon, 1980.
Hollander, Lee M., trans. The Poetic Edda. Austin: Uni- Hel was glad to have been given the under-
versity of Texas Press, 1986. world as her kingdom. In thanks, she gave
Lindow, John. Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Odin, the leader of the Aesir, a pair of ravens,
Rituals, and Beliefs. New York: Oxford University Huginn and Muninn. She reigned so power-
Press, 2002.
Sturluson, Snorri. The Prose Edda: Tales from Norse Mythol- fully over her realm that when the hero Balder,
ogy. Trans. Jean I. Young. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2006. Odin’s beloved son, was killed accidentally,
Hel refused to restore him to his parents and
the land of the living, proving that even the
Hel gods are powerless against death.
Although Hel’s realm was dark and utterly
cold, her name became associated after the
(Norse) coming of Christianity with the hot, fiery
I n Norse mythology, Hel was the ruler of

Helheim, or Niflheim, the realm of the
dead, which she ruled from her great hall, Eli-
place of Christian punishment.
See also: Death; Erra; Norse Mythology.

judnir, home of the dead.
Hel was the youngest child of the trickster Sources
Crossley-Holland, Kevin. The Norse Myths. New York:
god, Loki, and the giant woman Angrboda, or Pantheon, 1980.
Distress-Bringer. Her older siblings were the Hollander, Lee M., trans. The Poetic Edda. Austin: Uni-
savage wolf Fenrir and the serpent Jor- versity of Texas Press, 1986.

Hera 221

Rituals, and Beliefs. New York: Oxford University
Press, 2002.
Hera
Sturluson, Snorri. The Prose Edda: Tales from Norse Mythol-
ogy. Trans. Jean I. Young. Mineola, NY: Dover, (Greek)
2006.
Heqat/Hekat/Heket
I n Greek mythology, Hera, who was called
Juno by the Romans, was the queen of the
Olympian gods, wife to Zeus, and the revered
goddess of marriage and childbirth.
Hera’s parents, Cronos and Rhea, were
(Egyptian) Titans, the race of supreme rulers who were
H eqat was one of many Egyptian deities of

fertility and childbirth. She appeared as a
frog or a frog-headed woman.
eventually overthrown by Zeus. Hera, along
with her siblings, was swallowed at birth by
her father. Hera remained alive inside Cronos
Some texts speak not specifically of Heqat until she was rescued by Zeus, at which point
but of frog goddesses. The prodigious fertility she aided him in destroying the Titans and
of frogs, and their emergence from the waters claiming Mount Olympus.
of the Nile, fostered their use as a symbol for Hera is best known as a cuckolded wife in
the concept of “repeating life.” Amulets and spite of being a powerful goddess in her own
other representations of frogs often, though right. She flew into rages and took out her
not always, represent this goddess. anger and wounded feelings on the unfortu-
Heqat was associated with the last stages nate objects of Zeus’s affection, as well as on
of the flooding of the Nile and, over time, with any children that came of his philandering.
the last stages of childbirth. Her spouse was Zeus fell in love with the maiden Io, and
the ram-headed creator god, Khnum. In some Hera flew into a jealous rage. To protect Io
stories, she helped Khnum to create an indi- from Hera’s wrath, Zeus turned Io into a
vidual and the individual’s soul (ka) on a pot- heifer. Hera sent Argus, a hundred-eyed giant,
ter’s wheel. to watch over Io. Zeus sent Hermes to rescue
Heqat appeared on certain magical ob- Io. The hero tricked the giant into falling
jects, referred to as wands or knives, which asleep and killed him, and Hera took Argus’s
were used in rituals to aid childbirth. Later, eyes and put them into the tail of a peacock.
when the legend of Osiris and Isis developed, In another myth, Hera transformed the
it was Heqat who breathed life into the body nymph Callisto into a bear that was then nearly
of their son Horus. slain by her own son. Hera also sent serpents to
Noreen Doyle kill Zeus’s illegitimate son Heracles (Hercules).
Although the infant survived the attack, she
See also: Frogs and Toads; Mother Goddess/ continued to plague his life with hardships.
Earth Mother. Hera played a positive role in the story of
Jason. She tested him by pretending to be an
Sources old woman who needed help crossing a river.
Faulkner, R.O., trans. and ed. The Ancient Egyptian Coffin
When Jason carried her over, she revealed who
Texts. 3 vols. Warminster, England: Aris and
Phillips, 1973–1978. she was. Hera assisted Jason in his quest to find
Kaper, Olaf E. “Queen Nefertari and the Frog: On an the legendary Golden Fleece so he could claim
Amphibious Element in the Vignette to BD 94.” his rightful place as ruler of Iolcus from his
Bulletin of the Australian Centre for Egyptology 13 usurping uncle, who had refused to honor Hera.
(2002): 109–26.
Wilkinson, Richard H. Reading Egyptian Art: A Hiero-
Hera was the mother of Hephaestus, god of
glyphic Guide to Ancient Egyptian Painting and Sculp- the forge; Hebe, goddess of youth and health;
ture. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1992. and Ares, god of war. She is generally portrayed

222 Hermes
as a strong, solemn woman, and her symbols in- intelligence and charm. He freed Odysseus
clude the peacock, crow, and pomegranate. from the grasp of the sorceress Circe when she
For all her negative images in stories, Hera turned him and his men into pigs. He helped
was considered to be so powerful that even Odysseus again by convincing the nymph Ca-
Zeus did not want to stand up to her directly. lypso to allow Odysseus to leave her island and
Instead, he resorted to shape-shifting and return home. Hermes also helped negotiate
trickery to consort with his lovers. Persephone’s return from the underworld and
Shanti Fader guided Orpheus’s wife, Eurydice, back after
Orpheus failed to rescue her from death.
See also: Mother Goddess/Earth Mother; Zeus. Hermes was the cleverest of the Greek
Sources gods. He was credited with many inventions,
Evslin, Bernard. The Greek Gods. New York: Scholastic, including dice, astronomy, the lyre, fire, and
1995. the first system of weights and measures.
Greek Mythology. New York: Meridian, 1958. Shanti Fader
See also: Tasmisus; Tricksters.
Sources
Hermes Evslin, Bernard. The Greek Gods. New York: Scholastic,
1995.
(Greek) Homer. The Homeric Hymns; A Verse Translation. Trans.
Thelma Sargent. New York: W.W. Norton, 1973.
I n Greek mythology, Hermes, called Mer- Rose, H.J. Gods and Heroes of the Greeks: An Introduction to
Greek Mythology. New York: Meridian, 1958.
cury by the Romans, was the trickster and Rouse, W.H.D. Gods, Heroes and Men of Ancient Greece.
messenger of the Olympian gods. New York: New American Library, 1957.
Hermes was the son of Zeus and the nymph
Maia. Apollo was Hermes’s older brother. As a
newborn, Hermes stole a herd of Apollo’s cat-
tle, covering his tracks by walking backward.
Hervarar Saga
When confronted by his understandably angry
brother, Hermes defused the situation by giving
(Swedish)
Apollo a harp that he had crafted out of a turtle
shell in exchange for the cattle.
As the messenger of the gods, Hermes
T he thirteenth-century Hervarar Saga, a
Swedish fornaldar saga, or tale of times
past, contains elements of fantasy and history.
acted as a psychopomp, or soul guide, trans- It attempts to link the mythic past and the
porting the spirits of the newly dead to the un- fourth-century wars between the Goths and
derworld. Hermes is usually portrayed as a the Huns with Swedish royal history. This tale
slender, athletic youth. His hat and sandals had was also used by author J.R.R. Tolkien as
wings, and he carried a shepherd’s staff with source material for his novel Lord of the Rings
two serpents twined around it (the caduceus, (1954–1955).
now a symbol of the medical profession). Her- The saga centers on the cursed sword Tyrf-
mes was the patron god of shepherds, travelers, ing, which was forged by the dwarves Dvalin
and thieves. He was honored by pillarlike stat- and Durin for king Sigrlami (or Svafrlami) and
ues called “herms,” which were set as road and then cursed by them. The king had caught the
boundary markers. two dwarves and told them that if they wished
In addition to his duties as a messenger, to live, they would forge him a master sword
Hermes was often called upon to help the gods that would bite iron like cloth, never rust, and
and the mortals they protected, using his quick bring victory in battle for any who wielded it.

Hi’iak a 223
The dwarves did forge such a sword, but fire, the family healer, and the person most
they told the king, “May your sword be a likely to be able to reason with Pele.
man’s bane each time it is drawn, and may Hi’iaka’s full name is Hi’iaka-i-ka-poli-’o-
three vile deeds be done with that sword. It Pele, which means “Hi’iaka in the bosom of
will also be death to your kin.” Undeterred by Pele.” Her name refers to the fact that she was
curses, Sigrlami bore Tyrfing in all his battles. given to Pele to raise. Some accounts say Hi’i-
But the curse caused him to lose the sword to aka was born as an egg that Pele literally tucked
the berserker warrior Arngrim. into her bosom until it hatched, producing a
Tyrfing doomed Arngrim as well. The beautiful girl.
sword went in turn to Arngrim’s son, Angan- Hi’iaka and Pele had several sisters, all of
tyr. Angantyr died during a fight against the whom shared the name Hi’iaka followed by a
Swedish hero Hjalmar, whose friend Arrow- different description. The other sisters always
Odd buried the cursed sword in a barrow to- used their full names unless grouped together,
gether with Angantyr. as in “the Hi’iaka sisters.” Only Hi’iaka-i-ka-
Angantyr’s daughter, the shield maiden poli-’o-Pele individually shortened her name
Hervor, retrieved Tyrfing from the barrow to Hi’iaka.
and summoned her father’s ghost to allow her Hi’iaka lived with her sisters and brothers
to claim her inheritance. The curse on the in the crater of the Kilauea volcano. Hi’iaka
sword seemed to have ended, but this tempo- became more important after Pele and their
rary calm was deceptive. family settled in Kilauea caldera. She some-
The saga continued with Hervor’s son times tried to soften Pele’s anger, usually with
Heidrek, the king of Reidgotaland. The curse limited success.
on Tyrfing continued, causing a feud between There also are a few legends in which Hi’i-
Heidrek’s sons Angantyr and Hlod Hlod. aka takes the central role. Hi’iaka volunteered
Hlod Hlod, who had been aided by the Huns, when Pele wanted someone to bring Lohiau, a
was defeated and killed. The story of Tyrfing young, handsome chief of Kauai, to her home
ends with Hlod Hlod’s death. in Kilauea to be Pele’s lover or husband. Be-
The saga’s conclusion shifts from mythol- fore she left on her journey, Hi’iaka made Pele
ogy to fact. It traces a direct line from Angan- swear that she would protect her sacred grove
tyr, son of Heidrek, through the list of Swedish and its inhabitants.
kings to the historical thirteenth-century King The journey to Kauai and back proved
Philip Halstensson. quite perilous. Hi’iaka had to overcome many
monsters, demons, ghosts, and other dangers
See also: Epics. both on land and at sea along the way. But she
persevered. She let nothing stop her, not even
Sources Lohiau’s death—when she found him dead
Tolkien, Christoper, trans. The Saga of King Heidrek the she resurrected him. She brought Lohiau back
Wise. London: Thomas Nelson, 1960.
to Pele, resisting his amorous advances along
Turville-Petre, G., ed. Hervarar Saga ok Heidreks. London:
University College London for the Viking Society the way. When Hi’iaka and Lohiau finally re-
for Northern Research, 1956. turned to Kilauea, they found that Pele, angry
over their slow return, had killed one or more
of the women she had promised Hi’iaka that
Hi’iaka she would protect.
One of the women destroyed by Pele was
Hi’iaka’s friend Hopoe, the dancer who first
(Hawaiian) taught Hi’iaka the hula. Pele had sent lava
H i’iaka is a Hawaiian goddess. She was the

favorite of her sister Pele, the goddess of
flows to destroy parts of Puna, including
where Hopoe was staying. Pele turned Hopoe

224 Hocus-Pocus
into a stone that still “danced,” shifting easily in an anti-Catholic sermon, in which he was
with the wind and human touch. The magic most likely trying to smear the Roman Catholic
Pele used prevented Hi’iaka from resurrecting doctrine by comparing it to magical trickery.
her friend. The stone stayed where it was, There is another pseudo-Latin possibility, the
shifting and swaying, until eventually an earth- nonsense phrase Hax pax max Deus adimax,
quake knocked it over. which was uttered by magicians.
When Hi’iaka discovered her sister’s be- An early seventeenth-century juggler
trayal, she accepted Lohiau’s embraces. Pele recorded Hocus-Pocus as his stage name. He
saw this and killed Lohiau. Hi’iaka resurrected used the following phrase of nonsense patter
him and as many of the dead women as she during his act: Hocus pocus, tontus talontus, vade
could save. celeriter jubeo. The author Thomas Ady of En-
In the end, Hi’iaka married Lohiau. Some gland saw this practice in a darker light than
say she lived with him on Kauai until he died, most. In his 1655 book, A Candle in the Dark;
shunning her sister all the while because she or, A Treatise Concerning the Nature of Witches
could not forgive Pele for killing Lohiau and and Witchcraft, Ady wrote, “I will speak of
her friends. one man . . . that went about in King James
Anne Elizabeth Baldwin time . . . who called himself, The Kings
Majesties most excellent Hocus Pocus.” Ady
See also: Pele/Madam Pele. went on to claim that the nonsense phrase
the juggler recited was “a dark composure of
Sources words, to blinde the eyes of the beholders, to
Beckwith, Martha W. Hawaiian Mythology. Honolulu:
make his Trick pass . . . without discovery.”
University of Hawaii Press, 1970.
Emerson, Nathaniel B. Pele and Hiiaka: A Myth from After the publication of Ady’s book, the
Hawaii. Honolulu, HI: ’Ai Pohaku, 1915. term hocus-pocus came to mean any juggler or
Kalakaua, David. The Legends and Myths of Hawai’i. Hon- street magician. Gradually, hocus-pocus was
olulu, HI: Mutual, 1888. used to describe any deception.
Puku’i, Mary Kawena, comp. Hawai’i Island Legends:
Pikoi, Pele, and Others. Honolulu, HI: Kamehameha
By the nineteenth century, the term had
Schools Press, 1996. been shortened to form the word hoax. Today,
Westervelt, William D. Hawaiian Legends of Volcanoes. hocus-pocus means any word or action used
Rutland, VT: Tuttle, 1963. to distract someone from what is really going
on, particularly when someone is trying to
work a hoax.
Hocus-Pocus
See also: Abracadabra.
T he nonsense word hocus-pocus is known

most commonly as a term used by magi-
cians to divert the attention of their audience.
Sources
Hendrickson, Robert. The Facts on File Encyclopedia of Word
and Phrase Origins. New York: Facts on File, 2000.
Storytellers often use the word, especially when Rees, Nigel. Cassell’s Dictionary of Word and Phrase Origins.
telling folktales. London: Cassell Academic, 2002.
The origin of the term is uncertain. Some
scholars claim that hocus-pocus is a corrupted
form of the words used in the consecration of
the Host during a Latin mass: Hoc est corpus,
Hodag
which means “This is my body.”
John Tillotson, archbishop of Canterbury
(North American)
between 1691 and 1694, was the first to suggest
this connection. This theory cannot be com-
pletely trusted, however; Tillotson proposed it
T he hodag is a creature from the state of
Wisconsin that is said to have a bull’s
head, a back like a dinosaur’s, short legs, long

Homer 225
claws, a spear-tipped tail, the face of a man, Cohen, Daniel. Monsters, Giants, and Little Men from Mars:
and a foul odor. It may have three eyes, An Unnatural History of the Americas. New York: Dell,
1978.
though not all accounts agree on this. Kortenhof, Kurt Daniel. Long Live the Hodag! The Life
The name hodag comes from a combina- and Legacy of Eugene Simeon Shepard: 1854–1923.
tion of horse and dog. The creature, whose Rhinelander, WI: Tinu, 1996.
pseudo-scientific name is bovine spiritualis, is
connected with the legend of Paul Bunyan.
Paul Bunyan had a blue ox. After the ox died,
its body burned for seven years. The hodag
Homer
emerged from the ashes.
The hodag was supposedly discovered at
(Greek)
the end of the nineteenth century by a former
forester named Eugene S. Shepard. He had
noticed a foul odor and followed it with a
T he legendary Greek poet Homer is credited
with writing two great works of literature,
the Iliad and the Odyssey. These works, written in
group of companions. The trail ended at a the eighth century B.C.E., were composed in a
cave near Rhinelander, Wisconsin, where the combination of Ionic and Aeolic Greek.
hodag lived. Shepard and his companions For centuries, the so-called Homeric ques-
captured the creature. tion has been argued among scholars: Did a
The hodag was displayed for many years man named Homer really exist, and, if so, was
at country fairs. The hodag was shown only in he the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey? Many
dim light, so no one knows whether it was re- places claim to be the birthplace of Homer, but
ally there or was only a hoax exhibit. It is ru- the most likely site is Smyrna (modern-day
mored that Shepard, noting that hodags slept Izmir in Turkey). The only other consistent de-
leaning against trees, was also able to catch a tail offered about the man is that he was blind.
female hodag by cutting down the tree against Today, many scholars agree that there was
which she leaned. The captive male and this a poet named Homer who lived before 700
female were successfully bred. The result was B.C.E. and that he probably did write the Iliad.
thirteen eggs, all of which hatched. Shepard Homer’s source material was a product of a
further claimed that he had taught the hodags centuries-old oral tradition, but the work itself
to perform tricks, which he hoped to show for was original. The Odyssey, however, is different
a profit. enough in style from the Iliad to have been
Shepard was the only person to claim to written by a later poet.
have caught a hodag. But some have alleged Extensive study of the Iliad has revealed
to have glimpsed one, or possibly a group of that many of the details included in this work
them, sometimes in caves, from Wisconsin to can be traced as far back as the twelfth century
West Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee. B.C.E., hundreds of years before Homer is sup-
For those interested in pursuing the hodag posed to have lived. In the first book of the
in its original location, each year the town of poem, for example, a boar’s-tusk helmet is
Rhinelander holds a Hodag Country Festival. mentioned. Samples of this headgear have
In 1964, the Wisconsin Idea Theater hosted a been discovered by modern archaeologists,
musical by Dave Peterson called Hodag: A New yet these items had not been used since the
Musical Based on the Exploits of Gene Shepard, twelfth century B.C.E. and would not have
Wisconsin’s Greatest Trickster. been known in Homer’s day. During the time
Homer lived, however, bards, called rhap-
See also: Tall Tales. sodes, kept the oral tradition alive by reciting
Sources stories, poems, and myths in public assemblies
Arnold, Caroline. The Terrible Hodag. San Diego: Har- or in the courts of kings. Rhapsodes had many
court Brace, 1989. centuries’ worth of material at their disposal,

226 Hook, T he
so Homer could very well have heard of the The Greeks in the Classical period (c. 500–
twelfth-century headgear in their tales. 300 B.C.E.) viewed Homer as divine and used
Further evidence supporting Homer’s au- his characters as models of heroic conduct.
thorship of the Iliad includes analysis of the
poem’s internal structure. For instance, the inci- See also: Iliad; Odyssey.
dent of Agamemnon’s embassy to Achilles is
preceded by twenty-six days and followed by Sources
twenty-six days. Each period of twenty-six days Bloom, Harold. Homer’s Iliad. Broomall, PA: Chelsea
House, 2000.
is further divided into episodes of one, nine, ———. Homer’s Odyssey. Broomall, PA: Chelsea House,
one, twelve, and three days, the divisions mir- 1996.
roring one another on either side of the event. Christie, Jon D., ed. Many-Minded Homer. New York:
Also, the poem’s events are often presented Barnes and Noble, 1968.
symmetrically. A rally of the Achaeans at the
beginning of the fourteenth book is balanced
against a rally of the Trojans at the end of the Hook, The
book. Within these rallies are further similari-
ties and symmetries. All these devices are not
representative of an oral tradition but rather
point to the presence of a sole author.
T he tale of an escaped maniac with a
hook in place of his hand is one of
the most widely known urban folktales. The
This romanticized early nineteenth-century oil painting shows the blind poet Homer performing with his lyre for a
group of attentive Greeks, ranging from young children to a soldier. (Attributed to Felix Boisselier/The Bridgeman
Art Library/Getty Images)

Horror 227
origins of this story date back at least a thou- Sources

sand years. Brunvand, Jan Harold. Be Afraid, Be Very Afraid: The Book
A common version of this legend is of a of Scary Urban Legends. New York: W.W. Norton,
2004.
teenaged boy and girl parked in a secluded ———. The Vanishing Hitchhiker: American Urban Legends
spot late at night. They hear on the car radio and Their Meanings. New York: W.W. Norton, 1981.
that there is a violent, hook-handed prison
escapee in the vicinity. The girl insists on be-
ing driven home immediately. Once the cou- Horror
ple arrives home safely, they find a bloody
hook hanging from the passenger-side car
door.
The earliest variants of this story date to
H orror is a genre of fiction that creates fear
in the reader or listener.
Horror plots may include the supernatu-
about the mid-1950s. These may tie in with ral, the occult, or the darkness within the hu-
some real-life (though hookless) murders of man soul. But the emphasis is always on
teens that occurred in the late 1940s. Fears of unadulterated fear and a sense that dark, un-
such murders and beliefs in the reality of “The known forces are at work.
Hook” continued through the 1960s. On No- Horror fiction sometimes overlaps with
vember 8, 1960, the syndicated columnist Abi- fantasy or science fiction, creating genre hy-
gail Van Buren, known as Dear Abby, posted brids. The combination of horror and fantasy is
a summary of the tale as truth: called dark fantasy. This is usually character-
ized by a story that stops just short of true hor-
A fellow and his date pulled into their ror and its unrelenting fear. The evil character
favorite “lovers’ lane” to listen to the in horror science fiction is usually an alien with
radio and do a little necking. The mu- demonic abilities. The setting of these tales is
sic was interrupted by an announcer often claustrophobic. One such example of
who said there was an escaped convict horror science fiction is the 1979 movie Alien,
in the area [with] a hook instead of a which was set mostly within the confines of a
right hand. The couple became fright- spaceship.
ened and drove away. When the boy Classic horror may utilize classic ele-
took his girl home, he went around to ments, such as the haunted house or the evil
open the car door for her. Then he child. When it is done right, classic horror
saw—a hook on the door handle! overcomes the limits of familiarity to become
truly frightening. Shirley Jackson’s novel The
There is also a very similar tale that dates Haunting of Hill House (1959) is a case in point.
to thirteenth-century England. In it, a man There are also horror books for children.
was warned not to ride home at night be- These have some frightening elements in
cause there was a wild man with a bloody them but no overly graphic imagery. They are
axe murdering people. Of course, the man more like campfire tales than adult horror.
does exactly what he has been warned not Vampires and werewolves are often used
to do. His horse suddenly bolts, the man in horror novels, but they have become such
feels a blow to the saddle, and when he gets familiar figures that they are no longer truly
home, he finds a bloody axe hanging from frightening. Instead, vampires in particular
the saddle. have undergone a change from monster to
The longevity of this legend shows the tragic hero or antihero.
timelessness and universality of the fears that a An extreme form of the horror genre is
good story like this exploits. slasher fiction, in which subtlety is replaced by
violence. Sheer disgust at the graphic imagery
See also: Urban Legends. takes the place of fear in these works.

228 Horseshoes
See also: Fantasy; Mystery Stories; Science In Mexico, horseshoe charms are deco-
Fiction. rated with colorful thread and sequins, as well
as with prayers or good-luck spells and images
Sources of saints. Jewelry in the shape of horseshoes is
Carroll, Neil. The Philosophy of Horror: Or, Paradoxes of the often seen at racetracks, where it is purchased
Heart. Oxford, UK: Routledge, 1990. for good luck.
Castle, Mort, ed. On Writing Horror: A Handbook by the
Horror Writers Association. Cincinnati, OH: Writers’
Digest, 2007. See also: Motifs.
Jones, Darryl. Horror: A Thematic History in Fiction and
Film. London: Hodder Arnold, 2002. Sources
Howey, Oldfield M. The Horse in Magic and Myth. Lon-
don: W. Rider, 1923.
Horseshoes Lawrence, Robert Means. The Magic of the Horseshoe; with

Other Folk-lore Notes. Detroit, MI: Singing Tree, 1968.
T he horseshoe is often considered an im-

portant symbol of magical power—of
good luck or good fortune, in particular. The
Horus
custom of nailing up old horseshoes as protec-
tive amulets or good-luck charms is found
(Egyptian)
throughout Europe, North America, and the
Middle East.
The connection often has been made be-
T he Egyptian falcon god, Horus, existed in
several forms, all of them connected with
kingship.
tween the horseshoe and the crescent moon. Horus is one of the oldest gods, recogniza-
The two symbols have been linked with vari- ble in imagery dating from the late predynas-
ous goddesses, from the Middle Eastern Astarte tic period (c. 3100 B.C.E.). He appeared as a
to the Greek Artemis, as well as to images of falcon or falcon-headed man, wearing any of a
the Virgin Mary, who is sometimes shown number of crowns, some of which were solar
standing on or wearing a crescent moon. in nature. Later imagery showed Horus wear-
The manner in which a horseshoe is hung ing the kingly headdress, the double crown.
on a wall varies by region. In North America He was also shown as a child, wearing the
and parts of Western Europe, such as England “sidelock of youth”—the braid that young
and Ireland, the custom is to hang a horseshoe boys wore—and holding one finger to his
with the points up, so that “the luck won’t run mouth. The Greeks mistook this Egyptian ver-
out.” In the rest of Europe, as well as in the sion of thumb sucking for the “shushing” ges-
Middle East, a horseshoe is customarily hung ture, so Horus became a god of silence.
with the points down, so that “the luck can Carved images known as cippi show the
pour down” on the owner. Consistent in all young Horus grasping malignant creatures
traditions is that the horseshoe must have and treading on a crocodile. These stone ob-
been worn by a horse at some time. The most jects were extremely popular for use in heal-
valuable horseshoe is one that was found in a ing and as talismans.
field or farmyard, as opposed to one that was In the oldest texts, Horus and his archrival
purchased. Seth are brothers contending for control of
Images of horseshoes are also used for Egypt. Seth steals Horus’s eye, and Horus, in
protection against evil or the evil eye. These turn, steals Seth’s semen.
images can be made of any material. In the Some sources name the sky goddess, Nut,
Middle East, they are sometimes worked out and the earth god, Geb, as Horus’s parents. The
of blue glass, blue being the color said to ward cow goddess, Hathor, was either his mother
off the evil eye. or his wife. The offspring of Horus were Dua-

Hurston, Zora Neale 229
The original cult center for Horus was at

Hierakonpolis (Nekhen). The rulers of this
city would become the earliest kings of Egypt.
The Egyptians always equated Horus with
the king. The Horus of the Osiris myth was
associated exclusively with the living king,
because Osiris had become equated with
the dead. This cast Horus as the legitimate
heir to the throne and the embodiment of
lawful succession and triumph. The symbol
of the Eye of Horus represented the Egyptian
crown.
The Greeks associated Horus with Apollo.
Images of the mother goddess Isis and the
young Horus may have influenced early
Christian images of the Virgin Mary and the
Christ Child. It has been suggested that the
iconography of Saint George and the dragon
also may trace its roots back to Horus.
Noreen Doyle
One of the oldest Egyptian gods, Horus was depicted
as a falcon or falcon-headed man and known as a solar See also: Culture Heroes.
god, a god of silence, and a god of kingship. This
bronze figurine is from the Late Period, a time of Greek Sources
influence, and dates to c. 600 B.C.E. (© British Museum/
Meltzer, Edmund S. “Horus.” In The Oxford Encyclopedia
HIP/Art Resource, NY)
of Ancient Egypt. Ed. D.B. Redford. Vol. 2. New York:
mutef, Qebehsenuef, Imsety, and Hapy. These Velde, Herman te. Seth, God of Confusion: A Study of his
Role in Egyptian Mythology and Religion. 2nd ed.
four were depicted with the head of a jackal,
Trans. G.E. van Baaren-Pape. Leiden, The Nether-
falcon, man, and baboon, respectively, and lands: E.J. Brill, 1977.
guarded the internal organs of the deceased.
The myth of the god Osiris, whose cult rose
in importance during the late Old Kingdom (c.
2513–2191 B.C.E.), incorporated Horus as
Hurston, Zora Neale
Osiris’s son. In this myth, the formerly adult
and strong Horus is portrayed as the young and
(1891–1960)
vulnerable offspring of Osiris and Isis. The
young Horus battles with his older and stronger
uncle Seth, with the aid of his mother’s cun-
T he American folklorist and writer Zora
Neale Hurston is known both for her sym-
pathetic depiction of African American life in
ning. Horus was given two different Greek the South and for her collections of southern
names: the elder Horus was called Haroeris, African American folklore.
and the younger, Harpocrates (Horus-the- Hurston was born in Macon County, Al-
Child) or Harsiesis (Horus, Son of Isis). abama, on January 7, 1891. She was the fifth of
Horus was also a solar deity whose eyes the eight children of Reverend John Hurston, a
were the Sun and Moon. In this incarnation, Baptist preacher, and Lucy Potts Hurston, a
he was called Re-Harakhety (Re-Horus of schoolteacher. In 1894, the Hurstons moved to
the Horizon), or Horemakhet (Horus-on-the- the incorporated town of Eatonville, Florida,
Horizon). where their daughter first developed her keen

230 Hyenas
interest in African American folktales, legends, Hughes, Langston, and Arna Bontemps, eds. The Book of
games, and songs. Negro Folklore. 1958. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1983.
Hurston, Zora Neale. Mules and Men. New York: Harper
Hurston attended Morgan State Academy and Row, 1935.
in Baltimore from 1917 to 1918 and Howard
Prep School from 1918 to 1919. After spending
five years at Howard University in Washing-
ton, D.C., Hurston won a scholarship to
Hyenas
Barnard College in New York City. She stud-
ied anthropology, first at Barnard College and
then at Columbia University, under the super- H yenas are featured in the folklore and
mythology of many cultures, including
those of sub-Saharan Africa and Europe.
vision of Professor Franz Boas.
In February 1927, Hurston received a In Tanzania, there are beliefs that practi-
$1,400 research fellowship that allowed her to tioners of dark magic can transform themselves
do folklore research. She performed her re- into hyenas. It is said that such practitioners
search in Florida, primarily in the Eatonville also keep hyenas as “night cattle” to be ridden
and Maitland areas, and in New Orleans. In after dark. This makes it particularly dangerous
the 1930s, Hurston traveled to the Caribbean to kill a hyena, for its owner may use sorcery to
and studied Haitian voodoo and Jamaican destroy the killer.
obeah practices. Scholars in ancient Greece believed that
Hurston published four novels, a number hyenas were able to change from one sex to
of essays, and several short stories. The folk- the other, though Aristotle refused to accept
tales that she collected are now invaluable re- this notion. It persisted through the Middle
sources for the study of the relationships Ages, however, at which time the hyena was
between African American and West African viewed as a creature obsessed with sex and
storytelling techniques and worldviews. Her sexual perversions. These ideas may have
works include the novels Their Eyes Were Watch- arisen from the fact that the genitals of male
ing God (1937), Jonah’s Gourd Vine (1934), and and female hyenas have a similar appearance.
Moses, Man of a Mountain (1939) and two folk- Medieval Europeans also believed that a
lore collections, Mules and Men (1935) and the lioness would mate with a male hyena, creat-
posthumous Every Tongue Got to Confess (2001). ing a strange hybrid called a leucrotta. The
These works have received praise from leucrotta, it was said, could imitate human
critics such as Alice Walker and Mary Hellen speech and lure travelers into its clutches.
Washington, who have cited Their Eyes Were This weird belief is probably associated with
Watching God as one of the greatest contribu- the hyena’s cry, which sounds like maniacal
tions to African American literature. In The laughter.
Book of Negro Folklore (1958), Langston Hughes Today, some people still believe that hye-
and Arna Bontemps say of Hurston’s Mules nas laugh deliberately and that they are cow-
and Men that the book reveals “the richness of ardly scavengers. Neither belief is true. The
Negro folk life,” while in Zora Neale Hurston: A hyena is nothing other than a pack animal, a
Literary Biography (1977), Robert Hemenway predator that hunts live prey and is capable
describes Mules and Men as “the first popular of driving lions and other predators from
book about Afro-American folklore ever writ- their kill.
ten by a black scholar.”
Sources
Martin, Laura C. Wildlife Folklore. Old Saybrook, CT:
Sources Globe Pequot, 1996.
Hemenway, Robert E. Zora Neale Hurston: A Literary Van Lawick, Hugo. Innocent Killers. Boston: Houghton
Biography. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1977. Mifflin, 1971.

I
T
Iliad
(Greek)

he Iliad, an epic poem that describes
events during the last year of the legendary
The epic may be based on a real Trojan
War, a trade war that may have taken place in
the thirteenth century B.C.E. The Trojan War of
the Iliad was fought because Helen, the beauti-
ful wife of King Menelaus of Sparta, was ab-
ducted by Prince Paris, one of the sons of King
Priam of Troy. Menelaus’s brother, Agamem-
Trojan War, has been called a great Greek epic, non, led an army of Greek heroes to bring He-
a war story, and the first historical novel. Com- len back to Sparta. The Trojan War ended with
posed in the eighth century B.C.E., it is one of the destruction of Troy.
the oldest complete Greek works to have sur- The first word of the Iliad, which takes
vived to modern times. Authorship of the Iliad place during the last fifty days of the war, is
has been attributed to the blind poet Homer. wrath, and the wrath of Achilles is the main fo-
The Trojan War was a ten-year conflict be- cus of the poem. During the course of the war,
tween the Achaean Greeks and the Trojans Agamemnon, the leader of the Achaeans, took
of Asia Minor. In the four centuries between a woman who belonged to Achilles. Achilles
the historical struggle in which Troy was at- was enraged enough at this insult to kill
tacked, possibly by Mycenean Greek forces, Agamemnon, his leader, but he did not. In-
and Homer’s time, many different stories ap- stead, Achilles retired from the field, along
peared. Homer is thought to have taken these with his soldiers, the Myrmidons. An embassy
various oral traditions and fused them to make from Agamemnon later appealed to Achilles
the work his own. to return, but he refused.
The poem is divided into twenty-four Sometime thereafter, Achilles’s cousin and
books, but these divisions are not original to dearest friend Patrocles entered battle wearing
the piece. It is thought that a later transcriber Achilles’s armour. Patrocles was mistaken for
divided the work into twenty-four sections, Achilles and killed by Hector, prince of Troy.
one for each letter in the Greek alphabet. Grieving and furious, Achilles returned to the
The Greek gods, including Zeus, chief of war, his strength and rage evident on the bat-
the Greek pantheon, and his wife, Hera, are tlefield. He faced Hector, his strongest foe and
active participants in the war. Many of the the second-greatest warrior in the battle, and
main characters are sons of a god or goddess, killed him. The poem ends with the return of
including the great warrior Achilles, whose Hector’s body to his parents and his funeral.
mother was the sea goddess, Thetis. Achilles’s own death, which is foreshadowed in
231

232 Iliou Persis
Edwards, Mark W. The Iliad: A Commentary. New York:

Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Fowler, Robert. The Cambridge Companion to Homer. New
York: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
Homer. The Iliad. Trans. by Richard Lattimore. Chicago:
———. Trans. by Robert Fagles. New York: Penguin
Classics, 1998.
Iliou Persis
(Greek)
In this scene from the Iliad, Achilles, in a chariot drawn

T he Iliou Persis, or the Sack of Ilion, is the
name of a lost epic of ancient Greece. Il-
ion refers to the city of Troy. Some scholars
by his horses Balios and Xanthos, drags the body of believe the epic may have been written by
the Trojan prince Hector. This carving, which dates to
the second century C.E., is located on an outer wall of
Arktinos of Miletos, a poet of the eighth or
the Church of Maria Saal in Austria. (Erich Lessing/Art seventh century B.C.E.
Resource, NY) Although the original work has been lost,
it was summarized in a fifth-century work
called the Chrestomatheia. This anthology may
the work, and the end of the war are not de-
have been written by the Greek philosopher
scribed in the Iliad.
Proclus Diadochus. Diadochus’s summary of
Central to Homer’s work is the spirit of
the Iliou Persis gives details of the story of the
agon, or contest, as each warrior strives to be the
Trojan War that are not included in Homer’s
best. The characters of the Iliad are trapped in a
Iliad.
battle, not only with the enemy, but also by
Chronologically, the events covered in the
their own expectations about heroic behavior.
Iliou Persis occur immediately after the events
Achilles could not kill Agamemnon, or go
of the Iliad and the Little Iliad. The poem
home, and retain his honor. So he chose the
opens with the Trojans discussing what to do
only other option, which was to withdraw from
with the wooden horse that the Greeks had
the war until the situation changed, waiting to
left behind.
be drawn back into battle. His wait ended with
Cassandra, the daughter of King Priam of
the death of Patrocles. Achilles had no choice
Troy, was a seer. She warned the Trojans that
but to return to war to avenge his cousin’s
there were Greek warriors inside the horse.
death.
But no one heeded her prophesies of doom.
Homer states that the highest attain-
The Trojans celebrated their apparent victory
ment in life is to excel and to be superior to
and pulled the horse into the city. Only Prince
others. The structure of the poem focuses on
Aineias believed her, and he and his men se-
Achilles’s personal journey toward such supe-
cretly left Troy.
riority.
When night fell, the Greek warriors inside
the wooden horse emerged and opened the
See also: Achilles; Epics; Hector; Homer;
city gates to allow the rest of the Greek army
Odysseus; Odyssey; Trojan War.
to enter. The Trojans were caught off guard
Sources and were massacred.
Bloom, Harold. Homer’s Iliad. Broomall, PA: Chelsea The Greeks set fire to the city, and the
House, 2000. hero Odysseus killed Troy’s King Priam at the

Ilmar inen 233
altar of Zeus. He then killed Astyanax, the in- The ritual of Illuyankas’s defeat was in-
fant son of the slain Trojan hero Hector. voked every spring to symbolize Earth’s rebirth.
Menelaos, king of Sparta, took back his
wife, Helen. It was her tryst with Prince Paris Ira Spar
of Troy that had started the war.
The Greek warrior Aias dragged Cassan- Sources
dra from sanctuary at the altar of Athena and Gurney, O.R. The Hittites. Rev. ed. New York: Penguin,
1990.
raped her. For this act, Aias was stoned and
Hoffner, Harry A. Hittite Myths. 2nd ed. Atlanta, GA:
driven from Troy by his Greek allies. Scholars, 1991.
The epic ends with the Greeks making a Hooke, S.H. Middle Eastern Mythology. Mineola, NY:
human sacrifice. They offered up Priam’s Dover, 2004.
daughter Polyxene at the tomb of Achilles so
that the angry spirit of the dead hero would be
placated. Ilmarinen
See also: Epics; Iliad; Trojan War. (Finnish)
Sources
Burgess, Jonathan S. The Tradition of the Trojan War in
Homer and the Epic Cycle. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
I lmarinen was one of the main heroes in the
epic of Finnish mythology, the Kalevala.
Ilmarinen was a wonder-working smith and
Fowler, Robert, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Homer.
the trusted friend of the wizard Vainamoinen.
New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Ilmarinen’s talent in metalworking was so
West, M.L. Greek Epic Fragments from the Seventh to the amazing that he held the title of master smith.
Fifth Centuries BC. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni- It was for Vainamoinen that Ilmarinen
forged the sampo, the magic mill that ground
corn, money, and salt. This was to help
Illuyankas Vainamoinen to win the Maiden of Pohjola,
who lived in a cold northern realm.
The sampo was stolen by Louhi, ruler of
(Hittite) Pohjola. Ilmarinen and Vainamoinen recov-
ered the sampo, but it was lost in the sea,
I lluyankas was a dangerous Hittite dragon
being.
Illuyankas defeated the Hittite storm god,
where it continued to grind out salt forever.
Ilmarinen eventually won the Maiden of
Pohjola for himself, but he failed to wed or keep
Teshub, in a battle at Kiskilussa, in what is now
her. Vainamoinen abandoned his courtship.
Turkey. Seeking revenge, Teshub’s daughter,
When the hero thereafter failed to win any
Inaras, invited Illuyankas to a feast. Once he
other mortal bride for himself, the master smith
was too gorged to move, Illuyankas was killed
forged a wife out of gold.
by the storm god and the other gods.
In another dispute with Louhi, Ilmarinen
In another version of the myth, Illuyankas
took part in freeing the Sun and the Moon,
not only defeated Teshub but also stole the
which Louhi had imprisoned.
storm god’s eyes and heart. Illuyankas’s
daughter married Teshub’s son. The son man-
See also: Ilmatar; Joukahainen; Kalevala.
aged to get the stolen eyes and heart back and
returned them to his father. Teshub was then
Sources
able to slay Illuyankas. When Teshub’s son Lönnrot, Elias. The Kalevala: An Epic Poem After Oral Tra-
sided with the dragon, the storm god killed dition. Trans. Keith Bosley. New York: Oxford Uni-
him as well. versity Press, 1999.

234 Ilmatar

Ritva Poom. Bloomington: Indiana University Press,
1999.
Ilya Murometz/Ilya
of Murom
Ilmatar (Russian)
(Finnish)
I lya Murometz, or Ilya of Murom, is one of
the greatest of the mighty warriors called
I n the Finnish epic the Kalevala, Ilmatar was
the primal maiden floating upon the primal
ocean. Her origin is a mystery.
the bogatyri in the Russian epics, the bylini.
Ilya was born in the village of Karacharvo
Ilmatar called on the East Wind and was near Murom, a Russian city that still exists.
impregnated by him. But Ilmatar did The son of a peasant, Ilya was a sickly boy
not give birth, choosing instead to keep the stricken with an illness that took the strength
child within her as it grew into the wizard from his legs. He sat helpless for thirty-three
Vainamoinen. years. Then one day, while his parents were
Later, a bird flew by, desperately hunting out working and he was alone, traveling pil-
for a place to lay her eggs, but she found noth- grims, or, in some versions, an old singer,
ing but endless water. Ilmatar pitied the poor stopped by the house asking for water. Ilya
bird and bent her knee to give the bird a place apologized for his lack of courtesy and ex-
to perch. The grateful bird came swooping plained that he was unable to stand, let alone
down, laid half a dozen eggs, plus one made of fetch water.
iron, on Ilmatar’s knee, sat upon her clutch, The visitors shared a drink with Ilya and
and fell asleep. told him to rise and go forth, declaring that
The heat of incubation grew hotter and he would become a powerful bogatyr. From
hotter. At last, Ilmatar could not bear the that moment forward, Ilya could walk, and
burning on her knee any longer and stretched he soon became a warrior of extraordinary
out her leg. As she did this, seven eggs fell into strength.
the sea and broke open. Ilya went on to the court of Prince
The seven broken eggs solidified into Vladimir of Kiev. There, the prince and the
heaven and Earth. A golden yolk became the other bogatyri refused to take this newcomer
Sun, the white of the eggs became the Moon, seriously. Ilya set out to prove himself.
and the broken bits of shell became the stars. He heard of a horrific creature, Solovei
The black yolk of the iron egg became the first Razboynik the Brigand, that had terrible pow-
thundercloud. ers. The monster could scream with deadly
Now Ilmatar set about shaping the land and force or create a ferocious wind that tore
all that was to exist upon it. Soon Vainamoinen, trees up by their roots. Solovei Razboynik,
a grown wizard by this time, entered the world, also known as Nightingale the Robber, was
and Ilmatar vanished from the story. truly a strange being—half bird and half hu-
man. He roosted in a tree near the road to
See also: Ilmarinen; Joukahainen; Kalevala. Kiev so that he could stop and challenge all
who passed. So far, no one had been able to
Sources defeat him.
Lönnrot, Elias. The Kalevala: An Epic Poem After Oral Tra- Ilya rode up to the monster’s tree and
dition. Trans. Keith Bosley. New York: Oxford Uni- sternly told his horse not to be afraid. Ilya was
able to ignore Solovei Razboynik’s terrifying
Ritva Poom. Bloomington: Indiana University noise, and he calmly drew his bow, shooting
Press, 1999. and killing the creature. Ilya tied the monster’s

Inanna/Ishtar 235
body to his stirrup and brought it to Prince Inanna Challenges An

Vladimir.
After this, there were no more doubts In this Sumerian myth, Inanna directly chal-
about Ilya. He was made Vladimir’s chief bo- lenged An, the sky god, to surrender his tem-
gatyr. Ilya further proved his worth by killing ple of E-ana in Uruk. She openly claimed
Tsar Kalin, who had attacked the land of Rus, dominion over heaven and Earth. An, the
which would become Russia. powerful father of the Sumerian pantheon,
was unable to counter Inanna’s bold move.
See also: Bogatyr/Bogatyri; Bylina/Bylini; Cul- He is described as anguished and full of grief.
ture Heroes; Kievan Cycle. Inanna celebrated her triumph. The E-ana
temple, formerly the House of An, became
Sources known as “the house that is the place of the
Bailey, James, and Tatyana Ivanova, eds. An Anthology of
Russian Folk Epics. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe,
lady.”
1999.
Costello, D.P., and I.P. Foote, eds. Russian Folk Literature.
The Myth of Inanna and Enki
Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1967. In this myth, Inanna visited the wise god Enki,
Hapgood, Isabel Florence. The Epic Songs of Russia. New
York: Scribner’s, 1916.
shared beer and sweet wine with him, and
challenged him to a competition. The inebri-
ated Enki allowed Inanna to take possession
Inanna/Ishtar of the me, the sacred item that defined all
facets of Sumerian life—religion, government,
morality, warfare, family and society, art,
(Sumerian and Akkadian) economy, technology, and crafts. Inanna em-
I nanna, known as Ishtar in Akkadian, is a

complex deity. The principal female deity
in the Sumerian and Akkadian pantheons,
barked on the Boat of Heaven to bring her
prize to the city of Uruk.
When Enki came out of his drunken state
Inanna is the goddess of war and fertility. In and realized his mistake, he sent beasts and
some stories, she possesses the ability to con- monsters to try to recapture the boat. Inanna
trol storms. Her name may mean “Lady of and her minister, Ninshubur, evaded many
Heaven.” obstacles: the enkum (possibly a form of artifi-
Inanna is the offspring of the moon god, cial life), the fifty giants of Eridu, the fifty la-
Nanna, and Ningal, “goddess of the reeds,” and hama (meaning unknown), the great fish, the
some myths mention the sky god, An, as her fa- guardians of Uruk, and the Id-surangal beings.
ther. Other traditions name Inanna as the child When Inanna finally brought the boat
of Enlil or Enki. Her brothers included the sun through the Gate of Joy into Uruk, there was a
god, Utu, and the storm god, Ishkur. She was great celebration. She had succeeded in trans-
the sister of Ereshkigal, queen of the nether- ferring the numerous secrets of civilization to
world and goddess of death and gloom. her city.
Inanna married Dumuzi, the shepherd This Sumerian myth may have its roots in
king, who is identified with the bud of the date propaganda as a mythological explanation for
palm, a symbol of fertility and growth. Begin- the city-state of Uruk’s sudden rise in stature.
ning with the third dynasty of the royal Inanna’s legendary theft of the gifts of civiliza-
Sumerian city of Ur, at the end of third mil- tion from Enki’s temple in Eridu could have
lennium B.C.E., a ritual was performed that provided the perfect justification.
featured a marriage. The ritual included the
real or ceremonial marriage of the king, who
Inanna and Ebih
represented Dumuzi, and a female partner or This Sumerian myth depicts Inanna as the
statue, representing Inanna. Lady of Battle, armed and deadly. When the

236 Inanna/Ishtar
Ebih mountain range refused to show proper Ereshkigal was informed of Inanna’s ar-
respect toward her, Inanna was outraged. She rival and became frightened at the prospect of
vowed to destroy the mountains to punish their facing her domineering sister. She told the
insolence, using a combination of weapons, gatekeeper to lead Inanna through the seven
storms, and fire. gates and to follow the rites of the nether-
Before she set out to do so, however, she world, removing one article of clothing or an
went before the sky god, An, and told him of amulet from her body at each gate. This pro-
her plan. An was hesitant about the punishing cess was carried out, so when Inanna finally
attack and told Inanna that she could not de- entered the netherworld, she was completely
stroy the mountains. This only increased her stripped of her protective amulets and gar-
outrage. ments. She greeted her sister as one of the
Inanna instantly took out her weapons dead, crouched and naked.
and called upon storms to destroy the moun- Despite her lack of protection, Inanna did
tains, reducing them to nothing and establish- not hesitate to take Ereshkigal’s throne. And
ing her authority over them. This is almost so the seven Anuna judges of the netherworld
certainly an attempt to explain the relative rendered a decision against her, turning
flatness of much of the Sumerian (now Iraqi) Inanna into a corpse and hanging her on a
landscape. hook. Because she failed to return to Earth,
Ninshubur, Inanna’s servant, carried out the
Inanna’s Descent to the instructions that her mistress had left: Nin-
shubur went before Enlil, Nanna, and Enki
Netherworld and begged them to save Inanna.
The story of Inanna’s journey to and return Enki understood the gravity of the situa-
from the so-called Land of No Return is per- tion, so he fashioned kur-gara and gala-tura fig-
haps the most familiar of the goddess’s tales. ures, or artificial beings, to sneak past the
No specific reason is given for her journey. gates. These figures were to provide sympathy
Related texts state that she either was under- for Ereshkigal and take possession of Inanna’s
taking the journey to save her lover, Dumuzi, corpse. The figures sprinkled the life-giving
from eternal death or had simply set her atten- plant and the life-giving water upon the dead
tion on the netherworld and resolved to jour- goddess, which brought her back to life.
ney there. Inanna was now ready to make her ascent
Inanna prepared for the trip by placing from the Land of No Return.
many amulets and jewels on her body. She Before Inanna left, however, the seven
wore a turban, a wig, small lapis lazuli beads Anuna gods stopped her, demanding that she
around her neck, egg-shaped beads on her provide a substitute for herself, since no one
breast, a pala-dress, a pectoral ornament, and was permitted to leave the netherworld with-
a golden ring on her hand. She held a lapis out penalty. Demons escorted Inanna out, and
lazuli measuring rod, a measuring line, and together they began the search for a substitute.
her seven divine powers in her hand. Before After sparing several possible victims, the
she set out, she informed her minister, Nin- demons came upon Inanna’s husband, Du-
shubur, what to do if she failed to return muzi, who was seated on his throne, festively
quickly. dressed. Furious that her husband was not in
At the gate of the netherworld, Neti, the mourning for her, the goddess allowed the
gatekeeper, asked Inanna the reason for her demons to take him as her substitute to the
journey. She made up a tale that she was there netherworld.
to visit her sister, Ereshkigal. She planned to Once Dumuzi descended to the Land of
pay her respects to Ereshkigal’s spouse, Gugu- No Return, Inanna showed some remorse for
lanna, who had recently died. having damned her husband. The narrative

Inca Mythology 237
concludes with a fragmentary section about Hallo, William W., and J.J.A. Van Dijk. The Exaltation of
Inanna approaching Dumuzi’s sister, Geshti- Inanna. Near Eastern Researches. Vol. 3. New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1968.
nana, and asking her to take her brother’s
place in the netherworld for half of each year.
Inanna’s descent has been interpreted as
describing a ritual journey of a cult figure of
Inaras
Inanna from the E-ana in Uruk to the city of
Kutha, home of the gods of the underworld. (Hittite)
Inanna as Supporting Character
In addition to the myths in which she is the
I naras was the Hittite goddess of wild ani-
mals and a daughter of the storm god,
Teshub.
protagonist, Inanna also plays a significant When her father was defeated by the
role in two of the Sumerian myths of Gil- dragon Illuyankas, Inaras sought revenge. She
gamesh. In Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Nether- set up a feast and recruited the mortal man
world, Gilgamesh cuts down a demon-infested Hupasiayas of Zigaratta, taking him as a lover
tree for the goddess. In Gilgamesh and the Bull and erasing his memories of his wife and chil-
of Heaven, Inanna tried to seduce Gilgamesh. dren. Inaras lured Illuyankas and his children
Inanna was rebuffed by Gilgamesh, which to the feast; once they were gorged on food,
eventually led to the death of Gilgamesh’s Inaras had Hupasiayas tie them up. This plot
companion, Enkidu, and Gilgamesh’s quest resulted in the storm god’s victory over Il-
for immortality. luyankas.
Many of the themes in the Sumerian sto- Inaras gave Hupasiayas a cliffside house,
ries also appear in Akkadian texts dating from warning him never to look out the window.
the end of the second millennium B.C.E. He broke the prohibition and saw his wife and
Inanna, now with the Semitic name Ishtar, children, instantly remembering them. He
was still a goddess of sex and procreation, as begged to be allowed to go home. What hap-
well as a goddess of war. She was also identi- pened to Hupasiayas and his family after that
fied with the planet Venus. As Ishtar, the god- is unknown.
dess was associated with many other gods and
goddesses in the ancient Near East, including Sources
the South Arabian male deity Athtar and the 1990.
Syrian goddess Astarte, also known as Ash- Hoffner, Harry A. Hittite Myths. 2nd ed. Atlanta, GA:
toreth in the Bible. Scholars, 1991.
Jeff Doolittle Hooke, S.H. Middle Eastern Mythology. Mineola, NY:
Dover, 2004.
See also: Aphrodite; Bull of Heaven; Dumuzi;
Gilgamesh; Mother Goddess/Earth Mother;
Retelling: Inanna’s Descent to the Underworld. Inca Mythology
Sources
Black, Jeremy, and Anthony Green. Gods, Demons and
Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictio-
T he Inca Empire was a highly developed
civilization that ruled much of western
South America. The empire extended from
nary. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1992.
Black, J.A., G. Cunningham, J. Ebeling, E. Flückiger- Peru to Chile and ruled from the fifteenth cen-
Hawker, E. Robson, J. Taylor, and G. Zólyomi. The tury until the Spanish arrived in 1532.
Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature. 2006. Major deities and mythical places and be-
Dalley, Stephanie, trans. Myths from Mesopotamia: Cre-
ings are presented here with the intention of
ation, the Flood, Gilgamesh and Others. New York: Ox- giving storytellers a starting place for further
ford University Press, 1989. research and telling of Incan tales.

238 Inca Mythology
Deities the goddess of grain, said to be incarnated in

strangely shaped ears of corn.
Viracocha was the supreme god of the Inca Apotequil, or Apocatequil, was the god-
people. He was the creator of the world and of dess of lightning, while Manco Camac was the
humankind. His wife, Mama Cocha (Sea sun god and god of fire, and brother of Pacha-
Mother), was the goddess of the sea. camac. Supay was the god of death and lord of
Viracocha’s son was Inti, the Inca sun god the Incan underworld.
and ancestor, who was portrayed as a golden
sun disk with a human face. With his consort Places and Things
Mama Quilla, Inti sired the legendary first
Ono Pacakoti was the great flood of Incan
Inca Manco Capac I. The ruling Inca was con-
myth, sent by Viracocha to destroy the race of
sidered to be the representative of Inti on
giants he had created. He saved only two to
Earth. Mama Quills (Mother Moon or Golden
assist him in re-creating the world and a new
Mother) was the moon goddess. She oversaw
race of people.
marriages, the calendar, and feast days.
Hanan Pacha (higher world) was the Inca
Pachacamac was a son of Inti. He was a
heaven. Only the souls of the just could reach
creator deity that predated Inca religion and
it, crossing over a narrow bridge woven from
was worshipped in the city named for him.
hair.
Pachacamac is said to have created the first
Uca Pacha was the lower world, the un-
man and woman, but he forgot to provide
derworld at the center of the earth. A cold,
them with food. When the man died, the
woman accused Pachacamac of neglect,
whereupon he made her fertile, and she bore
a son. The god killed the son and cut the
corpse in pieces. From these pieces grew the
various fruits and vegetables.
A second son, called Vichama, escaped
Pachacamac, so the god slew the mother.
Vichama avenged his mother’s death by driv-
ing Pachacamac into the sea. He took further
revenge by turning the humans who had been
created by Pachacamac into rocks and islands.
Afterward, Vichama hatched three eggs, from
which a new race of humans was born.
Another son of Inti was Kon, the rain god
and god of the southern wind. He and his
brother battled Pachacamac. Whenever Pacha-
camac drove Kon back to the north, Kon
would take the rains along with him and cause
drought.
Other Incan deities included Cocomama,
or Mama Coca, who was the goddess of the
hearth and of joy. She was portrayed as the
coca plant. Chasca was the goddess of dawn
and twilight, and the protector of virgins and
young girls. Mama Allpa was the harvest and Viracocha was the Inca people’s supreme god and cre-
ation deity. The blocky shape and square eyes of this
earth goddess. She was usually portrayed with statue, originally from Tiahuanaco, Bolivia, are typical
many breasts. Zaramama, or Mamazara, was of Incan imagery. (Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY)

Indian Stor ytelling 239
dark place, it housed the eternally hungry the gods. Modern adaptations of the kavad
souls of the damned. have been made by the Indian Ministry of
Culture and at the children’s cultural center in
Sources Delhi, the Bal Bhavan. These modern kavad
Cobo, Father Bernabé. Inca Religion and Customs. Austin: are used as teaching tools in rural areas.
University of Texas Press, 1990.
De la Vega, Garcilaso. The Royal Commentaries of the Inca.
Austin: University of Texas Press, 1966. West Bengal
Steele, Paul. Handbook of Inca Mythology. Santa Barbara,
CA: ABC-CLIO, 2004. In West Bengal state, a long vertical scroll, the
Urton, Gary. Inca Myths. Austin: University of Texas pata, is used to accompany singing tellers, who
Press, 1999. share stories in homes or at funerals and other
functions. The vividly painted scrolls, usually
from 12 to 16 feet (3 to 5 meters) long and be-
Indian Storytelling tween 1 and 2 feet (less than 1 meter) wide,
feature story scenes aligned as vertical panels.
I ndia is a rich land of storytelling, with an

amazing variety of tales and techniques. In
family settings, folktales of humanlike gods,
The teller sings with a forceful voice as he un-
winds the scroll slowly to tell the tale.
Stories told using a pata are often from the
trickster tales of characters such as Tenali Ra- lives of Rama or Krishna, of the great goddess
man and Birbal, or animal fables might be Durga and the snake goddess Manasa, or of
shared. Festivals and rituals may call for the god of death, Yama. The tradition also in-
telling grand epics, such as Ramayana or Ma- corporates newer stories about social issues,
habharata, or for sharing stories of regional such as dowry burning, accidents, and history.
gods and heroes. Stories of Indira Gandhi’s life and even Hi-
Indian storytelling also often takes place roshima are told using a pata.
in temples or in the streets or village squares, The storytellers, called patua, struggle to
where wandering tellers perform long tales of keep this art form alive by trying to attract tal-
devotion. Visual props, such as intricately ented young men to the practice. Unfortu-
painted scrolls, are used as aids in traditional nately, many of these prospective storytellers
storytelling. prefer the security of a factory job.
Rajasthan Andhra Pradesh

In the North Indian state of Rajasthan, intri- In Andhra Pradesh, a South Indian state
cately painted par scrolls are set up by the known for its rapidly growing computer in-
bhopa, or tellers, who then weave nightlong dustry, some tellers use a long, wide vertical
tales. Wearing a red turban and stamping feet scroll, called a padam. The scroll, often
ringed with bells, the bhopa sings, speaks, and painted on a background of rich red, illus-
bows his fiddle. As he discourses, his wife illu- trates the Hindu myths. It is suspended be-
minates the various story scenes with an oil hind the teller, who, with the help of several
lamp. A younger son often attends, actively musicians, tells the tale in a dramatic style.
learning a style that will be carried on in fu- The stories often come from oral versions of
ture generations. Two epics of legendary re- the epics Ramayana or Mahabharata in Telegu,
gional heroes Pabuji and Devnarayan are the language of the area.
especially popular in this form. Smaller pictures, usually painted back to
Another painted marvel in Rajasthan is an back on heavyweight paper, portray the same
ingenious storytelling box, the kavad. This epics in Maharashtra state, in the chitrakatha
prop has a number of door panels painted in style. A teller sits with the cards leaning
vivid colors, which unfold to share stories of against him as he tells a tale accompanied by

240 Indian Stor ytelling
a musician with a stringed instrument. The Tellers should speak several Indian languages,
form has lost popularity, however, and the be able to quote thousands of religious verses,
pictures are found most often in museums. know the major epics and devotional stories,
Another storytelling form, kirtan, has long and be able to sing in classical as well as folk
been popular in Andhra Pradesh. A stirring, styles. Beyond that, they should have dramatic
devotional mixture of song and dramatic nar- ability and relate well to an audience. Finally,
rative, this genre attracts audiences of hun- since the art is rich in the use of small side sto-
dreds. The onlookers eagerly join in religious ries, the bhagavatar must constantly find anec-
chants that are intertwined with the stories of dotes from the news and daily life to sprinkle
gods, saints, and devotees. into his telling.
The practitioners of kirtan, called kir-
tankars, use large gestures, elegant hand move- Villupattu
ments, and voices full of feeling and power to
At the southern tip of India, the ballads of the
inspire their audiences. Drums and harmo-
villupattu tellers communicate legends of re-
nium keyboards are the most common instru-
gional heroes and spirits, deities, and the
ments used, and musicians will play as the
epics. Although the villupattu tellers perform
teller tells or during breaks, using a variety of
largely for temple festivals, some also use their
classical and folk music patterns.
talent to spread messages about AIDS, rural
The burra katha tellers spread news and
sanitation, nutrition, literacy, current events,
tales. One group, the popular Nittala Brothers,
and more to audiences in colleges, public
was formed in 1947 to tell rural listeners the
schools, and banks, and at political rallies.
news of Mahatma Gandhi’s death. Most of the
The villupattu troupe usually is made up
many burra katha troupes have three mem-
of seven players, most of whom play percus-
bers: a main teller, an assistant who adds ques-
sion instruments. They sing and make com-
tions and asides to move the story along, and a
ments to accompany the lead storyteller, who
drummer who plays the burra drum.
plays the vil, a large bow strung with bells that
The burra katha art form seemed about to
gives the form its name.
fade away until, at the start of the twentieth cen-
tury, the Communist Party realized that it could
use it to reach the rural masses by adding politi-
Kerala
cal content to the stories. Today, information In Kerala state, stories are shared through
about family planning, farming methods, or Chakyar kuttu or ottan thullal. Chakyar kuttu,
elections often is woven into a frame story re- performed only in temples, is the older of the
lating historic or mythic content. two forms, with a sophisticated delivery, diffi-
cult language, and a pace that allows for slow,
intricate embroidery of story verses. In this
South India style, a teller is allowed to insult his listeners, re-
Several centuries ago, the kirtan form of story- gardless of their rank, during the performance.
telling traveled to South India and evolved Many years ago, it is said that a teller
into the sophisticated Harikatha style. Found wished to warn the raja about his foolish min-
in temples, and marriage halls today, the form isters. Thus, when the monkey Hanuman
appeals largely to older listeners. jumped from rock to rock in the story, the
Harikatha bhagavatars, as the practitioners teller pointed to each of the ministers’ heads
of this form are known, generally are men as he said, “And Hanuman jumped from
who possess natural talent that has been en- empty spot to empty spot to empty spot.” In
hanced by years of practice and enriched by today’s performances, temple priests or audi-
devotion. The training required is rigorous. ence members may be chosen as targets.

Indian Stor ytelling 241
Another legendary performer was a Chak- Many individuals and organizations work
yar, an upper-caste Hindu performer, who to keep traditional storytelling alive in India.
lived more than 200 years ago. He insulted his Scholars and artists work in university folklore
drummer, Kunchan Nambiar, who had either departments as well as in national and local
fallen asleep or missed a beat. After the scold- arts academies to teach young people about
ing, the drummer went home mad enough to the various genres. The National Folklore
write all night, thus creating a new storytelling Support Center and Dakshina Chitra arts cen-
form, ottan thullal. ter and museum have been established in
The next evening, opposite the Chakyar South India to further awareness of this rich
kuttu performance, this vibrant new style ap- tradition.
peared. It was an immediate hit—the teller With the gradual breakup of the extended
was more active, the music livelier, the lan- family in India, opportunities for storytelling in
guage easier to understand, and the stories full the home are fading. When storytelling family
of satire and social comment. Stories of the members, such as grandmothers, are not avail-
gods were told, but they were the gods of able, some parents turn to books to find stories.
folktales—earthy gods who came to Kerala Certain book publishers and resource centers
and often had human characteristics. The au- give storytelling workshops to help parents
dience abandoned the sophisticated Chakyar, learn the art of telling tales, while bookstores
so the drummer had his revenge. Today, both carry locally produced volumes of folktales.
forms are taught in regional arts institutes and Recordings of folktales and of Harikatha and
both are still performed, but ottan thullal re- devotional storytelling are also available. Tradi-
mains more popular. tional storytelling programs are broadcasted on
Kerala also is known for its active Com- All India Radio and on television.
munist Party, and so it is no surprise that one Indian storytellers deliver a great deal of
storytelling form, kathaprasangam, frequently important information. Their stories rally au-
includes tales by Tolstoy or Dostoyevsky. This diences to vote, urge rural development, en-
secular style started in the twentieth century to courage devotion, preserve heritage, teach,
popularize local Malayalam literature and to and inspire. Political messages, the freedom
challenge societal problems of caste, corrup- struggle, the basics of rural sanitation, the
tion, and inequality. One of the most popular great epics, and modern stories, as well as
tellers, V. Sambasivam, described the style as tales of heroes, tricksters, and fools, are all
“an operation to purify the minds of the audi- shared through the power and skill of these
ence.” talented individuals.
Cathy Spagnoli
Indian Storytelling Today See also: Panchatantra.
There are hundreds of forms of Indian story-
telling. There are bards who travel from place Sources
to place and others who perform seasonally, Blackburn, Stuart H. Singing of Birth and Death: Texts in
using a variety of stringed or percussive instru- Performance. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylva-
nia Press, 1988.
ments. Most of the epics they share are of re- Gurumurthy, Preemila. Kathakalaksepa. Madras, India:
gional gods and goddesses. International Society for the Investigation of An-
At times, local heroes become the subjects cient Civilizations, 1994.
of popular ballads. Regional identities are of- Jain, Jyotindra. Picture Showmen. Mumbai, India: Marg,
1998.
ten strengthened through the repetition of Spagnoli, Cathy, and Paramasivam Samanna. Jasmine
these familiar stories, and most stories remain and Coconuts: South Indian Tales. Englewood, CO:
available only in the oral tradition. Libraries Unlimited, 1999.

242 Insects
Insects Stag Beetles

In Greek mythology, Cerambus was a musi-
cian who angered the gods and was turned into
T here are estimated to be ten quintillion in-
sects alive in the world, an almost unimag-
inably large number, and possibly as many as
a beetle. He was a stag beetle, which has curved
horns that look something like a Greek lyre.
thirty million species. Myths and folklore about
insects also are found worldwide. Deathwatch Beetles
There is nothing actually deadly to people
Beetles about the deathwatch beetle, which is a wood-
Beetles can be found on every continent ex- borer that makes a ticking sound as it hunts for
cept Antarctica in a wide variety of species. mates. In many cultures, however, the sound
Different types have different myths and folk made by these beetles is considered a warning
beliefs attached to them. of the ending of a life.
Scarab Beetles Ladybugs

In ancient Egypt, the scarab was a symbol of Ladybugs, which are members of the beetle
the Sun’s cycle. Kephri, or Kephara, god of family, are also known as ladybird beetles.
the rising Sun, was represented as a scarab or They generally are thought to be lucky, partic-
a man with the head of a scarab. He was the ularly if one lands on a person. A darker hue
god of transformations and the constant re- of red and a larger number of spots on a lady-
newal of life. bug signifies even greater luck. According to
Dung beetles are a type of scarab beetle the folk belief, if the luck is to hold, the lady-
that roll their dung into a ball and roll it back to bug must be allowed to fly away on its own.
the burrow. The Egyptians reflected this behav-
ior in portrayals of scarabs carrying solar balls Cicadas
instead of balls of dung. The verb kheper, mean-
The Romans viewed the periodic emergence
ing to come into existence, was represented by
of the cicadas on their regular schedules as
a hieroglyph of a scarab with legs outstretched.
symbolic of rebirth. An ancient Roman folk-
tale claims that the cicada was created by the
Buprestid Beetles gods to eternally honor a mortal woman’s
The buprestid beetle, commonly known as the beautiful voice after her death.
jewel beetle, has beautiful iridescent blues, In China, the cicada is the symbol in Tao-
greens, reds, and gold on its carapace. The an- ism of the hsien, or a soul freeing itself from the
cient Egyptians used the jewel beetle as a sym- body at death. In ancient China, it was custom-
bol for the chief god, Osiris. ary to place a jade cicada carving on the mouth
of the deceased to help the soul free itself.
Bark Beetles
In the mythology of the Tahltan people of
Mosquitoes
British Columbia, the existence of bark bee- Several indigenous groups of the Pacific
tles, which are actually beetle larvae, came Northwest share the belief that mosquitoes
about when a beetle saw how well fed a mos- were created from the ashes of a cannibal who
quito was. The bark beetle was told by the se- was incinerated by a young man to avenge the
cretive mosquito that the blood came from slaying of his family.
tree bark. From then on, the myth says, all To the Mayans of the Yucatán Peninsula,
bark beetles hunted for blood in tree trunks. mosquitoes were thought to be spies. It was

Insects 243
believed that mosquitoes learned all about of the peoples of South Africa, the praying
someone while sucking his or her blood. mantis was thought to bring good luck when it
landed on someone and might even restore
Dragonflies life to the dead.
The dragonfly, which is found in most regions In the Appalachian region of the southern
of the world in different sizes and colors, is United States, praying mantises were believed
harmless to humans. Despite this, it has a sur- to blind people.
prisingly bad reputation in folklore.
In English folk belief, the dragonfly was
Butterflies
linked with the devil and was given names such To the Blackfoot people of the northwestern
as “devil’s darning needle.” In England and United States, a butterfly brought dreams. A
Australia, dragonflies are called horse stingers, Blackfoot mother might weave a butterfly
even though they do not sting horses—or any- charm into her child’s hair to ensure sweet
thing else for that matter. sleep and good dreams.
An early American folk belief claimed In the beliefs of the Tohono O’odham
that dragonflies were capable of stitching to- people of the American Southwest, the creator
gether the mouths, and sometimes the eyes made the butterfly out of bright colors to give
and ears, of children who lied, women who people a symbol of hope. But the creator took
scolded, and men who cursed. away the butterfly’s beautiful singing voice so
In Italy, dragonflies are known as witches’ that humans would not be envious.
animals. In China, they are a symbol of sum- The Aztec of Mexico thought that the
mer and of feebleness. dead could return to their living relatives in
In Japan, dragonflies have more positive the form of butterflies to let them know all
connotations. They are symbols of happiness, was well.
strength, courage, and success, as well as the
spirit of the rice. Moths
In some folk cultures of the United States, a
Ants large moth—particularly one that is all white
In many nations, including Greece, Mexico, or all black—that visits a house is the spirit of
and China, as well as in Western Europe and a deceased relative.
the United States, the ant is a symbol of indus- To the Goajiro of Columbia, if a particu-
try and teamwork. larly large, white moth is found in a bedroom,
In Aesop’s fable “The Grasshopper and it is the spirit of an ancestor. If the moth be-
the Ant,” the industrious ants prepared for the comes troublesome, it can be removed only
winter, and the frivolous grasshopper did not. with the greatest care, or the spirit might take
When winter came, the ants had plenty of vengeance.
food. The grasshopper found itself dying of Among the Aymara of Bolivia, a certain
hunger and realized too late the ants’ wisdom rare nocturnal moth was thought to be an
in working and planning ahead. omen of death.
Praying Mantis See also: Bees.
In Western Europe, the praying mantis was Sources

said to be highly reverent, always saying Aesop. Aesop’s Fables. Trans. Robert and Olivia Temple.
prayers. A French folk belief said that a pray- New York: Penguin Classics, 1998.
Clausen, Lucy Wilhelmine. Insect Fact and Folklore. New
ing mantis would direct a lost child home. York: Macmillan, 1954.
In Muslim folktales, a mantis was thought Fabre, Jean-Henri. Fabre’s Book of Insects. Mineola, NY:
to point toward Mecca when praying. To some Dover, 1993.

244 Internet L ore/Netlore
Kritsky, Gene, and Ron Cherry. Insect Mythology. Lincoln, flicts in Iraq and Afghanistan. The following is
NE: Writers Club, 2000. an excerpt from an anti-Taliban satire:
Internet Lore/Netlore Taliban TV

Mondays
8:00 Husseinfeld
T he Internet, in its relatively short lifespan,

has become an amazing source of material
for storytellers. Through services such as e-mail
8:30
9:00
Mad About Everything
Monday Night Stoning
9:30 Win Bin Laden’s Money
and the World Wide Web, the Internet also has 10:00 Eye for an Eye Witness News
become one of the greatest mediums for the
spread of folklore ever envisioned. This phe- This tendency to laugh in the face of horror
nomenon is commonly known as Netlore. has long been a coping device for many. But
Internet access is available worldwide, and the Internet spreads this dark humor around
more than 50 percent of the U.S. population is the world in record time.
connected. As a result, folklore, jokelore (hu-
morous and false folklore that includes parody, Faked Lists
imitation chain letters, and even “dying child”
pleas), and nuisances, such as the false com- Another popular form of Netlore is that of
puter virus warning, speed across cyberspace. faked lists. These include humorous job evalu-
ations and pretend tests. An example of a fake
Jokelore job evaluation follows:
Of all the humorous folklore that is produced
Actual Employee Evaluations
on the Internet, parodies are particularly wide-
1. Since my last report, this employee
spread. Amateur and professional satirists mock
has reached rock bottom and shows
everything from corporations to religion. One
signs of starting to dig.
such parody was a fake press release that circu-
lated in the late twentieth century, called “Mi- 2. His men would follow him anywhere,
crosoft Buys the Catholic Church”: but only out of morbid curiosity.
3. This associate is really not so much of
VATICAN CITY (AP)—In a joint a has-been, but more of a definitely
press conference in St. Peter’s Square won’t be.
this morning, Microsoft Corp. and the 4. Works well when under constant super-
Vatican announced that the Redmond vision and cornered like a rat in a trap.
software giant will acquire the Roman 5. He would be out of his depth in a
Catholic Church in exchange for an parking lot puddle.
unspecified number of shares of Mi-
6. This young lady has delusions of
crosoft common stock. If the deal goes adequacy.
through, it will be the first time a com-
puter software company has acquired 7. He sets low personal standards and
then consistently fails to achieve them.
a major world religion.
8. This employee should go far—and the
Another parody, circulated toward the end of sooner he starts, the better.
the Clinton presidency, was entitled “The Ken 9. This employee is depriving a village
Starr Trek Report.” It substituted Star Trek’s somewhere of an idiot.
Captain Kirk for President Clinton.
Jokes about current events also are com- There also are a plethora of so-called top-
mon, including such tricky subjects as the con- ten lists, such as “What I will do if I ever

Iroquois Stor ytelling 245
become an evil overlord.” This particu- in the way of a good story—particularly not
lar example lists any number of more than an Internet story. This bogus warning of a
a hundred parodies of fantasy and science fic- fake computer virus, recorded here in part,
tion clichés. The following is a small sample: sums it up:
1. My Legions of Terror will have hel- WASHINGTON, D.C.—The Insti-

mets with clear Plexiglas visors, not tute for the Investigation of Irregular
face-concealing ones.
Internet Phenomena announced today
2. My ventilation ducts will be too small that many Internet users are becoming
to crawl through. infected by a new virus that causes
3. My noble half brother whose throne I them to believe without question
usurped will be killed, not kept anony- every groundless story, legend, and
mously imprisoned in a forgotten cell dire warning that shows up in their in-
of my dungeon. box or on their browser. The Gullibil-
4. Shooting is not too good for my ity Virus, as it is called, apparently
enemies. makes people believe and forward
5. The artifact which is the source of my copies of silly hoaxes relating to
power will not be kept on the Moun- cookie recipes, e-mail viruses, taxes on
tain of Despair beyond the River of modems, and get-rich-quick schemes.
Fire guarded by the Dragons of Eter-
nity. It will be in my safe-deposit box. As the saying goes, “There is a sucker
The same applies to the object which born every minute.” People’s credulity about
is my one weakness.
what they read and hear on the Internet is as
Scams, such as chain letters and attempts strong—and sometimes as misguided—as
to defraud, and parodies of scams are also their credulity about what they encounter in
common. But perhaps most interesting to sto- the outside world. The love of satire, however,
rytellers is the way that the Internet has be- also is a human trait, and satire can be found
come a rich source of traditional folktales, on the Internet as well as in the real world. So
particularly urban folklore, with stories such a balance may be struck between the ready
as “The Vanishing Hitchhiker” and “The believers and the merely entertained.
Neiman Marcus Cookie Recipe”:
See also: Tall Tales.
A woman eating lunch at a Neiman
Sources
Marcus store asks for their cookie Brunvand, Jan Harold. Encyclopedia of Urban Legends.
recipe. They tell her it will cost her New York: W.W. Norton, 2000.
$2.50. She agrees, but when she gets ———, ed. Readings in American Folklore. New York:
her bill, she finds that she had been W.W. Norton, 1979.
charged $250 for the recipe, not the
$2.50 she had expected to pay. As re-
venge on the store for refusing to re- Iroquois Storytelling
verse the charge, she now provides the
recipe for free and exhorts others to
pass it along. T he Iroquois are a group of six Native
American nations from the northeastern
United States that share a common language.
This incident, of course, never happened. The six nations included in the Iroquois Con-
But that does not stop it from being spread, federacy are the Onondaga, the Oneida, the
both in believing and disbelieving versions. Mohawk, the Seneca, the Cayuga, and the
The truth, as the saying goes, never stands Tuscarora. The Iroquois are known among

246 Iroquois Stor ytelling
themselves as the Haudenosaunee, which Iroquois stories cover the entire range of
means “people of the longhouse.” Iroquois human emotions. The audience might, in the
storytelling was an exclusively oral tradition course of an evening’s tales, burst into laugh-
until fairly recently. ter, be stirred by joy, or have the hair rise on
Folklorists collected a wealth of informa- the backs of their necks as they listened to an
tion about Iroquois story and lore between Iroquois ghost or monster story. At the end of
1875 and 1925. During that time, the culture the storytelling session, each listener would
was changing due to outside influences, but give a small gift to the teller.
the traditional ways still were remembered Tobacco has long been associated with
and practiced. storytelling among the Iroquois, and it is said
Currently, storytelling generally does not to lift one’s words and thoughts to the Cre-
occur in the native languages, as most nations ator. Often, a storyteller arrived wearing two
have few fluent native-language speakers, so pouches, a pouch for his pipe and tobacco and
stories are told in English. This may change, the storytelling pouch described earlier. After
however, as there is renewed interest among many stories had been told and the teller
the Iroquois in their native language and cul- could see that the children were growing
tural traditions. weary, the storyteller would take out his pipe
and begin to smoke as he gave thanks for the
knowledge and ability to tell the stories.
Traditional Storytelling Iroquois tradition specified only two times
Iroquois tradition states that stories should be during the year when stories could be told:
told only after the first frost, so storytellers during the time after the first frost of autumn
would begin traveling from village to village and before the last frost of winter or “in the
as winter arrived. Anyone was permitted to moment.” A traditional way of conveying the
be a storyteller, but because these traveling idea that stories should be told only in the
storytellers journeyed in the harsh winter wintertime might be to say that one should not
months, tellers usually were vigorously healthy tell stories during the growing season because
men. a little bird might hear the stories, become en-
The storyteller carried a bag or pouch thralled, and forget her young in her nest. This
with him that contained a variety of items cho- is a subtle way, the Iroquois believe, of saying
sen to remind him of stories. A storyteller’s that there are too many duties to perform dur-
pouch might contain such items as animal ing the planting and harvest season to spend
claws, shells, animal teeth, strings of wampum, time listening to stories.
dolls, feathers, or bark with hieroglyphs In modern Iroquois communities, many
sketched on it. do not honor the old tradition of telling sto-
Storytelling took place in the traditional ries at only two times during winter. These
Iroquois dwelling, called a longhouse, around a people say that stories should be told as the
central fire. The Iroquois were farming and opportunity arises. Telling stories “in the mo-
hunting people, so during the winter there was ment” refers to those times when a lesson can
less work to do. Although they enjoyed some be taught to younger members of the tribe
winter games, much time was spent in the long- through story.
house during the cold months, and the people The lessons conveyed by these stories
were eager for entertainment. The tales of a sometimes explain the natural world. Parents
traveling storyteller or even those told by a sto- might share a story in response to the ques-
ryteller who lived within the longhouse were a tions of an inquisitive child, such as how the
welcome reprieve from the boredom of long rabbit got his long ears. Values, or correct be-
winter days. havior, are also taught through stories.

Isis 247
Wampum Other stories that might require extended

periods of time to tell include the story of the
To help recall the details of an important his- formation of the Iroquois Confederacy and
torical story, an Iroquois storyteller might use the story of Ganioda’yo, or Handsome Lake.
wampum, which are beads formed from the The latter was a Seneca chief who developed
shells of quahog clams. The beads are woven a new religion for the Iroquois in the early
together on a string, creating a pattern, or are nineteenth century. These stories, because of
sometimes woven into a belt. The patterns are their importance and sacred nature, would be
simple and the symbols are not uniform from told in the longhouse, sometimes by more
wampum to wampum. than one teller.
Tradition states that the original use of Shorter, less important stories could be
wampum dates back to Hiawatha, who strung told during or into the night. These shorter
some beads together and sang a song to take stories are the ones most often told to modern
away the people’s grief. Making wampum audiences.
belts is extremely time-consuming, and so The Iroquois storytelling tradition remains
they were made only to commemorate the vibrant and dynamic today. Although many
most important events. To record the addition ancient stories have been lost to time, there is
of the Tuscarora to the Iroquois Confederacy, a renewed interest among the Iroquois people
a wampum belt was made. It had six dia- in language and story. As a result, new stories
monds on it, and each diamond was said to have been added to the storytelling tradition.
represent a fire, which in turn represented Three areas where there have been notable
each of the six nations. additions are recent historical events, ghost
For memorable but less important events, stories, and the stories of steelworkers, as
perhaps only a string of wampum would be many Iroquois work in this field.
made. A person, often a chief, as chiefs were Efforts have been made by the six nations
both spiritual and political leaders, would be to preserve their storytelling heritage. The sto-
entrusted to remember the events represented ries of the Haudenosaunee help to define their
in the belt. It would be that chief’s job to pass identity.
the story on to someone else. Melanie Zimmer
Types of Stories See also: Retelling: A Creation.
Stories are of various lengths. Epic stories can
take several days to tell. An example of an Sources
Bruchac, Joseph. “Contemporary Iroquois Storytelling.”
epic story is the Iroquois creation story. This Unbroken Circle (Winter 1990): 13–16.
story was first documented nearly 400 years Elm, Demus, and Harvey Antone. The Oneida Creation
ago in the missionary texts called the Jesuit Re- Story. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000.
lations. More than forty written versions of the Parker, Arthur C. Seneca Myths and Folk Tales. Buffalo,
NY: Buffalo Historical Society, 1923.
creation story exist. Wonderley, Anthony. “The Iroquois Creation Story over
The creation story may take three days to Time.” Northeast Anthropology 62 (Fall 2001): 1–16.
recount. The telling might begin at dawn and
go until noon or 3 P.M. and continue the next
day, but it would never extend into the night.
Tradition dictates that this type of story must be
Isis
told during daytime hours to represent the time
of the positive twin, known as the Creator. If it
(Egyptian)
were to fall later than 3 P.M., it would approach
the time of the negative twin, known as Flint. I sis is one of the most important goddesses in
the Egyptian pantheon. Her role in the cult

248 Ivan/Ivan Tsarevich
of Osiris extended her sphere of influence far Empire, temples of Isis were erected as far
beyond that of the mortal king. away as Britain. Her cult became a mystery re-
The sky goddess, Nut, gave birth to Isis ligion with initiations, secret rites, and the
along with her twin brother, Osiris, and the promise of eternal life. Isis became a universal
twins Seth and Nephthys. Isis became the faith- goddess, loving and beloved, creator and re-
ful wife of her brother Osiris, the slain god, and deemer. Her cult remained active at Philae un-
an important figure in his resurrection. As til the seventh century C.E. Images of Isis and
Osiris’s wife, she acquired roles as both earth the young Horus may well have influenced
and rain goddess. When the Osiris cult ab- Christian images of the Virgin Mary and the
sorbed the myth of Horus in the second millen- Christ child.
nium B.C.E., Isis became the mother of Horus.
As such, she was a divine mother and guardian Noreen Doyle
of the mortal king.
Isis and Nephthys were principally respon- See also: Mother Goddess/Earth Mother.
sible for finding the body of the murdered Sources
Osiris and achieving his resurrection. This Griffiths, J. Gwyn. The Origins of Osiris and His Cult. Lei-
made Isis indispensable in Egyptian funerary den, Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1980.
beliefs. She was called “great of magic,” could Lesko, Barbara S. The Great Goddesses of Egypt. Norman:
cure ailments, and could command those who University of Oklahoma Press, 1999.
Witt, R.E. Isis in the Ancient World. Baltimore: Johns Hop-
would trouble the dead to cease. kins University Press, 1997.
Isis was also something of a trickster. She
desired the magic that knowing the secret
name of the sun god, Re, would bring to her-
self and her son. So Isis fashioned a serpent
Ivan/Ivan Tsarevich
from the aged sun god’s spittle and had it bite
him. She then offered to heal the ailing deity if
(Russian)
he revealed his true name. Isis also tricked the
ferryman and the god Seth in the story of The
Contendings of Horus and Seth.
I van is the main hero of Russian folktales. He
is almost always portrayed as either the
third son of a peasant family or the third son
Isis usually appeared as a woman, some- of a king. In the latter stories, he is called Ivan
times winged, with a throne, which is the hiero- Tsarevich, which means “tsar’s son.” In folk
glyphic sign for her name, on her head. She tradition, the third son or daughter is often the
sometimes wore the horns of a cow with the so- folktale’s protagonist and the victor. Ivan is
lar disk. Isis and Nephthys sometimes appeared also one of the most common Russian names.
as birds of prey, typically kites, which are small, This character is generally seen as a Russian
slim hawks. everyman.
Astronomically, Isis is the star Sirius, The friends and foes of Ivan Tsarevich are
known to the Egyptians as Soped and to the often mythic figures, from magical animals to
Greeks as Sothis. When Soped rose on deathless beings. Perhaps the most famous
the heel of the constellation Orion, so did the folktale featuring Ivan Tsarevich as the protag-
Nile, which renewed the fertility of the land onist is “Prince Ivan, the Firebird, and the
by depositing fresh silt. Isis’s tears were said to Great Gray Wolf.” In this story, Ivan Tsarevich
cause the flood, and a protective amulet made was aided by a magical wolf as he captured
of red jasper, known as the tyet, or “knot of the firebird and won the hand of a beautiful
Isis,” became one of her symbols. tsarina. The firebird inspired Igor Stravinsky’s
Temples and shrines to Isis existed ballet of the same name.
throughout Egypt, including those in Edfu, In another famous tale, part of which was
Koptos, Memphis, and Philae. In the Roman also used by Stravinsky in The Firebird, Ivan

Ivan/Ivan Tsarevich 249
Tsarevich married a warrior princess, Maria become a hero and marry the princess he
Morevna, who was kidnapped by the immor- loved.
tal being called Koschei the Deathless. In this
tale, the animal helpers were a lion, a bird, See also: Motifs.
and a magical horse that belonged to Baba
Yaga. It was on this horse that Ivan Tsarevich Sources
defeated Koschei. Afanasy’ev, Aleksandr. Russian Fairy Tales. Trans. Nor-
Ivan the peasant’s son has as many tales as bert Guterman. New York: Pantheon, 1976.
Haney, Jack. The Complete Russian Folktale. Vols. 1 and 2.
Ivan Tsarevich. One of the best known is the Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1999–2000.
story “The Little Humpbacked Horse,” in Ivanits, Linda. Russian Folk Belief. Armonk, NY: M.E.
which a magical, talking horse helped Ivan to Sharpe, 1989.

J
Jackalope
(North American)
been known to sing along with cowboys and
others.
The best way to catch a jackalope is not to
chase it but to leave whiskey out for it. The an-
imal will drink until intoxicated and then can
T he jackalope, also known as the deer-

bunny, is said to be an antlered species of
rabbit, a weird cross between an antelope or
easily be caught. Even so, they are fierce fight-
ers, and none have ever been captured alive.
The main reason to catch a jackalope is
pygmy deer and a predatory jackrabbit, that for its milk. Some sources say that the milk
lives in the American Southwest. is medicinal, while others claim that it has
The jackalope is an invention of rela- aphrodisiac properties. Regardless, it is very
tively modern American folklore and is the dangerous to try to milk a jackalope, even
perfect creation for a storyteller who likes to when it is sound asleep, belly up.
tell tall tales. The first to tell of the jackalope, President Ronald Reagan had a jackalope
or at least the first to popularize the phenom- head on a wall at his ranch and claimed he
enon, was Douglas Herrick, a taxidermist had hunted the creature himself. Jackalopes
who started selling mounted jackalope heads have been featured in animated television se-
in his native Douglas, Wyoming, in the 1930s. ries such as Pinky and the Brain. Science fiction
Around the same time, jackalope postcards and fantasy author Alan Dean Foster penned a
could be found in circulation. The town of Dou- story simply titled “Jackalope” in 1989. And in
glas is the official jackalope capital of America; 2004, Pixar Animation Studios released a
it claims to be the location of the first sighting in short feature called “Boundin’,” which starred
1829. On Jackalope Day, held in Douglas on a jackalope.
June 31 of each year, jackalope hunting licenses The evolution of the jackalope may have
are available. come about because rabbits are sometimes in-
The jackalope is said to be highly aggres- fected with a virus called Shope papillomavirus
sive, using its antlers as weapons. It is also that can cause growths that look like horns.
known by its pseudo-scientific name, Lepus- There also have been reported sightings
temperamentalus, and the nickname “warrior of jackalope-type creatures in Europe: the
rabbit.” The jackalope is able to imitate human wolperdinger of Germany and the skvader of
speech and song to the extent that a hunted Sweden. The skvader, however, has wings
jackalope can throw off its pursuers by mim- rather than horns. In Swedish, skvader is a col-
icking the hunters’ voices. Jackalopes also have loquial term for a bad compromise.
250

Japanese Stor ytelling 251
A jackalope is an American mythical creature that is a cross between a jackrabbit and an antelope or pygmy deer. In
this store in Piedmont, South Dakota, racks of jackalope plaques are hung on display, above a row of jackrabbit
plaques. (Markus Erk/America 24-7/Getty Images)
See also: Urban Legends. century. The form conveys humor through
wordplay and mime.
Sources Long years of training under a master
Boese, Alex. The Museum of Hoaxes: A Collection of Pranks, teller help the young hanashika, the usually
Stunts, Deceptions, and Other Wonderful Stories Con-
male storyteller of this form, to polish skills of
trived for the Public from the Middle Ages to the New Mil-
lennium. New York: E.P. Dutton, 2002. timing, improvisation, and characterization.
Dorson, Richard M. Man and Beast in American Comic With a wave of his fan, a tilt of his head, or a
Legend. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, change of pose and voice, an accomplished
1982. rakugo teller can create multiple characters
Foster, Alan Dean. “Jackalope.” Magazine of Fantasy and
Science Fiction 76:4 (April 1989).
and convincingly portray them conversing.
Rakugo stories poke fun at human foibles.
They bring to life the rogues, fools, prosti-
Japanese Storytelling tutes, and merchants of the Edo period, which
spanned the seventeenth through nineteenth
centuries, or get laughs with modern stories of
S torytellers in Japan walk a green and an-
cient land. The stories they tell are rich
and varied, from the poignant sounds of the
robots and baseball.
To learn rakugo, the student serves as an
assistant, studying his teacher’s stories and de-
old epics to the fast-paced humor of the rakugo
livery. After the apprentice knows as many as
storytelling style.
thirty stories, has studied for some thirteen
years, and has passed a performance test, he
Rakugo is able to perform on his own. Slowly, he de-
Rakugo is a theatrical storytelling form that velops his own style and, perhaps, his own
has been popular in Japan since the sixteenth material. Those who excel are eventually

252 Japanese Stor ytelling
recognized as masters, who then train young Koen Dowa

apprentices.
This storytelling form is presented on The koen dowa style of storytelling was created
television and in large concert halls, but fans in 1896 by the author Sazanami Iwaya
still prefer to experience it in the more inti- (1879–1933), who published nearly fifty vol-
mate yose, a vaudeville-type theater. Sprin- umes of traditional Japanese tales. During a
kled among various acts—magicians, jugglers, visit to an elementary school in 1896, the prin-
singers, and comedy teams—is the hanashika. cipal advised Iwaya to share his stories aloud
He kneels on a cushion in a dark traditional with students, rather than just writing them
robe and performs short stories rich in puns down. And so koen dowa, or voiced literature,
and satire, often holding a fan and a handker- was born.
chief as props. Within two years, Iwaya had become a
Tokyo and Osaka boast yose theaters and professional storyteller. His book, How to Tell
concert halls that feature rakugo. Throughout Stories (1903), urges tellers to interest the audi-
Japan, amateur rakugo clubs meet to practice ence and give them valuable impressions to
this witty, skillful storytelling style. take home with them.
Takehiko Kurushima was also known for
telling in this style. Kurushima, one of Iwaya’s
Kodan and Biwa Hoshi followers, traveled throughout Japan in a cara-
Kodan storytelling is also known as koshaku, van and told original stories, Bible tales, and
which means “the reading and explanation of Western and Eastern fairy tales. Other expres-
religious texts.” Kodan originally consisted of sive koen dowa tellers could be found in the
somber readings and religious lectures. By the streets, parks, and schools of Japan during the
late eighteenth century, it had evolved into a early twentieth century.
type of entertainment. World War II significantly altered this
Crowds filled small theaters as the story- style of storytelling, as the tales became more
teller related heroic war tales and sentimental militaristic and didactic. When the war that
stories. The storyteller, whose only prop was a killed almost 2 million Japanese was finished,
block of wood, alternated between explaining koen dowa, too, had suffered. The tellers had
the story and playing different roles. The en- become too far removed from their audiences
tertainment often ended with a fast-paced fight and too linked to bitter war memories. As a re-
scene. Unfortunately, these types of stories no sult, only a small association remains to re-
longer attract younger listeners, and the art search this once popular form.
form is dying out.
Another Japanese storytelling form rarely
Gaito Kamishibai
seen today is biwa hoshi. In medieval Japan, Gaito kamishibai is outdoor paper theater. This
people in cities and villages waited eagerly for form of storytelling was popular in the early
the traveling storytellers who brought epic twentieth century, reaching its peak between
tales of war to life. One such tale is Heike 1930 and 1960. This lively art form featured
Monogatari, or The Tale of the Heike, a popular male tellers who were skilled in the use of
recounting of the twelfth-century battle for voice, gesture, and improvisation. They told
control of Japan. Often the teller was a monk, stories using sets of illustrated cards, called
usually blind, who traveled from town to town kamishibai, to aid in the telling. In this form’s
relating scenes from these powerful stories. heyday, some 30,000 players worked in Tokyo
The monk would accompany himself on a and about 10,000 worked in Osaka. Tellers
biwa, a Japanese lute. Today, these tales might told tales from tiny stages mounted to the
come to life in books or on television, but backs of their bicycles. They earned income
rarely through a storyteller’s voice. by selling candy and snacks to their audience.

Japanese Stor ytelling 253
Kamishibai cards were hand painted by tal- the oral tradition. Scholars on the northern is-
ented, otherwise unemployed artists. Each card land of Hokkaido also try to preserve the sto-
in the standard set of ten measured roughly ries of the Ainu indigenous people.
12 by 14 inches (30 by 36 centimeters). Popular Japanese storytellers use voice as their pri-
stories could take up thirty or more sets of mary tool. Character voices and expressive,
cards, and the most popular tale, about the flexible ranges are common. These may in
comic character Chon-Chan, used more than some way be inspired by the sounds of the
5,000 sets. Funny stories, tales of samurai, orig- joruri, the powerful narrative used for the Bun-
inal science fiction, and tales of superheroes— raku puppet plays. The Japanese language is
such as Dr. Glove, who had invincible electric rich in homonyms and wordplay, so sound ef-
fighting gloves—were crowd pleasers. fects frequently enrich the telling: gutsu gutsu
The men and women who share gaito for boiling, pera pera for gossiping, sowa sowa
kamishibai today often perform in libraries for restlessness, niya niya for a certain smile,
and homes, rather than on the street. Bright, and so on.
printed kamishibai cards, which first appeared Storytelling is on the rise in Japanese
in the 1930s, are found in most modern li- schools and some bookstores, as well as in
braries. These packaged sets tell complete sto- bunko (private libraries) and public libraries.
ries, from Japan and the West, in sequences of Those who tell these tales in schools, book-
twelve to sixteen cards. Each card measures stores, bunko, and public libraries range in
about 12 by 18 inches (30 by 46 centimeters). age from brave teenagers to lively grandmoth-
Thousands of librarians, volunteers, and ers. Stories include folktales, modern written
children across Japan make their own books from around the world, and painful sto-
kamishibai sets, and kamishibai festivals take ries of war.
place in some regions. The cards found at These modern-day tellers are a warm, car-
these festivals are often more ornate than the ing group. Their style is often quiet, with
original cards. The cards created by today’s hands usually held in the lap or at the sides,
kamishibai artists are sometimes very large, little expression in the face, and a voice that is
up to 4 feet by 6 feet ( just over 1 meter by al- fairly even. Many tellers feel that the story’s
most 2 meters), may be painted on delicate words alone should convey its images and that
handmade paper, or may have moving parts too many gestures might distract the listeners.
made using sticks, strings, or Velcro. Many storytellers also light candles to fo-
cus attention or use songs, finger plays, and
kamishibai. Novices search eagerly for train-
Modern Japanese Storytelling ing and seek out tellers such as Matsuoka
Storytelling in private homes was once a vital Kyoko of the Tokyo Children’s Library, who
part of Japanese daily life. An agricultural econ- has written extensively on storytelling. Kyoko
omy allowed for slow evenings when the fam- also teaches courses in storytelling. In 2005,
ily gathered around the fireplace. But young he produced a popular paperback series of
listeners were drawn to the cities. Eventually a tales called Ohanashi No Rosoku (Story Candle).
number of factors, including the advent of tele- True stories are told throughout Japan.
vision and the pressure of a competitive educa- Tragedies of the nineteenth and twentieth cen-
tional system, further weakened folk telling. turies are shared, as are “strange-but-true” ex-
Traditional storytellers today hold to the periences of contemporary society. One of the
local words, inflections, and formulas of their most respected leaders in this movement is
regions. Shadings of local color enhance and Matsutani Miyoko, a writer and folklore col-
define each story in this culture that is so sen- lector. Miyoko’s published anthologies of con-
sitive to nuance. Folklore scholars continue to temporary storytelling material contain tales
collect tales and encourage the continuation of grouped under common themes, such as stories

254 Jersey Devil
of returned dead, military tales, fake trains, the its creation, all of which involve Mrs. Leeds,
vanishing hitchhiker, dreams of death come an indigent woman with twelve children, who
true, fireballs, departed souls, and so on. found out she was to have a thirteenth child.
There is a special group of true storytellers In one version, Mrs. Leeds exclaimed that
found in Hiroshima known as the hibakusha- she did not wish to bring another child into the
active. These are elder survivors of the World world, crying, “Let it be a devil!” Another vari-
War II nuclear bomb attack who regularly tell ation claims that she angered either a clergy-
their true war stories in schools and at Hi- man or a gypsy, and so a curse was placed on
roshima’s Memorial Peace Park. Their words her unborn child. Others state that she prac-
cry of lost parents and children, of ruined ticed sorcery, and so her child was accursed, or
health and marriage prospects, of nightmares that Mrs. Leeds lay with a British soldier, and
and strange sicknesses, and of courage and her child was cursed for her treason.
compassion. All the versions agree that when the child
Japanese storytelling is a mixture of tradi- was born it was horribly deformed, indeed
tions and styles, some using props, some with looking like a devil, its two feet possibly with
music, and some with the teller’s words alone. hooves. It promptly scrambled up the chim-
Storytelling material continues to evolve to ney and out into the woods. There, it fed on
meet the challenges of a society inundated by what livestock and children it could find, until
increasing options in entertainment and tech- it was exorcised in 1740. The exorcism’s
nology. Modern storytellers wisely look to power lasted only a hundred years, where-
both the past and the future as they try to upon the Jersey Devil was again sighted.
reach modern listeners and nourish the art of There are reports, albeit sketchy ones, of the
Japanese storytelling. devil being seen by townsfolk in 1859, 1873, and
Cathy Spagnoli 1880. No less a personage than Joseph Bona-
parte, brother to Napoleon, claimed to have
See also: Kamishibai; Yoshitsune. seen the creature while hunting. At the end of
the nineteenth century, a newspaper reported
Sources a sighting. Through January 1909, hundreds of
Dorson, Richard. Folk Legends of Japan. Rutland, VT: Tut- incidents were reported.
tle, 1981.
Mayer, Fanny Hagin, ed. Ancient Tales in Modern Japan.
Then the Jersey Devil disappeared for a
Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984. while, with only one sighting in 1927. In 1951,
Morioka, Heinz, and Miyoko Sasaki. Rakugo, the Popular however, it returned. Some of the reports
Narrative Art of Japan. Cambridge, MA: Council on clearly were hoaxes, but others terrified some
East Asian Studies at Harvard, 1990.
local residents enough for them to organize
Yanagita, Kunio. The Yanagita Kunio Guide to the Japanese
Folk Tale. Trans. Fanny Hagin Mayer. Bloomington: Jersey Devil hunts.
Indiana University Press, 1986. Stories of the Jersey Devil died down
again in the 1960s and never returned to their
previous fervor. But local people keep the
Jersey Devil memory of the Jersey Devil alive. The Jersey
Devil even made a television appearance in a
1993 episode of the occult television series The
(American) X-Files.
T he Jersey Devil is, according to folklore, a

monster existing in the state of New Jer-
sey, specifically in the relatively wild region
At the end of the twentieth century, a New
Jersey hockey team was named the Jersey
Devils. The name was retained in spite of the
known as the Pine Barrens. objections of a local minister.
The creature’s origins date to the eigh-
teenth century. Several reasons are given for See also: Urban Legends.

John Henr y 255
Sources The image of Joe Magarac was used in a

Coleman, Loren. Mysterious America. Rev. ed. New York: 1949 advertisement for the John Hancock in-
Paraview, 2001. surance company. He also was featured in a
McCloy, James F., and Ray Miller, Jr. The Jersey Devil.
Moorestown, NJ: Middle Atlantic, 1976.
stained-glass panel installed at the interna-
———. The Phantom of the Pine: More Tales of the Jersey tional headquarters for the United Steelwork-
Devil. Moorestown, NJ: Middle Atlantic, 1998. ers of America.
See also: Culture Heroes; Tall Tales.

Joe Magarac Sources
Shapiro, Irwin. Joe Magarac and His U.S.A. Citizenship Pa-
(American) pers. New York: Julian Messner, 1948.
Stoutenburg, Adrien. American Tall Tales. New York:
A relatively recent culture hero, Joe Maga-

rac is the folkloric and superhuman cre-
ation of immigrant steelworkers in and around
Viking, 1966.
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Joe Magarac, a man made of solid steel, is
John Henry
said to have been born in a mountain of iron
ore. Making his home on an iron-ore heap
(American)
near a blast furnace, massive and powerful Joe
was able to make 2,000 tons of steel a day, and
needed no tools or gloves. He would stir the
J ohn Henry, that “steel-driving man,” is
known to most people as the indomitable
African American hero of folk songs. In the
enormous buckets of molten metal with his original story of John Henry, sung mostly by
bare hands and mold train rails out of iron in- the working class, he traveled west with the
gots by simply squeezing them between his railroads in the nineteenth century.
mighty fingers. The story of John Henry was spun into
A local man, Steve Mestrovic, offered the dozens of versions that eventually were sung
hand of his daughter Mary to the man who by people who had never swung a hammer or
could prove himself the strongest. Joe easily worked on the railroad. But these people iden-
won the prize, but regretfully turned down tified with the theme of the common man’s
the offer of marriage, saying that a wife would struggle against the machine, and “John
interfere with his work. Joe’s end came in true Henry” became a song of protest against intol-
culture-hero fashion. To save his fellow steel- erable work conditions.
workers from losing their jobs, he sacrificed As is the case with many folk heroes, there
himself and was melted in a Bessemer con- actually was a John Henry. He was born a
verter to become part of the finest steel ever slave who was freed at the end of the Ameri-
made. can Civil War. John Henry and about a thou-
The origin of the Joe Magarac character sand other men went to work between 1870
is unknown, but he was likely created in the and 1873 on the construction of Great Bend
first half of the twentieth century. The word Tunnel in West Virginia. The C&O railroad
magarac means jackass or donkey in Croat- paid them $1.25 per day.
ian. Joe Magarac may have arisen from a lo- It was rough work, and men were injured
cal reporter’s story (or error) in which the or killed by silicosis (a respiratory disease),
word was accidentally (or deliberately) mis- falling rocks, careless blasting, and fights with
understood to be the name of a strong steel- fellow workers. John Henry and the other
worker. Or it may have come from the fact steel drivers worked with only hand drills
that Joe was said to work like a donkey, and hammers to drill holes into solid rock,
never stopping to rest. where powder charges were placed. Once a

256 Johnny Appleseed
blast had broken the rock free, it had to be See also: Culture Heroes.
loaded onto mule-drawn carts and removed
from the site. Source
Summers County Convention and Visitor’s Bureau.
The speed of drilling depended on the
“John Henry—The Steel Drivin’ Man.” 2005.
strength of the driver and the speed with http://www.summerscvb.com/johnhenry.cfm.
which he could swing his hammer. The real
John Henry worked on the heading of the tun-
nel, which was the initial horizontal shaft. This
could be extremely dangerous work, since
Johnny Appleseed
that first shaft could easily collapse. A driller
had to be very skilled with a hammer, and
(American)
John Henry was said to be the only driller who
could use two hammers, alternating swings
with each hand.
M ost people are familiar with the
nineteenth-century American folk figure
Johnny Appleseed, who wandered westward,
At this point in the story, it becomes diffi- sowing apple seeds as he went. The real
cult to separate the man from the folk hero. It Johnny Appleseed was John Chapman, a nurs-
is said that John Henry stood 6 feet (almost 2 eryman born in Leominster, Massachusetts,
meters) tall and weighed about 200 pounds, on September 26, 1774. The man who be-
which would have made him immense by came known as Johnny Appleseed was not a
nineteenth-century standards. It is also said casual sower of seeds, but a man who saw
that John Henry had a wonderful singing a real need in the new country for apple
voice, a talent for playing the banjo, and a trees, and an opportunity to supply farms
great appetite for food and work. He has been with seeds and seedlings.
called the strongest, fastest, most powerful Chapman began his travels toward the end
man working on the rails. of the eighteenth century, heading to what is
One day, a salesman came to camp boast- now the state of Pennsylvania. In 1797, he es-
ing that his steam-powered machine could tablished his first apple nursery in Warren
outdrill any man. John Henry challenged the County. He eventually owned several tracts
claim, and, as one West Virginia version of the of land in the Midwest, particularly in what
folk song states: is now Ohio and Indiana.
Chapman started many nurseries by plant-
John Henry told his captain, ing seeds he had bought from Pennsylvania
“A man ain’t nothin’ but a man, cider mills. He also served as a self-appointed
But before I let your steam drill beat missionary of the Swedenborgian faith, as well
me down, as a peacemaker between settlers and indige-
I’ll die with a hammer in my hand, nous peoples.
Lord, Lord! But here folklore blurs the facts. Chap-
I’ll die with a hammer in my hand.” man was described as a kind and gentle man,
but the folk accounts of Johnny Appleseed
A race of man against machine took place. add an eccentric costume. He wore a pot for a
John Henry won, but he died soon afterward. hat, clothing made of sacking, and no shoes
The versions of the folk song differ as to the on his feet.
cause of his death. Some claim exhaustion, Some stories add a large black wolf as his
some claim a stroke, and some claim a heart faithful companion, an animal he had tamed
attack. Whatever the facts, the songs remain a by saving it from a hunter’s trap. Another de-
testament to both John Henry and the human tail that sometimes is added claims that when
spirit. a rattlesnake tried to bite Appleseed, its fangs

Jongleurs 257
Hunt, Mabel Leigh. Better Known as Johnny Appleseed.

Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1950.
Jongleurs
(French)
J ongleurs were among the various public en-
tertainers who performed across Western
Europe during the Middle Ages.
The earliest form of the word jongleur is
the Latin jocucator, which is the source word
for the English jocular. In French, the Latin
word jocucator became joglar, then jongleur,
while in English, the terms joglar and jongleur
eventually became juggler.
There were two basic types of jongleurs.
There were those who were acrobats, jug-
glers, actors, and street magicians. The
church often condemned these performers as
being shiftless, thieving, and downright
immoral.
The second group of jongleurs was made
Johnny Appleseed’s real name was John Chapman. up of performers who were closer in skills to
A vigorous Massachusetts nurseryman who planted the more highly honored minstrels and trou-
and supplied apple seeds and seedlings, folktales de-
scribe him as spreading apple seeds wherever he badours. These so-called jongleurs de geste per-
went. This stylized illustration is by William Gropper formed the chansons de geste, or songs of great
(1897–1977). (Smithsonian American Art Museum, deeds. These were epic poems, either tradi-
Washington, DC/Art Resource, NY)
tional or original, that celebrated the deeds of
local or national heroes. Unlike the street per-
could not get through the hard skin of his formers, jongleurs de geste were considered
foot. respectable entertainers.
John Chapman died on March 18, 1845. Jongleurs reached the height of their im-
Folk accounts claim that he died from the portance in the thirteenth century but lapsed
first illness he had ever known in seventy into decline in the fourteenth. Their various
years of life. talents were disseminated among new types of
performers who focused on a single craft—
See also: Culture Heroes. actors, musicians, and acrobats.
Sources
See also: Minstrels; Troubadours.
Dirlam, H. Kenneth. John Chapman, By Occupation a
Gatherer and Planter of Appleseeds. Mansfield, OH:
Richland County Historical Society, 1953. Sources
Hillis, Newell Dwight. The Quest of John Chapman: The Faral, Edmond. Les Jongleurs en France au Moyen Age. Paris:
Story of a Forgotten Hero. New York: Macmillan, Libraire Honore Champion, 1910.
1904. Rychner, Jean. La Chanson de Geste: Essai sur l’Art Epique
Hunt, Irene. Trail of Apple Blossoms. Chicago: Follett, des Jongleurs. Geneva, Switzerland: Librarie E. Droz,
1968. 1955.

258 Jouk ahainen
Joukahainen Authorship is traditionally credited to the

scholar Wu Cheng’en, although there is no
hard proof of his involvement. Loosely based
(Finnish) on a historic pilgrimage made by a Buddhist
monk to India in the seventh century, this wild
I n the Finnish epic the Kalevala, the arrogant
and foolish would-be magician Joukahainen
challenged the wizard Vainamoinen to a magic
adventure remains popular in modern China.
Monkey, or Sun Wukong, is the main
character of the story. He was a trickster, the
duel of song.
king of a monkey tribe who was not born the
The great wizard tried to dissuade Jouka-
usual way, but “from an egg on a mountain-
hainen, but the boy insisted. Vainamoinen be-
top.” He tricked his way into heaven, where
came so angry that he sang Joukahainen most
he became “Keeper of the Peaches of Immor-
of the way into the earth and nearly killed
tality.” He ate the peaches and played so
him. The frantic young man offered a deal: If
many tricks that the gods taught him humility
Vainamoinen would spare Joukahainen’s life,
by trapping him under a mountain.
he would receive the hand of Joukahainen’s
Monkey was released when the monk Trip-
sister, Aino, in marriage.
itaka, a pure-spirited and unworldly person,
Vainamoinen agreed, pulling Joukahainen
was given a divine command to undertake a
out of the earth. But this business arrangement
pilgrimage to India to recover holy scriptures.
eventually led to tragedy. Aino refused to
Monkey was chosen as one of Tripitaka’s com-
marry an old man, threw herself into the sea,
rades and was given the assignment of pro-
and drowned.
viding protection for the monk, with the
Joukahainen avenged his sister’s death by
understanding that this would be Monkey’s last
shooting Vainamoinen’s horse, sending the
chance to earn his immortality. This pair re-
wizard tumbling into the icy seas of Pohjola.
cruited two other unlikely cohorts: Sandy, a re-
Vainamoinen survived.
formed monster-warrior and former cannibal,
The Kalevala fails to state what happened
and Pigsy, who fought a constant battle with
to Joukahainen after this episode.
lust of all sorts. Tripitaka rode on a transformed
See also: Kalevala. dragon that occasionally took human form.
As the four odd companions set out on
Sources their journey to the West, they were constantly
Lönnrot, Elias. The Kalevala: An Epic Poem After Oral Tra- under attack from demons, spirits, and mon-
dition. Trans. Keith Bosley. New York: Oxford Uni- sters. Some of these enemies wanted to stop the
versity Press, 1999. holy expedition. Others wanted the immortal-
ity they could attain by eating the monk.
Ritva Poom. Bloomington: Indiana University Press,
1999. The three heroic nonhumans protected
their innocent charge and fought off the Iron
Fan Princess, the Bull Demon King, spider-
Journey to women, lion-monsters, and even the White
Bone Demon. The latter was such a popular
the West/Monkey villain in Chinese folk culture that illustrations
of the story often show Monkey battling her.
(Mao Zedong’s vicious widow was nicknamed
(Chinese) the White Bone Demon.)
T his epic Chinese fantasy adventure, known

by two names—Journey to the West and
Monkey—first appeared during the Ming dy-
After seven years, the journey and the
quest were safely completed. The four travel-
ers returned to the East and received high
nasty toward the end of the sixteenth century. posts in heaven.

Jump Tales 259
See also: Epics. The boy pulled the blankets over his
head and closed his eyes. “I’ll go to sleep,” he
Sources thought. “When I wake up, it will be gone.”
Kherdian, David, trans. Monkey: A Journey to the West: A But soon he heard the back door open,
Retelling of the Chinese Folk Novel. Boston: Shamb-
and again he heard the voice.
hala, 2005.
Li, Qiancheng. Fictions of Enlightenment: Journey to the “Where is my to-o-o-o-e?”
West, Tower of Myriad Mirrors, and Dream of the Red Then the boy heard footsteps moving
Chamber. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, through the kitchen into the dining room, into
2004. the living room, and into the front hall.
Wu, Cheng’en. Journey to the West. Trans. W.J.F. Jenner.
New York: Foreign Languages Press, 1982. Then slowly, the footsteps came up the
stairs. Closer and closer they came. Soon they
were in the upstairs hall. Now they were out-
Jump Tales side his bedroom door.
“Where is my to-o-o-o-e?”
The bedroom door opened. Shaking with
J ump tales are scary stories in which the sto-
ryteller uses a dramatic pause followed by a
sudden loud outburst to get the audience to
fear, the boy listened as the footsteps slowly
moved through the dark toward his bed. Then
they stopped.
jump or start out of their seats. Mark Twain
“Where is my t-o-o-o-e?”
was particularly good at telling a jump tale
“YOU’VE GOT IT!”
called “The Golden Arm,” which never failed
The boy was never seen again.
to scare audience members.
Following are two classic English-American
versions of jump tales. The Teeny-Tiny Woman
Once upon a time there was a teeny-tiny
The Big Toe woman who lived in a teeny-tiny house in a
A boy was digging at the edge of a garden teeny-tiny village. Now one day, the teeny-tiny
when he saw a big toe. He tried to pick it up, woman put on her teeny-tiny bonnet, and went
but it was stuck to something. So he gave it a out of her teeny-tiny house to take a teeny-tiny
hard jerk, and it came off in his hands. The walk.
boy took the toe to his mother. When the teeny-tiny woman had gone a
“It looks nice and plump,” she said. “I’ll teeny-tiny way, she came to a teeny-tiny gate.
put it in the soup, and we’ll have it for supper.” So the teeny-tiny woman opened the teeny-tiny
That night, the boy’s father carved the toe gate, and went into a teeny-tiny churchyard.
into three pieces, and they each had a piece. When the teeny-tiny woman had gotten
After supper, they did the dishes. When it got into the teeny-tiny churchyard, she saw a
dark, the family went to bed. teeny-tiny bone on a teeny-tiny grave. And
The boy fell asleep almost at once. But in the teeny-tiny woman said to her teeny-tiny
the middle of the night, a sound awakened self, “This teeny-tiny bone will make me some
him. It was something out in the street. It was teeny-tiny soup for my teeny-tiny supper.” So
a voice, and it was calling to him. the teeny-tiny woman put the teeny-tiny bone
“Where is my to-o-o-o-o-e?” into her teeny-tiny pocket and went home to
When the boy heard that, he got very her teeny-tiny house.
scared. But he thought, “It doesn’t know Now, when the teeny-tiny woman got
where I am. It will never find me.” home to her teeny-tiny house, she was a
Then he heard the voice once more. Only teeny-tiny bit tired. So she went up her teeny-
now, it was closer. tiny stairs to her teeny-tiny bed, and put the
“Where is my to-o-o-o-e?” teeny-tiny bone into a teeny-tiny cupboard.

260 Jung, Carl Gustav
And when the teeny-tiny woman had been to Jung was born in the village of Kesswil in
sleep a teeny-tiny time, she was awakened by the German-speaking section of Switzerland
a teeny-tiny voice from the teeny-tiny cup- on July 25, 1875. The older of two children, he
board that said, “Give me my bone!” developed an early interest in dreams and oc-
The teeny-tiny woman was a teeny-tiny bit cult phenomena. Jung attended medical
frightened, so she hid her teeny-tiny head un- school in Basel, Switzerland, specializing in
der the teeny-tiny covers and went to sleep the new science of psychiatry.
again. And when the teeny-tiny woman had In 1900, he became an assistant at the
been sleeping a teeny-tiny time, the teeny-tiny Burghölzli clinic near Zürich, where his stud-
voice again cried out from the teeny-tiny cup- ies of association and psychic complexes soon
board, a teeny-tiny louder, “Give me my caught the interest of Sigmund Freud and his
bone!” Viennese circle. From 1904 to 1913, Jung and
This made the teeny-tiny woman a teeny- the psychiatrists at the hospital, also known as
tiny bit more frightened, so she hid her teeny- the Zürich school, became part of the growing
tiny head a teeny-tiny further under the psychoanalytic movement.
teeny-tiny covers. And when the teeny-tiny In 1912, Jung published his work Symbols of
woman had been to sleep again a teeny- Transformation, which marked a bitter break
tiny time, the teeny-tiny voice from the teeny- with Freud’s views. The severing of their
tiny cupboard said again, a teeny-tiny louder, friendship was never repaired. Jung could not
“Give me my bone!” accept Freud’s view that sexual trauma was at
The teeny-tiny woman was a teeny-tiny bit the base of all psychological problems. Jung
more frightened, but she peeked her teeny- preferred to look into the nature of symbolism
tiny head out from under the teeny-tiny cov- to see what problems arose in those who were
ers, and said in her loudest teeny-tiny voice: ignorant of their own deeper, “symbolic” na-
“TAKE IT!” ture. This would develop into what Jung
Whether storytellers use one of these tried- called, and what is still called, analytical
and-true versions or another variation they are psychology.
sure to get the proper response from the audi- Jung was fascinated by the universality of
ence: delighted shrieks and gasps of shock. human symbols, myths, and cross-cultural ref-
erences. He said of the archetype:
See also: Tall Tales.
Sources The primordial image, or archetype,

Jacobs, Joseph. English Fairy Tales. Mineola, NY: Dover, is a figure—be it a daemon, a human
1967. being, or a process—that constantly re-
Schwartz, Alvin, comp. Scary Stories to Tell in the Dark. curs in the course of history and ap-
New York: Lippincott, 1981. pears wherever creative fantasy is
Twain, Mark. How to Tell a Story and Other Essays. New
York: Harper and Brothers, 1897. freely expressed. Essentially, therefore,
it is a mythological figure. . . . In each
of these images there is a little piece of
Jung, Carl Gustav human psychology and human fate, a
remnant of the joys and sorrows that
have been repeated countless times in
(1875–1961) our ancestral history.
C arl Gustav Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist

and the founder of analytical psychology.
What makes him of interest to storytellers and
Jung coined the term collective unconscious
to describe the reservoir of experiences that
folklorists is his work with dreams, archetypes, humans share as a species, a kind of knowl-
and the collective unconscious. edge that is present in everyone at birth. For

Juniper Tree, T he 261
Sources
Ellenberger, Henri F. The Discovery of the Unconscious: The
History and Evolution of Dynamic Psychiatry. New
York: Basic Books, 1970.
Hannah, Barbara. Jung: His Life and Work: A Biographical
Memoir. New York: Putnam, 1976.
Jung, Carl G. Memories, Dreams, Reflections. Ed. Aniela
Jaffe. New York: Vintage Books, 1989.
Juniper Tree, The

(German)
P erhaps the darkest folktale commonly

used by storytellers is “The Juniper Tree,”
collected by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm
from the German artist Philipp Otto Runge
(1777–1810).
A man’s wife died and left him with a
The pioneering Swiss psychiatrist Carl G. Jung was in- son. The father married a second time, and
trigued by archetypes (symbolic figures), such as the the couple had a daughter. But the second
wise old man or the trickster, common to all cultures. wife hated her stepson, abused him, and then
Jung coined the term “collective unconscious” to de-
scribe this commonality. (Snark/Art Resource, NY) murdered him, adding his flesh to the stew.
The daughter, who was a good child, found
the bones, buried them under a juniper tree,
instance, all cultures have the characters of the then wept for her brother and refused to eat.
Trickster and the Hero. The father, not suspecting anything, ate the
Jung also introduced the concepts of extra- stew.
version and introversion, the outgoing and the A miraculous bird rose up from the juniper
shy personality, respectively, and explained tree, singing of the murder: “My mother killed
human behavior as a combination of four psy- me, my father ate me, my sister gathered my
chic functions: thinking, feeling (or valuing), in- bones and laid them beneath the juniper tree.”
tuition, and sensation. In addition, he coined The bird’s song was so beautiful that the
the term synchronicity, which he defined as goldsmith, at the bird’s command, gave the
meaningful coincidence. A prolific writer, Jung bird a golden chain. The shoemaker, at the
published more than twenty books on various bird’s command, gave him a pair of red shoes.
topics dealing with the mind. And the miller, at the bird’s command, gave
Jung spent his later years in his house be- him the millstone. Then the bird flew home.
side Lake Zurich in Switzerland. On the night The bird sang again, and the father ran out
of his death, June 6, 1961, many of his friends to hear him. The golden chain settled around
and disciples worldwide are said to have the father’s neck. The sister ran out to hear
dreamed of his death. And, in a wonderful bit him, and the red shoes fell at her feet. The
of synchronicity, at the moment of his death, mother ran out—and the millstone fell upon
his favorite tree was split in two by a sudden her and killed her. The bird became a boy
bolt of lightning. again, and he, his father, and his sister were
Soren Ekstrom happily reunited.
This tale of abuse, murder, cannibalism,
See also: Archetype; Collective Unconscious. and revenge is not an isolated example. It is

262 Juniper Tree, T he
categorized by folklorists as a tale type called A forest bird fair I became that day;
“My Mother Slew Me, My Father Ate Me.” It Fly away! Fly away!
is found in various versions from Scandinavia
to Egypt. In 1984, American composer Philip Glass
“The Juniper Tree” was used by the Ger- created an opera in two acts, based on the
man author and playwright Johann Wolfgang Brothers Grimm story. This work also was ti-
von Goethe as the basis for Marguerite’s song tled The Juniper Tree.
in his 1808 drama, Faust:
My mother, the whore, Sources
She has murdered me! Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. Faust. Trans. Walter
My father, the rogue, Kaufmann. New York: Anchor, 1962.
He has eaten me! Grimm, Jacob, and Wilhelm Grimm. The Complete Fairy
My sister, so small, York: Bantam, 2003.
My bones, one and all, Thompson, Stith. The Folktale. Berkeley: University of
In a cool place did lay. California Press, 1977.

K
T
Kalevala
(Finnish)

he Kalevala is the national epic of Finland.
It was compiled by the philologist and
nonstrophic trochaic tetrameter. That is, each
line has four feet consisting of a stressed sylla-
ble followed by an unstressed syllable. Today,
this is often referred to as Kalevala meter.
Many believe that the tradition of using this
meter dates back 3,000 years.
The melodies of these traditional songs
folklorist Elias Lönnrot (1802–1884) from consisted of a narrow range of five notes. The
ballads, songs, and chants that originated in songs remained a vital part of the Finnish cul-
Finnish oral tradition. ture until the Protestant Reformation of the
The publication of the Kalevala was an im- sixteenth century, when the Lutheran Church
portant point in the development of Finnish lit- in Finland forbade singing. After that, the old
erature. It enhanced the Finnish people’s pride traditions and songs began to disappear, espe-
in their national heritage and introduced the cially in western Finland, where the church had
Finnish people, culture, and history to the rest of the most influence.
the world. Lönnrot adapted some of the poems in the
The first edition, published in 1835, was belief that he was reconstructing the plot of an
revised and expanded in 1849. The latter ver- ancient epic that had survived only in frag-
sion is the standard. It is still read in Finland ments. Scholars believe, however, that the Kale-
and is the basis for most translations. The 1849 vala as a single, coherent epic did not exist
edition is referred to as the Uusi Kalevala (The prior to Lönnrot’s work.
New Kalevala), to distinguish it from the earlier Maria Teresa Agozzino
work.
The Kalevala is composed of fifty poems See also: Ahti/Ahto; Aino; Joukahainen;
totaling more than 20,000 lines. It begins with a Kullervo; Lemminkainen; Louhi; Sampo;
creation tale and continues with stories of the Vainamoinen.
deeds of three men: Vainamoinen, a magi-
cian; Ilmarinen, a smith; and Lemminkainen, a Sources
warrior with a love for beautiful women. The Asplund, Anneli. “Kalevala—The Finnish National
epic ends with the introduction of Christianity Epic.” Virtual Finland. 2007. http://virtual.finland.
fi/finfo/english/kaleva.html.
to Finland. Lönnrot, Elias. The Kalevala. Trans. Francis Peabody
The poems recorded by Lönnrot were orig- Magoun, Jr. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
inally songs that were sung in an unrhymed, Press, 1963.
263

264 Kamishibai
Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland. “Music of the

Kalevala.” Virtual Finland. 2007. http://virtual. Kelly, Ned
finland.fi/finfo/english/folkmus3.html.
Pentikäinen, Juha Y. Kalevala Mythology. Bloomington:
Indiana University Press, 1999. (1854–1880)
Kamishibai N ed Kelly is Australia’s foremost folk hero.

This nineteenth-century outlaw has in-
spired numerous tales, films, and songs.
Born to Irish parents in Victoria in 1854,
(Japanese) Kelly became a bushranger—an Australian
rural outlaw. Ned Kelly, his brother, Dan, and
K amishibai, which means “paper drama,”
is a form of street storytelling that was
very popular in Japan from the 1920s to the
two others were known as the Kelly Gang.
The foursome battled the Australian police
1950s. Large color pictures, called kamishi- from 1878 to 1880.
bai cards, were used to accompany dramatic In 1878, a police officer claimed that he
narration. had been attacked by Ned’s mother and shot
The gaito kamishibaiya-san, or kamishibai by Ned. Mrs. Kelly was sent to prison, and a
storyteller, was an itinerant performer and reward of 100 pounds was posted for Ned. On
candy seller who traveled from village to village October 26, the brothers encountered a group
by bicycle. When he stopped for a show, he of policemen camped at Stringy Bark Creek.
would call an audience of children to him by During the ensuing confrontation, Ned Kelly
slapping together wooden clappers. shot and killed all the officers.
The storyteller began by selling his candy, The reward for Kelly and his gang rose to
giving the best seats for the show to his top cus- 2,000 pounds and would later rise to 8,000
tomers. Then the storyteller would set up an pounds. The Kelly Gang had many support-
easel or a small stage, and he would proceed to ers, and, for almost two years, they dodged the
tell a few episodes from a story. When he was police. During this time, they also robbed two
done, he would leave the children waiting anx- banks.
iously for his next visit. The most famous part of the story is that
This type of storytelling is similar to certain of the Kelly Gang’s last stand during a siege at
traditions elsewhere in Asia. In China, some the Glenrowan Hotel in 1880. Surrounded by
storytellers used wooden clappers to announce police, the gang, dressed in suits of steel ar-
their arrival. In India, pictures were used dur- mor, shot it out with the police.
ing the telling of religious stories. During the battle, Ned Kelly escaped
Kamishibai storytelling is currently enjoy- through police lines, but he returned a number
ing a revival in many Japanese libraries and of times to fight, trying to rescue his brother and
schools. other gang members. Eventually, he collapsed
with more than twenty-eight bullet wounds to
See also: Japanese Storytelling. his arms, legs, feet, groin, and hands. Beneath
his armor, Kelly wore a green sash he had been
Sources given many years earlier for saving a drowning
“Japan Storytellers’ Saga Is Ending.” Christian Science Moni- boy.
tor, June 10, 1991. Ned Kelly, the only survivor of the siege,
Kambara, Keiko. “A Vanishing Folk Art Tells Japan’s was arrested. On November 11, 1880, he was
Story Culture.” Los Angeles Times, September 9, hanged at Melbourne Gaol at the age of
1991.
Vukov, Elaine. “Kamishibai, Japanese Storytelling: The
twenty-five.
Return of an Imaginative Art.” Education About Asia When Kelly was sentenced to death, thou-
2:1 (1997): 39–41. sands of supporters protested. Today, a giant

Kenyan Stor ytelling 265
proverbs and riddles, all of which reflect both

internal and external influences and are still
very much a part of daily speech.
For instance, the Swahili people, who live
along Kenya’s coast, have had more contact
with Islamic sailors and merchants. As a re-
sult, their stories are more likely to include fa-
miliar Arabic folktale characters, such as the
djinn. The stories of the people who live in-
land, such as the Kikuyu, are more likely to
feature only familiar African characters, such
as the trickster figure Hare.
In most cases, riddling sessions, such as
those of the Yoruba people of Nigeria, take
place at twilight before the start of a story-
telling session. These riddling sessions are
often turned into competitions between two
young men or women who pretend to bet
amazingly large items, such as cattle or whole
villages, on the outcome of the contest. Many
Ned Kelly was a real-life Australian outlaw who popular cultures have a prohibition on telling riddles
culture remade into a romantic figure. In this illustration, during daylight hours. The Kikuyu riddle
which dates to 1880, the year of his death, Kelly wears
his famous bucket helmet. (Hulton Archive/Stringer/
game is particularly elaborate, consisting of a
Getty Images) duet of sung poem-riddles, or gicandia, with the
riddle singing accompanied by the rattle of a
decorated gourd.
statue welcomes visitors to Kelly Country, Modern Kenyan media, such as televi-
where every ten years, the Glenrowan siege is sion and radio programs, often include folk-
reenacted. lore, and the study of oral literature is part of
James A. Hartley the school curriculum. Many Kenyan schools
have a period when the children tell stories,
See also: Culture Heroes. the way Western schools might have a show-
and-tell period. In addition, students are re-
Sources
quired to collect folklore from their families.
Jones, Ian. Ned Kelley: A Short Life. Port Melbourne, Aus-
tralia: Lothian, 1995. Even as globalization sweeps over the
McMenomy, Keith. Ned Kelly: The Authentic Illustrated African continent, Kenyans continue to be-
History. South Yarra, Australia: C.O. Ross, 1984. lieve that folklore is an important part of their
heritage and culture. And they are taking
steps to preserve their folklore and the art of
Kenyan Storytelling storytelling.
S torytelling and oral traditions of all kinds

are still very active in Kenya, from vil-
lagers exchanging riddles to television pro-
Sources
Gecau, Rose. Kikuyu Folktales: Their Nature and Value.
Nairobi, Kenya: East African Literature Bureau,
grams that use folktales in their stories. 1970.
Kabira, Wanjiku Mukabi. The Oral Artist. Nairobi, Kenya:
Each of more than forty ethnic groups Heinemann, 1983.
within Kenya’s borders has its own variety of Njururi, Ngumbu. Tales from Mount Kenya. Nairobi, Kenya:
stories. These include large collections of Transafrica, 1975.

266 Khnum
Khnum Khoikhoi/Hottentot
(Egyptian) Mythology
K hnum was an ancient Egyptian deity of
fertility and water. First and foremost a
craftsman, Khnum was believed to mold the
T he Khoikhoi are indigenous peoples of
southern Africa who speak the Khoisan
language. They were formerly known as
bodies of children and their ka (soul) on a pot- the Hottentots, a name given to them by
ter’s wheel. Dutch settlers that means “stutterers.” This
One of several ram gods of ancient Egypt, name is probably a reference to the clicking
Khnum was depicted as a human male with a sounds that are prominent in the Khoisan
ram’s head or, rarely, as a ram, wearing a solar language.
crown or disk. A water jug, the hieroglyphic The Khoikhoi have a rich tradition of hero
sign for his name, and which signified his asso- and monster tales that are worth noting by sto-
ciation with the great flood was perched atop rytellers who are hunting for authentic ethnic
his horns. stories.
Khnum constructed the ladder by which
the dead kings ascended to the sky and the boat
that took them across waterways in the nether-
Deities
world. He also became known as the creator of Gamab is the supreme god, a god of the sky
all living creatures, especially humankind. who lives in the heavens. When humans are
Khnum became associated with several meant to die, Gamab shoots fatal arrows to
towns, specifically Esna and Elephantine. The strike them down.
latter was located on an island where caverns Gunab is the god of evil, who does what-
were thought to be the source of the annual ever he can to destroy humankind. Tsui is the
flooding of the Nile, which was regulated by god of rain and thunder. He is also the god of
Khnum. Two goddesses, Satet (or Satis) and sorcerers.
Anuket (or Anukis), dispensed cool water and
were worshipped with Khnum at this site. Monsters
Other divine consorts of Khnum included
Aigamuxa are man-eating monsters that sto-
the frog goddess of childbirth, Heqat, the war
ries say may be encountered among the
and creator goddess, Neith, and an obscure lion
dunes. Their eyes are located on the bottoms
goddess named Menhyt. In one tale, Khnum
of their feet. When they want to see around
played the part of the goddesses’ baggage han-
them, they have to get down on their hands
dler when they were sent to assist in the births
and knees and hold up one foot. This gives
of three kings.
a fast runner a chance to escape.
Noreen Doyle
The Ga-gorib is the “thrower-down”
monster. Stories say he perched on the edge
Sources
of a great pit and dared humans to hit him
Assmann, Jan. Egyptian Solar Religion in the New Kingdom:
Re, Amun and the Crisis of Polytheism. Trans. Anthony with a stone. This was a trick, since the stones
Alcock. London: Kegan Paul, 1995. would never harm the Ga-gorib but would re-
Bickel, Susanne. “L’iconographie du dieu Khnoum.” coil with killing force on the human. The
Bulletin de l’institut français d’archéologie orientale 91 corpse would then fall into the pit. The hero
(1991): 55–67.
Hornung, Erik. Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The
Heitsi-Eibib finally slew the Ga-gorib.
One and the Many. Trans. John Baines. Ithaca, NY: Hai-Uri has only one side, with one leg and
Cornell University Press, 1982. one arm, and he is almost invisible. Hai-Uri

Kievan Cycle 267
gets around by jumping over obstacles and is Russia and his bogatyri, the warriors who served
swift enough to catch unwary humans. him. In Eastern Europe the Kievan cycle is as
well-known as the King Arthur tales are in the
Heroes West.
Heitsi-Eibib is a mythic or culture hero, said to
be the son of a cow and the magical grass that Vladimir the Great
the cow ate. Heitsi-Eibib was a great magician,
Many comparisons can be made between the
a patron of hunters, and a superb fighter. One
Kievan cycle and Arthurian legends. Histori-
of his feats was defeating the monstrous Ga-
cally, the existence of King Arthur has never
gorib.
been proven. The life of Prince Vladimir, on
In one version of the story, Heitsi-Eibib
the other hand, is well documented.
distracted the monster before throwing the
Prince Vladimir I, or Vladimir the Great,
stone that slew it. Another story claims that
was born in 956 C.E. and died on July 15, 1015.
during a wild chase Heitsi-Eibib slipped into
Vladimir was one of the grand princes of
Ga-gorib’s pit but managed not to fall. He
Kiev. He also was the prince of Novgorod in
pulled himself back up and wrestled with Ga-
the heart of what was known as Rus, and is
gorib until he hurled the monster back into
now Ukraine and much of Russia.
the pit. According to the stories, Heitsi-Eibib
Why the folk process centered around
was killed on numerous occasions but always
Vladimir probably had little to do with the
was able to resurrect himself.
man himself. He was a strong ruler who
Storytellers willing to take the time to bet-
thought nothing of murdering an inconve-
ter understand the Khoikhoi culture are cer-
nient brother or of having seven wives, some
tain to find more rich materials for their stories
of them simultaneously. Despite this lack of
from these strong, enduring, and fascinating
saintly behavior, however, he was granted
people.
sainthood for ordering the Christian conver-
See also: Aigamuxa. sion of Kiev and Novgorod.
The folk cycle with Vladimir at its center
Sources does not focus on his conversion to Christian-
Abrahams, Roger D., comp. African Folktales: Traditional ity, and it ignores much of his character. It is
Stories of the Black World. New York: Pantheon, 1983. likely that the cycle was inspired by the time
Barnard, Alan. Hunters and Herders of Southern Africa: A period in which Vladimir ruled, which is re-
Comparative Ethnography of the Khoisan Peoples. Vol.
garded in the Russian and Ukrainian folk tradi-
85. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
Courlander, Harold. A Treasury of African Folklore: The tions as a golden age. The Kievan dynasty in
Oral Literature, Traditions, Myths, Legends, Epics, Tales, Russia ruled from the ninth through the thir-
Recollections, Wisdom, Sayings, and Humor of Africa. teenth centuries. Vladimir’s reign (c. 980–1015)
New York: Marlowe, 1996. was a time of plenty, during which peasants
Scheub, Harold. A Dictionary of African Mythology: The
Mythmaker as Storyteller. New York: Oxford Univer- were free men and women. These subjects’
sity Press, 2000. Western counterparts lived much more poorly.
Prince Vladimir fought a campaign
against the Bulgars, but he died more than a
Kievan Cycle century before the birth of the true peril to
Russia, Genghis Khan and the Golden Horde
of the Mongols. The Mongols did not besiege
(Russian) Russia until the thirteenth century. But, lack-
T he Kievan cycle is a collection of epic verse

that tells the story of Prince Vladimir of
ing a true historic invader to threaten the fic-
tional Kiev, the folk process detached the

268 Kievan Cycle
Mongols from their real-world setting and in- Part of this change from strong ruler to
serted them into the Kievan cycle. This casual passive folkloric figure may be due to the real-
rearranging of history is not unusual. ity of a prince being bound to his court and
therefore unable to seek out adventures. But,
almost certainly, the major reason for the al-
The Bylini teration is the fact that the life of the real
Sir Thomas Malory and, to a lesser extent, Al- Vladimir defeated any attempts at romanti-
fred Lord Tennyson, provided the popular cism. In the tales, Vladimir is portrayed as be-
image of Arthur and his golden Camelot. ing happily married to only one wife, with a
The Kievan cycle did not benefit from such an legitimate daughter and no extramarital com-
organized retelling and exists today in its orig- plications. There are no tales of illicit love in
inal form as a series of bylini, or folk epic his court, nor is there a malevolent sorceress
poems. These epics date, like many of the in his family tree.
Arthurian tales, to the tenth through the fif-
teenth centuries. The Bogatyri
The word bylini probably derives from the
One similarity between the Arthurian and the
Russian word byl, which means “that which
Kievan story cycles is their focus on the ad-
happened.” Yet there was never a pretense that
ventures of the knights or the bogatyri. Some
bylini were accurate representations of history.
of these warriors, such as Lancelot of the
Bylini stayed strictly in the oral tradition
Arthurian cycle and Ilya Muromets of the
until the nineteenth century, when the tradition
Kievan cycle, have story cycles of their own
of the skaziteli, the wandering bards, died out
that are only loosely related to the parent
and the tradition of the wandering folklorist-
sources. Another similarity is that both knights
transcriber began. The earliest bylini actually
and bogatyri were sworn to the cause of
may have been created when Prince Vladimir
“right.”
was still alive, but the tales did not take place at
Still, the parallels cannot be taken too far.
his court and related the adventures of his
There does not seem to be any evidence for a
knights, rather than Vladimir’s own exploits.
bogatyri ceremony similar to the formal ritual
Arthur was undeniably active during his
of knighthood. And the greatest difference be-
early years as king, winning Excalibur and
tween the knights and the bogatyri is the issue
fighting King Pellinore. But as the tales of his
of social class.
knights and their adventures became more
The Arthurian knights are very much
prominent, Arthur took on a more passive role.
members of the nobility. Even Perceval, the
The knights were free to roam and find adven-
boy who came to court without much in
ture, while Arthur was bound to court and to
the way of social graces, is not a peasant, but
his destiny as an archetypical tragic hero. Even
the son of a noble knight. By contrast, the bo-
in the most dramatic tales of Arthur’s betrayal
gatyri come from all elements of Kievan soci-
by Guinevere and of his final conflict with his
ety. A few, such as Vol’ka, may be princes in
bastard son, Mordred, Arthur seems more a
their own right. One bogatyr, Alyosha Popovich,
catalyst or a victim than an active hero.
is the son of a priest. But the bogatyri are just as
Prince Vladimir has no heroic tales of his
likely to come from pure peasant stock, with no
own in the Kievan cycle. The historic prince
shame about it, as did the greatest of Kievan
was a strong and even ruthless ruler, but the
heroes, Ilya Murometz.
folk cycle turned him into a character more
passive than even Arthur eventually became.
Vladimir’s role in the bylini was as a focal
Ilya Murometz
point around which other characters’ adven- In modern Russia, the most popular figure
tures could happen. from the Kievan cycle remains the same as

Kievan Cycle 269
ever: Ilya Murometz. Ilya has been the star of is during this idyll that a monstrous, talkative,
modern Russian poems and plays, and even many-headed dragon swoops down, meaning
an opera and a movie. to kill the bogatyr. Dobrynya grabs his sun-
Ilya is a peasant and lacks conventional hat, scoops up a load of wet sand, and literally
heroic good looks and graces—he is usually sandbags the dragon. It is hard to picture an
portrayed as a solid barrel of a man. But Ilya is Arthurian knight being so pragmatic.
also the leader of the bogatyri, renowned for Later, the dragon steals Vladimir’s daugh-
his honesty and his nearly magical strength. ter, and Dobrynya goes after the stolen
According to the bylini, Ilya was born lame princess. There is the expected bloody battle,
and was healed by mysterious visitors, who in which the dragon is slain and the princess is
were either angels or magical beings. rescued. However, the bylina does not end
The earliest bylina that features Ilya dates with a wedding between the hero and the lady
to the eleventh century. This tale places him in in distress, possibly because its creator remem-
an adventure against a magical robber, a non- bered that the real Dobrynya was Vladimir’s
human creature who “hisses like a dragon” to uncle.
shake the earth, “growls like a beast,” or “sings The character of Alyosha Popovich comes
or whistles like a nightingale.” Unfazed by closer to the sophistication of the knightly
these shows of power, Ilya calmly shoots the image than any of the other bogatyri. He is a
creature with a well-placed arrow and hauls it quick-witted and quick-tempered young hero—
off to perform at Prince Vladimir’s court. handsome and always eager for a fight. He is
Ilya is as true to his word and deed as any also the only bogatyr to feel superior toward
Arthurian knight, but he would just as happily those of peasant blood, and he often acts as an
trade glory for a good drink of beer. Ilya irritant to stir others to action. Alyosha’s finest
Murometz is, for Russians, the very essence of moment comes in an eleventh-century bylini,
the common man. when he battles Turgarin, the “dragon’s son,”
a fantastic, shape-shifting warrior who may be
roughly based on a real enemy, the Polovetz-
Other Protagonists ian khan Tugorkan.
The bylini also feature other, more sophisti-
cated protagonists. The second in command
of the bogatyri, as well as second in folk popu-
Mystical Beings and Women
larity, is Dobrynya Nikitich. He is one of the The dragon’s son, as well as the talking, many-
few folk characters in the bylini, other than headed dragon that Dobrynya fights, are
Prince Vladimir, who is based on a real per- among several strange beings that appear in the
son. The historic Dobrynya was Vladimir’s bylini. Equal numbers of fantastic occurrences
uncle, who helped him gain the throne. and beings appear in both the Arthurian and
In the bylini, Dobrynya is not related to Kievan stories. But there is a major difference
Vladimir, but he remains true to the actual in the way they, and the idea of magic, are
Dobrynya in nature—a cultured and kind- viewed.
hearted bogatyr, accomplished in the skills of It can be argued that Christianity has more
diplomacy, archery, and music. The telling of heavily influenced the Arthurian cycle than it
Dobrynya’s story is also a good example of a has its Kievan counterpart. As a result, magic in
characteristic of many bylini: their common- the Arthurian world tends to be seen through
sense touch. unsympathetic eyes. Most magical beings, with
The poem mentions a hot day on which Merlin as one of the few exceptions, are vil-
the bogatyr’s old mother urges him to wear lains. Even Merlin’s powers are seen as darkly
his “wide Greek hat,” his sunhat. Dobrynya tinged; in many versions, his father was said to
goes down to the river for a cooling swim. It have been a demon.

270 Kikimora
The Kievan cycle portrays a magician- and even Prince Vladimir to rescue her hus-
prince, Vol’ka. Unlike Merlin, Vol’ka is more band from the prince’s prison.
than merely the power behind the throne.
Vol’ka is an accepted member of Vladimir’s The Cycle Ends
court and a protagonist in his own right, tak-
The beginning of the end for king and king-
ing center stage in his own bylini. Vol’ka talks
dom in the Arthurian cycle is marked by the
almost at birth, learns more in a year than a
start of the quest for the Holy Grail. But a Grail
grown man does in a lifetime, and quickly
symbol is conspicuously lacking in the Kievan
comes into his magical abilities.
cycle. The bylini do not include a dramatic
It has been suggested by some scholars that
ending.
Vol’ka may be a more modern version of a
For all their high deeds and involvement
much earlier figure. Since his name may derive
with the royal court, the bylini were not the
from the Russian volk, meaning wolf, and
creations of literary poets, but stories about
Vol’ka has shamanistic powers of shape-shifting
heroes of the common people.
into bird or other animal forms, he might have
been based on an earlier folk-hero shaman.
See also: Bylina/Bylini; Epics.
Other characters found in the bylini in-
clude Mikula Selyaninovich, which means Sources
“Mikula, son of the village.” Mikula is intro- Bailey, James, and Tatyana Ivanova. An Anthology of
duced while working in the field, with a pow- Russian Folk Epics. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe,
erful filly and a plow so heavy that no other 1999.
bogatyr, not even a team of bogatyri, could Costello, D.P., and I.P. Foote. Russian Folk Literature.
Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1967.
move it. In each story that features Mikula, his Hapgood, Isabel Florence, trans. The Epic Songs of Russia.
strength is closely linked to the earth, which New York: Scribner’s, 1886.
perhaps indicates that he was the last vestige
of some primal agricultural deity.
The bogatyr called Svyatogor is described
as being “taller than the dark forest.” His head
Kikimora
supported the clouds, and when he rode, the
earth shook and the waters overflowed. Seek-
(Slavic)
ing a mighty deed, this giant hero sought out
nothing less than the heart of the earth’s grav-
ity. And none other than Mikula Selyani-
I n Slavic folklore, the mysterious female
kikimora may be either a house spirit, whom
some tales say is the wife of the domovoi, or a
novich possessed it, keeping it in a sack he wild being of the forest or swamps. As a house
tossed easily from shoulder to shoulder. Svy- spirit, she usually lives behind the stove or in
atogor tried and failed to lift the sack, at last the cellar, like the domovoi.
surrendering and staggering off to more tradi- The size and shape of the kikimora varies.
tional princess-rescuing adventures. In the role of the house spirit, she may look like
There are strong women in both the an ordinary woman with her hair unbound, or
Arthurian and Kievan cycles, both good and she may appear as a small, dirty, humpbacked
evil, though only in the Kievan cycle are there woman. But as the wild being, she has been de-
mentions of women warriors. One of Mikula’s scribed as having a tiny head and a straw-thin
daughters was a warrior, and there is a bylina body, or a long beak, scrawny neck, taloned
about another of his daughters, the heroic and fingers, and feet like those of a chicken.
lovely Vassilissa. When Prince Vladimir ar- When the kikimora decides (or possibly is
rested Vassilissa’s husband, she disguised her- assigned, by whom is unknown) to be a house
self as a Tartar prince. In that guise, she spirit, she takes care of the chickens. She will
outwrestled, outshot, and outwitted the bogatyri help with the housework if it is clear that the

Kind and Unkind Girls 271
farmer’s wife is doing her best but is overbur- out by an angry mother or jealous stepmother,
dened with work. often to perform some onerous or dangerous
The kikimora will toil all night after the task. For example, she may be encouraged to
humans are asleep. She will do this, however, go out and seek employment, or she may be
only if the home is well kept. If it is not, or if sent out on some impossible mission, such as
she is angered in some other way, she will gathering strawberries in the middle of winter.
bother the family, particularly the children, by In some stories, she does not set out on an ad-
tickling people who are trying to sleep, and venture, but falls into a well or is pushed into
whistling and whining so that no one can get one by the stepmother.
any rest. To appease her, the house must be The kind girl travels through the forest,
thoroughly cleaned, and the pots should be or, if she has gone down the well, she ends up
washed in fern tea. in a magical forest that opens from the bot-
The kikimora does have an aspect that tom of the well. She generally is in pursuit of
seems similar to that of the Irish banshee. She an object, such as a skein of wool that the
spins at night, and anyone who sees her spin- wind has carried off, or is in haste for some
ning will soon die. other reason.
Although she is not a well-known folkloric As she hurries along, the kind girl meets
figure outside of Slavic lands, a modern Finnish various talking animals or talking objects,
publisher has been named Kikimora and uses each of which asks for her help. A sheep may
a likeness as its logo. ask to be sheared, or an oven to have loaves
The Russian composer Anatol Liadov removed before they burn. In all cases, de-
(1855–1914) wrote a seven-minute tone poem spite her haste, the kind girl stops to help the
titled Kikimora, Opus 63, which was first per- animals or objects without complaint. Along
formed in 1909. the way, she also may be kind to an old man
or woman.
See also: Slavic Mythology. At the end of her journey, the kind girl
reaches the home of a magical being. This
Sources may be a mysterious old man, a witch, or a
Curtin, Jeremiah. Myths and Folk-Tales of the Russians, West-
ern Slavs, and the Magyars. Boston: Little, Brown, 1890. blatantly supernatural entity such as a fairy, a
Ivanits, Linda J. Russian Folk Belief. Armonk, NY: M.E. devil, personified seasons, or (in Christian ver-
Sharpe, 1989. sions) a saint or even the Virgin Mary.
Willis, Roy. Dictionary of World Myth: An A–Z Reference The kind girl is put to various tasks, rang-
Guide to Gods, Goddesses, Heroes, Heroines and Fabulous
Beasts. London: Duncan Baird, 2000.
ing from the relatively mundane—housework
or farmwork—to the supernatural. Tasks of
the latter sort might include combing the hair
Kind and Unkind Girls of three giant heads that rise up out of a stream
or well. In all cases, including variants where
the kind girl must escape rather than be let
T here is a clear moral to the world folktale
type “kind and unkind girls.” The main
protagonists are two sisters or, more often, a
go, the animals and objects she assisted come
to her aid.
At the end of her stay, the kind girl is of-
sister and a stepsister. One of the two is kind,
fered a reward, and she must choose between
and the other is unkind. Both are sent out to
modest or ornate gifts. She always chooses the
find their fates.
modest reward. Returning home, the kind girl
finds that gold or gems fall from her lips when-
The Kind Girl ever she speaks, or that she is now more beau-
It is always the kind girl who sets out first in tiful than ever, or that she has earned some
the tales. She may leave voluntarily or be cast similar reward.

272 King Arthur
The Unkind Girl and Arthur was conceived. Soon thereafter,

Gorlois met his death in battle, and Uther made
When the kind girl returns home, the unkind Igraine his queen.
girl and the stepmother want the unkind girl Upon Arthur’s birth, Merlin whisked the
to be rewarded, too. So the unkind girl un- boy away to be raised in secret as the foster-
dertakes the same journey, but she is too ling of Sir Ector. Raised alongside Sir Ector’s
haughty to help the animals or objects. When own son, Kay, Arthur eventually was made
she reaches the strange home, she refuses to squire to his foster brother. At a tournament
work or does the tasks in a sloppy fashion. All held upon Uther’s death, Kay sent his young
the time, she keeps demanding her rewards. squire to fetch a sword. Unable to find Kay’s
The unkind girl is allowed to return home. blade, Arthur pulled an enchanted sword free
But when she speaks, frogs drop from her lips, from a stone and anvil. This action revealed
or she finds the ornate gifts full of snakes, or that he was the son of Uther and true heir to
she is uglier than before. the throne of England.
In most cases, the tale ends traditionally, Once crowned, Arthur sought out the
with the kind girl marrying a prince. Lady of the Lake, who gave him the sword
This tale type has been found across Eu- called Excalibur. Armed with Excalibur,
rope, as well as in Greece and Turkey. Arthur defeated and drove away the Saxon in-
vaders who had been menacing Britain. Tri-
See also: Tale Types. umphant, and with his realm secure, Arthur
took the beautiful Guinevere as his queen.
Sources
Guinevere’s dowry included a round banquet
Grundtvig, Svent. Danish Fairy Tales. Trans. J. Grant
Cramer. Mineola, NY: Dover, 1972. table.
Roberts, Warren E. The Tale of the Kind and the Unkind Arthur brought the finest knights in the
Girl. Berlin, Germany: De Gruyter, 1958. realm to his court at Camelot. These included
Thompson, Stith. Folktale. Berkeley: University of Cali-
fornia Press, 1977.
King Arthur
(British)
K ing Arthur of Britain is quite possibly the

most widely known and celebrated char-
acter in the English language. Existing in the
hazy borderlands that link history, mythology,
and art, the story of Arthur, also known as the
Matter of Britain, has been told and retold for
hundreds of years.
The Tale
Arthur was born in the fifth century C.E. He
was the son of King Uther Pendragon. Uther
had fallen in love with Igraine, Duchess of
Cornwall, who was the wife of Duke Gorlois. An anonymous medieval illustration depicts young
Arthur pulling the sword from the stone. This heroic feat
With the aid of the wizard Merlin, Uther went proved Arthur’s right to the English throne. (© British
secretly to Igraine’s bed disguised as Gorlois, Library/HIP/Art Resource, NY)

King Arthur 273
the legendary figures Lancelot, Gawain, Perce- he compiled from scattered French sources.
val, and even Kay, his foster brother, whom Malory’s work brought together numerous
Arthur made his seneschal. These so-called strands of the Arthur legends into a single
Knights of the Round Table sat as peers and comprehensive volume. Malory was nothing
equals, with none closer to the place of honor if not thorough. He included detailed descrip-
than any other. Together, they set out to cleanse tions of every tournament fought by Arthur’s
the realm of evil. Their adventures culminated knights, down to the gory details of exactly
in the famous quest for the Holy Grail. how each knight was wounded.
Arthur’s eventual downfall did not come In the twentieth century, T.H. White used
in battle, but rather was due to a love triangle Le morte d’Arthur as the basis for his novel The
and family drama worthy of Greek tragedy. Once and Future King (1958), which focused on
Queen Guinevere fell in love with Arthur’s the question of whether might makes right.
best knight, Sir Lancelot, and they carried on White’s novel was the inspiration for the
a secret affair for years. By some accounts, Broadway musical Camelot (1960), as well as
Arthur knew of their betrayal, but he could Disney’s animated feature The Sword in the
not bring himself to condemn them or end Stone (1963), which focused on White’s whim-
their affair. sical depiction of young Arthur getting a mag-
Guinevere did not bear Arthur an heir. ical education from Merlin while still ignorant
Arthur’s bastard son Mordred, the child of of his true heritage. Like White, John Boor-
Morgan le Fay, a witch and Arthur’s half-sister man also looked to Malory when making his
(or by some accounts the child of Morgan’s film Excalibur (1981).
sister, Queen Morgause of Orkney) had a Arthur’s story has been celebrated in high
claim to the throne. art, as in Alfred Lord Tennyson’s poem cycle
Mordred was not content to wait for Idylls of the King (1859–1885), and the legends
Arthur’s death, and so he arrived in Camelot have been lampooned on Broadway in Monty
to stir up trouble. He engineered the expo- Python’s Spamalot (2005), which is based on
sure of Guinevere’s infidelity, and divided the the group’s earlier comedy The Holy Grail
Knights of the Round Table into factions— (1975). The story was even chosen as the sub-
those still loyal to Arthur and those loyal ject of a tarot deck with Anna Marie Fergu-
to Mordred. Guinevere was charged with high son’s Legend: The Arthurian Tarot in 2002.
treason and sentenced to be burned at the Marion Zimmer Bradley turned the Arthur
stake, but Lancelot carried her away before story upside-down in her novel The Mists of
the fires could be lit. While Lancelot saved Avalon (1983) by focusing on its women, partic-
the queen, he thus severed his ties with ularly Morgaine (Morgan le Fay). Bradley
Arthur. offered a startling feminist interpretation and a
In the end, Arthur and Mordred clashed look at the changing spiritual paths of early
in battle on the field of Camlann. Mordred Britain.
was slain, and Arthur was fatally wounded. Arthur’s influence is not limited to fiction.
Arthur was carried away by four mysterious In recent American history, the presidency of
queens and taken on a barge to the enchanted John F. Kennedy was dubbed Camelot.
isle of Avalon. There he is believed to lie
sleeping until it is time for him to return in the
hour of Britain’s greatest need.
Historical Arthur?
Was King Arthur a real, historical figure? If
so, where did he live, rule, and die? Around
A History in Story 1190, the supposed grave of Arthur was dis-
In the fifteenth century, Sir Thomas Malory covered at Glastonbury in southern England.
wrote Le morte d’Arthur, which some believe During the Renaissance, the Tudor royal

274 King of the Cats/King of the Cats is Dead
family argued for a historical Arthur, and tory. Each retelling changes the story and its
traced their lineage back to him in order to characters to reflect the times in which it is
support their claim to the throne. To this told.
day, historians search through scraps of early Camelot, the Round Table, and Arthur re-
British history in search of a clue to who the main symbols of high romance and chivalry in
“real” Arthur might have been—or if he ex- an age long past, and a hope for their eventual
isted at all. Conflicting dates, unreliable nar- return.
rators, and translation issues make the task Shanti Fader
quite tricky.
There are early British references to the See also: Culture Heroes.
era of the wars against the Germanic tribes. A
Sources
British Latin work, The Ruin of Britain, which
Geoffrey of Monmouth. The History of the Kings of Britain.
dates from sometime in the first to fourth cen- Trans. Lewis Thorpe. Harmondsworth, UK: Pen-
turies C.E., describes the destruction of British guin, 1966.
society that occurred during these wars, and it Gildas. The Ruin of Britain, and Other Works. Ed. and
trans. Michael Winterbottom. London: Phillimore,
speaks of the defense led by one Ambrosius
1978.
Aurelianus. The author of this work was a Trioedd ynys Prydein: The Welsh Triads. Ed. and trans.
churchman named Gildas, who claimed that Rachel Bromwich. Cardiff, UK: University of Wales
he was born in the same year as a battle fought Press, 1991.
at Mons Badonicus, a British victory that Wace’s Roman de Brut: A History of the British. Ed. and
trans. Judith Weiss. Exeter, UK: University of Ex-
brought a period of peace. Gildas did not eter Press, 2002.
mention Arthur, but his primary focus was the William of Malmesbury. Gesta regum Anglorum: The His-
present, not the past—to mourn and criticize tory of the English Kings. Ed. R.M. Thomson and
the moral decay of his own era. Michael Winterbottom. New York: Clarendon,
1998–1999.
There is also the question of where in
Britain Arthur lived: Was Camelot an English
palace, a Roman stronghold, or a hill-fort in
Wales? Which ancient ruin overlooking the
King of the Cats/King
sea in Cornwall was Igraine’s castle of Tin-
tagel? And is there an actual island that corre-
of the Cats is Dead
sponds to Avalon?
Whether or not Arthur ever truly existed, (Western European)
something about him strikes a chord for story-
tellers and listeners, which has allowed his tale
to endure for more than a thousand years. His
T he tale type known as King of the Cats or
the King of the Cats is Dead concerns the
death of a nonhuman ruler and the sudden in-
story is accessible and appealing to the casual trusion of the otherworld into ordinary affairs.
reader, and yet can offer challenges to literary This intrusion most commonly comes in the
intellectuals and historians. It can be a simple form of a cat suddenly speaking and claiming
tale of adventures and magic, a haunting kingship.
tragedy, or a philosophical look at the human A typical form of the tale, collected in
condition. Scotland by Charlotte S. Burne in the nine-
While archeologists search for the histori- teenth century, tells of a young man who tells
cal Arthur, storytellers and artists of all media friends of seeing a grand funeral for a cat. The
continue to draw inspiration from his seem- family cat then cries out, “Then I’m the king
ingly inexhaustible well of legend. Told and of the cats!” and rushes off, never to be seen
retold, layered and reshaped, the Matter of again.
Britain can be seen as a touchstone for the val-
ues and cultural concerns of every age of his- See also: Tale Types.

King Solomon 275
Sources
Burne, Charlotte S. “The King of the Cats.” Folk-Lore
Journal 2 (1884): 22–23.
Jacobs, Joseph. More English Fairy Tales. London: D. Nott,
1894.
Stephens, John Richard, ed. The King of the Cats: And
Other Feline Fairy Tales. Boston: Faber and Faber,
1993.
King Solomon
(Biblical)
T he biblical and historical King Solomon

became ruler of Israel in approximately
967 B.C.E. and reigned for forty years. During
that long reign, King Solomon became partic-
ularly noted for his wisdom.
The Queen of Sheba

The first of the folk-story cycles to center on
King Solomon concerns a visit paid to the
king by the queen of Sheba. Archaeological
evidence places the biblical Sheba in the King Solomon is shown reading the Torah in this minia-
South Arabian land of Saba. It is quite possi- ture painting from a late thirteenth-century Hebrew
Bible and prayer book. (Art Resource, NY)
ble that a queen once ruled this now-dead
kingdom and traded with King Solomon, but
the Bible does not include a story of this visit, magic ring. The ring was engraved with the Seal
so it is most likely strictly folklore. of Solomon, the six-pointed star now known as
The stories include a romance between the Jewish Star or the Star of David.
King Solomon and the queen of Sheba, whose Islamic storytellers added another element
name in the folktales is Balkis. The royal leg- to the tales, making Solomon the ruler of the
end of Ethiopia claims that the queen returned supernatural djinn. Would-be magicians in
home pregnant with Solomon’s child. This medieval Europe studied a grimoire, a book of
child went on to establish the royal dynasty of spells that bore the title The Book of the Goetia of
Ethiopia that lasted until the overthrow of Solomon the King. It is widely accepted, how-
Emperor Haile Selassie in 1974. ever, that the historic king did not write this
book.
Solomon’s Magical Power
See also: Wise Man or Woman; Retelling: King
As is sometimes the case with folklore, Solomon and the Demon.
Solomon’s wisdom became equated with
magic. Over the centuries, more and more folk- Sources
tales sprang up in which Solomon possessed Freehof, Lillian S. Stories of King Solomon. Philadelphia:
magical powers. Jewish Publication Society, 1955.
Ginzberg, Louis. Legends of the Bible. Philadelphia: Jewish
Solomon was said to understand the lan- Publication Society, 1994.
guages of birds and other animals and to have Pritchard, James B. Solomon and Sheba. London: Phaidon,
the power to control spirits and demons with a 1974.

276 Kludde
Sherman, Josepha. A Sampler of Jewish-American Folklore. hallway. When they prayed, the sound
Little Rock, AR: August House, 1992. stopped. But it came again the next night, and
the night after that. Their neighbor was a
butcher, who promised to help them. When
Kludde the sound started again that night, the butcher
ran into the house with a large knife in one
hand. Coming face to face with Kludde, the
(Flemish) butcher threw his knife, striking Kludde and
I n Flemish folklore, Kludde was a malicious

water or tree spirit.
Kludde is said to have lived in hollow
causing him to howl in pain, race off, and
never return to Schelle.
A close relative of Kludde’s was Oss-
trees or to have lived in lakes and be amphibi- chaart, who was also a shape-shifter. Osschaart
ous. Kludde left his home only at night, either looked like a man-headed bull in chains. Oss-
just before dawn or just after sunset, hunting chaart harassed travelers and any fishermen
for travelers to torment or even slay. who failed to throw their first catch back into
Kludde usually took the shape of a gigan- the water.
tic black dog with large claws and protruding
eyes. He was larger and bulkier than a Saint See also: Black Dogs; Lake Monsters.
Bernard, and he walked on his hind legs. Sources
Iron chains hung on his body and dragged on Griffis, William Elliot. Belgian Fairy Tales. New York:
the ground around him. Despite this awk- Thomas Y. Crowell, 1919.
ward posture and the burden of the chains, Leirens, Charles. Belgian Folklore. New York: Belgian
Kludde was able to move more swiftly than a Government Information Center, 1947.
Maekelberghe, August, comp. Flemish Folktales. Detroit,
man. A shape-shifter, Kludde also could take MI: Detroit Publication Consultants, 1977.
the form of a huge black cat or terrible black
bird, or swing swiftly through the trees as a
great serpent.
The only warning of his approach was the
Kullervo
sound of rattling chains. Whatever shape
Kludde took, he remained covered with chains.
(Finnish)
Sometimes, the whim would strike him to walk
along with a traveler without doing any harm
and to let the traveler go when the person en-
I n the Finnish epic Kalevala (1835), Kullervo is
a tragic figure, but not a particularly likable
one. Rough, ill-tempered, and prone to com-
tered a house. At other times, Kludde would mitting dark deeds, Kullervo is a bitter, sullen
leap onto a traveler’s back and cling so firmly character.
that he could not be shaken free. The traveler Kullervo’s father, Kalervo, was killed in a
would be forced to carry Kludde as he grew fight with Kullervo’s uncle, Untamo, who sub-
heavier with every step. In extreme cases, sequently sold Kullervo as a slave. Kullervo
Kludde would even kill the traveler. fled slavery and returned home to find his
Kludde is said to have lived for a time on a mother still alive but his sister missing. Later,
small bridge near the town of Schelle. One Kullervo met a lovely maiden and seduced
night, he leaped onto a woman’s back and clung her, only to find that she was his sister. Shamed,
there until she managed to struggle home. his sister threw herself into the river and
Then Kludde sprung off and ran away into the drowned.
night. Seeking revenge for his father’s death and
In another neighborhood in Schelle, a the other wrongs he had suffered, Kullervo
family happened to be talking about Kludde killed Untamo and his family. Upon returning
when they heard the sound of chains in the home, Kullervo found his own family dead. In

Kypr ia 277
the end, Kullero’s despair led him to commit Sources

suicide. Gurney, O.R. The Hittites. Rev. ed. New York: Penguin,
Kullervo’s tragic tale inspired an 1892 sym- 1990.
phonic poem by the Finnish composer Jean ars, 1991.
Sibelius and a 1988 opera by another Finn, Hooke, S.H. Middle Eastern Mythology. Mineola, NY:
Aulis Sallinen. Dover, 2004.
See also: Kalevala.
Sources Kypria
Lönnrot, Elias. The Kalevala: An Epic Poem After Oral Tra-
dition. Trans. Keith Bosley. New York: Oxford Uni-
(Greek)
T
Pentikäinen, Juha Y. Kalevala Mythology. Trans. and ed. he Kypria is one of the lost ancient Greek
Ritva Poom. Bloomington: Indiana University
epics that make up the culture’s epic cycle.
Press, 1999.
The Kypria centers on the years leading up to
the Trojan War and the first nine years of the
Kumarbi/Kumaris war, which was not covered in Homer’s Iliad.
The author of the original work is unknown, al-
though it may have been Homer. The epic may
(Hittite) date to the seventh or sixth century B.C.E.
Although the original Kypria was lost, it
T he Hittite god Kumarbi was considered
the father of all gods.
Sometimes equated with the Sumerian
was summarized in a work in the fifth cen-
tury B.C.E., the Chrestomatheia. The author of
god Enlil, Kumarbi is described as bearing a that work may have been Greek philosopher
staff and “thinking wise thoughts.” His sacred Proclus Diadochus. The work took its name,
city was Urkis. Kypria, from one of the many names for
Like Anu before him, who served Alalu Aphrodite, the goddess of love, who is a major
for nine years then overthrew him, Kumarbi character in the Kypria.
served as Anu’s cupbearer for nine years and The Kypria opens with the myth of the
then rebelled. In the process of catching Anu, judgment of Paris. The Trojan prince was con-
Kumarbi bit off and swallowed Anu’s phallus. fronted by three goddesses: Athena, goddess
This left Kumarbi, although male, impreg- of wisdom; Hera, wife of Zeus; and Aphrodite.
nated with three deities: Teshub, the storm god; They demanded that he select the most beau-
Aranzahus, the personification of the Tigris tiful of them. When Paris named Aphrodite
River; and Tasmisus. Kumarbi spat out Aranza- the winner, she rewarded him with Helen, the
hus and Tasmisus onto Mount Kanzuras, but he most beautiful mortal woman. But Helen was
could not rid himself of Teshub until magic was the wife of Menelaos, king of Sparta. When
worked on him. Paris stole Helen away and took her to Troy,
Kumarbi eventually was overthrown by his Menelaos and his brother, Agamemnon, de-
son Teshub. Kumarbi then plotted to overthrow clared war on Troy.
Teshub. He lay with a sentient rock, which gave The Greek army gathered, but before
birth to the weapon that Kumarbi believed they set sail they were warned that the war
would give him victory—the stone warrior, Ul- would last ten years. Agamemnon sacrificed
likummi. But the attempted coup failed, and his daughter, Iphigenia, to appease Artemis,
Teshub remained in power. the virgin goddess of the hunt, and gain safe
Ira Spar passage for the ships.
When the Greeks landed at Troy, they de-
See also: An/Anu; Wise Man or Woman. manded the return of Helen and her dowry,

278 Kypr ia
but the Trojans refused. The Greeks besieged See also: Iliad.
the city. The narrative briefly describes the first
nine years of the siege and then ends abruptly.
There is a side story, however, that is linked Sources
Burgess, Jonathan S. The Tradition of the Trojan War in
to the motif of a vegetation deity that dies and is Homer and the Epic Cycle. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
reborn seasonally. Helen’s brothers, Castor and University Press, 2001.
Polydeuces (or Pollux), were caught stealing Fowler, Robert, ed. The Cambridge Companion to
cattle and were slain. Zeus made them im- Homer. New York: Cambridge University Press,
2004.
mortal, with the understanding that when one West, M.L., ed. and trans. Greek Epic Fragments from the
lived on Earth, the other must reside in the Seventh to the Fifth Centuries BC. Cambridge, MA:
underworld. Harvard University Press, 2003.

L
J
La Fontaine, Jean de
(1621–1695)

ean de La Fontaine was a French poet who
is best known for his fables.
La Fontaine, Jean de. Fables. Trans. Sir Edward Marsh.
New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001.
Tyler, J. Allen, ed. Concordance to the Fables and Tales of
Jean de la Fontaine. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University
Press, 1974.
Labyrinths
Restless and wild as a youth, La Fontaine fi-
nally settled in Paris. After a failed marriage, he
lived in the household of one of his patrons,
Madame de La Sablière, for twenty years.
L abyrinths are buildings or gardens made
up of a maze of passages or rooms. They
are designed so that finding the way from one
Despite the failures in his private life, La
end to the other is difficult. In mythology and
Fontaine created a masterpiece in his collection
folklore, a labyrinth often symbolizes a spiri-
called Fables Choisies, Mises en Vers (Chosen Fables
tual journey.
in Verse). This work took La Fontaine nearly
In the first millennium B.C.E., the Egyptian
thirty years to write; it was first printed in 1668.
tomb of Pharaoh Amenemhat III held 3,000
The Fables Choisies includes 230 fables in
rooms. In Greece, legend tells of a labyrinth
all, printed in twelve books. Some of the stories
on the island of Crete, which may have been
are clearly based on Aesop’s fables. Others are
nothing more exotic than the elaborate layout
satires or commentaries on French society. The
of the palace at Knossos. In Greek mythology,
fables were an immediate success, going into
King Minos of Crete was said to have built the
many printings during La Fontaine’s lifetime.
labyrinth to hold the Minotaur, the monster that
Among La Fontaine’s other popular works
was half man and half bull. Numerous other an-
were four volumes of humorous verse, Contes
cient labyrinths can be found across the coun-
et Nouvelles en Vers (Stories and Novels in Verse),
tries of the Mediterranean, including one at
which were published over the course of a de-
Chiusi, Italy, and another on the island of Lem-
cade (1664–1674).
nos, in Greece.
Labyrinths also can be found on the floors
See also: Fables.
of some medieval churches. These labyrinths
are believed to represent the winding path of
Sources
Fumaroli, Marc. Poet and the King: Jean de La Fontaine and
pilgrims heading toward salvation. The church
His Century. Trans. Jane Marie Todd. Notre Dame, of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy, has an enor-
IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2002. mous seven-circuit labyrinth carved into the
279

280 Lake Monsters
Lake Cynwch. Scotland is home to a number of

these creatures, in addition to the famous Loch
Ness monster. Each Uisge is a deadly water
horse, and Loch Morar has Morag. The latter
has been seen several times, including a 1969
incident in which two fishermen took a shot at
Morag and apparently missed. Other lochs said
to be inhabited by monsters include Arkaig,
Linnhe, Lochy, Oich, Quoich, and Shiel.
In Canada, there is the Ogopogo of Okana-
gan Lake in British Columbia; the indigenous
peoples of the region called this monster N’ha-
a-tik. Stories about Ogopogo were told before
Europeans arrived in the area, and sightings of
the monster dating to 1872 claim that it resem-
Theseus slays the Minotaur at the center of a labyrinth.
This floor mosaic is from a fourth-century C.E. Roman bles Nessie of Loch Ness. There was a surge of
villa near Salzburg, Austria. Labyrinths and images Ogopogo sightings in the 1920s, after which the
of them can be found in almost every culture. (Erich monster seems to have become less active.
Lessing/Art Resource, NY)
Also in Canada, Lake Manitoba has Ma-
nipopo, whose name is a parody of the name
floor. The cathedral of Chartres, France, has an “Ogopogo.” Manipopo was sighted first by in-
intricate, eleven-circuit labyrinth. digenous groups, and the first supposed photo-
Labyrinths in Britain generally are garden graph of it was taken in 1962. Like so many
mazes with walls of clipped hedges. At Hamp- other snapshots of these types of creatures, the
ton Court in London, there is a labyrinth that photograph shows only something that appears
was first planted in the seventeenth century. snakelike. A third Canadian lake monster is
Another form of living labyrinth is the British said to live in Saskatchewan’s Turtle Lake.
turf maze, in which a design is cut into high Another well-known legendary lake mon-
grass, such as the one at Alkborough in Lin- ster is Champ, or Champy, of Lake Champlain,
colnshire. which lies in both Canada and the United
Modern labyrinth enthusiasts created their States. Lake Erie, which also has shores on both
own mazes, often following medieval patterns. sides of the border, has South Bay Bessie, a
monster that has been reported in northern
See also: Motifs. Ohio since the mid-1980s. There are a few
Source reports of monsters living in the other Great
Matthews, W.H. Mazes and Labyrinths; Their History and Lakes as well.
Development. Mineola, NY: Dover, 1970. South America has at least one lake mon-
ster. Nahuelito of Lake Nuhuel Huapi in Ar-
gentina was first reported in 1897. Today, the
Lake Monsters lake is a tourist destination for those who hope
to spot the monster.
L ake monsters have a long folkloric history.

Nearly every lake of significant size seems
to have one.
A lake monster is said to live in Lake Van,
Turkey’s largest body of water, and Kazakh-
stan’s Lake Kos Kol is home to another. In
The earliest known lake monsters were China, there is said to be an amphibious mon-
found in Great Britain. In Wales, the dragon- ster nicknamed Chan, which means “toad,”
like Afanc lurked in a pool fed by the Conwy living somewhere at the bottom of a water-
River, and the water dragon Nwyve lived in filled gorge in Hubei Province.

Lange Wapper 281
See also: Champ/Champy. Lang, Andrew. The Blue Fairy Book. 1889. Mineola, NY:
Dover, 1965.
Sources Langstaff, Eleanor De Selms. Andrew Lang. Boston:
Twayne, 1978.
Coleman, Loren. The Field Guide to Lake Monsters, Sea Ser-
pents, and Other Mystery Denizens of the Deep. New
York: Putnam, 2003.
Costello, Peter. In Search of Lake Monsters. New York: Lange Wapper
Coward, McCann and Geoghegan, 1974.
Kirk, John, III. In the Domain of the Lake Monsters.
Toronto, Canada: Key Porter, 1998. (Flemish)
Lang, Andrew
L ange Wapper is a trickster from Flemish
folklore who is said to live near the city of
Antwerp. The earliest known stories about
Lange Wapper date from about the sixteenth
(1844–1912) century, although there may have been earlier
tales that are now lost.
S cottish author Andrew Lang was a journal-

ist, poet, novelist, and critic. He is best
remembered as a folklorist and for his twelve-
Lange Wapper is a shape-shifter who can
alter his size from as small as a child to as tall
as a giant. He prefers to live near water. He
volume collection of fairy tales, each of which has turned up on the Belgian coast and also
was titled after the color of its cover. The first likes to wander among dikes on the Nete
volume, The Blue Fairy Book, was published in River. But his favorite site appears to be the
1889, and the last, The Lilac Fairy Book, was banks of the Scheldt River in Antwerp.
published in 1910. Lang Wapper torments humans but rarely
Lang was born on March 31, 1844, in does them serious harm. He teases them by
Selkirk, Scotland, and was educated in Edin- leaping over their houses, peering into their
burgh and at Oxford. He moved to London windows, or bending down over the roads to
in 1875 and spent most of his adult life there. scare them. He particularly likes to play tricks
He became a popular journalist and literary on drunkards, who are easy prey. One thing
critic, and quickly became friends with some that gives away Lang Wapper’s identity is his
of London’s great authors, including Robert lack of a shadow.
Louis Stevenson. The giant-sized Lange Wapper once
Lang’s work as a folklorist included a col- strode to the coast, picked up a fishing boat by
laboration with S.H. Butcher. Lang and Butcher the mast, and threw it away. No one knows
translated Homer’s Odyssey in 1879. With Wal- what triggered his anger. When he is as small
ter Leaf and Ernest Myers, they translated the as a child, he sometimes plays with children,
Iliad in 1883. Lang was one of the first to apply pretending to be one of them and teaching
anthropological findings to the study of myth them naughty tricks.
and folklore, in works that included Custom and Lange Wapper also likes to trick women
Myth (1884), Myth, Ritual, and Religion (1887), and get close to them. He once took the shape
and The Making of Religion (1898). of a pretty handkerchief to get into a woman’s
Lang’s twelve fairy books have been avail- pocket. He has been known to change into a
able continually since they were first published. newborn baby. If a woman hugs the “poor
Andrew Lang died on July 12, 1912. foundling” to her breast, Lange Wapper drops
the disguise.
Sources In 1963, Lange Wapper was honored in
Green, Roger Lancelyn. Andrew Lang. Leicester, UK:
Edmund Ward, 1946.
Antwerp with a bronze statue created by Al-
Homer. The Iliad of Homer. Trans. Andrew Lang, Walter bert Poels. The statue is of a huge man lording
Leaf, and Ernest Myers. London: Macmillan, 1900. it over two small humans. The character has

282 Lares and Penates
inspired several artists and has appeared in

the Suske and Wiske comic book De Zwarte Lares and Penates
Madam (The Black Lady).
(Roman)
See also: Tricksters.
Sources
Griffis, William Elliot. Belgian Fairytales. New York:
T he Lares and Penates were the pre-
Christian Roman guardian spirits, small
deities of the house and field. The concept of
Thomas Y. Crowell, 1919. the Lares is thought by scholars to have de-
Leirens, Charles. Belgian Folklore. New York: Belgian rived from an ancient Latin ancestor cult in
Government Information Center, 1947.
Maekelberghe, August, comp. Flemish Folktales. Grosse
which the deceased head of the household
Pointe Farms, MI: Detroit Publication Consultants, was thought to bless the house and keep the
1977. family fields fertile.
This shrine to the Roman household gods is in the House of Vetii in Pompeii, Italy. Two Lares flank the Genius, or
guardian spirit, as all three perform a religious ritual. (Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY)

Lemmink ainen 283
By the time of the Roman Empire, at the Sources

turn of the first millennium C.E., there were Boatwright, Mary T. The Romans: From Village to Empire.
believed to be many types of Lares, each with New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
Gardner, Jane, and Thomas Wiedemann. The Roman
a specific guardianship role. Some of the most Household: A Sourcebook. New York: Routledge,
important types are: 1991.
Starr, Chester G. The Ancient Romans. New York: Oxford
• Lares compitales: guardians of the
crossroads.
• Lares domestici: guardians of the house.
• Lares familiares: guardians of the
Lemminkainen
family.
• Lares permarini: guardians of the sea. (Finnish)
• Lares praestitis: guardians of the Ro-
man state. I n the Finnish epic Kalevala, Lemminkainen
is a handsome and brave, yet flawed young
hero.
• Lares rurales: guardians of the land or
fields. Lemminkainen set out to woo the maiden
Kyllikki, while still flirting with other young
• Lares viales: guardians of travelers. women. He carried Kyllikki off and married
her but quickly grew tired of his young wife.
The Lares usually were depicted as danc- Lemminkainen abandoned Kyllikki and
ing young men, each holding a horn cup in pursued the Maiden of Pohjola, the daughter
one hand and a bowl in the other. They often of Louhi. He managed to charm the citizens of
were accompanied by snakes, representing Pohjola with his magical singing, save for one
fertility. The Lares were worshipped in small person, a cowherd, who did not fall under his
shrines, called Lararium, which could be spell.
found in every Roman house. Food was sacri- When Lemminkainen asked Louhi for her
ficed to the Lares on holidays. The direct op- daughter’s hand, she responded that he must
posite of the Lares, and their deadly foes, were hunt and kill the demon’s elk, the demon’s fire-
the Larvae, or Lemures, which were malevo- breathing gelding, and finally the swan in the
lent spirits. Tuonela River, which was the boundary be-
The Penates are related to the Lares in that tween this world and the next. Lemminkainen
they were household protective beings. Like the completed the first two challenges, but, at the
Lares, they were worshipped in every house, al- Tuonela River, the cowherd ambushed and
though the Penates’s original role had primarily killed him.
been as guardians of the storeroom. A family The cowherd cut up Lemminkainen’s body
generally would have one Lare and two Penates and threw the pieces into the river. Lem-
figures sharing the household shrine. The fam- minkainen’s mother, who had been warned of
ily members would make offerings taken from her son’s death, hunted for him. She raked the
their daily meals to the Penates at the hearth, pieces of her son’s body out of the Tuonela
since the Penates were closely linked to Vesta, River and put them back together, restoring
the Roman goddess of the hearth. him to life.
The Roman state was said to have its Still Lemminkainen had not learned his
own Penates, the Penates publici. Tradition lesson. The master smith, Ilmarinen, had by
claimed that they had been brought from this time won the Maiden of Pohjola. Lem-
Troy during the time of its downfall by the minkainen arrived at the wedding banquet un-
mythic hero Aeneas, prince of Troy and an- invited and started trouble, killing the master
cestor of Rome. of Pohjola.

284 Leprechauns
Lemminkainen fled Pohjola and hid for a leprechaun can gain the leprechaun’s golden
time on Saari Island, home of his forgotten treasure. But catching a leprechaun is an al-
wife, Kyllikki. Upon his return, he found his most impossible feat for a human to achieve,
house burned down and his mother in hiding. especially since the moment he or she blinks
Lemminkainen knew this tragedy was the or looks away, the leprechaun will be gone.
work of the people of Pohjola. He set out to One of the most common tales of this
seek revenge, but Louhi cast a cold spell that sort involves a young man, often named Tom,
froze the sea and forced Lemminkainen to re- who actually does manage to seize a lep-
turn home once again. rechaun who promises to give him gold. The
leprechaun adds that the gold is buried under a
See also: Kalevala. particular patch of weeds, or corn, or wheat,
and that there is too much for anyone to carry
Sources off without a wagon. The leprechaun promises
Jacobsen, Thorkild. The Treasures of Darkness: A History of not to magic the gold away or to bewitch the
Mesopotamian Religion. New Haven, CT: Yale Uni- site, so Tom ties a ribbon around the plants as a
Lönnrot, Elias. The Kalevala: An Epic Poem After Oral Tra-
marker and hurries off to get his wagon. When
dition. Trans. Keith Bosley. New York: Oxford Uni- he returns, sure enough, the leprechaun has
versity Press, 1999. not touched his ribbon—but has tied identical
ribbons around every plant in the field. Tom
has been good and truly tricked.
Leprechauns Leprechauns also have been featured as
characters in novels, plays, and motion pic-
tures. One of the most memorable appearances
(Irish) was in the 1947 musical Finian’s Rainbow, in
I n Irish folklore and folk belief, leprechauns

are small fairy beings. They serve as cob-
blers for the fairy folk who often possess a
which a leprechaun-turned-human is a major
character. Perhaps the most disturbing movie
appearance was in the 2002 horror movie Lep-
treasure in gold. rechaun, in which the leprechaun is a monster.
While the leprechaun may be a cobbler,
he apparently makes only one shoe at a time, See also: Tricksters; Retelling: A Leprechaun’s
never a pair. The name leprechaun may come Gold.
from the Gaelic leith brogan, or maker of one
shoe. It may also come from luacharma’n, a Sources
Fehan, Mary. The Leprechaun Book. Dublin, Ireland: Mer-
Gaelic word meaning pygmy. The clurichan is cer, 1994.
a similar type of small fairy being that may be Glassie, Henry H., ed. Irish Folktales. New York: Pantheon,
related to the leprechaun but is generally por- 1985.
trayed as drunken and morose. Haining, Peter. The Leprechaun’s Kingdom. New York:
Harmony, 1980.
Leprechauns generally are described as
O’Sullivan, Sean. Folktales of Ireland. Chicago: University
merry, slightly heavy little men dressed in of Chicago Press, 1966.
old-fashioned clothes, perhaps of sixteenth-
or seventeenth-century country style, the color
usually green, with a red cap, a leather cob-
bler’s apron, and nicely buckled shoes. There
Leshy/Leshiye
are female leprechauns, but they rarely ap-
pear in folktales and never in conjunction
(Slavic)
with humans.
According to popular belief, a human who
is quick and clever enough to actually catch a
I n Slavic mythology and folklore, a leshy was
a nature spirit, both the lord of the forest
and its heart, as well as a trickster.

Liderc 285
As changeable as nature, a leshy varied his Sources

appearance as often as he pleased. A leshy Afanaseyev, Alexandre. Russian Fairy Tales. Trans. Nor-
might be as tall as a tree or so small that he bert Guterman. New York: Pantheon, 2006.
Simonov, Pyotr. Essential Russian Mythology: Stories That
could slip under a blade of grass. He might be Change the World. San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1997.
a whirlwind of leaves, an owl, a wolf, or even
an old man clad in fur.
It was easier to hear than to see a leshy.
His voice might imitate the rustle of the leaves
Liderc
or the sighing of the wind in the trees. With al-
luring or tempting calls he also could entice
(Hungarian)
humans off safe forest paths. The leshy did
this for fun, although this trickster’s idea of fun
could endanger or even kill humans.
I n Hungarian folklore, the Liderc is said to
be a small but dangerous devil. This nasty
creature can provide a change of pace for sto-
Once a human realized he or she had lost rytellers from the true vampires that are of-
the path, the only hope for escape was to make ten featured in traditional horror tales. But
the leshy laugh. The simplest way to do this beware—some elements of this being’s na-
was to strip and put every item of clothing ture are suitable for adult audiences only.
back on, either inside out or backward. A leshy The Liderc is said in the folktales to be sim-
found this silliness irresistibly funny, and the ilar in its desires to a vampire, feeding off the
human would hear laughter and find himself or living. But the Liderc also shares aspects with
herself suddenly returned to the familiar path. the succubus in that it kills its victims through
But should a human be foolish enough to truly sexual exhaustion and drinks not blood, as a
anger a leshy, there was no escape. The unfor- vampire does, but the life energies of its victims.
tunate were led into the deep forest and tickled It is said to hatch from the first egg of a
to death. black hen. But the egg must be incubated un-
The leshy, like other forest beings, was at- der a willing human’s armpit. The Liderc can,
tuned to the seasons and hibernated during the according to the tales, take different forms,
winter. When he awoke in the spring, the leshy or at least cast the illusion of taking different
was at his most dangerous, running wild and forms: a man, a woman, an animal, or even a
nearly mindless with primal joy. Women were ball of light.
in particular peril at such a time, since the leshy In addition to its vampirelike drives, sto-
would rape any woman he found in his path. In ries say that the Liderc is best known for ea-
the summer, the leshy was in a less dangerous gerly carrying out tasks for whatever human is
frame of mind. Summer was when he played its master. This master is usually the human
his tricks on humans but rarely harmed them. that hatched the Liderc, and the Liderc brings
In the autumn, the leshy might be more quar- its master wealth. But there is supposedly a
relsome, wanting to fight and frighten off any problem with keeping a Liderc as a servant.
wild creatures that got too close. The Liderc is a quick and efficient servant, but
It was believed that two leshiye might it always must be kept busy with numerous
gamble to see who would win a prize of squir- tasks to occupy it, or it will become bored and
rels. Every now and again, squirrels in the dangerous, and even turn on its master.
Russian woods actually do migrate from one The Liderc apparently can be kept at bay
forest to another. The sight of such mass mi- for a time by garlic, like a traditional vampire,
grations, according to folk beliefs, meant that but there is no sure way listed in the folktales
one leshy had lost a bet to another and had to slay it. The only way to safely get rid of the
forfeited his squirrels. Liderc is to give it some impossible task, such as
spinning ropes out of sand, or counting every
See also: Adroanzi; Tree Spirits; Tricksters. star, so that it either has to give up or die of

286 Little Iliad
sheer rage. This is a folk motif it shares with Odysseus also brought Achilles’s son Neop-
other devils. tolemos to Troy, where Odysseus gave him
Achilles’s armor. The ghost of Achilles ap-
See also: Vampires. peared to his son to encourage him. When the
Trojan warrior Eurypylos dominated the bat-
Sources
Benedek, Elek, and Gyula Illyes. The Tree That Reached the
tlefield, Neoptolemos killed him.
Sky: Hungarian Folktales. Budapest, Hungary: Cor- Now Odysseus, disguised as a beggar,
vina, 1988. slipped into Troy as a spy. Helen recognized
Degh, Linda, ed. Hungarian Folktales. Jackson: University him but kept his secret, and Odysseus returned
Press of Mississippi, 1996.
safely to the Athenian encampment.
Ortutay, G. Hungarian Folklore: Essays. Trans. Istvan Bu-
tykai. Budapest, Hungary: Akademiai Kiado, 1972. With guidance from the goddess Athena,
the Greeks built the wooden horse and placed
their best warriors inside it. Then, they
Little Iliad burned their camp and withdrew to a nearby
island, Tenedos. The story ends as the Tro-
jans, believing that the Greeks had departed
(Greek) for good, breached a section of their city wall
T he Little Iliad is a Greek epic that may

have been written in the seventh century
B.C.E., but the manuscript has been lost. Fortu-
to bring the horse inside and celebrated their
apparent victory.
nately, the work was completely summarized See also: Iliad.

in a fifth-century work, the Chrestomatheia, pos- Sources
sibly written by the Greek philosopher Pro- Burgess, Jonathan S. The Tradition of the Trojan War in
clus Diadochus. It is this summary that is of Homer and the Epic Cycle. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins
interest to storytellers, since it gives details of University Press, 2001.
the story of the Trojan War that are not in- Davies, Malcolm. The Greek Epic Cycle. Bristol, UK: Bris-
tol Classical, 1989.
cluded in Homer’s Iliad. West, M.L. Greek Epic Fragments from the Seventh to the
The Little Iliad continues close to the point Fifth Centuries BC. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni-
at which the Iliad leaves off, beginning just versity Press, 2003.
after the death of Achilles during the Trojan
War. As the story opens, Achilles’s armor was
to be awarded to the greatest Greek hero. Local Legends
The noble warriors Aias (Ajax) and Odysseus
were both candidates for that honor. Odysseus
had recovered Achilles’s body in battle, and
so the armor was awarded to him. Aias, un-
L ocal legends are folk narratives with dis-
tinct characteristic markers, including a
setting that is identifiable and local; extraordi-
able to bear the rage and jealousy he felt, went nary, sometimes supernatural, situations that
mad soon after this decision and committed have occurred within recent historical memory;
suicide. and characters who are purportedly known to
Odysseus went on to capture the Trojan the teller.
prophet Helenos, one of the princes of Troy. The events found in local legends are a re-
Helenos was forced by the Greeks to make flection of an uncertain world. Stories often fea-
prophecies concerning what must be done be- ture murder, supernatural retribution, ghosts,
fore the Greeks could conquer Troy. Following UFOs, humanlike creatures or monsters, and
the demands of the prophecies, Odysseus and related motifs. Some local legends, especially
Diomedes went to Lemnos to find the hero topographical legends, are specific to a partic-
Philoktetes. They brought him to Troy, where ular region or neighborhood. Others apply
he fought and killed Paris. widely known story patterns to local places.

L ocal Legends 287
The Hermit’s Curse members in legend through extreme accusa-

tions of heinous behaviors, such as child ab-
The following legend incorporates the fea- duction, cannibalism, murder, Satanism, and
tures of a familiar setting, history, dark tone, so on. During stressful times, the implication
supernatural possibilities, and the teller’s un- of a scapegoat can serve to relieve anxieties
certainty about the story: and justify persecution, sometimes with tragic
results, as has been evidenced by the persecu-
The town of Bucksport has a strange tion of various minority ethnic and religious
story. The tombstone of Mayor Buck groups throughout history.
has a stain shaped like a leg. Long ago,
he hung a hermit for the murder and
dismemberment of someone, but the
Place Legends
hermit claimed innocence. One of Often the main focus of a local legend is a
the murder victim’s legs was never physical place. Two types of places might be
found. Before being hung, the hermit featured: generic place types and topographic
screamed, “That leg will follow you to places.
your grave!” After the mayor died, the Generic places may be unusual geological
stain on his tombstone appeared. They formations, odd houses, lonely roads, or dan-
polished it out many times, but it always gerous places. Such place legends often focus
came back. I don’t know about that, but on inexplicable events.
you can still see the stain, whatever it is. Topographic places, not necessarily asso-
ciated with strangeness, are those that have
Local legends are passed on by tellers been named by settlers to commemorate
who believe that there is a supernatural basis events later forgotten, such as Bearkill Creek.
to an event as well as by those who are skep- In this type, the place’s name is all that re-
tical or noncommittal. For example, in the mains of the legend. Place names also can
various tellings of the hermit story, a leg- encode practical information about the land:
shaped discoloration does mark Mayor Buck’s Folly Cove, in Cape Ann, Massachusetts,
stone. Some tellers say the stain was always bears the brunt of winds and waves, so it is
there, others say it appeared after the her- “folly” to build a wharf there, as stories of lost
mit’s curse, and sometimes tellers switch po- wharves suggest.
sitions at different times, based on audience
reaction. Historical Events
Place legends often feature historical events.
Sociological Focus For example, in Ireland, the story “Fleming’s
Local legends may be used to point out the Folly” tells of a tower built by a plantation
aberrant behaviors of certain people or landlord. One legend humiliates Fleming by
groups, or even provide a scapegoat for a soci- claiming that he tried to build the tower to see
etal problem. People who are perceived to the ocean. This was a foolish goal, since the
have unusual habits may be accused in local ocean was obviously too far away. In another
legend of negative behavior, such as witch- legend, the tower was used to watch for horse
craft. By telling such legends, a group estab- thieves, and in another, Fleming commissioned
lishes appropriate behavior by contrasting it the building of the tower to employ the job-
with peculiar behavior. less poor.
In extreme cases, a legend can provide a These legends serve a diverse community.
scapegoat. Society perceives that its troubles They air various positions for the locals, who
are caused by an individual or a group, and comprise descendants of both oppressed na-
dehumanizes the individual or the group’s tives and colonial settlers. Legend can reshape

288 L orelei
history, using the past to benefit people in the Rhine’s cliffs. In this vengeful role, the Lorelei
present. was similar to the sirens of Greek mythology
Some unusual archaeological sites are so and to the wronged women of folklore who
old that their history cannot be confirmed. became vengeful spirits, such as the Slavic
Explanations for these places can be pure in- rusalka.
vention, functioning like science in provid-
ing a folk hypothesis. For example, England’s See also: Mermaids; Sirens.
Stonehenge has accrued many legends that
Sources
attribute it to the work of giants or the wizard
Gordon, Stuart. The Encyclopedia of Myths and Legends.
Merlin. London: Headline, 1993.
Whatever the place, topographical names Ruland, Wilhelm. The Finest Legends of the Rhine. Hon-
and legends are important in forming the local olulu, HI: University Press of the Pacific, 2002.
folk identity. Clearly, the study of local legends Spence, Lewis. Germany: Myths and Legends. London:
Bracken, 1986.
involves psychological, cognitive, historical,
communicative, and anthropological factors.
Such a study can provide insight into society
and its narratives.
Louhi
Wade Tarzia
(Finnish)
Sources
I n Finnish mythology, Louhi is the mistress
of the bleak, cold realm of Pohjola.
Louhi was a cross between a folkloric witch
Bennett, Gillian, and Paul Smith. Contemporary Legend:
A Reader. London and New York: Garland. 1997. and a hag, with magical powers and shape-
Brunvand, Jan. The Vanishing Hitchhiker: American Urban shifting abilities. She had the hag or shaman-
Legends and Their Meaning. New York: W.W. Norton, like ability to shut away the Sun and Moon in
1981.
Hand, Wayland, ed. American Folk Legend: A Symposium.
a cave, and she could control the northern
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971. cold.
Voss, Jerome. “Antiquity Imagined: Cultural Values in Louhi had an attractive daughter, never
Archaeological Folklore.” Folklore 98:1 (1987): 80–90. named but merely called the Maiden of Poh-
jola. Any suitor who sought the maiden’s hand
was given three near-impossible tasks to com-
Lorelei plete.
Only once was Louhi defeated. The wizard
(German) Vainamoinen, together with the wonder-smith
Ilmarinen, stole the magic sampo (mill) that Il-
I n German medieval folklore, the Lorelei is a

rock as well as a dangerous singer who lures
men to their deaths.
marinen had made for Louhi. In the shape of a
huge bird, Louhi pursued their boat. The rocks
she dropped on them sent the sampo plunging
According to the lore, the Lorelei was into the sea, where it continues to grind out salt.
once a lovely young woman who was betrayed
by her faithless lover. Despairing, she hurled See also: Kalevala.
herself off a high rock into the Rhine River to
drown. But instead of finding true death, she Sources
was transformed into a nonhuman being, a Jacobsen, Thorkild. The Treasures of Darkness: A History of
beautiful sirenlike singer whose favorite perch Mesopotamian Religion. New Haven, CT: Yale Uni-
was the rock that bears her name. Lönnrot, Elias. The Kalevala: An Epic Poem After Oral
The Lorelei’s enchanting song lured Tradition. Trans. Keith Bosley. New York: Oxford
sailors to their deaths on the rocks below the University Press, 1999.

Lugalbanda 289
Lugalbanda he would not survive. A cave was found, and

Lugalbanda was left there as the troops moved
on. His condition remained grave for days.
(Sumerian) When the illness began to ebb, Lugalbanda
prayed to Utu for assistance. The gods an-
L ugalbanda was the third king of Uruk, an
ancient Sumerian city (in present-day Iraq).
He and his wife, the goddess Ninsun, were the
swered his prayers and gave him back his life.
The hero stood and emerged from the moun-
tain cave.
parents of Gilgamesh, who became the most
Lugalbanda then set out in pursuit of his
famous of all Sumerian kings. Lugalbanda,
companions. He roamed the mountains, but
who was eventually deified, is said to have
there was not a single person to be seen. Lost,
ruled for 1,200 years. The kings of the Third
he ate plants and drank from the streams,
Dynasty of Ur (c. 2111–2004 B.C.E.) consid-
captured and ate wild animals, made a fire,
ered Lugalbanda and Ninsun to be their di-
baked his own dough, and made offerings to
vine parents.
his gods.
The young Lugalbanda was celebrated in
What remains of this composition is frag-
several Sumerian heroic narrative poems. He
mentary. It includes descriptions of demons
is the main character in two epic texts: Lugal-
and the wise elders of the city, but there is no
banda and the Mountain Cave and Lugalbanda
known ending.
and the Thunderbird.
The earliest Lugalbanda myth, which dates
to the middle of the third millennium B.C.E.,
Lugalbanda and the Thunderbird
exists only as a short fragment. It describes Lugalbanda and the Thunderbird begins, once
Lugalbanda’s wedding ceremony in the east- again, as Lugalbanda and Enmerkar’s army
ern mountains and the couple’s return to the traveled from Uruk to Aratta. Lugalbanda be-
city of Uruk. came separated from the group in the Zabu
Mountains. He formulated a plan to find the
nest of the ferocious bird Anzu, gain the crea-
Lugalbanda and the ture’s favor, and solicit its help in escaping the
Mountain Cave mountains.
Lugalbanda came upon the nest of the ter-
Lugalbanda and the Mountain Cave, which prob-
rifying Anzu bird, but he found only a fledg-
ably dates to the Third Dynasty of Ur, takes
ling inside. The monster bird with the claws of
place in a legendary ancient time after heaven
an eagle and the teeth of a shark was away
had been separated from Earth, kingship was
hunting wild bulls for its young.
established, and the peoples of Mesopotamia
Lugalbanda decided to befriend the Anzu’s
were blessed with long life.
chick in order to find favor with its father and
The king at that time was Enmerkar, the
claim a reward. He carefully kneaded dough,
son of the sun god, Utu. He and his eight
added honey to it, and fed it to the young
brothers prepared an expedition to subdue the
nestling. He also gave the baby salt meat and
rebel mountain kingdom of Aratta (in present-
sheep’s fat to eat, popping the food into its
day Iran). After seven days, the brothers and
beak. Lugalbanda further indulged the chick by
their army entered the mountains, but Lugal-
painting its eyes with kohl to beautify them and
banda, the youngest of the nine brothers, fell
dabbing white cedar scent onto its head.
seriously ill.
No one could help Lugalbanda, and it was
not possible to bring him back home. His
Lugalbanda’s Reward
body had stopped moving, his breathing was Returning to the nest, the Anzu bird called to
minimal, and his brothers and friends thought the fledgling, but the chick did not answer

290 Lullabies
him. The Anzu called a second time and again With the strength and swiftness given to
received no answer. The great bird, afraid that him by the Anzu bird, Lugalbanda crossed the
its young had been stolen, let out a cry that seven mountains in one day and arrived in
reached up to the heavens. Uruk by midnight. He reported the war situa-
But arriving at the nest, the Anzu found it tion to Inanna and relayed his lord’s message:
brilliantly festooned with the chick inside, its If she would agree to call off the siege and
eyes painted and cedar fixed on its head. The bring the army home, Enmerkar pledged to
Anzu was overjoyed and promised to befriend give up warfare.
whoever had aided the young bird. Inanna received her visitor warmly and ex-
Lugalbanda presented himself to the Anzu, plained how Enmerkar’s army could overcome
who offered numerous destinies. Lugalbanda the forces of Aratta. She stated that there ex-
would accept none. Frustrated, the Anzu agreed isted in Uruk a certain sacred “water-meadow”
to grant the hero whatever he wished. Lugal- with fish in it. One of the fish was special. Lu-
banda replied that he desired only great power galbanda was to tell Enmerkar to go to the pool
and endurance for his feet, so that he could and cut down a tamarisk tree that grew on the
run great distances in a short time, and great bank. He was then to fashion it into a water
strength for his arms. Anzu agreed and granted bucket. Enmerkar would use the bucket to
the wish on the condition that the hero would catch the special fish, cook it, garnish it, and
not reveal the source of his gifts. bring it as a sacrifice to Inanna. Enmerkar’s
troops would then triumph, for the fish was the
life-strength of Aratta.
Lugalbanda’s Return The story ends with praise to Lugalbanda,
Lugalbanda used the great strength in his the pure one.
legs and arms to rejoin his brothers. Finding Ira Spar
his way through the mountains and into their
camp, Lugalbanda appeared to the men like See also: Culture Heroes.
one who had stepped forth from heaven to
Earth. Sources
The men had given Lugalbanda up for Hawker, E. Robson, J. Taylor, and G. Zólyomi. The
dead and were astonished to see him. They Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature. 2006.
were equally amazed that he could have http://etcsl.orinst.ox.ac.uk/.
crossed through the mountains and waters Dalley, Stephanie, trans. Myths from Mesopotamia: Cre-
ation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others. New York:
alone. They asked him how he had accom-
plished such an impossible journey, and Lu- Jacobsen, Thorkild, trans. and ed. The Harps That
galbanda, heeding the Anzu’s request not to Once . . . : Sumerian Poetry in Translation. New Haven,
reveal the source of his magical powers, clev- CT: Yale University Press, 1987.
erly evaded their questions. Lugalbanda and
the troops moved on.
When Enmerkar’s army reached Aratta, a Lullabies
battle ensued. Their siege of the city continued
for a year. Finally, Enmerkar began to despair.
He prepared to send a message to the goddess
Inanna in Uruk to ask whether she had aban-
L ullabies are simple, soothing melodies
that are sung to children to help them fall
asleep. Lullabies can be divided into two cat-
doned him, causing his failure in this fight. He egories: folklore and literary, or composed.
called for a volunteer to make the perilous jour- The folklore lullaby is the first folklore a
ney back to the city. Lugalbanda came forward child encounters. These songs, passed down
on the condition that he travel to Uruk alone. through generations, include soothing elements
Enmerkar agreed. and descriptions of ritual protection. Often,

Lusiads, T he 291
supernatural protective figures, such as angels,

feature in the lyrics. In some countries, includ- Lusiads, The
ing certain regions in Russia, lyrics include
protective items or ritual blessings. Other folk (Portuguese)
lullabies, such as some from Norway, may in-
clude references to family protectors rather
than supernatural ones.
T he Portuguese epic Os Lusiadas (The Lusi-
ads) tells the story of Vasco de Gama’s dis-
covery of the sea route to India. Written by
Literary, or composed, lullabies also men-
Luiz Vas de Camoëns in the sixteenth century,
tion supernatural protectors. One example is
the poem gets its name from Lusitania, the
the lullaby by German composer Engelbert
Latin name for Portugal.
Humperdinck (1854–1921), written for his
opera Hansel and Gretel, which was first per-
formed in 1893: “When I lay me down to sleep,
The Life of Camoëns
/ Fourteen angels round me creep.” Camoëns led a life of epic proportions. He
Some composed lullabies do not have was born in Lisbon in 1524, lost his father by
lyrics, such as the classic Lullaby by Johannes shipwreck in infancy, and was educated at the
Brahms (1833–1897). Words were added to University of Coimbra. On leaving the univer-
Brahms’s melody long after it was written, and sity, Camoëns appeared at court, but a love af-
several versions are known today. fair with the Dona Catarina de Atayde, whom
Alternatively, a lullaby, whether folk or lit- the king also loved, caused his banishment to
erary, simply may contain references to home, Santarem. There, he began writing The Lusi-
family, friends, and pets. Perhaps the most fa- ads, and he continued working on it during an
mous lullaby in the English language is the expedition against the Moors in Africa.
North American Rock-a-bye, Baby: Sent out by John III, Camoëns displayed
much valor in battle and lost an eye. He was
Rock-a-bye, baby, on the treetop. recalled to court, but court jealousies soon
When the wind blows, the cradle drove him to India in 1553. As he left, he ex-
will rock. claimed, “Ungrateful country, thou shall not
When the bough breaks, the cradle possess my bones.”
will fall, In India Camoëns’s bravery and accom-
And down will come baby, cradle and all. plishments won him friends, but he was soon
exiled to China when new court jealousies
The combination of soothing melody and arose. There, he accumulated a small fortune
rather ominous words makes this an odd lull- and finished his poem.
aby. Theories abound as to its origin: Does it Eventually, happier circumstances permit-
hold a hint of some political satire about an ted Camoëns to return to India. On the journey
administration about to fall? Or was it simply home, the ship laden with his fortune sank, and
composed by a mother at the end of her pa- Camoëns escaped with only his poem.
tience? After sixteen years of misfortune abroad,
Camoëns returned to Lisbon in 1569. The
See also: Nursery Rhymes. plague that was then raging through Europe
delayed the publication of The Lusiads until
Sources 1572, when it received little attention. A small
Budd, F.E., ed. Book of Lullabies, 1300–1900. Folcroft, PA: pension was bestowed on the poet, but it soon
Folcroft Library Editions, 1975. was withdrawn. The unfortunate Camoëns
Commins, Dorothy Berliner. Lullabies of the World. New
York: Random House, 1967.
was left to die in an almshouse.
Daiken, Leslie. The Lullaby Book. London: Edmund On his deathbed, Camoëns bemoaned the
Ward, 1959. impending fate of his country (its conquest by

292 Lutin
Spain), saying, “I have loved my country. I

have returned not only to die on her bosom, Lutin
but to die with her.”
(French)
The Lusiads
The Lusiads is divided into ten cantos of
rhymed stanzas. It gives a somewhat fantasti-
T he lutin, a small, mischievous, shape-
shifting being, is the French answer to the
British Puck, a trickster who loves to play
cal but mostly realistic account of da Gama’s
pranks on unsuspecting humans. His pranks
voyage.
almost never lead to injury, just embarrass-
The sailors under the command of Prince
ment on the part of the human.
Henry of Portugal, commander of the Por-
Tales of the lutin can be found both in
tuguese forces in Africa, had discovered the
France and in French Canada, and can liven
Cape of Storms, which the prince renamed the
up a storyteller’s repertoire. However, a story-
Cape of Good Hope. Henry’s successor, Em-
teller striving for authenticity should note that
manuel, was determined to carry out the work
in modern French, the word lutin is sometimes
of his predecessor by sending da Gama to un-
misapplied to any fairy being.
dertake the discovery of the southern passage
Since the lutin is a shape-shifter, the tales
to India.
say that a shepherd or farmer never knew
The Portuguese generally were hostile to
when he might appear; the lutin could change
the undertaking, but da Gama, his brother, and
himself into a man, woman, or child, a stick, a
his friend Coello gathered together a crew. Sev-
goat, or a plowshare. Indeed, the only shape
eral members of the party were malefactors
he could not take was that of a needle. He
whose death sentences were reversed on condi-
could transform himself into a needle, but try
tion that they undertake the voyage.
as he might, he never was able to imitate the
The fantasy elements in The Lusiads are
hole, so any woman would have found him
mythological allusions that imitate Homer
out the moment she began to sew.
and Virgil, but the strength of the work is
The lutin, the tales say, preferred to work
Camoëns’s own passion for his country and
his pranks at night, when no one was awake to
its former glory. Since the epic’s subject is
get in his way. He might decide to unfasten the
so straightforward, it is amazing that out of
cows, wait until the humans got the cows back
such unpromising material Camoëns was
in their stalls, and then release them again. Or
able to construct a poem of such interest. He
he might decide to spend the night plaiting up
could not have done so had he not been so
the mane and tail of every horse, or even
strong a patriot.
braiding two tails together for the humans to
The Lusiads sometimes is called the epic of
unfasten. The lutin also liked to scare people
commerce. Perhaps it would be more appro-
out walking at night.
priately described as the epic of patriotism.
According to one story, a man was pass-
ing along the bank of a stream in the eve-
See also: Epics.
ning, when he noticed a sheep bleating loudly.
Sources Thinking it must have strayed from the flock,
De Camoëns, Luis. The Lusiad or the Discovery of India. and that he had better take it home with him
Trans. Richard Fanshaw. Cambridge, MA: Harvard until he could discover its owner, he lifted the
University Press, 1940. animal onto his back and staggered on his way.
Hart, Henry Hersch. Luis De Camoëns and the Epic of the Then a voice suddenly asked, “Where are
Lusiads. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press,
1962.
you?”
Maggs Brothers. Camoens et Son Temps. Paris: Maggs From the sheep came the answer, “On the
Brothers, 1925. back of a donkey!”

Lyonesse 293
The man dropped the sheep and ran. As horse to high ground just in time and taken
he ran, he heard a laugh from behind him and shelter in a cave. He watched Lyonesse van-
knew he had been tricked by a lutin. ish under the sea. The Trevilian family coat
Another story tells of the lutin going after of arms still bears a white horse emerging
a young woman who was looking for colored from blue water.
thread to sew her new gown (a second version Some traditions link Lyonesse with
says it was a wedding dress). She was de- Arthurian legend. One folk belief claims that
lighted to find, lying on the side of the road, a Lyonesse was ruled over by the father of Tris-
large ball of colored thread. It matched the tan, and that the land sank while Tristan was
cloth perfectly, and she hastily sewed the still at King Mark’s court. Most of the Arthurian
gown together with it. tales, however, give Liones as the name of Tris-
The young woman decided to wear the tan’s homeland. This may derive from Leoneis,
gown to church (the second version says it was or Lothian, or even a region of Brittany called
on her wedding day). But as soon as she took Leonais.
the first step into the church, her fine dress fell Other Arthurian traditions name Lyonesse
to pieces. The fine colored thread had com- as the site where the mortally wounded King
pletely vanished—it had been a lutin’s trick. Arthur was taken after he fell in his last battle,
linking Lyonesse with the magical island of
See also: Tricksters. Avalon. It also is said that Mordred pursued
Arthur’s army into Lyonesse, but the ghost
Sources
of Merlin sank the land and destroyed Mor-
Brouillet, C. Contes et légendes du Québec. Lincolnwood,
IL: National Textbook, 1998. dred’s forces.
Morvan, Francoise. Lutins et lutines. Paris: J’ai Lu, 2002. A sixteenth-century scholar of antiquities,
Sebillot, Paul. Literature orale de l’Auvergne. Paris: Maison- William Camden, collected a number of sto-
neuve et Larose, 1968. ries from the Cornish people. Camden re-
ported that some of the local people called
Lyonesse the Seven Stones reef off Land’s End the City
of Lions, or Lyonesse. The locals also claimed
to be able to hear the bells of the drowned
(British) city ringing out during stormy seas.
As late as the twentieth century, people
I n the folklore of Cornwall, England, Ly-
onesse was a land that was lost beneath the
waves. Unlike Brittany’s sunken city of Ys, Ly-
still reported hearing the bells and claimed
to have seen part of the city under the
waves. The latter is easily and less romanti-
onesse and its sinking were not associated
cally explained as ancient remains of field
with any sins by its inhabitants, and the story
boundaries, since part of Cornwall is now
may refer to an actual historical disaster.
underwater.
According to the stories, the land of Ly-
There is to date no solid evidence that this
onesse once lay on the coast of Cornwall, be-
magnificent land of legend ever existed.
yond Land’s End. It was said to host prosperous
cities and many churches. See also: Sunken Cities; Ys/Ker-Ys.
On November 11, 1099, a great storm
swept the sea up over the land, drowning the Sources
people and submerging the entire kingdom Deane, Tony. Folklore of Cornwall. Stroud, UK: Tempus,
2004.
under the waves. All that was left of Lyonesse Jeans, Peter D. Seafaring Lore and Legend: A Miscellany of
were the Isles of Scilly and one survivor. This Maritime Myth, Superstition, Fable, and Fact. Camden,
survivor, Trevilian, had ridden his white ME: International Marine/McGraw-Hill, 2004.

M
Maat
(Egyptian)
early fifteenth century B.C.E., around the time
of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III, the king
would ritually present a small figure of the
goddess Maat to a god. Many gods stood as
recipient of this offering, including Amun,
T he Egyptian goddess called Maat em-

bodied maat, which is an ancient Egypt-
ian term meaning “truth, order, justice, and
Atum, Horus, Osiris, Ptah, Re, Thoth, and
even the god of chaos, Seth. Through this rit-
ual, the king demonstrated his legitimacy by
balance.” literally upholding truth.
The goddess symbolized correct order on Private individuals also offered maat to the
a personal, social, or cosmic level, and the re- sun god, Re. During the nineteenth dynasty (c.
ward for maintaining such order. All individu- 1315–1201 B.C.E.), the goddess became more
als, including the king, were expected to live closely associated with the afterlife than with
in accordance with maat. the ethics of daily life. She acquired titles such
Maat’s symbol was a feather, and she was as “Mistress of Heaven Who Is in the West”
usually depicted as a woman wearing one on and “She Who Satisfies the Necropolis.” To say
her head. Defeated enemies who faced being one was “joined with Maat” was a euphemistic
slaughtered by the king are shown in illustra- expression meaning that one had died. When
tions clutching a feather of Maat, which indi- the deceased received funerary offerings of
cated their surrender to righteousness. In the bread, beer, wine, and ointment, they were
court of Osiris, which was called the Hall of said to have Maat placed before them.
Maaty (Hall of Two Truths), Anubis, the god
of the dead, weighed the heart of the deceased Noreen Doyle
against a feather to determine whether the de-
ceased would enter the blissful afterlife or be See also: Tefnut.
consumed by the monster Ammut.
Sources
Another symbol of Maat was an object that Shirun-Grumach, Irene. “Remarks on the Goddess Maat.”
represented either a parcel of land or the base In Pharaonic Egypt: The Bible and Christianity. Ed. Sarah
of a throne—a visual depiction of maat as the Israelit-Groll. Jerusalem, Israel: Magnes, 1985.
foundation of the universe. Sometimes, Maat Smith, Harry. “Ma’et and Isfet.” Bulletin of the Australian
Centre for Egyptology 5 (1994): 67–88.
appeared as this object with a woman’s head. Teeter, Emily. The Presentation of Maat: Ritual and Legiti-
The scribal god, Thoth, often is depicted macy in Ancient Egypt. Chicago: Oriental Institute of
carrying an image of Maat. Beginning in the the University of Chicago, 1997.
294

Magi 295
Highbury College, hoping to become a Con-

gregational minister.
In 1850, MacDonald was appointed pastor
of Trinity Congregational Church in Arundel.
His sermons about God’s universal love and
the possibility that no one would be damned
were so unpopular in those hellfire and brim-
stone days that his salary was cut by half.
Poor health led MacDonald to leave En-
gland for a brief visit to the hot, dry climate of
Algiers in North Africa. Restored, he returned
to London, converted to Anglicanism, taught
for a time, and then wrote and lectured in En-
gland and the United States.
MacDonald’s works include the fantasy
novels Phantastes (1858), At the Back of the North
Wind (1871), The Princess and the Goblin (1872),
and Lilith (1895), and fairy tales such as “The
Light Princess” and “The Golden Key.” He said
of his work that he wrote not for children but
for the childlike at any age.
MacDonald also wrote many mainstream
Maat, the Egyptian goddess of truth and order, is seen novels and a good deal of poetry. He was a
here on a painted wall relief. On Maat’s head is a contemporary of Lewis Carroll (the pseudo-
feather, the symbol of truth. In ancient Egypt, the heart nym of Charles Lutwidge Dodgson), and it
of the deceased was weighed against the feather. If the
was MacDonald’s advice (and the fact that his
person had a pure heart, the scales would balance, and
the deceased would be allowed into the afterworld. children loved the manuscript) that convinced
(Scala/Art Resource, NY) Carroll that Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland
(1865) was worthy of publication.
See also: Fantasy.

MacDonald, George Sources
Lewis, C.S. George MacDonald: An Anthology. London:
(1824–1905) Geoffrey Bles, 1946.
Phillips, Michael. George MacDonald: A Biography of
G eorge MacDonald was a Scottish novelist Scotland’s Beloved Storyteller. Minneapolis, MN:
Bethany House, 2005.
known for his works in the fantasy genre.
Raeper, William. George MacDonald. Batavia, IL: Lion,
MacDonald was one of the first to write fan- 1987.
tasy for adults, and his influence can be seen
in the work of such later writers as C.S. Lewis
and J.R.R. Tolkien.
George MacDonald was born in the dis-
Magi
trict of Aberdeenshire, Scotland, on Decem-
ber 10, 1824. The son of a farmer, he was born
(Persian)
into a Calvinist family, whose religion proved
too dour for MacDonald’s taste. After earning
his degree at the University of Aberdeen,
F ew facts are known about the Magi of an-
cient Persia, the land that is now Iran, but
some scholars believe they were a caste of
MacDonald moved to London and studied at priests from the Medes tribe.

296 Magic Incantations and Spells
The Magi were widely known in the lands magic. A spell is similar to an incantation, ex-
surrounding the Mediterranean as wise men. cept that it generally adds specific gestures or
The link in people’s minds between wisdom ritual items, such as a magic wand.
and the supernatural soon gave rise to a folk An incantation generally invokes benevo-
belief that the Magi had power over demons. lent supernatural beings for help, in the form of
The word Magi shares its roots with the mod- either protection or inspiration. An incantation
ern word magic. also may serve to ward off the effects of evil
Perhaps the most familiar reference to the spirits. When used in black magic, however, an
Magi comes in the Gospel according to incantation may be the means of summoning
Matthew in the New Testament. The Magi vis- or materializing the powers of darkness.
ited the baby Jesus and presented gifts of gold, Most incantations are composed in poetic
frankincense, and myrrh. Although the gospel form and utilize several aspects of traditional
does not specify how many Magi attended, oral literature, including formulaic composi-
folklore claims they were three in number, tion, repetition, and alliteration. Many incan-
and they are generally referred to as the Three tations contain what appear to be nonsense
Wise Men. In Western tradition, the three words. These may be corruptions of ancient or
were named Caspar, Melchior, and Balthasar, foreign words or deliberate strings of sounds.
while Eastern Christians call them Larvandad, Stories featuring incantations go back to
Hormisdas, and Gushnasaph. the earliest written records from Sumer and
Zoroaster, the great religious sage and Egypt and can be found in any culture that
leader, who is also known as Zarathustra, may includes magic in its folklore. In the story of
have been one of the Magi. The religion that Taliesin, from the Welsh Mabinogion, the witch
he formed, Zoroastrianism, which became the Ceredwyn recites incantations over her caul-
dominant religion of Persia, was led by Ma- dron as she brews a potion of wisdom. In
gian priests. the Western European versions of “Sleeping
In 637 C.E., Arabs invaded Persia, and Is- Beauty,” it is the good fairy’s incantation that
lam replaced Zoroastrianism in the region. But counters the evil spell, turning a curse of
the Parsee religion, sometimes called Farsi, is a death into sleep followed by a happy awak-
direct descendant of Zoroastrianism and is still ening. The giant in the folktale “Jack and the
practiced in modern Iran and India. Beanstalk” recites what is almost certainly a
corrupted incantation—“Fee, fie, fo, fum / I
See also: Magic Incantations and Spells. smell the blood of an Englishman.”
Artists and musicians also have been in-
Sources
Kriwaczek, Paul. In Search of Zarathustra: The First Prophet
spired by incantations. The eighteenth-century
and the Ideas That Changed the World. New York: Al- Spanish artist Francisco Goya created a paint-
fred A. Knopf, 2003. ing titled The Incantation (1797–1798), which
Nigosian, S.A. The Zoroastrian Faith: Tradition and Modern portrays a frightening scene of an incantation
Research. Montreal, Canada: McGill-Queen’s Univer-
being cast.
sity Press, 1993.
Vincent, Ken R. The Magi: From Zoroaster to the “Three Spells can cover many subjects, from help-
Wise Men.” North Richland Hills, TX: Bibal, 1999. ful to dangerous, and often are divided into the
categories of white, or beneficial, magic, and
black, or harmful, magic. Protection, blessing,
Magic Incantations healing spells, and spells to remove harmful
spells fall under the category of white magic.
and Spells Black magic spells include curses, spells of co-
ercion, and even death spells. There also are
A n incantation is a formula that is spoken

or sung and is used in the working of
gray spells, which include love, gambling, and
prosperity spells.

Mahabharata 297
See also: Black Magic; Magi; White Magic; the son finally outwits the magician and de-
Wizards. feats him. In some versions, the boy takes the
form of a hen and pecks up the seed the magi-
Sources cian has become, or he becomes a fox and
Konstantinos. Summoning Spirits: The Art of Magical Evoca-
bites off the head of the rooster-magician.
tion. Saint Paul, MN: Llewellyn, 1995.
Schiffman, Lawrence H., and Michael D. Swartz, eds. In the second, equally common version,
Hebrew and Aramaic Incantation Texts from the Cairo the father is not a major character. The boy is
Genizah. Sheffield, UK: JSOT, 1992. sold to a magician and learns magic from
Van Dijk, Jan, A. Goetze, and M.I. Hussey, eds. Early him. Instead of the episodes with the magic
Mesopotamian Incantations and Rituals. New Haven,
CT: Yale University Press, 1985. bridle, there is an urgent need to have the
boy escape before the magician can slay him,
either because of the magician’s jealousy or
Magician and His as a sacrifice. The shape-shifting battle takes
place, but, in this version, the boy is helped
Pupil/Magician’s by a princess. Sometimes, she is already known
to the hero, and sometimes not. But she al-
Apprentice ways gives the hero a place to hide. The shape-
shifting battle ends with the hero killing the
T he tale of the magician and his pupil, also

known as the magician’s apprentice, is a
particularly widespread world folktale that
magician, and then the hero and the princess
are married.
can be found throughout Europe, Asia, and See also: Tale Types.
Africa, as well as in the Americas. In its most
basic form, a boy learns magic, particularly Sources
the ability to shift his shape, from a jealous or
tale: A Classification and Bibliography. 2nd rev. ed.
otherwise dangerous magician, and then uses Helsinki, Finland: Academia Scientiarum Fennica,
that magic to outwit and defeat the magician. 1987.
There are two common versions of the ba- Thompson, Stith. The Folktale. Berkeley: University of
sic tale. In the first version, a father gives (or California Press, 1977.
Zipes, Jack, ed. The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: From Stra-
sells) his son to a magician to be the magi- parola and Basile to the Brothers Grimm. New York:
cian’s apprentice. The son learns magic, es- W.W. Norton, 2000.
capes from the magician, and returns home to
his father in the shape of a horse. He tells his
father that they will make some money, as
long as he hangs on to his bridle. What follows
Mahabharata
are a series of shape-shifting episodes, in
which the father sells the son in the shape of a
(Indian)
horse several times. Each time, the father re-
members to keep the bridle so that the son can
return home. The father slips up, though, due
T he Mahabharata is an ancient, sacred work
of Hinduism and one of the two major epic
poems of India. The other is the Ramayana. At
to the magician’s wiles, and sells the horse and eighteen books and about 100,000 stanzas, the
bridle to the magician, who carries off the son Mahabharata also is the longest epic in world lit-
as his captive. erature. This work, composed in Sanskrit in ap-
The son manages to escape again, in some proximately the sixth century B.C.E., remains of
versions with the help of the magician’s daugh- great importance to Hindus throughout India
ter, who becomes a love interest. What follows and Southeast Asia.
the escape is a shape-shifting battle. The ap- In Hindu tradition, the Mahabharata is said
prentice and magician swiftly alter shapes until to have been dictated to Ganesh, the god of

298 Mahabharata
wisdom, by a wise man, Vyasa. The actual ori- narrative is often interrupted by other stories
gin is a collection of material that has existed in and discussions of religion.
various forms for more than 2,000 years. The The Mahabharata tells the story of two sets
poems were handed down through oral tradi- of paternal first cousins: The five sons of the
tion until about 300 B.C.E., when some were deceased King Pandu are called the five Pan-
first written down. This process continued until davas, and the one hundred sons of blind King
the work was complete in about 300 C.E. Dhritarashtra are called the Dhartarashtras.
The name Mahabharata has two meanings. These two groups become bitter rivals and go
The first, “Great King Bharata,” refers to a leg- to war over possession of the ancestral king-
endary Indian king. Second, since the word dom of Bharata.
Bharata is also the official name for the Indian The five Pandavas, Yudhishthira, Bhima,
people, the epic is often referred to as the Arjuna, Nakula, and Sahadeva, who were fa-
“Great Story of India.” thered by five gods, are helped throughout the
The work contains legends, myths, and story by deities and seers. The hundred Dhar-
fairy tales, as well as the Hindu codes of law. tarashtras are described as human incarna-
The section of the Mahabharata that concerns re- tions of demons.
ligious concepts is known as the Bhagavad Gita, One of the most important figures in the
which sets out the basic tenets of Hinduism. Mahabharata is Krishna Vasudeva, who is an
incarnation of the god Vishnu. Cousin to both
sides, he acts as friend and adviser to the Pan-
The Pandavas and Dhartarashtras davas, and as the brother-in-law, mentor, and
The main story, which makes up ten of the charioteer to Arjuna Pandava, a hero of the
eighteen books, is an epic tale of war. This story.
The Mahabharata is the great and lengthy religious epic of India. One of many battles is portrayed in this painting,
which dates to the nineteenth century C.E. (© Réunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Resource, NY)

Malor y, Sir T homas 299
The War See also: Epics; Garuda.
The events leading to the war began with a Sources

game of dice. The Dhartarashtras took advan- Dharma, Krishna. Mahabharata: The Greatest Spiritual
tage of the eldest Pandava, Yudhishthira, and Epic of All Time. New York: Torchlight, 1999.
won the game. The five Pandavas and their Narasimhan, C.V., ed. The Mahabharata. New York: Co-
lumbia University Press, 1997.
common wife, Draupadi, who is an incarnation
Narayan, R.A. The Mahabharata: A Shortened Modern Prose
of the goddess Shri, were forced into the wilder- Version of the Indian Epic. Chicago: University of
ness for a span of twelve years, plus a thirteenth Chicago Press, 2000.
year in disguise. When the thirteen years were
over, Duryodhana, the leader of the Dhar-
tarashtra party, refused to return the Pandavas’
half of the kingdom, and war was declared.
Malory, Sir Thomas
The two sides and their armies met on
Kuru’s Field. The battle lasted eighteen days, (c. 1405–1471)
and the Pandavas, after suffering significant
losses, were victorious. Only the five brothers
and their cousin Krishna survived.
S ir Thomas Malory is the author of Le Morte
d’Arthur (c. 1469), a work that condenses
various sources on Arthurian themes into one
In the years that followed the war, Dhri- prose text. It is the seminal medieval English
tarashtra and his queen, Gandhari, as well as Arthurian text.
Kunti, mother of the Pandavas, lived in a for- Little is known of Malory’s life. Born in
est retreat and died in a forest fire. Krishna Va- Warwickshire, England, to middle-class par-
sudeva and his clan slaughtered one another ents, Malory was knighted in 1442. From 1451
in a drunken brawl, and Krishna’s soul faded on, much of Malory’s life was spent in prison.
back into Vishnu. Upon hearing this news, the He was incarcerated for crimes ranging from
Pandavas decided that it was time for them to robbery to rape. Though these may have
leave this world. been the crimes of a truly troubled individual,
it is also possible that Malory’s incarcerations
Yudhishthira’s Test were more the result of the fluctuation in
The Pandavas began the Great Journey, walk- power during England’s War of the Roses. He
ing north toward the polar mountain and the may have been imprisoned when it was politi-
heavenly worlds. All but Yudhishthira and a cally dangerous for him to be active in society.
dog that followed him perished. Malory was released from prison shortly be-
When Yudhishthira reached the gate of fore his death in 1471.
heaven, where the dog was not permitted to Whether Le Morte d’Arthur was an original
enter, Yudhishthira refused to drive the faith- work or a compilation of previous Arthurian
ful dog away. The dog revealed itself as an in- tales is a matter of some debate. For more than
carnation of Dharma, the god who was 400 years, Le Morte d’Arthur was known only
Yudhishthira’s actual father. by the edition that had been printed by
Now Yudhishthira faced one last test of his William Caxton in 1485. In 1934, however, a
virtue. He found only the Dhartarashtras in manuscript was found by scholar William
heaven and was told that his brothers were in Oakeshott at Winchester College. This manu-
hell. Yudhishthira insisted on joining his script, known as the Winchester Manuscript,
brothers in hell, thus passing the final test, and was edited by Eugène Vinaver and published
was admitted into heaven. in 1947. Because of certain internal evidence,
As an important text of Hindu tradition, Vinaver was convinced that Le Morte d’Arthur
the Mahabharata should be treated with re- was actually a compilation of stories that should
spect by storytellers. be viewed as separate entities.

300 Manticore
In any event, Malory did not simply trans- in the earth and was said to be able to defeat
late and compile these stories. He took various all animals except the lion. Its favorite food, as
and sometimes conflicting sources and decided its name implies, was human beings.
what was to be used, and what was to be The earliest account of the Manticore
cut out, condensed, manipulated, or expanded comes from the fifth century B.C.E. In 77 C.E.,
upon. One portion of his work, Tale of Gareth of Pliny the Elder, a Roman scholar, included
Orkney, may be an original story of Malory’s. the Manticore in his book of natural history.
His creativity and originality were essential to The Manticore also made several appearances
the success of this work. in books written in the Middle Ages.
Le Morte d’Arthur is also important because
it has provided the source material for many See also: Bestiary.
other creative works. From Tennyson’s Idylls of
the King (1856–1885) to modern films such as Sources
Excalibur (1981), modern Arthuriana is in- Elliott, T. J., trans. A Medieval Bestiary. Boston: Godine,
1971.
debted to Sir Thomas Malory and Le Morte Whalley, Joyce Irene, trans. Historia Naturalis by Pliny the
d’Arthur. Elder. London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1982.
Judith Mara Kish White, T.H., ed. The Book of Beasts. Mineola, NY: Dover,
1984.
See also: King Arthur.
Sources Marie de France

Field, P.J.C. The Life and Times of Sir Thomas Malory.
Rochester, NY: D.S. Brewer, 1993.
Lumiansky, Robert Mayer, ed. Malory’s Originality: A
Critical Study of Le Morte Darthur. Baltimore: Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1964.
M arie de France was a twelfth-century
poet whose works range from fables to
romances, including her famous Breton lais,
Spisak, James, and William Matthews, eds. Caxton’s Mal- which were short narrative poems focusing on
ory. Berkeley: University of California, 1983.
courtly love.
Vinaver, Eugène, ed. The Works of Sir Thomas Malory. Re-
vised by P. J.C. Field. New York: Oxford University Although not much is known about Marie
Press, 1990. de France’s life, some information about her
can be derived from her texts. At the beginning
of her work known as Ysopets (Fables), she gives
Manticore her name and her country, France, meaning Île
de France or the area around Paris. Although
she notes that she comes from the continent, it
(Persian) is clear in her writing that she is familiar with
T he word manticore means “man-eater.”

This was the name given to a weird and
deadly monster in the legends of ancient Asia,
the people and languages of Britain as well. Re-
markable in that she wrote at a time when few
women were literate, she also wrote in the ver-
Mesopotamia, and medieval Europe. nacular rather than in Latin, which was the pre-
The hideous and terrible Manticore was dominant literary language of the time.
said to have the body of a red-skinned lion, Many scholars believe that Marie’s famil-
the face of a blue-eyed man, and the tail of a iarity with Brittany in northwestern France
scorpion. Its voice was deceptively sweet, al- and the Britons of England was facilitated by
most like music. But its jaws held three rows of her connection to the court of England’s Henry
fangs that could slash prey to pieces. II, who reigned from 1154 to 1189 C.E. Her
The Manticore could move frighteningly position in royal society would have given
fast, and the monster could fire deadly darts Marie access to society on both sides of the
from its scorpion tail. It lived in burrows deep English Channel.

Maui 301
Folklorists are particularly interested in going to die, so she wrapped him in her hair
Marie’s source material. Marie noted that her and cast him into the sea. But Maui survived
lais were derived from tales of the Breton peo- the ordeal and returned to his mother, prov-
ple. Although the stories came from this folk ing to her that he would grow up to be a great
source, Marie likely manipulated the original hero.
folktales to fit the meter and style that she pre- One of Maui’s many important adven-
ferred. The mode of transmission was tradi- tures was that of snaring the Sun. In the early
tional as well. It is likely that the stories on days, it sped across the sky. Hina complained
which the lais are based were told to Marie in to her son that there was barely enough time
either English or Celtic. Perhaps because of for her to dry her clothing, and the people had
this, the lais possess many qualities of oral texts, no time to fish. Maui went to his blind grand-
such as linguistic markers of verbal speech, and mother for help. She lived on the slopes of
repetition. what is now Mount Haleakala, or House of the
Marie’s collection of 103 fables includes Sun, where she cooked the bananas that the
loose translations of earlier written works—for Sun ate every day.
example, the Ysopet fables, which are based Maui’s grandmother advised Maui to
on Aesop’s fables. Of Marie’s work, only her weave sixteen strong ropes and nooses out of
Espurgatoire Seint Patrice (St. Patrick’s Purgatory) his sister’s long hair. She said he should use
is a close translation of a written source, an these to lasso the Sun and persuade it to move
anonymous French twelfth-century poem. more slowly across the sky.
Other fables had no previous written source. Maui wove the ropes and hid. As each ray
Today, Marie de France remains impor- of the Sun reached Haleakala, Maui lassoed it
tant both as an early female writer and as a until he had taken the Sun prisoner. Maui
good storyteller, whose works are still accessi- agreed to free the Sun if it promised to slow its
ble to modern readers and tellers. pace. The Sun agreed, and from that day on,
daylight lasted long enough for everybody to
Sources finish their work.
Curley, Michael J., trans. Saint Patrick’s Purgatory: A Poem
by Marie de France. Binghamton, NY: Medieval and
But the Sun still hung too low, so that peo-
Renaissance Texts and Studies, 1993. ple were unable to stand upright. A young
Hanning, Robert, and Joan Ferrante, eds. The Lais of woman asked Maui for help. He used his great
Marie de France. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1978. strength to lift the sky and set the Sun in place.
Marèchal, Chantal A. In Quest of Marie de France, a Twelfth-
Century Poet. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen, 1992.
Spiegel, Harriet, ed. and trans. Fables. Toronto, Canada:
University of Toronto Press, 1987.
Maui Creates Land
Maui also created new land. In the Hawaiian
version of this tale, he descended into the land
Maui of the dead and received a hook made from
the jawbone of an ancestor. This magical hook
(Polynesian) was called manai ikalanai. Maui then returned
to the land of the living and caught a sacred
M aui is a major Polynesian demigod, cul-

ture hero, and trickster. He is known as
Maaui-tikitiki by the Maori people of New
bird, the alae.
Maui then told his brothers to paddle him
out to sea. He lowered manai ikalanai, which
Zealand. was baited with the sacred bird, into the water.
His sister, Hina of the Sea, helped him by
Maui and the Sun placing the hook into the mouth of Old One
When he was born, Maui was abandoned by Tooth, the great creature that held the land fast
his mother, Hina. She was certain that he was to the bottom of the sea.

302 Melusine/Melusina
Maui then told his brothers to row. Melusina in France

He warned them to not look back. As they
strained, a great mass of land slowly rose be- King Elinas of Albania heard a woman singing
hind them. Unfortunately, one brother was by a forest fountain and found the beautiful
overcome by curiosity and turned to see what fairy woman Pressina. They fell in love, and
was going on. The great mass of land shat- she made him promise that he would not visit
tered and became the islands of Polynesia. her if she was in labor. But as she gave birth to
The Hawaiian island called Maui bears the triplet girls, Melusina, Melior, and Palatina, her
hero’s name. husband was so overwhelmed with joy that he
The version of this story told by the rushed into the chamber. He had broken his
Maori is slightly different. Maui used the jaw- word, and Pressina and her three daughters
bone hook but with blood from his own nose disappeared.
as bait. He caught the porch of a house that When they were fifteen, Melusina and
was at the bottom of the ocean. He pulled up her sisters decided to take revenge on their
the whole north island of New Zealand, which father for breaking his word to their mother.
the Maori call Te Ika-a-Maui, or the Fish of They trapped him in a high mountain called
Maui. Brandelois. When their mother learned what
Many other tales of Maui and his deeds— they had done, she punished Melusina as the
both as hero and as trickster—are told through- instigator. Pressina condemned her to turn
out Polynesia. into a serpent from the waist down on every
Anne Elizabeth Baldwin Saturday. The spell would be broken when
Melusina met a man who would marry her
See also: Culture Heroes; Tricksters. and vow never to see her on a Saturday.
Melusina wandered to the forest of Colom-
biers in Poitou. There, young Raymond, who
Sources
Beckwith, Martha. Hawaiian Mythology. Honolulu: Uni-
had accidentally killed his uncle, was wan-
versity of Hawaii Press, 1970. dering. At a fountain at the foot of a high
Eliot, Alexander. The Universal Myths: Heroes, Gods, Trick- rock, he found Melusina. They fell in love
sters and Others. New York: New American Library, and were married. Raymond vowed never to
1990.
see Melusina on a Saturday, and they were
Kalakaua, David. The Legends and Myths of Hawaii: The
Fables and Folk-Lore of a Strange People. New ed. Ed. happy together for a while.
R.M. Daggett. Rutland, VT: Tuttle, 1972. But Raymond’s cousin roused the young
groom to jealousy: What was his wife doing
every Saturday? One Saturday, Raymond hid
Melusine/Melusina and watched Melusina turn into a monster,
half woman and half snake. It was a secret that
he could not keep to himself.
(European) In grief, Melusina told Raymond that she
must now flee and wander the earth as a specter
T he medieval folktale of Melusine, alter-
nately known as Melusina, is a form of
mermaid story that makes use of the world folk
until doomsday. She added that whenever she
was seen over their castle, it would mean that
motif of the taboo or the broken prohibition. the castle would soon have a new lord. With
Versions of the story come from France, that, she vanished, and the grieving Raymond
Luxembourg, and Germany. One of the earli- became a hermit until the day he died.
est versions dates from about 1405 and is at-
tributed to a French troubadour, Couldrette.
Melusine of Luxembourg
Two versions of the story of Melusine are sum- In the tale of Melusine in Luxembourg, Melu-
marized here. sine was the wife of the founder of Luxem-

Menehune 303
bourg, Count Siegfried. When they married, Sources

Melusine requested that Siegfried leave her Couldrette. The Romans of Partenanay, or of Lusignen: Oth-
alone for one full day and night every month, erwise Known as the Tale of Melusine. London: K. Paul,
Trench, Truibner, 1866.
and that he not try to find out what she was do- Goethe, Johann Wolfgang. Wilhelm Meister’s Apprentice-
ing. Siegfried agreed. ship. Woodland Hills, CA: Aegypan, 2007.
But over the years, Siegfried’s curiosity got Keightley, Thomas. The Fairy Mythology, Illustrative of the
the better of him. He spied on his wife and Romance and Superstition of Various Countries. Lon-
don: H.G. Bohn, 1850.
was shocked to see that she had become half
woman, half fish. When Melusine realized
that her husband had broken his vow, she
dove out of the window into the Alzette River
below and was never seen again.
Menehune
(Hawaiian)
Later Stories Based
on Melusine I n Hawaiian folklore, the menehune are magi-
cal little people who first appeared in ancient
legends. They are still often sighted today.
The German author Johann Wolfgang Goethe
wrote Die neue Melusine (The New Melusine) Traditional tales do not specify the mene-
in 1807 and published it as part of Wilhelm hune’s size, but modern sightings describe them
Meisters Wanderjahre (Wilhelm Meister’s Years as anywhere from 6 inches (15 centimeters) to
of Travel; 1921; 1829). In 1833, the story was 3 feet (less than 1 meter) tall. Despite their size,
made into an opera libretto by Franz Grill- the menehune are quite strong. Some stories de-
parzer for Ludwig von Beethoven. This project scribe them as unclothed, with long hair that
failed, but in 1844, the German composer Felix keeps them warm and modest.
Mendelssohn composed a concert overture ti- The menehune temperament is clever and
tled The Fair Melusina (Opus 32). mischievous, rather than malicious. In tradi-
There are two popular nineteenth-century tional menehune accounts, they usually speak
fairy tales that may have been influenced by to humans in the humans’ language. However,
the story of Melusine. The first is Lamotte among themselves, they often speak their own
Fouque’s 1811 work, “Undine,” in which a guttural language.
young knight who has sworn eternal fidelity Most legends say the menehune live in the
to the water sprite Undine breaks his vow forested uplands or on a floating island. They
and is slain by her. The second is Hans are said to enjoy dancing and singing, as well as
Christian Andersen’s “The Little Mermaid” cliff diving. Mysterious splashes heard through
(1837), in which the mermaid, when her lover the night are said to be caused by menehune
proves false, spares him and becomes water enjoying a nighttime swim.
vapor. Menehune society is led by one chief or,
In The Cathedral, an 1898 novel by Joris- in some accounts, by more than one. A mene-
Karl Huysmans, one of the characters, Durtal, hune chief usually has a few special servants
finds an image of “the wyvern, a sort of and underlings, as well as a large number of
Melusina, half woman and half serpent, a very subjects. He also has magical powers and a
cruel beast.” tendency to turn disobedient subjects to stone.
There have been other mentions in vari- Menehune are master craftsmen who are
ous works. Perhaps the oddest modern vision said to work cooperatively in large groups.
of Melusine is the fork-tailed siren featured in They start work at sundown and work with
the modern-day Starbucks logo. amazing speed through the night, stopping
promptly when morning arrives. Normally,
See also: Tale Types. anything still undone at dawn remains undone.

304 Mermaids
It is almost unheard of for menehune to return always idealized. She has a beautiful complex-
to a task that they were unable to complete ion and long flowing hair.
during the first night. A mermaid is privy to secret knowledge,
When the first Polynesian settlers arrived not only of the depths of the sea but some-
in Hawaii, they found dams, fish ponds, and times of the future. Nevertheless, she has little
even heiau, or temples, that showed no trace of understanding of human beings and is capri-
human involvement. The settlers credited this cious and inconstant, much like the weather.
work to the menehune. The ceremonial struc-
tures called pihana heiau on Maui, and the Origins
Menehune Ditch, an ancient irrigation canal,
A search for the origin of the mermaid in
and Alekoko, the menehune fish pond, both
myth and legend leads to a bewildering array
on Kauai, are famous examples of supposed
of related figures. The enormous power of the
menehune work.
mermaid over the elements and her habitual
Many Hawaiians claim some menehune
isolation suggest that the mermaid could go
ancestry, which is the result of intermarriage be-
back to extremely archaic mother-goddess fig-
tween humans and menehune in the past. Only
ures, such as the Sumerian Ninhursag, the
humans with menehune ancestors can call on
Babylonian Tiamat, and the Greek Gaia.
the menehune for help with building projects. It
Tiamat in particular resembles the mer-
is warned that if the menehune are distracted in
maid. She gave birth to the world, which re-
the middle of a project by noise, such as barking
mained covered in water. When the god
dogs or shouting people, they will abandon the
Marduk killed Tiamet, dry land was made from
project. This is what supposedly happened to
her body. Tiamat was a figure of primeval na-
Alekoko, which was built about 1,600 years ago
ture identified with the sea, and she was an
but was never completed.
enemy of the settled life of civilization—
The menehune usually ask for payment
characteristics that this deity shared with the
when they work for humans. The payment is
mermaid.
traditionally a meal for all the menehune who
The earliest representations of merpeople
worked on the task. This can include an amaz-
that show creatures with a human torso and
ingly large number of menehune.
the tail of a fish come from Babylon. The
Modern sightings of menehune generally
Mesopotamian god of the sea, known vari-
report the little people offering a cheerful
ously as Ea, Enki, or Oanes, was represented
wave or greeting and nothing more.
this way, as was Atargatis, the Syrian goddess
Anne Elizabeth Baldwin of love. The fish man is mentioned repeatedly
in the Babylonian epic of creation, which
Sources probably dates from the early first millennium
Ne, Harriet. Tales of Molokai: The Voice of Harriet Ne. B.C.E.
Comp. Gloria L. Cronin. La’ie, HI: Institute for
The Greek author Herodotus wrote in the
Polynesian Studies, 1992.
Puku’i, Mary Kawena, comp. Tales of the Menehune. Rev. fifth century B.C.E. of the nameless daughter of
ed. Ed. Caroline Curtis. Honolulu, HI: Kame- the Dnieper river god, who had the torso of a
hameha Schools Press, 1985. woman and the tail of a serpent. The kings of
Thrum, Thomas G., comp. Hawaiian Folk Tales: A Collec- Scythia, in what is now Ukraine, were be-
tion of Native Legends. Honolulu, HI: Mutual, 1998.
lieved to have descended from her children.
Mermaids Hylas and the Naiad

It is difficult for us to imagine the fear and
T he mermaid is a figure of primeval femi-

nine power, and her appearance is nearly
wonder that the sea aroused in ancient times.
This dread of the depths is evident in Greek

Mermaids 305
legends. The Voyage of the Argo, written by Apol- from the ship, it meant that none of the crew
lonius of Rhodes in the third century B.C.E., would be killed in a disaster. If she threw them
features the story of Hylas and the naiad, or toward the ship, at least some members of the
water nymph. The heroes of Greece embarked crew were doomed.
on the Argo to travel to distant shores in order Mermaids could be friendly and helpful,
to bring back the fabled Golden Fleece. Among but their goodwill could not be taken for
them were Hercules, Orpheus, and other leg- granted. Many stories tell of terrible revenge
endary figures, with Jason as their leader. When taken by mermaids on those who harmed or
they disembarked briefly on a rich, fertile plain offended them. One such tale describes a
and prepared a banquet, Hercules wandered drowning sailor who was rescued by a mer-
off to make a new oar. maid. All she asked in return was that he re-
Hylas, a young boy whom Hercules had member to visit her. When he neglected to do
adopted, went to search for water. A naiad this, his entire village was washed away in a
emerged from the spring when Hylas ap- tidal wave.
proached. Seeing his face, radiant in the One persistent belief is that if the spirits
moonlight, she was overwhelmed by his of the water were not able to take a drown-
beauty. As Hylas reached into the water with ing person, they would be angry. In William
a pitcher, the naiad threw her arms around Shakespeare’s Hamlet (1623), witnesses watched
the boy and pulled him into the spring. One Ophelia drown, yet none attempted to save
sailor heard Hylas’s cry and summoned Her- her. This may have been out of fear of retali-
cules. But the hero was unable to find the ation by the water spirits.
young man and was overcome with grief. Mariners usually thought of mermaids as
Hercules was so intent on finding Hylas that spirits of water. Even the sight of a mermaid
he forgot his other companions, and the Argo could inspire terror. Sailors would try to dis-
sailed without him. tract a mermaid by throwing coins or trinkets
After the destruction of Troy, the Greek into the water in much the same way that an-
princes Diomedes, Odysseus, Menelaus, and cient cultures would placate local deities by
Agamemnon found the voyage home to be tossing sacrificial objects into a well.
more hazardous than the war had ever been. An African American tale recorded in the
Life at sea was precarious. Beyond simple early twentieth century tells of a captain
luck, there was little defense against storms, throwing a crew member overboard when a
and ships could run aground on rocks, coral mermaid demanded him. The sailor who was
reefs, or icebergs. Navigation often was a mat- sacrificed was last seen by the crew wrapped
ter of intuition before the compass came into in the yellow hair of the mermaid and drawn
use in the late Middle Ages, and ships could down into the depths. He married the mer-
easily be blown off course. Diseases that were maid and lived as her husband for six years
contracted in foreign ports spread easily before finding his way back to land. There are
among those confined to a ship. The nearly many such stories of sailors living on in the
endless number of nautical superstitions shows kingdom beneath the waves.
how vulnerable early seamen must have felt to
the powers of the elements.
The Seven Mermaids
In “The Seven Mermaids,” a tale recorded on
Superstitions the Frisian Islands, which lie to the north of
If a mermaid turned away from a ship, it was a the European continent, the sea proves to be a
sign of good fortune, but if she followed the jealous mistress. A sailor, while disembarking
ship, the crew would fear disaster. If a mer- from his ship, raised his hand to the sea and
maid picked up fish and threw them away solemnly pledged his loyalty to it. If the waters

306 Mermaids
treated him well, he promised, he would be

faithful to them always and never take a home
Modern Image
on land. Seven mermaids rose to the surface Myth, literature, and folk belief blended with
and heard his promise, then plunged once the lore of mariners around the beginning of
again beneath the waves. the sixteenth century to create the popular im-
The mariner prospered and became a age of the mermaid. Representations of mer-
wealthy man, but he longed for a settled life. maids were carved on the bows of ships,
Finally, he took a bride. On the night of his etched in scrimshaw, tattooed on bodies,
wedding, the seven mermaids rose from the painted on the signs of taverns, and included
deep near his home beside the sea. They sent in heraldic crests.
huge waves that leapt over the dikes and The sea was, together with the army,
pulled the man from the arms of his beloved. a bastion of unadulterated male companion-
The mermaids carried the sailor to their ship, a place where a young man might go to
underwater home. He tried many times to re- at least temporarily forswear the company of
turn to his bride, but the mermaids always women after an unhappy love affair. Simply to
dragged him back to their home. The mariner have a woman on board was sometimes con-
represents all who dream of giving up the life sidered bad luck. Even traditionally female oc-
at sea yet find themselves constantly drawn cupations such as cooking were undertaken by
back to it. men at sea. However, both the ships and the
waves were considered feminine. To embark
on a voyage was, therefore, to enter the femi-
Mermaid Community nine world, to place oneself at the mercy of
There were occasional reports of mermen unknown powers.
sightings, but those of mermaids were far The modern image of the mermaid fur-
more frequent. Occasionally mermaids were ther evolved with the expansion of trade in
seen in groups, but usually they were alone. maritime culture at the end of the Middle
This is not to suggest that the mermaids did Ages. Except for the virtually absolute exclu-
not belong to a society. People generally sion of women, this culture was enormously
thought of mermaids as living in underwater cosmopolitan. Folklore from cultures through-
palaces. There was an ancient and widespread out the world was blended on board ships.
belief that every creature on land has an The mermaid took something from the Slavic
equivalent in the sea. This is why so many ma- rusalki, the German nixies, and many other
rine creatures have names such as sea cow, water sprites of world folklore. Melusine, the
seahorse, sea anemone, sea dog, and sea wolf. serpent woman, whose story formed the basis
The merpeople were the equivalent of human of many literary tales of mermaids, was a
beings. product of early mythologies. Her story was
In tales where the mermaid becomes fully absorbed into the folklore of Cyprus and
human, marries, and lives with her husband reached Europe in the cultural exchanges that
on land, she is almost always a conventional accompanied the crusades.
wife. But in the kingdom of the sea, relations As explorers journeyed to the remotest
between the sexes are reversed. When they parts of the globe, the sea was, as it remains,
take a sailor beneath the sea to marry, the the final remnant of unspoiled nature. As peo-
mermaids are more than sexually aggressive. ple described almost all of the remaining land
Very often, they kidnap reluctant mariners, in animals, they still had little notion of what
much the way that the naiad captured Hylas. might lurk under the sea. There were rumors
Furthermore, the mermaids continue to domi- of enormous monsters and legends of mysteri-
nate the relationship, to a point where the ous kingdoms.
poor sailor seems less a husband than a pet. For several centuries, mermaids were

Mermaids 307
of manatees, which can appear very human

when seen from a distance. The sightings also
could have been of seals, which appear grace-
fully feminine. It has recently been argued
that some sightings might have been of kayak-
ers from Greenland or other places in the far
north.
The play of light and shadow on the waves
in different kinds of weather also may have
created illusions. But the most obvious expla-
nation for mermaid sightings is that they were
hallucinations of sailors who had grown des-
perate for female companionship.
A mermaid figure carved on an eighteenth-century
wooden bat from the upper Volga region of Russia. In
pre-Christian times, the bird-siren and the mermaid
Literary Mermaids
were attributes of a fertility goddess; they later became Jean de La Fontaine wrote of mermaids in his
symbols of joy and happiness. (Erich Lessing/Art Re-
source, NY) seventeenth-century tale “The Shepherd and
the Sea.” In this story, a shepherd had lived
for many years contentedly grazing his sheep
sighted almost constantly, especially in the At- beside the shore, until he was dazzled by the
lantic Ocean. Christopher Columbus and his sight of merchants unloading their cargo from
crew sighted one, as did captain John Smith. around the world. So the shepherd sold his
Rather typical of such sightings is the account flock and bought a ship. On its first voyage,
by Samuel Purchas, a seaman who accompa- the ship ran aground on a rock. Ruined finan-
nied Henry Hudson on his second voyage to cially, the shepherd was forced to work for
the New World. others. Eventually, he managed to buy back
Purchas recorded in his diary that on May some of his sheep. In the end, he called to the
15, 1608, a sailor spotted a mermaid. She was sisters of the sea and told them that they
close to the ship and looking earnestly at the should tempt another, for he knew better than
men. The sailor called to his companions, but to trust them.
only one other arrived before the mermaid As people became less fearful of the
disappeared into the waves. Purchas reported ocean, the power of the mermaid also waned.
the sailor’s decription of the mermaid as a She became less a living presence and more a
woman from the navel upward. Her breasts decorative motif, sometimes a figure in tales
were exposed and her skin was very white. for children. Hans Christian Andersen’s “The
Her hair was long and black. Her tail, which Little Mermaid” (1837) articulated a new con-
turned upward as she descended into the ception of the mermaid, which has since
deep, was speckled like that of a mackerel. found a place in countless films and books for
The mariners do not seem to have at- children.
tached enormous importance to the sighting. The Little Mermaid loved to rise from the
It is casually included alongside reports of the sea to observe human beings. One day, she
weather. Purchas himself made no claim to saved a prince from drowning and fell in
having seen the mermaid. Though a fairly so- love with him. Leaving him unconscious on
phisticated observer, he gave the report with- the shore, she visited the Sea Witch and asked
out any hint of skepticism. to be given a soul, so that she could live as a
Most researchers believe that the majority human being. The Sea Witch replied that the
of reported mermaid sightings were actually Little Mermaid could only obtain a soul by

308 Meskhenet
marrying a human being but told her that men fast food. Mermaids also are found on a vast
found fish tails repulsive. The mermaid made assortment of merchandise, from lunch boxes
a deal with the Sea Witch. The mermaid and school notebooks to dolls. Mermaids adorn
would give up her beautiful voice if the Sea countless tourist brochures, pubs, restaurants,
Witch changed her tail into legs. The Sea tourist shops, and aquariums.
Witch agreed. Since Darwin formulated his theory of
The mermaid then entered the city of the evolution, the boundary between human be-
prince. He failed to recognize her and married ings and animals has become ever more elu-
another woman instead. The mermaid went to sive. We now understand that we are at once
the seashore in despair. The Sea Witch gave human beings and animals, yet these two as-
the mermaid a knife and ordered her to kill the pects of identity have not merged. The mer-
prince. The mermaid was about to do so, but maid, half woman and half fish, is a fitting
she instead threw the knife away. She fell into symbol for our divided selves.
the water, which was no longer her element, Boria Sax
and drowned. Then, instead of being annihi-
lated, the mermaid was granted an immortal See also: Lorelei; Rusalka/Rusalki; Sirens.
soul. After 300 years, she would ascend to
heaven, a time that could be shortened by the Sources
good behavior of children. Andersen, Hans Christian. Tales and Stories by Hans Chris-
tian Andersen. Trans. Patricia L. Conroy and Sven H.
“The Little Mermaid” describes the de- Rossel. Seattle: University of Washington Press,
cline of the mermaid from a presence of great 1980.
emotional power to a simple figure of enter- Beck, Horace P. Folklore and the Sea. Middletown, CT:
tainment. She is domesticated, brought into Wesleyan University Press, 1973.
Benwell, Gwen, and Arthur Waugh. Sea Enchantress: The
the human realm. The loss of her voice sig- Tale of the Mermaid and Her Kin. New York: Citadel,
naled the declining seductive power of the 1965.
mermaid and, for that matter, the sea. Dalley, Stephanie, trans. Myths from Mesopotamia: Cre-
The voice, which sweetly called sailors to ation, the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others. New York:
their doom, was a feature of the sirens, first
Sax, Boria. The Serpent and the Swan. The Animal Bride in
mentioned in Homer’s Odyssey in the eighth Folklore and Literature. Blacksburg, VA: McDonald
century B.C.E. By the Middle Ages, mermaids and Woodward, 1998.
and sirens had become almost interchange-
able. In many tales, mermaids lured sailors to
impending doom with the beauty of their
voices.
Meskhenet
The loss of the Little Mermaid’s voice ac-
companied that of her fish tail, the bestial ele-
(Egyptian)
ment that made her distinct from human
beings. In this story, she refused to harm the
prince, and the mermaid was no longer a fig-
M eskhenet is an Egyptian goddess of
childbirth and of fate. She is the person-
ification of the stool or bricks on which Egypt-
ure of fear. ian women squatted during labor. Newborns
also were placed on this stool when the umbil-
ical cord was cut.
Mermaids Today Meskhenet appears in certain texts as the
Today, the mermaid appears constantly in ad- mother of the king. She also accompanied Isis,
vertising. Her image is used to sell beer, tuna, Nephthys, Heket, and Khnum to attend the
and coffee. Ariel, the Little Mermaid in Dis- birth of three babies who would grow up to be
ney Studios’ 1989 cartoon based on Ander- kings of Egypt. Meskhenet’s role in the delivery
sen’s tale, was featured in advertisements for is not specified, but afterward she pronounced

Metaphors 309
the destiny of each of the boys. Meskhenet is Ovid made use of both Greek and Roman
said to have performed this duty elsewhere. For sources, adding his own personal touches. The
example, she was present at the birth of myths and tales take place from the dawn of
Pharaoh Hatshepsut. time to the age of the Emperor Augustus.
Artists depicted Meskhenet as a brick with While the overall theme of the work is the
the head of a woman, or as a goddess with a power of the gods, Ovid also pays homage to
particular hieroglyphic sign on her head. This the glory of Rome.
sign has been identified as the uterus and uter-
ine horns of a cow. See also: Ovid.
Recently, it has been suggested that it is in
Sources
fact the special knife, the pesesh-kef, used in the Ovid. Metamorphoses. Trans. Allen Mandelbaum. New
Opening of the Mouth ceremony, in which a York: Harvest, 1995.
mummy was given the power to receive offer- ———. The Metamorphoses of Ovid. Trans. Michael Simp-
ings of food. It is thought that a pesesh-kef son. Boston: University of Massachusetts Press,
2001.
also was used to cut the umbilical cord.
Noreen Doyle
Metaphors
See also: Fates.
Sources
Faulkner, R.O., trans. The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts.
M etaphors are figures of speech that com-
pare two concepts that are unrelated,
without using the words like or as. This de-
Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1969.
Roth, Ann Macy. “The Peseshkef and the ‘Opening of vice is widely used in the English language
the Mouth’ Ceremony: A Ritual of Birth and Re- and can result in innovative or refreshing in-
birth.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 78 (1992): sights into a concept. For example, a story-
113–47.
teller might allude to fishermen as farmers of
the sea.
Metamorphoses Psychologists suggest that dream imagery
is often metaphoric. For example, a dream of
a storm at sea may represent unhappiness
(Greek and Roman) in the dreamer’s personal life, and a dream
M etamorphoses is a collection of ancient about a still pond may be a metaphor for

Greek and Roman myths and tales re- serenity.
told in poetic form by the great Roman poet In her book The Implied Spider (1998),
Ovid in the early first century C.E. Wendy Doniger used an Indian story as a
Each story within the Metamorphoses fea- metaphor to describe the transmission and al-
tures a transformation, or metamorphosis, of a teration of folktales:
character or a theme. Some of the transforma- A philosopher met a village carpenter and
tions occur in order to save a protagonist from asked how long he had used the same knife.
death or another tragic fate, such as the nymph “Always,” the man replied. “It has been in my
Daphne’s transformation into a laurel tree be- family for generations. We have changed the
fore Apollo seizes her. Other metamorphoses handle and changed the blade many times,
are punishments for wrongdoing. but it is the same knife.”
The Metamorphoses is a valuable source Ruth Stotter
of early myths. Ovid’s telling of the story
Source
of Daedalus, his son Icarus, and their escape Doniger, Wendy. The Implied Spider: Politics and Theology
from Crete, for example, is the earliest written in Myth. New York: Columbia University Press,
version of the tale. 1999.

310 Mice
Mice Rock ma rarey kitty lone, kitty lone and I.

Lady mouse came stepping down . . .
In her silk and satin gown . . .
F olklore traditions about mice are wide-

spread, and descriptions of these rodents
range from dark creatures of death to witty
The mouse also is seen as a hero in many
cartoons, winning in confrontations with a feck-
tricksters. The word mouse comes from the less cat over and over again. In this guise, the
Latin mus, meaning “thief.” mouse represents a particularly American im-
In the ancient world, the mouse was some- age of the little guy triumphing over those with
times linked with the underworld because of power.
its burrowing habits. In the Old Testament, The animated hero Mighty Mouse, created
the mouse was seen as unclean. In Christian in the 1940s, followed this model, as he con-
lore, it was considered a servant of the devil. A quered bad guys who were many times his size.
folk belief carries on today that the mouse Walt Disney’s Mickey Mouse, introduced in
came aboard Noah’s Ark with the prime in- 1928 in the first sound cartoon, is an innocent
tention of chewing a hole through the bottom fellow with an equally innocent girlfriend, Min-
in order to sink the boat. nie Mouse.
In ancient Greece, the mouse was associ- More recently, urban legends have cropped
ated with the god Apollo. This may be be- up about people finding a roasted mouse mixed
cause mice were food for the god’s snakes. in with fried chicken parts at a fast-food restau-
The mouse was used by the Greek fable writer rant. Another modern addition to mouse lore is
Aesop in his tale of the lion and the mouse. the computer mouse, so named because of its
The strong, proud lion is caught in a snare, oval or round body and long “tail.”
and the humble little mouse chews through
the ropes to free him, showing the strength to See also: Cat-and-Mouse Tales; Cats.
be found in seemingly useless creatures.
Sources
In German folklore, there is a tale of a Cooper, J.C. Dictionary of Symbolic and Mythological Ani-
mouse running out of a servant girl’s open mals. San Francisco: Thorsens, 1992.
mouth. When horrified people killed the Dolan, Edward F. Animal Folklore: From Black Cats to
mouse, the girl died, too. The mouse was her White Horses. New York: Ivy, 1992.
soul, running around outside her body. Wootton, Anthony. Animal Folklore, Myth, and Legend.
Poole, England, UK: Blandford, 1986.
In Bali, the mouse can be a shape-shifter.
In one folktale, a slain mouse that is found to
have a woman’s face is discovered to have
been the king’s wife in mouse form.
Minnesang/Minnesingers
In the United States, the mouse often has
been pictured as neat and ladylike, such as the (German)
lady mouse in the folksong “The Frog and
the Mouse.” In an excerpt from one version,
the mouse is a lady, and the frog is a finely
M innesang was the body of popular songs
that flourished in Germany from the
twelfth century to the fourteenth century. Peo-
dressed gentleman: ple who wrote and performed Minnesang were
known as Minnesingers. Like their contempo-
He rode till he came to the lady-mouse hall, raries, the troubadours, the Minnesingers sang
Kitty lone, kitty lone. primarily of courtly love, but some of them cre-
He rode till he came to the lady-mouse hall, ated and performed epic poetry.
Kitty lone and I. The names and works of several Min-
He rode till he came to the lady-mouse hall, nesingers are still familiar to students of the pe-
There he gave one knock and call. riod. Wolfram von Eschenbach (c. 1217; exact

Minotaur 311
dates of birth and death unknown) was popular did beast, he thought it a shame and a waste to
in his own lifetime. His epic, Parzival, which was sacrifice it. Surely so mighty a bull should sire
based on the Arthurian tale of Perceval, is one calves among the royal herd. So Minos kept the
of the best-known compositions of the time. bull and sacrificed a lesser one in its place.
Most early Minnesingers were noblemen, When Poseidon learned of Minos break-
but the rise of the middle class brought change ing his vow, the god took cruel revenge. He
to the musical form. By the start of fifteenth caused Minos’s wife, Pasiphae, to fall in love
century, the Minnesinger tradition was fin- with the bull. She ordered the famous inven-
ished. It was replaced by the Meistersingers, tor Daedalus to make a wooden cow for her.
who were mostly of common birth. Pasiphae climbed into the decoy and fooled
While a fair number of the Minnesingers’ the white bull. The offspring of this unnatural
songs have survived, the musical notation used coupling was the Minotaur.
at the time is different from current style, mak- The Minotaur had the head and tail of a
ing accurate reproduction difficult. Two operas bull, the body of a man, and the fury of man
were inspired by Minnesang—Richard Wag- and bull combined. It caused such harm to
ner’s Tannhäuser (1845) and Guntram (1894) by Crete that Minos summoned Daedalus to build
Richard Strauss. a great underground labyrinth, from which
there could be no escape. The Minotaur was
See also: Griots/Griottes/Jelis; Jongleurs; Min- thrown into the labyrinth. But it still raged and
strels; Troubadours. hungered, and its fury shook the walls of Mi-
nos’s palace. To appease the Minotaur, every
Sources year for nine years, seven youths and seven
Barber, Richard. The Knight and Chivalry. New York:
Rowman and Littlefield, 1975. maidens were sent to Crete and sacrificed to
Seagrave, Barbara Garvey, and Wesley Thomas. The the Minotaur.
Songs of the Minnesingers. Urbana: University of Illi- Theseus, son of the king of Athens, went
nois Press, 1966. to Crete as a volunteer sacrifice, planning to
Von Eschenbach, Wolfram. Parzival. Trans. Helen M.
Mustard and Charles E. Passage. New York: Vin-
end the Minotaur’s cruelty. So handsome and
tage Books, 1961. brave was the hero that Minos’s daughter, Ari-
adne, fell in love with him. She promised to
show Theseus the way in and out of the
Minotaur labyrinth if he would promise, upon his return
from the maze, to take her with him and
marry her. Theseus agreed.
(Greek) Ariadne gave Theseus a ball of twine, which
T he Minotaur is a monster from Greek

mythology that is half bull and half man.
The beast lived in the island nation of Crete
he tied at the entrance to the labyrinth. As he
made his way through the labyrinth, he un-
wound the twine. At last, Theseus found the
and was created as a result of a failed vow Minotaur and slew it. Then he made his way
made by Minos, king of Crete. back out of the labyrinth by following the twine.
Minos had prayed to Poseidon, god of the When Theseus left Crete, he took Ariadne
sea, for a sign that would show his approval of with him, but he abandoned her before they
Minos’s right to rule: a snow-white bull. Mi- reached Athens.
nos swore to sacrifice the bull as an offering to
the god. See also: Theseus.
Even as Minos finished his prayer, it was
Sources
answered. The god Poseidon sent a magnificent Apollodorus. The Library of Greek Mythology. Trans.
white bull that climbed majestically up from Robin Hard. New York: Oxford University Press,
the waves. But as soon as Minos saw the splen- 1998.

312 Minstrels
Evslin, Bernard. Heroes, Gods and Monsters of Ancient In about 1350, the English minstrels
Greece. New York: Bantam, 1987. formed a guild, creating various guild rules and
charters. Among these was the banning of non-
English minstrels or amateur performers.
Minstrels Throughout the Renaissance, minstrels
were granted or denied charters by various En-
T he term minstrel refers to the professional

entertainers of Europe in the Middle
Ages. Minstrels were singer-musicians as well
glish kings. During the reign of Queen Eliza-
beth I, minstrels were declared rogues and
vagabonds, but they survived nonetheless. The
as storytellers, clowns, and jugglers. minstrel tradition lived on, eventually becom-
The word minstrel may come from a ing the nineteenth-century American minstrel
medieval French word, menestrier, related to shows.
the English word minister, in the sense of The most famous story about a minstrel is
“to minister to.” This became menestrel, and most likely untrue. When King Richard I of En-
from there it was an easy linguistic jump to gland was returning from the Crusades, he was
minstrel. taken prisoner in Vienna by Duke Leopold.
Some minstrels had posts in royal or noble The story tells of Blondel, a faithful squire to
homes, while others wandered freely, enter- King Richard who went in search of the miss-
taining people in castles and towns. Some ing king. In the guise of a wandering minstrel,
minstrels created their own songs and stories, Blondel traveled over the land for countless
and some repeated the folktales and ballads days. As he went, he sang a song that was his
they had learned from other performers. king’s own creation, but he got no reply.
Two minstrels provide musical entertainment at an outdoor feast in a seventeenth-century illustration printed in
the Album Amicorium or Book of Friendship by Moyses Walen of Cologne, Germany. (© British Library/HIP/Art
Resource, NY)

Mistletoe 313
At last, stopping near the castle walls of witches while protecting the wearer from fits,
Duke Leopold, Blondel sang the king’s song fever, tremors, and poison. It also was thought
once more. This time, he heard a voice take up to promote fertility. Mistletoe was used as a
the refrain. He recognized the voice of Richard. treatment for convulsions and nervous disor-
The king told Blondel to let the English people ders, and it had some use as a vasodilator and
know where he was being held prisoner, and sedative until the 1950s. Medical research
the minstrel immediately set off on this mis- showed that mistletoe had promise for treating
sion. Soon after, King Richard was set free. some cancers, hypertension, vertigo, epilepsy,
palsy, and cardiovascular ailments. Research
See also: Griots/Griottes/Jelis; Jongleurs; also confirmed, however, that it is, in fact, poi-
Minnesang/Minnesingers; Troubadours. sonous, so alternatives were developed, and
mistletoe—the miracle drug—disappeared.
Sources Mistletoe’s association with pagan cere-
Bullock-Davies, Constance. Register of Royal and Baronial
Domestic Minstrels, 1272–1327. London: Boydell and
monies meant that it was banned from Christ-
Brewer, 1986. mas ceremonies by the Christian church during
Fenlon, Iain, ed. Early Music History. Vol. 11. Cambridge, the Middle Ages; it is almost never seen even in
UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992. modern churches. A common medieval belief
held that mistletoe was the wood used to make
the crucifix. Cursed, mistletoe was no longer
Mistletoe welcome on Earth and was doomed to live as a
parasite growing on trees.
M istletoe is a semiparasitic plant that

grows on tree trunks and branches and
sometimes kills its host tree. A great deal of
It was not until the seventeenth century
that people became more open about their
fondness for mistletoe. Kissing under the
lore has accumulated about it that has nothing mistletoe came about because of the belief
to do with its scientific nature. that mistletoe’s curative powers would cure a
For centuries, mistletoe was thought to be broken heart and soothe the differences be-
sacred by the Celtic people, since it grew on tween quarreling lovers. In France, the custom
the sacred oak tree. Five days after the winter linked to mistletoe was reserved for New
solstice, which takes place around December Year’s Day: “au gui l’an neuf ” (mistletoe for the
21 each year, druids would ritually cut the New Year).
mistletoe with golden sickles. The cut plants While mistletoe is no longer used to ward
would be caught on white cloth and not al- off baby thieves or to promote dreams of im-
lowed to touch the ground. mortality, the romantic concept of kissing un-
Mistletoe also was used to welcome the der the mistletoe has survived through the
New Year and to ward off evil. Mistletoe was ages. Every year, mistletoe is collected and
hung over a baby’s cradle to prevent theft by used as a Christmas ornament, and every
fairies, and it was believed that mistletoe pro- year, children and family pets become ill from
moted dreams that unlocked the secrets of the poisonous berries.
immortality.
When hung in the home, mistletoe symbol- See also: Motifs.
ized purity and strength and promoted happi- Sources
ness, romance, and peace. Custom called for Kelly, Walter K. Curiosities of Indo European Tradition and
enemies to meet beneath the mistletoe to throw Folklore. Whitefish, MT: Kessinger, 2004.
down their weapons and embrace. Richardson, Susan E. Holidays and Holy Days: Origins,
Customs, and Insights on Celebrations Through the Year.
Mistletoe was believed to possess medici- London: Vine, 2001.
nal properties. When worn, mistletoe had the Roesdahl, Else. The Viking. Rev. ed. New York: Penguin,
extraordinary power to ward off demons and 1999.

314 Moon’s Reflection
Sources
Moon’s Reflection Aesop. The Complete Fables. Trans. Robert Temple and
Olivia Temple. New York: Penguin, 1998.
A common theme in folktales and fables Clouston, W.A. The Book of Noodles: Stories of Simpletons.
New York: A.C. Armstrong and Son, 1888.
from around the world is that of the Shah, Idries. The Pleasantries of the Incredible Mullah
Moon’s reflection and the various mishaps Nasreddin. New York: Plume, 1971.
that occur to foolish humans and animals Thompson, Stith. One Hundred Favorite Folktales. Bloom-
who do not recognize the reflection for what ington: Indiana University Press, 1968.
it is.
In tale variants found across Europe and
the Near East, a foolish man saw a cow “drink” Morgan le Fay
the Moon’s reflection. When the Moon was
hidden behind a cloud and the man could not
see it in the water, he was sure that the cow had
eaten the Moon. In some of the variants, the
I n Arthurian lore, Morgan le Fay is a major
female character who is often the enemy of
King Arthur. She is also, in the standard
unfortunate cow is then butchered by the fool tellings, Arthur’s half-sister, the daughter of
in a vain search for the Moon so that he can Arthur’s mother, Igraine, and her first hus-
throw it back into the sky where it belongs. band, Gorlois. She has two older sisters,
In another version known in the Near Elaine and Morgause. Morgan is said to be un-
East, a fool saw the Moon’s reflection and happily married to King Urien of Gore and to
thought that the Moon had fallen into the wa- have a son, Owain.
ter. He tried to lasso it in order to drag it to Her name, Morgan le Fay or Morgan the
safety, but he fell into the water himself. In the Fairy, implies an older tradition. She actually
midst of his floundering, he saw the Moon up may have been a fairy in oral tradition, and
in the sky and was sure that he had succeeded she was definitely an enchantress.
in freeing it. Geoffrey of Monmouth’s Vita Merlini (Life
Sometimes, it is the Moon itself that is not of Merlin; c. 1150) gives her first appearance in
recognized for what it is. In a Slavic and Greek print. Geoffrey states that Morgan was the first
tale, a fool traveled to another town and of nine sisters who ruled Avalon, the Island of
greeted the Moon there as something he had Apples or the Fortunate Isle and that she was a
never seen before, since it could not possibly healer as well as a shape-changer. Geoffrey
be the same Moon that shone over his home- adds the element, also used by the twelfth-
town. century French writer Chrétien de Troyes, that
In some tales, the Moon’s reflection is not when Arthur was gravely wounded and taken
recognized as belonging to the Moon at all. A to Avalon, it was Morgan who healed him.
fool or foolish animal may have thought that Some researchers believe that Morgan orig-
the reflection was a cheese, and jumped into inally was a beneficent figure, and she became
the water to seize it. This version is wide- darker and more sinister only in the thirteenth
spread, with variants in Europe and Africa, as century. This change may have been the result
well as in North America. of the influence of medieval Christianity, in
The Greek fabulist Aesop also used this which the idea of a benign enchantress could
idea. One of his fables tells of a dog that saw not be accepted. In various texts, Morgan
the bone he had in his jaws reflected in the wa- brewed magic potions to overcome knights,
ter. Not realizing what he was seeing, the dog tried to seduce Lancelot, and became the en-
tried to get that bone, too. Instead of getting emy of both Arthur and Guinevere.
two bones, the dog got none. Sir Thomas Malory’s Le morte d’Arthur
(1485) portrays Morgan as furious with Arthur
See also: Fables. for slaying one of her lovers. So she used all

Mother Goddess/Earth Mother 315
the means, magical and human, she could other deities of a particular pantheon and as
muster to destroy him. When she could not the protector of mortal maternity—both hu-
get her lover Accolon to kill Arthur with the man and animal.
powerful sword Excalibur, she had to settle for The following examples of mother god-
throwing its scabbard, which could ward off dess figures reflect the diversity of her repre-
all wounds for its wielder, into a lake. sentation in mythology:
Modern Arthurian tradition, up until the
second half of the twentieth century, darkened • In Greek mythology, Gaia, also spelled
Morgan’s role even more. She became the se- Gaea, is the living earth. Gaia gave
ducer of her half-brother, Arthur, and gave birth to the sky and ocean and all liv-
birth to the wicked Mordred, who eventually ing things—gods, monsters, animals,
brought about the king’s downfall. But in the and plants. Today, Western scientists
earlier texts, it was Morgause, Morgan’s older use the name Gaia to refer to the the-
ory that Earth’s many ecosystems act
sister, who was the seducer and the mother of
as one organism to control the envi-
Mordred.
ronment.
In the second half of the twentieth century,
with the rise of the feminist movement, Mor- • The Irish Celtic mother goddess is
gan’s character was reexamined and thought to Danu, mother of the Irish deities and
head of the Irish race of gods, Tuatha
be a Celtic goddess. In other modern usage, the
Dé Danann (“People of the goddess
eerie mirage that forms when a layer of warm
Danu”).
air coats a layer of cold air is named fata mor-
gana, after Morgan le Fay. • The Teutonic mother goddess is Erda,
also spelled Urd, from which the
See also: Avalon; King Arthur. word earth is derived. Like Gaia, Erda
is said to have brought forth all living
Sources things.
Chrétien de Troyes. Arthurian Romances. Trans. William • In Ancient Egyptian mythology, the
W. Kibler and Carleton W. Carroll, New York: Pen-
goddess Isis, who may or may not have
guin Classics, 1991.
Geoffrey of Monmouth. Life of Merlin. Ed. and trans. Basil created life, is the protector of married
Clarke. Cardiff, UK: University of Wales Press, 1973. love and maternal care.
Hopson, Kathryn M. Re-Visioning Morgan le Fay: A Unify- • In Nigeria, Ala is the Ibo goddess of
ing Metaphor for the Image of Woman in Twentieth Cen-
the earth. She is the mother of all
tury Literature. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan
Press, 1993. things and the goddess of death.
Malory, Sir Thomas. Le morte d’Arthur. Ed. Janet Cowen. • In pre-Islamic Arabia, the mother god-
Baltimore: Penguin Classics, 1969. dess was named Allat, which means
simply “the goddess.”
Mother Goddess/ • In Hindu belief, Devi is the divine
mother who takes on many names and
Earth Mother forms, from Durgha the warrior to gen-
tle Parvati.
• Sri is the Indonesian mother goddess,
(European) mother of the earth and the people of
T he primal figure of the mother goddess is

found in many of the world’s mythologies
in various forms and guises. She is generally
Java. As the goddess of rice, she is the
Rice Mother and the Rice Bride.
• In Aztec mythology, Coatlicue, whose
seen as the life force of Earth, often as the name means “she who wears the
mother of all that lives. In many cases, the serpent skirt,” is the earth mother and
mother goddess is seen as the mother of the mother of the Aztec god of war,

316 Mother Goose
Huitzilopochtli. Coatlicue’s children with Morals. The book included his versions of
conspired to kill her, as they feared her familiar tales such as “Cinderella” and “Sleep-
endless fecundity. But Huitzilopochtli ing Beauty.” What makes the work interesting
killed his brothers and sisters who had in regard to Mother Goose is the frontispiece,
plotted to slaughter his mother. which shows an engraving of an old woman
sitting before a fireplace, telling stories to three
In these forms and countless others, the children. On the wall is a sign that says, “Con-
mother goddess is truly a ubiquitous cultural tes de ma mere l’oye,” or “Stories of My
icon. Mother Goose.”
When an English-language edition was
See also: Demeter and Persephone; Inanna/ published in 1729, a similar engraving was in-
Ishtar; Isis; Tiamat; Wurusemu. cluded. The sign on the wall now read,
“Mother Goose’s Tales.” The work was reis-
Sources sued in 1768 as Mother Goose’s Tales. In 1781, an-
James, E.O. The Cult of the Mother-Goddess. New York: other collection of rhymes that included some
Barnes and Noble, 1994.
songs from Shakespeare’s plays was published
Jayakar, Pupul. The Earth Mother: Legends, Goddesses, and
Ritual Arts of India. San Francisco: Harper and Row, under the title Mother Goose’s Melody. By the
1990. time this book reached the United States in
Keenan, Sheila. Gods, Goddesses, and Monsters: An Ency- 1786, the name of Mother Goose had been
clopedia of World Mythology. New York: Scholastic,
2000.
Mother Goose
(European)
M other Goose is the name of a nursery

character familiar to children and adults
throughout Europe and North America. She is
represented either as an old woman with a
crooked nose and large chin, usually telling
stories to a group of children, or as a blatantly
witchlike figure—an old woman with a tall hat
and a magic wand, riding through the air on
the back of a goose.
The earliest literary mention of a Mother
Goose is in the French work La Muse Historique,
published in 1650. Within it is a phrase,
“Comme un conte de la Mere Oye,” which
means “Like a story from the Mother Goose.”
The fact that the phrase needed no explanation Mother Goose tells her stories to a group of children
indicates that the idea of a Mother Goose story- and the French author Charles Perrault. This illustra-
teller likely predates this publication. tion is from Perrault’s collection of Mother Goose tales,
In 1697, French writer and courtier Charles Histoires ou contes du temps passé, avec des moral-
ités: Contes de ma Mère l’Oye (Histories or Tales of
Perrault published his famous collection of Past Times, with Morals: Tales of Mother Goose). (The
eight folktales, Histories or Tales of Past Times, Pierpont Morgan Library/Art Resource, NY)

Motif Index 317
firmly established. Since then, many collec- that they claimed looked like a brown, winged
tions of nursery rhymes have borne her name. human taking off and flying overhead.
Most of the rhymes and verses in the vari- This vision was followed by a second
ous Mother Goose books were already well- sighting on the night of November 15, when
known before they were formally published. two young couples in a car swore they had
Within the rhymes, scholars have found traces seen a manlike, gray, winged figure with eerie
of folk songs, folk beliefs, street cries, and red eyes. As they drove off at high speed, the
even political satire. creature took off and flew with them for a
Whether there was ever a historic Mother time before finally turning away. That same
Goose is open to debate. Some theories try to evening, another sighting was made, and a
link her with Queen Bertha, the mother of the dog that was barking at the mysterious figure
French ruler Charlemagne. Queen Bertha, disappeared.
who died in 783 C.E., was nicknamed Bertha The media promptly dubbed the strange
Big-Foot, Queen Goose-Foot, or Goose-Footed figure Mothman, which is the name of a villain
Bertha. But there is no hard evidence to prove from the Batman comic book series. The crea-
such a link. ture was described as anywhere from 5 to 7 feet
There also was a theory that suggested (1.7 to 2.3 meters) tall, with batlike wings, red
that Mother Goose was a woman named Eliz- eyes, and brown or gray skin. He also was said
abeth Goose. She lived in colonial Boston and to make a humming or screeching sound as he
told her grandchildren rhymes from her own flew.
childhood. These rhymes were supposed to Sightings of Mothman continued through-
have been published in 1719 under the title out West Virginia until the end of 1967, when
Songs for the Nursery, or Mother Goose’s Melodies. the sightings ceased. The Mothman phenome-
But no scholar has found a trace of such a non has been explained by some as various
book. This lack of evidence has not stopped large owls that appeared larger and more
visitors from stopping at what they believe to manlike in the darkness.
be Elizabeth Goose’s grave. The grave is un- The 2002 movie The Mothman Prophecies,
marked. based on a book of the same name, is a haunt-
ing version of Mothman’s brief existence.
See also: Nursery Rhymes.
Sources
Baring-Gould, William S., and Ceil Baring-Gould, eds.
Sources
The Annotated Mother Goose. New York: C.N. Potter,
Cohen, Daniel. A Modern Look at Monsters. New York:
1962.
Dodd, Mead, 1970.
Delamar, Gloria T. Mother Goose: From Nursery to Litera-
Jones, James Gay. Haunted Valley and More Folktales. Par-
ture. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1987.
sons, WV: McClain Print, 1994.
Keel, John A. The Mothman Prophecies. New York: Satur-
day Review, 1975.
Mothman
(North American)
Motif Index
M othman is an example of modern re-
gional folklore. The story originated in
the late 1960s in West Virginia.
A motif index is an established classifica-
tion system that categorizes and assigns
numbers to specific details in stories. Story-
On November 12, 1966, near Clendenin, tellers use motif indexes in their research. The
West Virginia, five men were in a cemetery index provides story variants that address spe-
digging a grave. The men glimpsed something cific situations or characters, such as stories

318 Motif Index
about snow or stories about cruel parents. M. Ordaining the Future

These reference works also can help to differ- N. Chance and Fate
entiate culturally determined motifs from em- P. Society
bellishments, such as the magical helper as the
Q. Rewards and Punishments
general motif and the fairy godmother as the
embellishment. R. Captives and Fugitives
The motif index most often used by story- S. Unnatural Cruelty
tellers and other individuals is the Motif-Index of T. Sex
Folk-Literature, established by American folk- U. The Nature of Life
lore scholar Stith Thompson. This index, which V. Religion
was based on the work of the Finnish folklorist W. Character Traits
Anti Aarne, was the first comprehensive orga-
X. Humor
nization of story motifs. It was originally pub-
lished in 1928 and was revised in 1961. Z. Miscellaneous
Thompson’s index is organized by broad
Following are some examples from Thomp-
categories that are assigned alphabetic letters
son’s index:
(A = Mythological Motifs, B = Animals, and so
on). These categories are further divided into Action motif K911.5: Feigning deafness
subcategories that are assigned a numeric range to lure enemy close and to kill him
(B0–B99 = Mythical Animals, B100–B199 =
Magic Animals, and so on). Within these sub- Object motif A791: Origin of rainbows
categories, individual motifs are assigned spe- Relationship motif E323.2: Dead
cific numbers, and derivative or related motifs mother returns to help persecuted
are then given decimals within that whole- daughter
number classification (B81 = Mermaid; B81.2 = Character motif F311.1: Fairy god-
Mermaid marries man; B81.2.1 = Mermaid has mother
son by human father). Concept motif H45: Hospitality re-
This organization leads to a multilayered warded
system of classification, which is flexible and
Story structure motif Z11: Endless tales
immensely expandable for adding future mo-
tifs. Most other motif indexes follow the style of For storytellers, two other helpful motif in-
the Motif-Index of Folk-Literature and use the fol- dexes are The Storyteller’s Sourcebook: A Subject,
lowing categories. (Note: The letters I, O, and Y Title, and Motif Index to Folklore Collections for
were not included in the original index.) Children (1982), by Margaret Read MacDonald,
and The Storyteller’s Sourcebook: A Subject, Title,
A. Mythological Motifs and Motif Index to Folklore Collections for Children,
B. Animals 1983–1999 (2001), which supplements the first
edition, by MacDonald and Brian Sturm. Both
C. Tabus
of these storyteller’s sourcebooks contain con-
D. Magic
venient subject indexes and also organize the
E. The Dead stories by their geographical origin.
F. Marvels
See also: Thompson, Stith.
G. Ogres
H. Tests Sources
J. The Wise and the Foolish Baugham, Ernest W. Type and Motif Index of the
Folktales of England and North America. Indiana
K. Deception University Folklore Series. Vol. 20. The Hague:
L. Reversal of Fortune Mouton, 1966.

Myster y Lights 319
MacDonald, Margaret Read. The Storyteller’s Sourcebook: Thompson, Stith. Motif-Index of Folk-Literature. 1928. Rev.
A Subject, Title, and Motif Index to Folklore Collections ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1961.
for Children. Detroit: Gale Research, 1982.
MacDonald, Margaret Read, and Brian W. Sturm. The
Storyteller’s Sourcebook: A Subject, Title, and Motif Index
to Folklore Collections for Children, 1983–1999. Farm- Mystery Lights
ington Hills, MI: Gale Group. 2001.
C
Thompson, Stith. Motif-Index of Folk-Literature. 1928. ertain natural phenomena, such as the
Rev. ed., Bloomington: Indiana University Press,
1961.
light energy produced by gas eruptions in
swamps or mirages caused by a layer of warm
air over a layer of cold air, are described by
Motifs nonscientists as mystery lights. Folklore, how-
ever, has assigned special meanings to these
eerie lights. When the lights are seen in grave-
M otifs are dominant ideas or central
themes in literature, music, or visual art.
In literature, the term motif is applied to a re-
yards, they are called corpse lights. They also
are said to appear wherever a tragedy is to
occur.
curring theme. Musicians use motif to describe
But some of the lights and images have
a phrase that may recur throughout or charac-
been given personas by the folk process, and
terize a piece. And artists refer to a design motif,
these can be used by storytellers. Following
a basic artistic image that appears in more
are stories of three of the most famous of these
than one work by a particular artist.
lights.
The story “Cinderella” contains several
motifs, including the fairy godmother and the
slipper, which are basic story parts that also Will-o’-the-Wisp
appear in other stories. Folklorists have cre- A British creation, Will-o’-the-Wisp is said to
ated sources that categorize story motifs and be a creature, sometimes a former human,
assign numbers to them. whose light leads travelers astray, generally
The most widely used reference work of into danger in the marshes.
this type is the Motif-Index of Folk-Literature One version of the folklore claims that
(1928), compiled by Stith Thompson. Those there is more than one Will-o’-the-Wisp, and
looking for story elements to combine or who that they are malevolent spirits. Another ver-
are interested in the universality of stories, sion portrays Will-o’-the-Wisps as dead souls
particularly of traditional narratives, would be of people who were too bad for heaven and
inspired by this thorough classification system, too good for hell. They are doomed to wander
which shows the common threads in stories and lead travelers to harm.
that bind humanity together. Still another version claims that there is
only one Will-o’-the-Wisp. A sinful man, he
See also: Tale Types. also was neither bad enough to be doomed
nor good enough to be saved, and so he takes
Sources
Baugham, Ernest W. Type and Motif Index of the Folktales
out his frustration by misleading travelers.
of England and North America. Indiana University
Folklore Series. Vol. 20. The Hague, The Nether- Jack-o’-Lantern
lands: Mouton, 1966.
MacDonald, Margaret Read. The Storyteller’s Sourcebook: In Irish folklore, Jack, or Stingy Jack, was a
A Subject, Title, and Motif Index to Folklore Collections mean fellow who played nasty tricks on every-
for Children. Detroit, MI: Gale Research, 1982. one, even on the devil. Jack trapped the devil
MacDonald, Margaret Read, and Brian W. Sturm. The
Storyteller’s Sourcebook: A Subject, Title, and Motif Index
in a tree by placing crosses all around it. He let
to Folklore Collections for Children, 1983–1999. Farm- the devil go free only when he agreed never to
ington Hills, MI: Gale Group, 2001. take Jack’s soul.

320 Myster y Stor ies
When Jack died, his soul was not good formal detective characters in the late nine-
enough to go to heaven, and hell refused to teenth century, such as Sir Arthur Conan
take him. So he wandered from that day on, Doyle’s Sherlock Holmes.
with an ember of hellfire in a hollowed-out There are several types of mystery. The
turnip for a lantern. police procedural tries to get as close to real-
When this story traveled with Irish immi- life police work as is fictionally possible. This
grants to the New World, the turnip became a genre is often tough and gritty. Courtroom
pumpkin, the ancestor of the carved pump- dramas also stay reasonably close to reality as
kins seen in Halloween celebrations. the mystery is solved. Private-eye stories fea-
ture a private detective, usually one who is
Fata Morgana down on his or her luck or who carries some
Fata morgana, another term for “mirage,” is personal flaw. Spy stories were quite popular
named for Morgan le Fay. She was the en- in the era of the Cold War from the 1940s to
chantress in Arthurian lore who was said to be the 1980s.
skilled in the art of changing shape. In some Mysteries set in small towns, often in rural
traditions, she was King Arthur’s sister and Britain, feature comfortable characters as de-
learned many of her skills from Merlin the tectives, such as retired librarians or authors.
magician. These stories are called cozies.
A fata morgana does, indeed, sometimes Historical mysteries are set in any time pe-
look like a castle half in the air, half in the sea, riod prior to the current one. There also are
and so the story grew that this was actually specialized mysteries, such as sports or cook-
Morgan le Fay’s castle. Sometimes, is it said ing mysteries, and mysteries in which pet cats
that the enchantress made this castle appear to or dogs are major characters. Some mysteries
be reflected in the air, thus causing seamen have been set in the future, aboard spaceships
who mistook it for a safe harbor to be lured to or in other worlds.
their deaths. Mysteries can be set almost anywhere a
crime could be committed and solved—from
See also: Motifs. the proverbial locked room to an English
manor or a college library.
Sources
Guiley, Rosemary. The Encyclopedia of Ghosts and Spirits. See also: Fantasy; Horror; Romance; Science
New York: Facts on File. 1992. Fiction.
Joshi, S.T., and Stefan Dziemianowicz. Supernatural Liter-
ature of the World: An Encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Sources
Greenwood, 2005. Haining, Peter. Mystery!: An Illustrated History of Crime and
Detective Fiction. New York: Stein and Day, 1981.
Herbert, Rosemary, et al., eds. The Oxford Companion to
Mystery Stories Crime and Mystery Writing. New York: Oxford Uni-
Knight, Stephen. Crime Fiction, 1800–2000: Detection,
M ystery stories revolve around an un-

solved fictional crime and the search for
the perpetrator. The thrill for mystery readers
Death, Diversity. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
lies in attempting to solve the crime before the Mythography

fictional detective does.
The American short-story author Edgar
Allan Poe was one of the first to explore the
mystery genre, in works such as The Murders in
M ythography is the representation of myth-
ical subjects in art or a critical compila-
tion of myths. This definition was expanded in
the Rue Morgue (1841). The crime novel’s most the mid-nineteenth century to mean the study
significant development was the advent of of myth through anthropological, literary, and

Mythography 321
psychoanalytical approaches. It is an interest- Russian folklorist Vladimir Propp (1895–

ing subject for storytellers who use psychologi- 1970) studied structuralism, or how the narra-
cal elements in their tales, or for psychoanalysts tive elements of myth are arranged. He looked
using storytelling in patient therapies. for elements he called functions, which are
One of the most important figures in units of action—hero leaves home, hero finds
mythography was English scholar and folklorist magical object, and so on. Propp identified
Sir James Frazer (1854–1941). His best-known many functions in Morphology of the Folktale
work is The Golden Bough (1890), a work of com- (1968). While not every function is present in
parative anthropology, folklore, and religion. every story, those that are featured hold certain
Frazer’s “myth and ritual” approach viewed consistent relationships to one another in a
myths as explanations for rituals. story. For instance, the hero might leave his
While this was a useful beginning, Frazer’s home, encounter someone in need of help, and
studies did not go far enough into the connec- later be helped in turn. This sequence cannot
tion between myth and ritual. A workable change, although other functions might inter-
form of a myth-and-ritual theory suggests that vene; for example, before the hero is helped,
rituals need myths to give the rituals a set of he might be involved in another subplot.
beliefs, and myths are more useful as sacred Another development of mythography
stories when they are circulated during rituals came out of the work of the Austrian neurolo-
(oral narrations, dramatic presentations, and gist Sigmund Freud (1856–1939). In his work
the like). The Interpretation of Dreams (1899), Freud states
Mircea Eliade (1907–1986), a philosopher that humans share universal experiences and,
and expert on religions, used Jung’s ideas of ar- therefore, also share the way they think. Fur-
chetypes in his Patterns in Comparative Religion ther, he states that humans worldwide have
(1958) to discover parallels among the myths of many of the same kinds of dreams because of
different societies. Eliade also developed a the- the shared human experience. Familiar pat-
ory of so-called sacred time and space. He terns in myths are similar to Freud’s “typical
stated that myths and contemporary society are dreams.”
connected because the reenactment of myth Like Freud, the psychologist Carl Jung
during religious rituals re-creates, in a sense, (1842–1896) considered dream symbols a
the primordial mythological events of a reli- form of shared human inheritance. According
gion and establishes the guidelines for contem- to Jung, myths incorporate repeated patterns
porary life. that he called archetypes, basic symbols such
Anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski as the wise old man or the great mother,
(1884–1942) observed and recorded the role which existed in what he called our collective
of myth in Melanesian society, where the ori- unconscious, the shared human experience.
gins of everyday customs and institutions were One of the newest approaches to analyz-
explained in myths. Malinowski, much like ing myths is the feminist approach, in which
Eliade, concluded that myths are charters for the traditional roles prescribed for men and
contemporary behavior. women in myth are investigated. For in-
Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908–) is a French stance, in the Judeo-Christian Genesis myth,
anthropologist who worked on a cross-cultural the creation of the woman Eve from the man
comparison of myths in his Introduction to a Adam might be seen as justification for the
Science of Mythology (four volumes, first pub- establishment of a patriarchal political sys-
lished as Mythologiques, 1964–1971; English tem and for prescribing a subservient role for
edition, 1969–1981). Lévi-Strauss showed how women. Additionally, feminist approaches
the stories of so-called primitive people were may reevaluate some myths in less sexist
rich in complexity, and how alternative ways ways.
of life could be safely explored in narrative. Wade Tarzia

322 Mythology
See also: Mythology. Myths as Sacred History

Sources The sacred history of a culture generally in-
Doty, William G. Mythography: The Study of Myths and volves a past in which supernatural events oc-
Rituals. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, curred in an otherworld and events involving
1986.
Dundes, Alan, ed. Sacred Narrative. Berkeley: University
gods or supernatural beings shaped current re-
of California Press, 1984. ality. Mythic history provides justification for
Eliade, Mircea. Myth and Reality. Trans. William R. Trask. customs that are based on their origin in
New York: Harper and Row, 1963. mythic times. In explanation of a tradition,
———. Patterns in Comparative Religion. Trans. Rosemary
elders of many cultures might simply say, “We
Sheed. New York: World Press, 1958.
Frazer, James G. The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic do now as we have always done, since the be-
and Religion. Abridged ed. New York: Macmillan, ginning of time.”
1963. The sacred past is represented in myth
Graf, Fritz. Greek Mythology: An Introduction. Trans. and ritual. What the gods or other primordial
Thomas Marier. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity Press, 1993. beings enacted long ago is resurrected in the
Jung, Carl G., and C. Kerényi. Essays on a Science of present. This may done be through the per-
Mythology: The Myth of the Divine Child and the Myster- formance of ceremonies that can be quite
ies of Eleusis. Trans. R. Hull. Princeton, NJ: Prince- elaborate or as simple as the Christmas story
ton University Press, 1963.
Propp, Vladimir. Morphology of the Folktale. Trans. Lau-
performed as a children’s play. Such myths
rence Scott. Austin: University of Texas Press, and rituals help maintain societal order by
1968. retelling the acts of the gods, reaffirming com-
munity ideals.
Myths narrated in public rituals during
Mythology times of upheaval, such as famine, war, or the
succession of a new leader, may have a calming
effect. A crisis disorders society. The cosmic
M ythology is the body of sacred stories
that serve to explain the belief system
of a culture. These traditional stories, called
and social models preserved in myths may help
to emphasize peace in time of war or serve to
myths, occur in all societies around the world. legitimize political succession, thus restoring
The word mythology also refers simply to the a sense of social cohesion.
study of myths.
Myths describe each culture’s beliefs about
Myths and Social Values
the acts of supernatural beings to create Earth Mythic characters exemplify the ideals of a so-
and all aspects of nature, including celestial ob- ciety. They either create or reside in a world
jects, geography, animal and plant life, and hu- that resembles the mortal world and behave
man life, growth, and death. Myths also explain ideally in that world.
the social aspects of a culture, including morals, Some deities, such as Thor, the Norse god
roles, and customs. Thus, myths record shared of thunder, are exemplary and true to their
beliefs that help communities maintain a com- culture’s social values. Thor is a completely
mon identity. trustworthy protector of the Norse cosmos. In
Myths serve many functions, from the the Norse myth of Thor’s hammer, the gods
general to the specific. General functions may lose the hammer and conspire to get it back
lie in the psychological support they provide. by marrying off the goddess Freya to the Gi-
Myths may answer such questions as “What is ants. Freya refuses, maintaining the sexual
our purpose?” or “Why must we die?” More honor of her society.
specific functions may include providing a But supernatural beings cannot always be
model for ways of living that are acceptable to placed into the categories of good and evil.
society. Many myths are less straightforward and tell of

Mythology 323
imperfect acts by the gods, as in the double Each Native American group has its own
standards of Zeus or the machinations of Odin. creation myth. In the Maidu version, creation
A character also might make a mistake that began with total darkness and water every-
leads to a penalty. For example, Aries and where. On the water floated a raft with three
Aphrodite are caught in an adulterous union by mythological people: Turtle, Father of the Se-
the humiliating trap of Hephaestus and, while cret Society, and Earth Initiate. Earth Initiate
in his net, are mocked by all the other gods. had power and knowledge but did nothing un-
til Turtle began asking questions. Turtle
Mythological Themes and Motifs wanted dry land and volunteered to swim to
the bottom of the water. After a long time, he
Although the myths of different societies may
returned with a piece of dirt caught under his
vary in their details, and the types of myths
claw. Earth Initiate made this dirt grow from
that are important vary from culture to cul-
pebble size to arm-span size, and then as large
ture, certain themes transcend culture and ap-
as the world. Having dry land, Turtle then
pear in world mythology. The most general of
complained of the darkness, so Earth Initiate
these universal themes are time, origins,
commanded his sister, the Sun, to rise in the
doomsday, and societal institutions.
east and travel across the sky. When it dark-
Mythological events are set in the past,
ened again, Earth Initiate asked his brother to
generally the remote past. Some myths from
be the Moon.
the Ancient Middle East, Hellenic Greece,
In other myths, the world is created out
and modern culture have in common the con-
of the body of a primordial giant or being. A
cept of a golden age, a time when humanity
Babylonian myth of the second millennium
was believed to have lived under ideal condi-
B.C.E. tells of Marduk, who slew the dragon
tions before degenerating.
Tiamat, and made the two halves of the world,
The theme of origins covers the begin-
heaven and Earth, from her body. In German,
nings of the universe, the world, geographical
or Teutonic, mythology, the universe is cre-
regions or geological formations, animals and
ated out of a giant called Ymir. The mountains
animal behaviors, and humans. The origins of
were made from his bones, the oceans from
fundamental processes of life and death also
his blood, and the clouds from his brains.
are treated in myths. Many societies have
Some stories of creation concern specific
myths concerning the end of the world,
features of the cosmos. The !Kung-san people
whether in a great battle between good and
of southern Africa explain the origin of the
evil or in a flood. Myths concerning the ori-
Moon this way: When the Moon, which is
gins of societal institutions function as justifica-
imagined as one of the First People, stood up,
tion or charter for the institutions of the
the Sun pierced it with a knife. The Moon left
current society that uses the myths.
its backbone behind, which became the cres-
No examples of universal myth types can
cent Moon. The Moon then discovered that it
be found in every society around the world.
became whole again after this death. This cycli-
However, many societies share certain kinds
cal rebirth explains the phases of the Moon.
of myths or features of myths, such as themes
Origins of local features also are ex-
or motifs, because of shared history or shared
plained in myths. In the Kiriwina Islands
human experiences.
near New Guinea, the lives of the inhabitants
often involve ocean voyages in canoes. So
Myths of Creation myths of magical canoes explain certain land-
Myths of creation may concern the creation of scape features. The hero Kudayuri’s flying
the entire cosmos, the world, or specific fea- canoe pierced a beach and thereby created
tures, as in the origin tales of topographical a strait. Another canoe was petrified and be-
features or life forms. came a reef.

324 Mythology
Myths of Doomsday Mythic Protagonists

The end of the world or the cosmos is a myth Certain categories of mythic protagonists stand
that is common to many cultures. Doomsday out in world mythology. There is the protector
is often pictured as a final battle between good deity, such as the Greek Prometheus, who
and evil: a catastrophe of earthquake, fire, and taught humans many arts and gave them fire.
flood, or the resurrection of the dead and a fi- There are culture-hero deities, such as Raven of
nal judgment. the Pacific Northwest who brought sunlight to
The reasons for the coming of doomsday the world.
vary from culture to culture. Western culture Many cultures also feature myths of dying
tends toward concepts of human failings and and resurrected deities. These include Christ’s
divine judgment. Doomsday serves to cleanse sacrifice of himself for humanity and his resur-
mankind, as in the Judeo-Christian deluge rection, and Osiris’s murder by his brother Set
myth. In the East, the world ends as a part of and his resurrection as an agricultural deity.
the natural cycles of endings and beginnings, as In a Trobriander myth of Oceania, the
with the manvantara of Hindu religion. culture-hero protects the people against a
In the Norse story of Ragnarok, the end is human-eating ogre. This story explains the ori-
signaled by human treachery, as brother mur- gin of the practice of cannibalism in that region.
dered brother for profit, spouses were unfaith-
ful, and war broke out. The Jotun, a race of Tricksters
giants who were the ancient enemies of the
Aesir, the gods, fought and died along with Trickster figures are common throughout the
their enemies. The world was destroyed, but a world. They take many forms, both human
new, fair, and green Earth arose. A handful of and animal. They may be playful, foolish, mis-
descendants of gods and humans remained chievous, and sometimes harmful. Through
and were given a chance of renewal. their actions, the world is created or revealed.
They may bring light to humanity, for exam-
Reflecting Society ple, but they also may bring death.
Tricksters enact the extremes of human
The majority of myths involve the actions of behavior. By doing so, they discover the fea-
supernatural characters who perform various tures of nature and our limits in both the natu-
roles from creator deities to culture-hero deities. ral and social world. The extreme behaviors
The roles played by mythic characters generally depicted in folk narratives emphasize what ac-
relate to the society that originated the myth. ceptable behaviors are in society.
Complex societies with elite social classes One well-known trickster is the Coyote of
that include kings, chiefs, and nobles have di- Native American myths. In one tale, he inad-
vine characters that reflect this social struc- vertently brings death into the world. Coyote
ture, such as the pantheon of the Greeks with initially does not know what death means. He
their ruler, Zeus. Societies with a history of or- thinks it would be better for people to be able
ganized warfare may have myths about battles to grow old and die than to crowd the earth
between different divine or heroic factions, with eternal life. But when his son is bitten by
such as the Aesir and Vanir of Norse myth or the angered rattlesnake and dies, Coyote learns
the factions of the Vedic gods of India. Some the meaning of death. This first death is the
of these struggles involve monsters, and a model for all others.
hero protects the cosmos.
Simpler societies, such as those of hunter-
gatherers, have no rigidly defined political
Mythology, Legends, and Folklore
ranks and little or no organized violence. So Myths are sacred stories that are taken to be
their myths are devoid of these motifs. true, explain a culture’s beliefs, and are set in

Mythology 325
a distant mythological past with gods and when it is compared with science. Yet mythic
demigods as their main characters. Legends thinking is not devoid of realistic thoughts.
are set in the more recent past, possibly only a Humankind’s comprehension of the workings
few years distant, feature local or historic char- of the world is woven into sacred stories. Al-
acters, and may or may not be taken as true. though the methods of science and myth are
Folktales generally are taken to be fiction and not often similar, both can work toward the
tend to feature generic types, such as orphans, same goal. Both attempt to explain the world
princesses, witches, kings, and cowherds. in order to comfort humankind and satisfy its
Legends diverge from myths in that yearning for knowledge.
they may use historical facts and mix in cer- People have various reactions to the myths
tain features of storytelling. While legends of other cultures, ranging from skeptical to
may include the supernatural—King Arthur condescending or scandalized, depending on
sleeps in a cave and will emerge when Britain the degree of cultural bias the observer holds.
needs him, for example—or even gods, they Therefore, myths have been used by early
generally are not primarily about the gods. explorers, colonizers, and missionaries as ex-
Legends also might be stories that are politi- amples of the “primitiveness” of certain indige-
cally or morally useful—as in the story of nous peoples. Today, anthropologists and
George Washington and the cherry tree. Young folklorists delve into the myths of different
George was unable to tell a lie, a supportive cultures with respect for their importance.
belief about a nation’s first leader. Artists and writers have borrowed from
Both myths and legends are sometimes myths when they found their ideas or imagery
confused with folktales, but there are concrete of interest. Historians have used myths as evi-
differences between them. Folktales differ from dence of past events. In such cases, the myths
legends in that the settings are vague and con- may be “demythologized,” a process by which
ventional rather than local. The story may take a historian claims that the mythic elements
place in a castle or on a mountain, but these were historic people and events altered by sto-
places are not geographically defined. In con- rytellers into mythic stature.
trast, myths and legends often are attached to Wade Tarzia
real places, such as Mount Ararat in modern-
day Turkey, where Noah is believed to have See also: Motifs; Mythography; Tale Types.
landed.
Supernatural elements appear in folktales Sources
as well as myths, but in folktales these ele- Bauman, Richard. “Genre.” In Folklore, Cultural Perfor-
mances, and Popular Entertainments. Ed. R. Bauman.
ments function as contrasts to the heroes or as New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
obstacles to be overcome. In a myth, a god Doty, William G. Mythography: The Study of Myths and Rit-
may slay a dragon to create the world from its uals. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1986.
body, but a folktale hero slays a dragon to win Dundes, Alan, ed. Sacred Narrative. Berkeley: University
of California Press, 1984.
the hand of a princess in marriage. Malinowski, Bronislaw. Argonauts of the Western Pacific.
New York: E.P. Dutton, 1961.
Mythology and Cynics Taggart, James M. Nahuat Myth and Social Structure.
Austin: University of Texas Press, 1983.
Myth is sometimes derided as simple false- Thompson, Stith. Tales of the North American Indians.
hood or even just superstition, particularly Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1961.

N
Nagas
(Hindu)

I n Hindu mythology, the thousand nagas were
said to be members of a semidivine serpen-
tine race that lived in the city of Bhogavati in
Patala, the watery underworld. Their ruler’s
name was Sesha.
The nagas took three shapes: serpents, hu-
mans with snake heads, and snakes with human
heads. Because they could take human shape,
some tales told of marriages between naga
women and human men, though these refer-
ences are not common.
The nagas are worshipped as bringers of
fertility, especially in southern India. They
brought rain. So in times of drought, humans
asked for their aid. The nagas do have poison-
ous venom in their snake form, but they rarely
use it. They are not evil beings and do not
harm humans except in self-defense. If suffi-
ciently angered, however, nagas will bring not
just rain, but flood.
There are four classes of naga: heavenly,
divine, earthly, and hidden. These classes cor-
respond to their various functions: guarding
the heavenly palace, giving rainfall, draining
rivers, and guarding treasures. A naga, a half-human half-serpent creature from Bud-
In Malay beliefs, nagas are represented as dhist mythology, protects Buddha. This sacred bejew-
eled bronze figure, of Khmer design, dates to the late
enormous, many-headed dragons. In Java and twelfth or early thirteenth century C.E. (Erich Lessing/
Thailand, a naga is a mythical serpent or Art Resource, NY)
326

Neith/Neit/Nit/Net 327
dragon that sometimes has five heads. These greeted warmly by his father. They shared a
nagas possess immense wealth. meal, and Nanna-Suen set off on his return
trip to Ur.
See also: Snakes. This myth probably reflects an ancient rite
that began in the third millennium B.C.E. In
Sources
Daniélou, Alain. The Myths and Gods of India: The Classic
this myth, a statue of a god was transported
Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen from city to city on a barge for six days before
Series. Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions Internation- arriving in the holy city of Nippur on the sev-
al, 1991. enth day.
Lurker, Manfred. Dictionary of Gods and Goddesses, Devils
Ira Spar
and Demons. New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul,
1987.
Sources
Nanna-Suen/Sin Hawker, E. Robson, J. Taylor, and G. Zólyomi. The
(Sumerian) Ferrara, A.J. Nanna-Suen’s Journey to Nippur. Rome: Stu-
dia Pohl Series Major 2, 1973.
I n Sumer, during the third millennium B.C.E.,

the moon god was known as Nanna-Suen.
At times, he was referred to as either Nanna or
Suen. In the Akkadian language, during the
Neith/Neit/Nit/Net
second and first millennium B.C.E., he was
called Sin.
(Egyptian)
One of the god’s most important cult
shrines was located in the city of Ur, in present-
day Iraq. In the cuneiform system of referring
N eith was an early Egyptian deity. Her in-
signia is found in art dating from the first
dynasty (c. 3100 B.C.E.), and her name appears
to gods by numbers, his name was written as as an element in personal and royal names of
the number thirty, which referred to the thirty the period. Although she had no regular
days in a lunar month. spouse, Neith was sometimes paired with the
Nanna-Suen was one of the five offspring ram god, Khnum.
of Enlil, the chief Sumerian deity, and his wife, Like many other Egyptian goddesses, Neith
Ninlil. Nanna-Suen’s birth is celebrated in the had a number of complex and seemingly unre-
Sumerian myth Enlil and Ninlil. Another po- lated aspects. She was associated with the an-
etic composition, Nanna-Suen’s Journal to Nip- nual inundation of the Nile and served as
pur, relates the story of the god’s journey from patron goddess of Lower Egypt. Like the Greek
his shrine at Ur to the city of Nippur to receive goddess Athena, Neith was simultaneously the
his father’s blessing. goddess of weaving and the goddess of the
The myth begins with Nanna-Suen’s de- violent arts of warfare and hunting. Neith
cision to go to Nippur and his plan to build a also served as one of the four goddesses who
barge. Nanna-Suen ordered other gods to guarded the throne and the internal organs of
procure the raw materials for his barge, and the deceased.
then he collected an assortment of animals as The earliest records show one of Neith’s
offerings. Nanna-Suen then set out on his cult signs as two bows bound together. An-
journey. other sign was an oval shape crossed by a pair
The barge stopped at six towns before of arrows, which has often been interpreted as
reaching its destination in Nippur. Nanna-Suen a shield. Recent studies show, however, that
approached Enlil’s temple and asked to be ad- pharaonic shields were never this shape and
mitted. The door opened and Nanna-Suen was that these drawings actually depict a pair of

328 Nephthys/Nebthet
click beetles. The click beetle is known for its and Isis. Like Isis, Nephthys was a mourning
ability to right itself when turned upside goddess who attended mummies on their fu-
down and to jump ahead of rising floodwa- neral biers.
ters. This insect occasionally appears as a pro- Nephthys appeared either as a woman,
tective amulet. sometimes with wings, or as a bird of prey.
Later, Neith was seen as the mother of She wore the hieroglyphic writing of her
both the crocodile god, Sobek, and the sun name, which is a basket atop the sign for house,
god, Re. The latter role meant that she was on her head. She also appeared in temple re-
also mother of the world. In the first century liefs and in certain tales at the birth of a king.
of the common era, Neith was considered a In texts dating from 2513 B.C.E., Nephthys
mysterious and unknowable creator goddess. was called the “substitute without a vagina.”
She was one-third female and two-thirds male The only child credited to her was the jackal
and embodied all that is, has been, and will god, Anubis, whom she conceived with Osiris.
be. At this time, however, her cult center was Nephthys abandoned the baby out of fear of
largely confined to the city of Sais. Earlier, her husband, Seth.
she had been an important goddess through- Nephthys helped Isis bind together the dis-
out Egypt. membered Osiris, who had been slain by Seth.
When Horus and Seth vied for the throne With Isis, Neith, and the scorpion goddess, Ser-
of Horus’s father, Osiris, the gods prevailed ket, Nephthys guarded the remains of the de-
upon Neith for judgment. She sided with Horus ceased.
but advocated for special compensation for Nephthys had no cult or temple of her
Seth. own. In Greek myth, she became Aphrodite
Noreen Doyle and Nike (Victory). Due to her association
with the god of confusion, Seth, the Greeks
Sources also knew her as Teleute, goddess of death.
Hendrickx, Stan. “Two Protodynastic Objects in Brus-
sels and the Origin of the Bilobate Cult-Sign of
Noreen Doyle
Neith.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 82 (1996):
23–42.
Lesko, Barbara. The Great Goddesses of Egypt. Norman: Sources
University of Oklahoma Press, 1999. Griffiths, J. Gwyn, ed. Plutarch’s De Iside et Osiride.
Silverman, David P. “Divinity and Deities in Ancient Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1970.
Egypt.” In Religion in Ancient Egypt: Gods, Myths, and Lesko, Barbara. The Great Goddesses of Egypt. Norman:
Personal Practice. Ed. Byron E. Schafer. Ithaca, NY: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999.
Cornell University Press, 1991. Te Velde, Herman. Seth, God of Confusion. Leiden, The
Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1977.
Nephthys/Nebthet
Nergal
(Egyptian)
N ephthys means “mistress of the house.” The
Egyptian goddess Nephthys was part of
the Ennead of Heliopolis (Nine Gods of He- T he Babylonian god Nergal was identified
with the netherworld and often called the
liopolis). husband of Ereshkigal, the queen of the un-
She was also the daughter of the sky derworld. In some texts, he was associated
goddess, Nut, and the earth god, Geb, and with fevers, plagues, and forest fires.
sister to Osiris, Isis, and Seth. Also consid- In the Babylonian myth Nergal and Ereshki-
ered the wife of Seth, Nephthys was more fre- gal, Nergal became king of the netherworld.
quently associated with the cults of Osiris The poem opens with a banquet celebration.

Nightmares 329
Namtar, minister to Ereshkigal, arrived at the

celestial court requesting that Ereshkigal be Nightmares
sent her share of the food. He was cordially
greeted by all the gods, except for Nergal.
Outraged that her messenger had received I n common usage, the word nightmare refers
to disturbing dreams. The word derives from
Scandinavian folklore, in which a mara was a
such treatment, Ereshkigal threatened to kill
Nergal. Nergal, in turn, decided to go to the type of evil or malicious female spirit.
netherworld. He was protected by seven deities The mara could enter a bedroom through
provided to him by his father, Ea. Ea warned any opening, including a keyhole, and seat her-
his son to turn down any offers of hospitality self on the chest of the sleeper. This spirit would
tendered upon his arrival in the netherworld, ride the individual and cause foul dreams. The
and not to become sexually aroused when he weight of the mara also could result in breath-
saw Ereshkigal disrobe for her bath. ing difficulties or a feeling of suffocation. Mod-
Nergal descended into the netherworld, ern science now calls this generally harmless
where he refused all offers of hospitality. But but alarming sensation sleep paralysis.
he could not resist Ereshkigal. The gods be- In addition to her attacks on humans, the
came lovers. Their lovemaking continued for mara was believed to ride horses. The horses’
six days. On the seventh day, Nergal asked to owner would find them in the morning cov-
leave the netherworld, but Ereshkigal refused. ered in sweat and with their manes tangled.
He then tricked the gatekeeper, fled from the Twisted trees in Sweden, which tradition
underworld, and ascended back to heaven. says the mara also rides, are known as martal-
Concerned that Ereshkigal would pursue lar, or marepines.
Nergal, Ea disguised his son so that he appeared
lame and deformed. When Ereshkigal discov- The Mara in Iceland
ered her lover had fled, she was crushed.
The mara appears in the Icelandic sagas as
Ereshkigal sent Namtar back to heaven with
well. In an excerpt from the Ynglinga Saga,
a message in two parts. First, since Ereshkigal
written by Snorri Sturluson, the ill fortune of
had never before had a lover, she wanted Ner-
Vanlandi Svengidirsson is told.
gal to be her husband. Second, now that she
Vanlandi promised to return to his Finnish
had been defiled, she was unable to render
wife, Driva, but he never did. The angry Driva
judgments for the great gods. She threatened to
asked a witch called Huld to draw Vanlandi
open up the gates of the netherworld and allow
back with sorcery. If she failed, Driva told
the dead to rise up and devour the living.
Huld to kill him.
Nergal returned to the netherworld and
When the spell was cast, Vanlandi felt a
embraced Ereshkigal, and the two made love
strong urge to return to Finland, but his friends
for seven full days and nights. From that time
convinced him to stay. They told him that
forward, Nergal was king of the netherworld.
Finnish sorcery was being worked on him.
When Vanlandi decided not to go, he sud-
Ira Spar
denly became terribly sleepy and cried that the
mara was treading on him. His friends rushed
See also: Death; Erra; Hel. to his head, but the mara broke his feet. They
rushed to his feet, but the mara sat on his head
Sources and smothered him. And so Vanlandi died.
Dalley, Stephanie, trans. Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation,
the Flood, Gilgamesh, and Others. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1989. European Traditions
Foster, Benjamin R. Before the Muses: An Anthology of
Akkadian Literature. 2nd ed. Potomac, MD: CDL, In Germany, an alp or a trud was a being that
1996. could squeeze through the tiniest cracks. One

330 Ninhursanga
tradition claimed that sleeping with an iron Sources

hackle (a type of comb used in preparing flax) Bleek, Wilhelm H.I., and L.C. Lloyd. Specimens of Bush-
would keep the alp away. But there was a risk man Folklore. London: George Allen, 1911.
Davis, F. Hadland. Myths and Legends of Japan. Mineola,
that an alp might turn the hackle so that the NY: Dover, 1992.
points pricked the sleeper.
Other traditions said that alps avoided
shoes turned with the toes pointing toward a
bed. If an alp was caught by a human, it
Ninhursanga
could be made to promise never to bother
that house again. Alps were capable of more
(Sumerian)
than merely bringing bad dreams. One tale
describes an alp making use of a herdsman’s
boat.
N inhursanga, whose name means “lady of
the mountain,” was a Sumerian mother
goddess. Her temple, the E-mah, was located
In Polish mythology, the bringer of night- in the Mesopotamian city of Adab.
mares is the nocnitsa, the night hag, who also The Sumerian myth Enki and Ninhursanga is
goes by the name Krisky or Plaksy. A knife set in the legendary sacred land called Dilmun,
placed in a child’s cradle or a circle drawn prior to the coming of human civilization. The
around the cradle with the knife is said to land is described as virginal and pristine, a
ward off the hag and nightmares. A similar place with no disease, death, or old age.
hag in Bulgarian mythology is named Gorska Enki, god of the underground freshwater
Makua. ocean, mated with the mother goddess Nin-
hursanga and impregnated her. After nine
Other Beliefs days, the equivalent of nine months for hu-
In Japanese mythology, evil dreams are be- mans, Ninhursanga gave birth to a daughter,
lieved to be the result of evil spirits. The super- Ninsar.
natural creature that got rid of such evil spirits Enki spied on his daughter, embraced her,
and changed evil dreams to good was called a and then raped her. Ninsar gave birth to an-
baku, the eater of dreams. other goddess, Ninkura.
The Bushmen of the Kalahari do not have Upon seeing Ninkura, Enki impregnated
a codified evil spirit of nightmares, but they do her as well, producing the spider goddess,
have a traditional way of removing the evil in- Uttu, a goddess of weaving. Ninhursanga
fluence of bad dreams. Someone who has had warned Uttu to beware of Enki’s advances,
a nightmare plunges a stone into the ashes of but Enki disguised himself as a gardener. Of-
the fire upon awakening and tells the evil fering gifts of vegetables and fine fruits, Enki
things in the dream to stay in the fire and not tricked Uttu into allowing him to enter her
follow the dreamer. The latter is done to keep house. Then Enki seduced her.
the evil from coming true. When Enki impregnated Uttu, she cried
Today, psychiatrists and psychologists out in pain to Ninhursanga, who removed
make serious studies of nightmares. These Enki’s semen. From Enki’s seed, eight plants
dreams are seen as the mind’s way of dealing grew, which the voracious Enki devoured. Nin-
with stress or past traumas. In popular culture, hursanga cursed Enki, saying that she would
nightmares are still perceived as terrible things, never again look upon him favorably.
even if many do not believe that nightmares At this point, the text becomes broken and
are caused by evil spirits. In spite of this skepti- difficult to understand. It appears that Enki
cism, dream catchers and other such charms for became ill, and a fox appeared, saying that if
sweet sleep continue to be sold. Enki rewarded him he would bring about rec-
onciliation with the goddess. Enki agreed,
See also: Baku. promising to make the fox renowned.

Ninurta/Ningirsu 331
Later, when Ninhursanga returned, she to him. The Asag, who was described as the
asked the sick Enki which parts of his body offspring of heaven and Earth, one who knew
hurt. Enki named eight parts of his body. The no fear, an all-powerful demon whose flesh
goddess created a divinity from each part. could not be penetrated by either axe or
Enki then announced the destiny of his spear, had been chosen by the plant-people as
four offspring: One would become master of a rival king. The Asag planned to take over
plants; another would become a goddess of Ninurta’s kingdom. The Asag’s warriors, who
brewing who would fill the hearts of humans were made of stone, were raiding the cities
with joy; another would be mistress of the and terrifying the people, forcing them to
month; and the last would become the master make offerings to the Asag.
of the land of Dilmun. He finally declared that
the two divinities not assigned management Ninurta’s Rampage
tasks, and whose names are not recorded,
Ninurta took immediate action. He cast an
should marry.
enormous hurricane before him, which de-
Ira Spar
voured the enemy forces, smashed skulls, and
See also: Mother Goddess/Earth Mother. filled crevasses in the ground with blood. But
he did not find Asag.
Sources Sharur, Ninurta’s animated mace, warned
Black, J.A., G. Cunningham, J. Ebeling, E. Flückiger- Ninurta not to attack the enemy’s main force,
Hawker, E. Robson, J. Taylor, and G. Zólyomi. The which lay waiting in the mountains. But Nin-
urta ignored Sharur and pressed on with his
Jacobsen, Thorkild. The Harps That Once . . . : Sumerian attack.
Poetry in Translation. New Haven, CT: Yale Univer- Suddenly, the Asag counterattacked with
sity Press, 1987. overwhelming power. Sharur the mace flew to
Kramer, Samuel Noah, and John Maier, eds. Myths of
Nippur to get help from Enlil, Ninurta’s father.
Enki, the Crafty God. New York: Oxford University
Press, 1989. Enlil gave his son control of the Storm of
Heaven and a mighty club. This time, Ninurta
had the strength and weapons to attack and
Ninurta/Ningirsu kill the Asag.
Ninurta and the Tigris

The victory completed, Ninurta turned to the
N inurta, also referred to as Ningirsu, is a
Mesopotamian war god who protected
the people of Sumer against their enemies in a
state of the world. At that time, the Tigris
River did not yield an annual flood of fresh-
water, which led to famine. Ninurta solved
number of myths. He is also said to be the god
this problem by diverting the mountain waters
of rain, fertility, war, thunderstorms, wells,
that had been flowing back into the earth. He
canals, floods, the plough, and the south wind.
used the broken stones that were the remains
of the Asag’s rebel forces to make rock beds
Lugale for streams and canals that would carry water
The Sumerian myth called Lugale, or O King, to the Tigris and the fields. Ninurta’s actions
Storm of Majestic Splendor, opens with a descrip- resulted in harvests of fruits and vegetables
tion of Ninurta. The hero possesses superior and fields cultivated with barley.
strength and, as the god of thunderstorms, is a All of this work had kept Ninurta away
deluge, hurling himself at rebellious lands. from home for a long time. His mother, Nin-
Ninurta was enjoying a festival in his mah, missed him and came to visit. Ninurta
honor when a disturbing message was brought renamed her Ninhursag, Lady of the Moun-

332 No-Bigger-than-a-Finger
tain. He praised the fecundity of the moun- content with the honors heaped upon him and
tains and decreed that their meadows would set his sights on ruling the whole world.
produce herbs for her, their slopes would pro- To foil his plans, Enki, the god of wisdom,
duce honey and wine, and their hillsides fashioned a turtle from clay. He placed the tur-
would grow cedar, cypress, juniper, and box- tle at the entrance to the subterranean sweet
wood trees. Ninurta also proclaimed that the waters, where it dug a pit and covered the
mountains would be a source of rich per- opening. Enki lured the unsuspecting Ninurta
fumes, gold, silver, copper, and tin. to the trap, and Ninurta and the turtle both fell
Ninurta then turned to the fate of the stone in. In a literal case of pride going before a fall,
warriors. Those that refrained from assaulting the hero was trapped, and the turtle clawed at
the hero were rewarded, while those that op- Ninurta’s feet.
posed him were given severe fates. Diorite, for Enki taunted Ninurta, asking, “Where has
example, was used as the stone to be worked your strength fled? Where is your heroism? In
into holy statues. Duplicitous flint, which the great mountains you caused destruction,
sided with Asag, also was condemned and was but how will you get out now?”
destined to be smashed into tiny pieces. The rest of the story is fragmentary. Pre-
sumably, a chastened Ninurta was finally res-
The Myth of Anzu cued from the pit.
Ira Spar
In The Myth of Anzu, Ninurta is again depicted
as a hero who protects the gods and people See also: Culture Heroes.
of Sumer from the hostile forces that lurk in
the mountains to the east of Mesopotamia. Sources
Ninurta was called upon to be the gods’ Black, J.A., G. Cunningham, J. Ebeling, E. Flückiger-
champion. He was to rescue the tablet of des- Hawker, E. Robson, J. Taylor, and G. Zólyomi. The
tinies from the evil Anzu bird, who, by steal- Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature. 2006.
ing the tablet, had endangered the stability of Civil, Miguel. The Farmer’s Instructions. Barcelona, Spain:
civilization. Sabadell, 1994.
Ninurta’s heroic deeds against other mon- Cooper, Jerald S. The Return of Ninurta to Nippur. Rome:
sters are also mentioned in this text. He is cred- Pontificium Institutum Biblicum, 1978.
Jacobsen, Thorkild. The Harps That Once . . . : Sumerian
ited with slaying the Kuliana Dragon, Gypsum, Poetry in Translation. New Haven, CT: Yale Univer-
the Strong Copper, the Six-Headed Wild Ram, sity Press, 1987.
Lord Samanana, the Bison Bull, the Palm- Kramer, Samuel Noah, and John Maier. Myths of Enki, the
Tree King, and the seven-headed snake called Crafty God. New York: Oxford University Press,
1989.
mushmahhu. No complete myths are preserved
of his exploits against these monsters, but
representations of his fight with mushmahhu
can be found in Sumerian art. No-Bigger-than-a-Finger
Ninurta and the Turtle (Russian)
The beginning of the myth Ninurta and the Tur-
tle has been lost. At the start of the narrative,
Ninurta has recovered the tablet of destinies,
W hile Tom Thumb may be the most fa-
miliar tiny human being in folklore, he
is not the only one. No-Bigger-than-a-Finger is
the me (the power of the gods that allows civi- a tiny trickster hero and loyal family member
lization to exist), and the gish-hur (the gods’ who originated in Russian folklore.
ideal plans for civilized life), which had been Like Tom Thumb, No-Bigger-than-a-Fin-
stolen by the evil Anzu bird. Ninurta was not ger had an unusual start in life. He was born

Nonsense Rhymes 333
magically when his mother accidentally cut

off her pinky while preparing a pie. Her pain Nonsense Rhymes
turned into joy when the finger instantly
turned into a boy.
The child’s small size did not mar his par- N onsense rhymes are exactly what their
name indicates: They are silly, nonsensi-
cal, and even surreal.
ents’ joy, as they had been childless for many
years. No-Bigger-than-a-Finger proved to be a Nonsense rhymes are entertaining for
good son, too. When he became aware of his adults as well as children. They are also useful
parents’ poverty, he determined to do some- to any storyteller who can manage to recite
thing to correct the situation. the rhymes without stumbling over the often
No-Bigger-than-a-Finger told his father tongue-twisting words—or starting to laugh.
that if anyone wanted to buy his services, it These rhymes provide a verbal release from
must be for a high price. The tiny boy then the more sensible requirements of everyday
leapt up between the plow horse’s ears and life.
whispered commands. Nonsense rhymes are also excellent teach-
A wealthy landowner saw the “wonder ing tools, especially for very young children
horse” plowing without anyone driving it. He who are beginning to master language arts.
asked if the horse was for sale. The wealthy The rhymes are easy to remember and fun to
man learned of No-Bigger-than-a-Finger, hear and say. Often, children enjoy inventing
bought him for enough gold to keep the fam- their own nonsense rhymes.
ily happy forever, and put the tiny boy in his Nonsense rhymes were popular at the end
pocket. of the nineteenth century, when long pseudo-
No-Bigger-than-a-Finger easily escaped recitations were made in which the words
from the man’s pocket but ended up in the only seemed to make sense, as in this brief
middle of a forest. A wolf found the boy and quote:
swallowed him whole but soon regretted this
living meal. Every time the wolf tried to catch I come before you
prey, No-Bigger-than-a-Finger yelled out a To stand behind you
warning. And tell you something
No-Bigger-than-a-Finger and the wolf I know nothing about.
came to an agreement. The wolf took him
home, and No-Bigger-than-a-Finger left the Another version of the pseudo-recitation
wolf alone. In some versions of the story, the was the nonsense created when a familiar
wolf staggered off. In others, No-Bigger-than- story’s words had some letters reversed. For
a-Finger killed the wolf. example, “Cinderella’s Slipper” became “Slin-
Safe at home, No-Bigger-than-a-Finger derella’s Cipper.” A complete recitation of
and his family lived happily ever after. such a reversed fairy tale is not for the faint of
heart or weak of tongue.
See also: Tom Thumb. Some nonsense rhymes are attributed to
authors. This sample is by the nineteenth-
Sources century author Edward Lear, who was famous
Bain, R. Russian Fairy Tales from the Russian of Polevoi. for such rhymes:
London: George Harrap, 1915.
Curtin, J. Myths and Folktales of the Russians. Boston: Lit- I eat my peas with honey,
tle, Brown, 1890.
Lowis of Menar, August von. Russian Folktales. Trans.
I’ve done it all my life.
E.C. Elstob and Richard Barber. London: Bell and It makes the peas taste funny,
Sons, 1971. But it keeps them on the knife.

334 Noodle Tales/Simpleton Tales
Other nonsense rhymes that have no this type were known long before they were
known author but are in the public domain written down. It is likely that early noodle sto-
also can be categorized as folklore. The fol- ries had no other purpose than to amuse, with
lowing sample is familiar to many and, when the exception of those found in Buddhist
analyzed, is a bit on the spooky side: works.
The earliest tales and fables of noodles or
Yesterday upon the stair, simpletons to which an approximate date can
I met a man who wasn’t there. be assigned are those found in the early Bud-
He wasn’t there again today. dhist books, especially in the játakas, or birth
Oh, how I wish he’d go away. stories. Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, is
said to have related the stories to his disciples
Still other nonsense rhymes contain strange as incidents that had involved himself and
elements that may be hundreds of years old. others in former incarnations.
The elements in the following rhyme seem to Many of the játakas tell of silly people and
indicate hints of some long-forgotten ritual: animals. The latter were humans reborn as
beasts, birds, or reptiles. These tales had likely
One fine day in the middle of the night, been shared for ages among the Hindus be-
Two dead boys got up to fight. fore Gautama’s followers wrote them down in
Back to back they faced each other, the first century B.C.E.
Drew their swords and shot each other.
Because the love of nonsense continues to

European Tradition
be part of the human psyche, a storyteller, European noodle stories can often be traced
whether telling to adults or children, may well to the original Buddhist and Indian tales.
want to add a nonsense rhyme to his or her Composed of elements common to the Bud-
repertoire. dhist tales, they have been modified to reflect
local manners and customs. For example, the
See also: Cumulative Rhymes and Tales; Nurs- Indian Brahman becomes a blundering silly
ery Rhymes; Tongue Twisters. son in European versions.
Sources Regionally, the similarity between the
Lear, Edward. The Complete Verse and Other Nonsense. Ed. Italian and Norse stories can be traced to the
Vivien Noakes. New York: Penguin, 2002. influence of the Norsemen on the culture of
Sherman, Josepha, and T.K.F. Weiskopf. Greasy, Grimy southern Europe. An example of a regional
Gopher Guts: The Subversive Folklore of Children. Little
adaptation would be replacing Scottish oat-
Rock, AR: August House, 1995.
meal with polenta or pasta in a tale from
Italy.
Noodle Tales/ The Noodle
Simpleton Tales The typical noodle of popular tales follows
his instructions literally, with a firm convic-
S tories featuring the simpleminded charac-

ters known as “noodles” or “simpletons” are
found throughout the world. These humorous
tion that he is being very clever. The conse-
quences of his actions are almost always
ridiculous. These simpletons show the fallacy
tales point out human foibles and weaknesses. of the old saw that “fools learn by experi-
ence,” for their next folly is sure to be greater
Earliest Record than the last.
The original sources for these tales are for the Generally, very honest and acting with the
most part untraceable. The old Greek tales of best intentions, the noodle is incapable of

Norse Mythology 335
entertaining more than one idea at a time. He

holds fast to a single idea and cannot be di-
verted from it until, by some accident, a fresh
idea displaces it. So on he goes from one
blunder to another.
The noodle’s blunders, which would surely
result in disaster for an ordinary man, some-
times lead him to unexpected good fortune.
Men of intelligence toil painfully to acquire a
mere livelihood, while the noodle stumbles
upon great wealth in the midst of his wildest
adventures.
See also: Fools.
Sources
Clouston, W.A. The Book of Noodles: Stories of Simpletons;
Or, Fools and Their Follies. New York: A.C. Arm-
strong and Son, 1888.
Leach, Maria. Noodles, Nitwits, and Numskulls. Cleveland,
OH: World, 1968.
Schwartz, Alvin. All of Our Noses Are Here, and Other Noo- The Norse deities Odin, Thor, and Frey are portrayed
dle Tales. New York: Harper Trophy, 1985. on a twelfth-century Viking tapestry. Odin carries an
———. There Is a Carrot in My Ear, and Other Noodle Tales. axe, Thor holds his hammer, and Frey has an ear of
New York: Harper and Row, 1982. corn. (Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY)
his body. Audhumla fed on the ice, and her

Norse Mythology licking formed the first of the Aesir, who were
the main Norse deities.
N orse mythology sets out the pre-Christian

beliefs and legends of the people of
Sweden, Denmark, Norway, and Iceland. The
The first god was called Buri. Buri had a
son, Bor, and he, in turn, had Odin, Vili, and
Ve, who slew Ymir and drowned all but two of
myths were passed on exclusively through the frost giants in a flood of blood. The three
oral transmission through the Viking age. gods formed the earth and sky from Ymir’s
The most detailed written record of this body and used the sparks from the fires to
mythology was provided by the Edda, a me- make the Sun, Moon, and stars. They made
dieval Icelandic literary work that lists and the first two humans, Ask (Ash) and Embla
describes the traditional stories. The Prose (Elm), from two logs.
Edda, written by Snorri Sturluson, dates to The end of the world was called Rag-
the early thirteenth century. The Poetic Edda narok, or Gotterdammerung, which means
was written half a century later by an anony- “the doom of the gods.” This, the final battle
mous author. between good and evil, would lead to the de-
struction of the entire cosmos. This event
The Beginning and the End would be followed by the creation of a new
and better cosmos.
At first, there was only emptiness, ice, and fire.
The heat of the fire melted some of the ice into
two primal figures, Ymir the giant and Aud-
Norse Cosmology
humla the cow. As Audhumla fed Ymir with There are nine realms of creation in Norse
her milk, the first frost giants emerged from mythology. A tenth, the realm of the dokk

336 Norse Mythology
alfar, the “dark elves,” is sometimes included • Loki: trickster god of fire; son of a
in the count. giant and lightning; not truly one of
the Aesir but usually included with
1. Asgard: realm of the Aesir, the them in the Norse sagas.
warlike supreme race of gods.
2. Vanaheim: realm of the Vanir, a The Vanir were a minor race of gods.
secondary race of gods. Among the Vanir were Frey, god of fertility;
Freya, sister of Frey and goddess of beauty
3. Alfheim: home of the lios alfar, the
light elves. and fertility; and Njord or Niord, god of the
sea and father of Frey and Freya.
4. Hel: realm of the dead. The Vanir once battled the Aesir, possibly
5. Jotunheim: realm of the giants. indicating the supplanting of an older faith by
6. Midgard: realm of humanity. a newer one. They were finally admitted into
Asgard, where the two groups of deities coex-
7. Nidavellir: realm of the dwarves.
isted.
8. Niflheim: realm of ice.
9. Muspelheim: realm of fire; home
Elves, Giants, and Other Beings
of the fire giants. The alfar were the magical elf folk, who were
10. Svartalfheim: realm of the dokk alfar, less than gods but more than mortals. They
the dark elves. are said to be the children of the Vanir, possi-
bly of Frey. The alfar are divided into two
These realms are united by the World groups: lios alfar, or light elves, the fair inhab-
Tree, Yggdrasil, which has roots that reach itants of Alfheim; and dokk alfar, the dark
down through the lower realms and branches elves, the dark-hearted inhabitants of Svar-
that reach up to the realms of the gods. talfheim.
The jotun were the races of giants—fire
The Gods giants, frost giants, and mountain giants—
The Aesir were the chief gods in Norse mythol- that lived in Jotunheim. These master archi-
ogy. Their home was called Asgard. The Aesir tects were said to be the enemies of the gods,
aged like mortals but appeared eternally young although the two groups occasionally worked
and vigorous by eating the magic apples together.
guarded by Freya, the goddess of beauty. The Some of the important jotun are:
Aesir were to meet their end at Ragnarok.
• Aegir: king of the sea.
Some of the more important Aesir deities
are listed below: • Fafnir: son of the dwarf king who was
turned to a dragon because of his lust
• Odin: chief of the pantheon. for gold.
• Frigg: Odin’s wife and patron of • Gerd: wife of the god Frey.
marriage. • Gunlod: jotun who was either seduced
• Thor: god of thunder. by Odin or willingly gave him sips of
the mead of poetry.
• Sif: golden-haired wife of Thor.
• Ivaldi or Vate: master smith who de-
• Idun: goddess of immortality. signed flying boats and other wonders
• Balder: the white god. for the Aesir.
• Heimdall: gatekeeper. • Skaoli: wife of the god Njord.
• Tyr: god of war. • Surtur: king of the fire giants.

Nurser y Rhymes 337
• Thrym: king of the frost giants.

• Ymir: founder of the frost giants and
Nun
the first being created in the beginning.
(Egyptian)
Dwarves were small, hideous subterranean
beings. They were a cunning race of master
craftsmen capable of creating such wonders as
T he name of the Egyptian divinity Nun
means “weary,” or “inert.” He was not
truly a god, but rather the personification of
caps of invisibility and magic rings. Individual the original chaotic state of the universe at the
dwarves generally were not singled out in the time of creation.
mythology. The sun god, Re, and the primordial
A number of monsters are described in mound of the creator god, Atum, arose from
the myths. Fenrir, or Fenris Wolf, was a mon- the watery state of Nun. This earned Nun the ti-
strous wolf sired by Loki who was bound by tle “father of the gods.” Nun had a female coun-
the god Tyr until the coming of Ragnarok. The terpart, Naunet. Essentially formless, Nun was
mythology states that on that day Fenrir often shown as a man wearing a false beard,
would break loose to slay Odin. The Midgard raising a solar symbol over his head that repre-
serpent was a great snake said to lie in the sented twenty-four hours.
ocean, encircling the world with its tail in its Even after the universe was settled, Nun, a
mouth. On the day of Ragnarok, the Midgard state of nonbeing, persisted at the edges of exis-
serpent was prophesied to rise from the sea to tence. He was the water above the sky and at its
be killed by Thor, who would, in turn, die edges, from which the Sun emerged each dawn
from the serpent’s venom. and through which the dead were reborn. Peo-
The Valkyries were the warrior daughters ple who were asleep were said to be “in Nun.”
of Odin. These sisters went to the battlefields The Egyptians believed that at the end
after battle and chose the slain who were of time the universe would once again revert
worthy of going to Valhalla, the great hall at to Nun.
Asgard. Noreen Doyle
A volva was a female prophet, priestess, or
shaman. The volva practiced seidr, which Sources
could mean either “sorcery” or “shamanism,” Allen, James P. Genesis in Egypt: The Philosophy of Ancient
and were held in high regard. The chief god,
Odin, consulted a volva to learn the destiny of Hornung, Erik. Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The
the gods. The volva may have been actual his- One and the Many. Trans. John Baines. Ithaca, NY:
torical figures in pre-Christian times. Cornell University Press, 1982.
Lesko, Leonard H. “Ancient Egyptian Cosmogonies and
See also: Heimdall/Heimdallr; Hel; Odin/ Cosmology.” In Religion in Ancient Egypt: Gods,
Myths, and Personal Practice. Ed. Byron E. Schafer and
Odhinn; Sleipnir. trans. John Baines. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University
Press, 1999.
Sources
Crossley-Howard, Kevin. The Norse Myths. New York:
Pantheon, 1980.
Hollander, Lee M., trans. The Poetic Edda. 2nd ed. Nursery Rhymes
Rituals, and Beliefs. New York: Oxford University (European)
Press, 2002.
ogy. Trans. Jean I. Young. Berkeley: University of
N ursery rhymes are rhythmic poems that
amuse or soothe young children. These
singsong rhymes are passed down by oral

338 Nut
tradition. Some contain cultural information In the same way that folktales develop variants,
and values. Nursery rhymes are a vital form many nursery rhymes developed a number of
of folk literature. versions as they were passed from generation
The verses have a wide variety of origins to generation. Most nursery rhymes as we
that scholars have been debating since the nine- know them probably originated after 1600, but
teenth century. At the turn of the twentieth cen- some may have been created earlier.
tury, some folklorists theorized that “Jack and One of the earliest English collections of
Jill” might have ancient Norse roots, although no nursery rhymes, Mother Goose’s Melody, was
definite proof was ever established. published in 1781. But the term nursery rhyme
did not appear in print until 1824, in a Scottish
Jack and Jill periodical called Blackwood’s Edinburgh Maga-
Went up the hill zine. James Halliwell, a British author, com-
To fetch a pail of water. piled the first large-scale collections of nursery
Jack fell down rhymes in The Nursery Rhymes of England (1842)
And broke his crown and Popular Rhymes and Nursery Tales (1849). In
And Jill came tumbling after. 1951, British scholars Iona and Peter Opie cre-
ated The Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes.
Some nursery rhymes, especially those that The nursery rhymes that were intended for
contain what seem to be nonsense words, such youngsters included alphabet rhymes, lullabies,
as the British “Green Gravel,” are believed to and gaming verses. Today, the most popular
be fragments of ballads, prayers, proverbs, or types of nursery rhymes include counting-out
tavern songs. In the case of “Green Gravel,” rhymes, cumulative rhymes, lullabies, nonsense
the words may be a corruption of an unknown rhymes, rhyming riddles, singing-game rhymes,
Gaelic phrase. and tongue twisters.
Green Gravel, Green Gravel, See also: Cumulative Rhymes and Tales; Non-
Your grass is so green. sense Rhymes.
You’re the fairest young lady
Sources
I ever have seen. Delamar, Gloria. Mother Goose: From Nursery to Literature.
Rutland, VT: McFarland, 1987.
At the turn of the twentieth century, certain Green, Percy. A History of Nursery Rhymes. New York:
folklorists argued that some nursery rhymes Gordon, 1972.
Opie, Iona Archibald, and Peter Opie. The Oxford Dictio-
may have come from ancient customs or ritu-
nary of Nursery Rhymes. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univer-
als. Others, such as “Old King Cole” and sity Press, 1951.
“Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary,” may be based
on real people and events. The latter two may
have been meant as political satires.
“Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary,” for exam-
Nut
ple, may refer to Mary, Queen of Scots. The
rhyme makes fun of her elegant costumes with
(Egyptian)
“silver bells,” and the “pretty maids all in a
row” refers to Mary’s attendants. N ut was the Egyptian sky goddess. She was
represented as a woman or cow whose
nude body arched over that of her husband,
Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary, the earth god, Geb, while her father, Shu, god
How does your garden grow? of air, held her aloft.
With silver bells and cockle shells, It was believed that each evening Nut
And pretty maids all in a row. swallowed the Sun, which traveled through

Nymphs 339
her body until it was reborn the next morning. seids of the groves, the auloniads of the pas-
She was, therefore, associated not only with tures, the ieimakids of the meadows, the ore-
the sky but also with the netherworld. ads of the mountains, and the napaeae of the
Like her spouse, Geb, Nut received the de- mountain valleys. Other important nymphs
ceased who ascended to heaven. Coffins and were the naiads, or water nymphs of streams,
sarcophagi often have the goddess painted on rivers, and lakes; the nereids, the daughters
their interior. One of the major mother god- of Nereus, who lived in the depths of the
desses, Nut was considered the deliverer and Mediterranean Sea; and the oceanids, the
protector of the dead. 3,000 ocean nymphs that were the daughters
In addition to delivering the Sun in its of Oceanus. The nymphs of the underworld
daily courses, Nut gave birth to Osiris, Isis, were called lampades.
Seth, and Nephthys. In her aspect as the sky, Thanks to the Greek-educated Roman po-
whose inhabitants (the stars and Sun) disap- ets, the Greek nymphs gradually came to in-
peared and reappeared, Nut was also some- clude the native Italian nature spirits of
times imagined as a sow that ate its own streams and springs, such as Juturna and Fons,
piglets. and water deities such as the lymphae.
In Greek mythology, Nut was the Titan Among the best-known nymphs are Ca-
mother of the gods, called Rhea. lypso, Thetis, and Echo. Calypso was a sea
Noreen Doyle nymph and the daughter of Atlas, the Titan
who held up the world. Calypso lived alone
Sources with her maidservants on the mythical island
of Ogygia in the Ionian Sea.
Egyptological Seminar, 1988. When the Greek hero Odysseus was on
Hollis, Susan Tower. “Women of Ancient Egypt and the his way home from the Trojan War, he was
Sky Goddess Nut.” Journal of American Folklore 100, shipwrecked on Ogygia; Calypso fell in love
398 (Fall 1987): 496–503. with him and kept him as her prisoner and
Lesko, Barbara S. The Great Goddesses of Egypt. Norman:
University of Oklahoma Press, 1999. lover for seven years. She promised him im-
mortality and eternal youth if he would stay
with her. But Odysseus broke her spell, re-
Nymphs fused to stay, and continued to Ithaca.
Thetis was a sea nymph, the daughter of the
sea deity Nereus. Zeus, king of the Greek gods,
(Greek) learned of a prophecy that said if Thetis bore a
I n Greek mythology, nymphs were female

nature spirits or minor deities associated
with various natural objects. The nymphs
son by a god, that son would overthrow Zeus.
So Zeus and his brother Poseidon arranged for
Thetis to marry a mortal man, King Peleus.
were usually bound to these objects for life. Thetis refused. Peleus sought the advice of
For example, the life of a hamadryad, or wood Chiron the wise centaur, who told him how to
nymph, began and ended with that of her snare Thetis. Peleus found her asleep on the
tree. seashore and held fast to her. She swiftly
Nymphs generally were represented as changed shapes, but no matter what shape she
young, beautiful women. They were musical, took, Peleus held fast. So Thetis agreed to marry
amorous, and gentle, although some were as- him.
sociated with the wilder aspects of nature and The child of Thetis and Peleus was
were capable of destruction. Achilles, the hero of the Iliad. Thetis tried to
Land nymphs include the dryads and make her baby invulnerable to harm, either
hamadryads of the trees and forests, the al- by burning him in magic fire or by dipping

340 Nymphs
him in the River Styx, but in both versions of Sources

the story she failed to protect his heel. Achilles Evlin, Bernard. The Greek Gods. New York: Scholastic,
was fatally wounded in the heel during the 1995.
Kirk, Geoffrey S. The Nature of Greek Myths. Har-
Trojan War. mondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1974.
Echo was a vain nymph who was in love Rose, H.J. Gods and Heroes of the Greeks: An Introduction to
with her own reflection. She pined away for Greek Mythology. New York: Meridian, 1958.
love of herself until only the echo of her voice Rouse, W.H.D. Gods, Heroes and Men of Ancient Greece.
remained.

O
I
Oberon
(European)
n Western European folklore, as well as
in William Shakespeare’s comedy A Mid-
summer Night’s Dream (c. 1595–1596), Oberon
tribute to Elizabeth I, implying that she was
divine as well as a mortal queen.
Both Oberon and Titania have been im-
mortalized in astronomy as the names of two
of the largest moons of the planet Uranus.
Sources
Adams, Robert, ed. Ben Jonson’s Plays and Masques. New
York: W.W. Norton, 1979.
is the king of either the fairy folk or the elves. Nutt, Alfred Trübner. The Fairy Mythology of Shakespeare.
Oberon was first featured in literature at Norwood, PA: Norwood Editions, 1974.
the beginning of the thirteenth century, in the Steele, Robert. Huon of Bordeaux. London: George Allen,
French chanson de geste titled Les prouesses et faitz 1895.
Wieland, Christoph Martin. Oberon ou les aventures de
du noble Huon de Bordeaux. In this story, Huon de Bordeaux. Paris: Pot Casse, 1928.
Oberon was described as a fairy dwarf, the
child of the unlikely cross between Morgan le
Fay of Arthurian legend and Julius Caesar.
Shakespeare seems to have been the one
Odin/Odhinn
to codify the image of Oberon as king of the
fairies. After Shakespeare’s time, Ben Jonson
(Norse)
used the character in his play Oberon, or The
Fairy Prince (1611). English poet Robert Her-
rick wrote a poem titled “The Fairy Temple;
O din was the chief god of the Norse pan-
theon. He and his wife, Frigga, were Ae-
sirs, the principal Norse deities. Odin was an
or, Oberon’s Chapel” (c. 1620–1635). In 1780, ambivalent deity and was not easily understood
Oberon appeared again in Christoph Martin or trusted.
Wieland’s romantic poetic epic Oberon, which Odin and his brothers, Ve and Vili, cre-
Carl Maria von Weber used as the inspiration ated the world. They slew the primal frost gi-
for his opera Oberon (1826). ant, Ymir, and made the world from the giant’s
Oberon still appears in fantasy art and fic- body.
tion, though usually as the Shakespearian char- Odin was the god of wisdom, judgments,
acter quarreling with his wife, Titania. She may and poetry. He gained his wisdom by making
be derived from the Roman goddess Diana, himself a sacrifice and hanging on to the
who was sometimes called Titania. Shakespeare mythic World Tree for a mystic nine days and
may have given his character that name in nine nights, all the while pierced by his own
341

342 Odysseus
Odin was also the god of war, bringing vic-

tory to his favorites and even instigating con-
flicts. Odin’s warrior daughters, the Valkyries,
chose the bravest of the slain and brought them
to Valhalla, Odin’s hall. The men were to stay
there and prepare to fight on Odin’s side at the
coming of Ragnarok, which was the battle that
would end the world.
Odin rode Sleipnir, an eight-legged horse
that was the offspring of Loki, the trickster.
He had two ravens, Huginn (Thought) and
Muninn (Memory), which gathered informa-
tion for him, and two wolves, Geri and Freki.
From his throne, Hlidskjalf, in Valhalla, Odin
could watch everything that occurred in the
universe.
See also: An/Anu; Frigga/Frigg; Norse Mythol-

ogy; Sius; Wele; Zeus.
Sources
Pantheon, 1980.
This Viking stone found in England on the Isle of Man de- Hollander, Lee M., trans. The Poetic Edda. Austin: Uni-
picts a scene from the Norse myth of Ragnarok. The god versity of Texas Press, 1962.
Odin, with one of his ravens on his shoulder, is about to Lindow, John. Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes,
be eaten by the monstrous wolf Fenrir. (Werner Forman/ Rituals, and Beliefs. New York: Oxford University
Art Resource, NY) Press, 2002.
ogy. Comp. and trans. Jean I. Young. Berkeley: Uni-
spear. At the end of the ordeal, he had learned versity of California Press, 1992.
the meaning of the runes. From then on, the
World Tree was known as Yggdrasil, which
means Ygg’s horse. Ygg is another name for
Odin.
Odysseus
These events did not end Odin’s lust for
wisdom. He willingly gave up an eye in ex-
(Greek)
change for a drink from the Well of Mimir,
which gave him at least some of the wisdom he
sought. From then on, Odin had only one eye.
T he Greek hero Odysseus was the ruler of
the island kingdom of Ithaca and the pro-
tagonist of Homer’s epic the Odyssey. Odysseus,
He appeared to mortals most often as an old, called Ulysses by the Romans, was known for
one-eyed man with a staff, wearing a wide- his cleverness and cunning. He was one of the
brimmed hat. most prominent Greek leaders in the Trojan
Still hungry for knowledge, Odin also was War.
said to have studied the mysteries of the form Odysseus had been one of the original
of magic called seid, even though it was con- suitors of Helen of Troy. But when Menelaus,
sidered unmanly. And he worked as a farm- king of Sparta, won her, Odysseus married
hand for a summer to gain the mead of poetry, Penelope instead and settled down happily
the drink that would give him the gift of magi- with his wife and their new son, Telemachus.
cal verse. When Helen was stolen away by Prince Paris

Odysseus 343
of Troy, Menelaus rallied all of Helen’s former of the sea, who disliked Odysseus because
suitors and their armies to help him in his war Athena, Poseidon’s rival, favored the man. A
against Troy. series of fantastic dangers awaited Odysseus
Only Odysseus had no intention of leaving and his crew.
his home and family for a war that he consid- At their first stop, Odysseus rescued his
ered none of his affair. When Menelaus’s men from the blissful but deadly drug dreams
men came for him, he pretended to be insane, of the Lotus-Eaters. Later, when he and his
plowing a field and sowing salt instead of crew stopped to catch fresh game, the giant,
grain. But one of the men, Palamedes, put one-eyed man-eater called Cyclops cornered
Odysseus’s baby in the direct path of the plow, them. Odysseus tricked and blinded the Cy-
and Odysseus was forced to drop his act. clops so that his crew could escape. Then,
In spite of Odysseus’s initial reluctance, he while on the island of the beautiful sorceress
fought heroically in the Trojan War. After years Circe, the crew was turned into pigs. Odysseus
of stalemate, it was Odysseus, presumably fed charmed Circe into reversing her spell with the
up with being stuck outside the walls of Troy, help of an enchanted herb.
who came up with the idea of the Trojan horse, The weary Odysseus sought help and
the trick that let the Greeks finally take the city. braved the terrors of the underworld. Hades,
god of the dead, allowed Odysseus’s mother
and others to go to the hero’s aid. They told
Odyssey him how to get past some of the upcoming
The Trojan War was finally over, and Odysseus dangers, and warned him not to touch the cat-
set out for home. But the trip, as chronicled in tle of the Sun, which were sacred.
the Odyssey, took him ten long years. Part of Odysseus got his men past the Sirens,
the problem was the anger of Poseidon, god whose beautiful songs lured men to their deaths,
The Greek hero-king Odysseus wanted to hear the songs of the Sirens, who used their beautiful voices to lure men
to their deaths. Odysseus had his men bind him to their ship’s mast and plug their own ears with wax. Odysseus
could hear the Sirens but remained safe from them. This scene is depicted on a red-figured Greek jar of the fifth cen-
tury B.C.E. (© British Museum/Art Resource, NY)

344 Odyssey
by putting wax in their ears. Only Odysseus with the help of Telemachus, slaughtered the
heard the songs, but he was tied to a mast so suitors and cleansed the palace.
that he could not go to them. The bow used by Odysseus in this inci-
Odysseus then steered the ship through the dent could be drawn by no one but the hero.
narrow strait that was inhabited by the mon- This device of only the hero being able to
sters Scylla and Charybdis. Scylla was a crea- wield a particular weapon is a world motif. It
ture that devoured whatever came within is found in the Indian story of the Ramayana,
reach, which included several of Odysseus’s in which Rama pulls the bow no one else can
companions. Charybdis drank the waters and draw to win Sita. In other tales, the bow is
regurgitated them three times each day. She switched to a sword. In German lore and in
was probably a representation of a treacherous the tales of King Arthur, for example, only the
whirlpool. rightful king can draw the sword.
After surviving all of these dangers, the
men put ashore and, despite Odysseus’s warn- See also: Homer; Iliad; Odyssey; Penelope.
ing, slew and ate the cattle of the Sun. Their
Sources
ship became the target of Poseidon’s anger and
Finley, Moses I. The World of Odysseus. New York: New
was struck by a thunderbolt. Only Odysseus York Review of Books, 2002.
survived. Homer. The Odyssey. The Story of Odysseus. Trans. W.H.D.
Rouse. New York: Signet Classics, 1999.
Further Trials Stanford, W. Bedell. The Ulysses Theme: A Study in the
Adaptability of a Traditional Hero. New York: Barnes
Odysseus landed on the island of the nymph and Noble, 1964.
Calypso. She made him her lover and would
not allow him to leave for seven years. Zeus
finally intervened, allowing Odysseus to sail Odyssey
away on a small boat.
But Poseidon was not yet finished with (Greek)
Odysseus. Another storm struck, sinking
Odysseus’s ship. He came ashore on the is-
land of the Phaeacians, where he was magnif- T he Odyssey was probably created by the
Greek poet Homer in the eighth or ninth
century B.C.E. The epic follows the adventures
icently entertained. Then, at long last, he
returned to Ithaca. of the hero Odysseus in his quest to return
home to Ithaca after the Trojan War, and the
story of the family that he left behind for twenty
Return to Ithaca years.
Odysseus’s troubles followed him home. The first part of the Odyssey takes place in
During his long absence, his wife, Penelope, Ithaca, where suitors besieged Odysseus’s wife,
had remained faithful to him, but everyone Penelope. Odysseus’s long absence had led
was certain he was dead, so she was under many people back home to believe he was
enormous pressure to remarry. A host of suit- dead. They pressured Penelope to remarry. She
ors occupied her palace, drinking and eating had managed to put off a second marriage for
and behaving insolently to Penelope and many years, but the suitors, who did nothing
Telemachus. but sit around and eat quantities of food, were
Odysseus arrived at the palace just as becoming restless. They insisted that Penelope
Penelope was becoming desperate. Disguised make a decision very soon. Athena appeared to
as a ragged beggar, he observed the suitors’ Telemachus, the son of Odysseus and Pene-
rough, rude behavior and his wife’s fidelity. lope, and assisted him in discovering his fa-
He took up his bow, revealed his identity, and, ther’s fate.

Oedipus 345
Odysseus was alive, but after a quarrel with ligence, courage, and wisdom. However, the
Poseidon, he and his men were thrown off name Odysseus means either someone who is
course. What followed were many wild adven- cursed or someone who brings curses upon
tures, such as a narrow escape from the Cy- others. It is a fitting name for an adventurer
clops, a one-eyed giant that clever Odysseus who angered Poseidon by refusing to worship
blinded then tricked into claiming that “no- him and who did not manage to bring even
body”—the name Odysseus had said was his one of his sailors home with him.
own—had harmed him. The poem is divided into twenty-four
Then there was the unintentional visit to books, but these divisions are not original to
the island of Circe, a man-hating, powerful the piece. It is thought that a later transcriber
sorceress who turned all Odysseus’s men to divided the work into twenty-four sections,
swine. Odysseus escaped with the help of a one for each letter in the Greek alphabet.
magic herb, moly (garlic), and forced Circe to
restore his men to their rightful shapes. See also: Homer; Iliad; Odysseus.
Then came the narrow strait between the
Sources
monstrous Scylla and Charybdis. Odysseus’s Bloom, Harold, ed. Homer’s Odyssey. New York: Chelsea
ship and men survived this pass, only to be the House, 1996.
victims of a later shipwreck. Odysseus was the Eliot, Charles W., ed. “The Odyssey of Homer.” In Har-
only survivor. vard Classics. Vol. 22. New York: P.F. Collier and
Son, 1909.
Thereafter, he was trapped for seven years
Homer. The Odyssey. Trans. S.H. Butcher and Andrew
on an island by the nymph Calypso. Athena Lang. New York: Dodd, Mead, 1909.
convinced Zeus to order Calypso to release
Odysseus who built a raft and sailed away.
But Poseidon had not forgotten his anger at
Odysseus. The god called up a terrible storm
Oedipus
that stranded Odysseus yet again. The hero was
found on the shore by Nausicaa, a princess of
(Greek)
the Phaeacians. The inhabitants of Phaeacia
were peaceful, reasonable people who prom-
ised to help Odysseus. The hero tearfully re-
T he theme of the Greek tragedy of Oedi-
pus is the inevitability of fate. Perhaps its
stark tragedy and cathartic ending have led to
lated everything that had happened to him its continued popularity, as well as its useful-
since the end of the Trojan War. The Phaeacians ness to storytellers.
took pity on him and returned him to Ithaca. Laius, king of Thebes, was warned by an
By this time, it had been ten years since oracle that there was danger to his throne and
the end of the war and twenty since Odysseus to his life if his newborn son was allowed to
had left home. He dressed as a beggar to be grow up. Laius gave the child to a herdsman
able to assess the situation without being no- and ordered that he destroy the boy.
ticed. He was reunited with his son, and to- The herdsman was moved to pity, yet he
gether they formulated a plan to kill did not dare disobey, so he tied up the child’s
Penelope’s suitors and regain control of his feet and left him hanging from the branch of a
lands. Through guile and a demonstration of tree on Mount Cithaeron. Some versions of
strength, Odysseus managed to overcome the the tale say that Laius pierced his son’s ankles
suitors and was reunited with his wife, his son, through with a pin.
and his father, Laertes. The baby was found by another herdsman
The character of Odysseus encompasses who lived under the rule of Polybus, king of
much of what the ancient Greeks admired in a Corinth. Polybus and his wife, Merope, had
man: athletic accomplishment, wiliness, intel- no children of their own, and so they adopted

346 Oedipus
the child, whom they named Oedipus, or hindquarters of a lion. She lay crouched in
Swollen Foot. Oedipus grew up in Corinth, wait high up on a rock and stopped all who
knowing nothing of his true origin. tried to pass. The Sphinx asked each traveler a
riddle, and only one who could solve it would
The Oracle at Delphi be allowed to pass safely. No one had passed
While Oedipus was at Delphi, the oracle the test before Oedipus arrived.
there told him that he would kill his father The Sphinx asked, “What animal is that
and marry his own mother. Fighting against which in the morning goes on four feet, at
fate, Oedipus resolved to leave Corinth and noon on two, and in the evening upon three?”
his parents, for he thought that the oracle Oedipus answered, “Man, who in childhood
meant Polybus and Merope. creeps on hands and knees, in manhood walks
Soon after Oedipus left his home in erect, and in old age with the aid of a staff.”
Corinth, Laius was traveling back to Delphi, The Sphinx was so mortified someone had
accompanied by a single attendant. They met solved her riddle that she cast herself down
another charioteer on a narrow road, a young from the rock and perished.
man who refused to get out of the way at their
command. Oedipus Learns the Truth
This conflict led to a fight in which Laius
was slain. The young man in the chariot was The Theban people were so grateful to Oedi-
Oedipus, who had unknowingly slain his own pus that they made him their king and mar-
father. ried him to their queen, Jocasta. For years, the
couple had no idea that anything was wrong.
The Sphinx Then Thebes was struck with a plague
that left its fields and women barren. Oedi-
A strange monster called the Sphinx came pus sent his brother-in-law Creon to ask the
to haunt the road to Thebes. The Sphinx had oracle at Delphi how to put an end to the
a woman’s head and upper body and the plague. Creon was told that once the killer of
King Laius was found, Thebes would be
saved.
Oedipus had no idea he was the killer, but
he did his best to learn the truth. At last, he
asked the blind seer Teiresias for help. But
Teiresias warned Oedipus not to ask. At last,
when threatened by Oedipus, Teiresias reluc-
tantly told him the truth: Oedipus had killed
his father and married his mother.
Jocasta, horror-struck, hanged herself.
Oedipus, maddened, blinded himself. He then
wandered off, accompanied by his daughters
Antigone and Ismene, until at last his misery
ended in death.
The story of Oedipus was known to psy-
chologist Sigmund Freud, who used the phrase
“Oedipus complex” to describe a man who had
The tragic Greek hero Oedipus encounters the Greek a secret—or unknown—desire for his mother.
sphinx in an illustration from a red-figured drinking cup of Today, the incest taboo is as ingrained as ever
the fifth century B.C.E. The sphinx asked Oedipus a rid-
dle. When he answered it correctly, she threw herself off in most cultures, and the sad myth of Oedipus
a cliff in despair. (Scala/Art Resource, NY) can still create at least a touch of horror.

Operas and T heir Stor ies 347
See also: Sphinx. Beginnings of Modern Opera

Sources Opera as we know it began during the latter
Kerenyi, Karl, and James Hillman. Oedipus Variations: half of the seventeenth century in Italy and
Studies in Literature and Psychoanalysis. Putnam, CT: quickly spread throughout the courts of Eu-
Spring, 1991. rope. These works included the basic ele-
Knox, Bernard. Oedipus at Thebes: Sophocles’ Tragic Hero
and His Time. New Haven, CT: Yale University
ments of arias, solo songs with instrumental
Press, 1998. accompaniment; recitatives, a style of song
Sophocles. Oedipus Tyrannus: A New Translation. Ed. Luci that imitates the rhythm of spoken language;
Berkowitz and Theodore F. Brunner. New York: and vocal ensembles.
W.W. Norton, 1970.
The subject matter of these early works re-
flected the Greco-Roman revival that was ex-
perienced in all the arts at the time: tales of
Operas and Their Stories gods, goddesses, demigods, heroes, and the hu-
mans who championed them or ran afoul of
N owhere is the convergence of the vari-

ous arts, including storytelling, more of
a complete synthesis than in the realm of
their heavenly conflicts on Earth. The music
was highly ornamented, as were the sets and
costumes. The productions could be complex
opera. to the point of absurdity, perhaps including ro-
The association of music with drama dates tund singers in harnesses hovering above the
to the mythic productions of the Greek the- stage by mechanical winches to simulate flying.
ater. The plays of Euripides and Sophocles in Often, all the roles were sung by men.
the fifth century B.C.E. utilized choruses that Some of those men were castrati, who had
sang rather than recited. These choruses were been surgically altered during their youth in
meant to instruct and enlighten the audience. order to be able to sing roles in the upper
The philosophers Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle vocal range.
railed against these public displays of extreme The French Revolution (1789–1799) and
emotions, which they viewed as potentially the subsequent regime changes were the cat-
disruptive to the people’s psyche, especially to alyst of and fodder for literature and theater
impressionable young men. in France and throughout Europe. In opera,
the first works with contemporary subjects—
real people in relatively real situations—were
The Birth of the Musical Theater composed.
and Madrigals Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart tried his hand
Throughout the Middle Ages, theatrical pro- at opera with the comic The Marriage of Figaro
ductions on religious themes, with music in- (1786) and the fantastic, symbolic The Magic
cluded, were performed across Europe by Flute (1791). While Mozart’s comic operas of-
various wandering troupes. The secular music ten feature realistic characters, they were not
of the thirteenth century included works that meant to be taken seriously.
were the foundation of what we know as musi-
cal theater, with performances such as Adam
Beethoven’s Fidelio
de la Halle’s Robin and Marian. Ludwig van Beethoven’s only opera, Fidelio,
During the sixteenth and early seventeenth is an example of a work with contemporary
centuries, popular songs called madrigals were subjects. This ode to courage and hope, writ-
grouped together in performance. Different ten in 1805, grew from the composer’s repub-
combinations of voices were used to represent lican fervor after his once-revered Napoleon
different “characters,” acting out their thoughts marched upon Beethoven’s beloved Vienna.
and feelings of love and woe. Fidelio was set in eighteenth-century Spain

348 Operas and T heir Stor ies
just after France’s Reign of Terror. The work Rigoletto

was based on Jean Nicholas Bouilly’s Léonore,
ou l’amour conjugal (1789), about the author’s Rigoletto was inspired by French author Victor
personal experiences during the Revolution. Hugo’s 1832 verse drama Le roi s’amuse (liter-
In brief summary, Beethoven’s hero Flo- ally, The King Amuses Himself ), which was a
restan is wrongly imprisoned. He is saved by thinly veiled caricature of King Louis-Philippe.
his wife, Leonora, who disguises herself as a Verdi changed the names of Hugo’s characters
man and charms her way into the jailer’s good to avoid political complications.
graces. Leonora is aided by Florestan’s nation- The main character, Rigoletto, hates every-
alist brothers, who fight for freedom. The mo- one but his daughter Giulianna. He is the
tif of submission to fate is voiced through hunchbacked jester to the womanizing Duke of
Florestan’s character, while the hope, courage, Mantua. Rigoletto’s bitter mockery leads Count
and all-powerful love that make it possible to Monterone to place a curse on the jester. Then
persevere is brought to life in Leonora. These Rigoletto’s daughter falls in love with the liber-
are themes that resound throughout opera’s tine duke.
stories, characters, and settings. Rigoletto plans to assassinate the duke to
avenge his daughter’s honor but accidentally
kills his daughter instead. It is the curse, Rigo-
Grand Opera letto says. He is left a broken man.
From its roots in nineteenth-century Paris and
a parallel evolution in China to today’s elabo- The Russian Group of Five
rate productions in opera houses around the
world, the art form known as grand opera has At the time that Verdi was writing his grand op-
raised the storyteller’s art and skills to new eras, the Group of Five was formed in Russia.
heights. Five composers, Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov,
Grand operas, which are large-scale oper- Aleksandr Borodin, César Cui, Modest Mus-
atic spectacles based on historical or pseudo- sorgsky, and Mily Balakirev, formed the group
historical librettos, originated in Paris. But to concentrate on composing music on Russian
opera did not achieve its truly grand status un- themes.
til the nineteenth century. In the field of opera, Rimsky-Korsakov,
Borodin, and Mussorgsky were successful.
Verdi Borodin was a chemist by profession and left
his one operatic work, Prince Igor, which was
In Italy, opera came into its own with the work based on the twelfth-century epic of the same
of Italian nationalist Giuseppe Verdi. The com- name, to be finished by Rimsky-Korsakov
poser used opera as a means to voice his politi- in 1887. Mussorgsky’s opera, Boris Godunov
cal ethics and to explore the human spirit. His (1873), was based on the life and death of the
melodies became the popular hits of the day in historical Czar Boris.
Europe and America. Rimsky-Korsakov was the most prolific of
Verdi never forgot his humble beginnings, the Russian opera composers, completing fif-
his connection to the land, and the struggles teen operas in all:
of the common people. His operas focused on
the themes of love, death, sacrifice, nobility, • The Maiden of Pskov (1872)
treachery, family, homeland, cultural identity,
• The May Night (1878)
and war. Verdi’s works include Rigoletto (1851),
• The Snowmaiden/Snegurochka (1881)
La Traviata (1853), Aida (1871), and his two
operas based on works by Shakespeare, Oth- • Mlada (opera-ballet; 1890)
ello (1887) and his only comic opera, Falstaff • The Christmas Night (1895)
(1893). A brief summary of Rigoletto follows. • Sadko (1896)

Operas and T heir Stor ies 349
• Mozart and Salieri (1897) lives of (almost) ordinary people. Puccini com-
• The Tsar’s Bride (1898) posed thirteen operas:
• Vera Sheloga (1898)
• The Tale of Tsar Saltan (1899) • Le Villi (The Vily; 1884)
• Kashtshey the Immortal (1901) • Edgar (1889)
• Servilia (1901) • Manon Lescaut (1893)
• Pan Voyevoda (1903) • La bohème (The Bohemian Girl; 1896)
• The Legend of the Invisible Town Kitez • Tosca (1900)
(1904) • Madama Butterfly (1904; revised 1905)
• Le coq d’or (The Golden Cockerel; 1907) • La fanciulla del west (The Girl of the
Golden West; 1910)
The subject matter of these works ranges from • La rondine (The Swallow; 1917)
the historic Mozart and Salieri, which dealt with • Il Trittico (The trilogy; 1918): Il tabarro
the rivalry between those two composers, to the (The Cloak), Suor Angelica (Sister Angel-
folkloric Le coq d’or. All of Rimsky-Korsakov’s ica), Gianni Schicchi
operas have intriguing plots, such as the folk- • Turandot (1926)
loric tale of the minstrel Sadko.
One of the most topical of Puccini’s op-
Sadko eras was Madama Butterfly. This story inspired
Sadko was a poor but talented and daring min- Andrew Lloyd Webber’s twentieth-century
strel. He wagered his head against the wealth of musical Miss Saigon (1989).
the Novgorod merchants that he would catch
golden fish in Lake Ilmen. Aided by the daugh- Madama Butterfly
ter of the sea king, Sadko won the wager and Japan was forced to enter into trade with the
used his winnings to take a voyage. West in 1854 after two centuries of isolation.
Sadko’s ship was overtaken by a storm, Puccini created a tale of the clash of cultures in
and the crew offered Sadko to the sea king as Madama Butterfly.
a sacrifice. The crew was spared, and Sadko A young Japanese geisha named Cio-Cio
went to live in the sea king’s domain. San, who was known as Madama Butterfly,
Sadko played upon his gusli, a zitherlike in- gave up honor and family when she fell in love
strument, and the sea king and his court were with U.S. Navy Lieutenant B.F. Pinkerton.
soon engaged in a frenzied dance. Their danc- They married in a Japanese ceremony, but
ing caused a fierce gale. poor Cio-Cio San did not know that such wed-
Saint Nicholas intervened on behalf of sea- dings meant nothing in America. Pinkerton left
farers above and threw the gusli to the ground. her behind to return home. Years passed and
He ordered Sadko home and transformed the she remained certain that he would return, es-
sea king’s daughter, who had fallen in love with pecially since she had given birth to his son.
Sadko, into the Volkhov River. The city of Nov- Pinkerton did return—but with his Ameri-
gorod now stands on the banks of the river. can wife. Alone and betrayed, Cio-Cio San
Sadko and his wife were joyously reunited. sent away her son and committed suicide.
Pinkerton returned too late to stop her.
Giacomo Puccini In this tragedy, there is no redemption, no
At the end of the nineteenth century and into happy reunion before death (as there is in La
the twentieth century, another Italian com- bohème), and no love to transform the pain. Life
poser, Giacomo Puccini, explored passion in goes on for the conquerors, but they are never
new ways. Puccini’s stories were based on the the same after their encounter with the East.

350 Oral Histor y
Opera and Storytelling oral historians’ methods provide broader per-

spectives on the received history.
Opera is one of the most elaborate forms of Critics of oral history argue that the method
storytelling. The gripping tales conveyed in does not necessarily provide historical accuracy.
this grand art form often have a familiar ring. They see it as an opening for sketchy and biased
Imagination is always grounded in human scholarship. To address some of the challenges
truths, in the familiar, in a sense of, “Yes, I’ve in documenting oral history, writers must be
heard a story like that!” or, even more pow- sure to blend the two methods, by gathering in-
erfully, “I have felt that way, too.” No matter formation through storytelling and reporting
how fantastic the stories become, it is still the with historical accuracy.
element of reality that gives life to this art
and to our culture. William Lynwood Montell
Alexandra Honigsberg and Josepha Sherman Folklorist William Lynwood Montell’s land-
mark work, The Saga of Coe Ridge: A Study of
See also: Freischutz; Ring Cycle, The. Oral History (1970), reconstructed the history
of a small African American community in ru-
Sources ral Kentucky through oral sources. Using his
Cross, Milton. Encyclopedia of the Great Composers and knowledge of storytelling, Montell crafted a
Their Music. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1962.
Martin, George. Verdi: His Music, Life and Times. New
method for integrating the study of folklore
York: Dodd, Mead, 1983. with oral history.
Schaefer, Hans Joachim. Liner notes for Ludwig van Montell crafted techniques for recognizing
Beethoven’s Fidelio. London: Angel Records, 1962. how traditional elements, such as tale types
Simon, Henry W. 100 Great Operas and Their Stories. Gar-
and motifs, might influence the manner in
den City, NY: Doubleday, 1960.
which informants shape their accounts of his-
tory. Montell’s systematic use of folk narratives
Oral History as part of oral-history research is a method that
has benefited all oral historians.
T he term oral history refers to the study of

history through the use of stories, accounts,
and descriptions culled from interviews. An oral
Truthful Accounts of the Past
Much of oral history is preserved in compelling
history is a record of the past that has been narratives told by those who witnessed historic
transmitted through verbal sources rather than events firsthand. Reading these accounts pro-
the printed scholarship of orthodox historians. vides a window to the past. The narratives also
Studying history through oral sources in- provide rich resources for constructing a his-
volves collecting and documenting stories. tory that better represents people’s lives.
Although not all oral-history resources are Henry Glassie, a folklorist and professor at
narratives, stories provide material that is es- Indiana University, shares Montell’s approach.
sential for understanding the verbal legacy Glassie uses oral history to reconstruct views
that is part of a community’s history. about the past, but also to point out why story-
Oral history is a fascinating but somewhat tellers value their narratives. Glassie discovered
contentious form of research. Advocates of that the Irish storytellers he interviewed consid-
oral history assert that verbal accounts are es- ered stories about certain time periods to be
sential for documenting history that is not in- central to their community’s basic values.
cluded in books, newspapers, and other The storyteller Hugh Nolan of Bally-
printed sources. They claim that oral sources menone in Northern Ireland, for example, re-
can be used to reconstruct the history of indi- garded the telling of stories about history to
viduals and communities, and they argue that be a sacred obligation. Storytelling, to Nolan,

Osir is 351
preserved a truthful account of the past. Nolan Bound by duty to avenge his father,
equated well-told stories with truth, and he re- Orestes also was bound by filial ties not to hurt
garded this connection as the essential base his mother. But the former duty both to father
for understanding history. and to king overcame the latter. When Orestes
Nolan asserted that evaluating stories with was grown, he accepted his fate, went back to
the same scrutiny that historians apply to writ- his father’s country, and killed Aegisthus and
ten texts provides a better understanding of Clytemnestra.
the past. The fierce, avenging semideities called
Gregory Hansen Erinyes, promptly seized upon Orestes for
committing matricide and drove him franti-
Sources
cally from land to land. Orestes’s friend Py-
Glassie, Henry. Passing the Time in Ballymenone: Culture
and History of an Ulster Community. Bloomington: In- lades accompanied him in his wanderings and
diana University Press, 1995. watched over him.
Montell, William Lynwood. The Saga of Coe Ridge: A At last, the desperate Orestes took refuge
Study in Oral History. Knoxville: University of Ten- with Athene in her patron city of Athens. The
nessee Press, 1970.
goddess understood the difficulty of his situa-
tion, gave him protection, and appointed a di-
Orestes and Electra vine court to decide his fate. In the end,
Orestes was acquitted.
In some versions of the myth, Electra mar-
(Greek) ried Orestes’s friend Pylades.
T he story of Orestes and Electra is one of

the most powerful and tragic in Greek
mythology. It involves a murdered father
This story has been told and retold in many
versions, including Greek plays by Aeschylus,
Euripides, and Sophocles, which focus on the
whose son is trapped in a situation he cannot story of Electra. Later works include composer
escape. The only way the son can avenge his Richard Strauss’s opera simply titled Elektra
father is by killing his mother. (1909). In Eugene O’Neill’s trilogy of plays
King Agamemnon, ruler of Mycenae and Mourning Becomes Electra (1931), the story is set
the commander of the Greek army, was the during the American Civil War.
brother of King Menelaus of Sparta, husband
of Helen of Troy. After Helen was abducted, Sources
Agamemnon and Menelaus set off to fight in Aeschylus. The Orestes Plays of Aeschylus: Agamemnon, The
Libation Bearers, The Eumenides. Reprint ed. New
the Trojan War. While Agamemnon was
York: Plume, 1996.
away, his wife, Clytemnestra, took Aegisthus Buxton, Richard. The Complete World of Greek Mythology.
as her lover. When Agamemnon returned, London: Thames and Hudson, 2004.
Clytemnestra and Aegisthus murdered him. Euripides. Orestes. Trans. John Peck. New York: Oxford
The murderers had planned to kill University Press, 1995.
Sophocles. The Complete Plays of Sophocles. Ed. Moses
Agamemnon’s only male heir, Orestes, as well. Hadas. Trans. Sir Richard Claverhouse Jebb. New
But Agamemnon’s daughter, Electra, saved the York: Bantam, 1967.
life of her younger brother. She sent him off to
live with his uncle, King Strophius. Orestes and
Strophius’s son, Pylades, became fast friends.
Electra did not allow Orestes to forget their
Osiris
father’s murder or the fact that it was Orestes’s
responsibility, as the only son of the king, to
(Egyptian)
avenge him. Electra sent him daily messages
while she endured life under the corrupt rule of
her mother and her mother’s lover.
O siris was the chief of the Egyptian gods
and the primary Egyptian funerary god,
or ruler of the dead. The earliest mention of

352 Osir is
Osiris dates to the fifth dynasty (c. 2513–2374 The major elements of the Egyptian story
B.C.E.). Originally a fearsome god, Osiris trans- can be summarized as follows: Osiris, son of
formed into a benign deity over time. the sky goddess, Nut, and the earth god, Geb,
Osiris usually was depicted as a green- or ruled Egypt until Seth, his brother, killed him.
black-skinned mummified man wearing the Osiris’s sisters, Isis (who was also his wife) and
tall white crown of Upper Egypt. The color Nephthys, found his body. The god Anubis
of Osiris’s skin evokes not only putrefaction helped to resurrect Osiris, who then became
of a corpse but fertile earth and new vegeta- lord of the netherworld. His son, Horus, fought
tion. Seth for the crown of Egypt. Horus ultimately
In Egyptian mythology, Osiris ruled Egypt triumphed.
after his father, the sky god Shu. The early The cult of Osiris was widespread, but his
kings were believed to become Osiris when special centers of worship were Abydos in mid-
they died. Later, about 2100 B.C.E., this was ex- dle Egypt and Busiris in the delta. Osiris ab-
tended to include all citizens. Like the king, sorbed the traits and names of several local
every man and woman was referred to as deities, such as Khentiamentiu, the jackal god
“Osiris so-and-so” after death. of Abydos. At Memphis, Osiris became closely
One of the main sources of information identified with the falcon god, Sokar. In Greco-
on Osiris is De Iside et Osiride, written by Roman times, he merged with the sacred Apis
the Greek author Plutarch in the first century bull to become the popular deity Serapis.
of the common era. Many of the details in Osiris also is associated with certain celes-
Plutarch’s work can be traced to pharaonic tial bodies: the constellation Orion, the star Sir-
Egyptian sources. ius, and the “undying” circumpolar stars. Osiris
In this scene from an Egyptian Book of the Dead, Osiris, in his role of god of the afterlife, has green skin to show his
status as a resurrected god. A deceased husband and wife honor Osiris as they pass safely on into the afterlife.
(Scala/Art Resource, NY)

Owl L ore 353
is also connected with the ba, or soul, of the sun is possibly his greatest work. The title is a
god, Re and, as such, is the Sun during its noc- Greek word meaning changes of shape. In the
turnal underworld journey. fifteen books of the Metamorphoses, Ovid deals
Noreen Doyle with numerous mythological, legendary, and
historical figures of Greece and Rome, and he
Sources records the history of the world up to the
Griffiths, J. Gwyn. The Origins of Osiris and His Cult. Lei-
reign of Augustus.
den, The Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1980.
Hornung, Erik. Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The Ovid’s life was ruined when the emperor
One and the Many. Trans. John Baines. Ithaca, NY: Augustus banished him in 8 C.E., for reasons
Cornell University Press, 1982. that are still unknown. He was sent to a fishing
Otto, Eberhard. Egyptian Art and the Cults of Osiris and
village on the coast of the Black Sea. Ovid
Amon. Trans. Kate Bosse Griffiths. London: Thames
and Hudson, 1968. spent the rest of his life hoping to be recalled to
Rome, but he died in exile in 17 C.E.
Ovid See also: Metamorphoses.
Sources
(43 B.C.E.–17 C.E.) Ovid. The Metamorphoses of Ovid. Trans. Allen Mandel-
baum. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1993.
O vid is the pen name of the Roman poet

and storyteller Publius Ovidius Naso.
Ovid was born in Sulmo, now Sulmona,
———. The Metamorphoses of Ovid. Trans. Michael
Simpson. Boston: University of Massachusetts
Press, 2001.
Italy, to an aristocratic family. His parents de-

cided that the best career for their son was to
practice law, so the young Ovid studied rhet-
Owl Lore
oric and law in Rome and Athens. During
that time, he began to realize that he wanted
to become a poet. With a young man’s cer- O wls are found nearly everywhere in the
world, and so owl lore spans the globe.
In ancient Babylon, in what is now Iraq,
tainty, he also intended to become rich and
famous. owls were protective figures. Women wore owl
Ovid traveled through part of the Near amulets to guard them during childbirth.
East and Sicily with the poet Macer and then In ancient Greece, the owl was the sacred
returned to Rome to practice law. In a short bird of the goddess of wisdom, Athena. Owls
while, Ovid knew that he much preferred the were protected and were therefore numerous
literary society of Rome to the life of a lawyer in Athens, the goddess’s titular city. Greek sol-
or judge, and he decided to pursue his dream diers thought that in return for this protection,
of being a poet. owls guarded them as well. The association
Ovid has been called the most brilliant with Athena may be what led to the Western
poet of his generation. His earliest poems in- idea of the wise old owl.
cluded Amores, which was a fictitious romance Owls did not fare so well with the Ro-
between Ovid and a woman he called Corinna. mans, who thought that an owl’s hoot pre-
This was followed by Heroides, a collection of dicted imminent death. There was also a folk
love letters between mythological lovers, and belief in Rome that witches transformed them-
Ars Amatoria, or The Art of Love, an instructional selves into owls to suck the blood of babies.
set of books for men and women.
The work that is most useful to story-
Britain, Europe, and America
tellers and folklorists is his Metamorphoses. In England, the owl is sometimes used to pre-
Written when Ovid was fifty-two years old, it dict the weather: Its screeches mean that cold

354 Owl L ore
weather is coming. Because of this link between Throughout sub-Saharan Africa, owls are
owls and bad weather, it was the custom until generally thought to be the messengers or fa-
the twentieth century to nail the body of an owl miliars of wizards and sorcerers. There is a
to a barn door to ward off lightning. In some Swahili belief that owls bring illness to chil-
parts of England, however, it is considered dren. In Cameroon and parts of Nigeria, the
good luck to see an owl. owl is never named but is cautiously called
In Ireland, an owl that enters a house must only “the bird that makes you afraid.”
be killed or it will take the household’s luck Certain aboriginal clans in Australia be-
with it. This belief may be linked to an old lieve that owls are the souls of women, and bats
Celtic belief that the owl was an emissary from are the souls of men. Therefore, both are sa-
the underworld. In Scotland, it is bad luck to cred. But to the Maori of New Zealand, the owl
see an owl in the daylight. is unlucky. In Samoa, the people can trace their
The Germans believed that if an owl hooted descent from an owl.
as a child was being born, the child would be The owl generally is considered a bird of
unhappy in life. Swedish folklore is equally neg- ill omen in modern Arab lands. In Morocco,
ative about owls, associating them with witches. for instance, a folk belief claims that the hoot
Polish folklore claims that an owl’s hoot foretells of an owl can kill babies. The same idea of the
ill fortune or death. The Russians and Ukraini- owl as an evil bird is found in Iran.
ans saw the owl as a harbinger of death, and, in In Afghanistan, the owl is not considered
Armenian folktales, owls often were associated quite so bad. There is, in fact, a folktale that
with the devil. tells that it was the owl that taught humans
There are folk beliefs about owls in various how to make fire with flint and steel.
regions of the United States and in Canada. In
the state of Illinois, for instance, it was believed
that the death of an owl would be avenged. In
Native American Beliefs
Louisiana, it was thought that if someone heard From the Pacific Northwest to Sioux territory,
an owl late at night, he or she must turn a left Native Americans consider owls to be mystical
shoe upside down to avoid bad fortune. In creatures. The Kwakiutl people of the Pacific
Newfoundland, Canada, the hoot of a horned Northwest held that owls were the souls of peo-
owl warns of approaching bad weather. ple and therefore should not be harmed. Tlingit
warriors would go into battle hooting like owls
Asia, Africa, Australia, to strike fear into their enemies.
In the Southwest, the Apache saw the owl
and the Middle East as the most deeply feared of animals, the em-
Owl beliefs vary widely in Asia. The Burmese bodiment of the dead. Even dreaming of an
have a folktale explaining that an owl’s face owl meant approaching death. The Diné (also
looks flattened as a result of a fight among birds. known as the Navajo) believed that the hoots
In India, folk cures are worked with owl meat of an owl could predict the future. The Hopi
or eyes, and the number of hoots an owl makes Indians saw burrowing owls as guardians of all
is considered prophetic—one hoot for death, underground things, including seed germina-
two hoots for success, and so on. In Indonesia, tion. They call them ko’ko, meaning “watcher
the owl is considered both wise and prophetic, of the dark.”
but in Malaysia owls are thought to eat babies. The Cherokee believed that the eastern
The Chinese associate owls with thunder screech owl could cause illness as punishment
and lightning, and owl effigies placed in each for wrongdoers, and Dakota warriors saw the
corner of a home protect it from lightning owl as a protective spirit. The Oglala Sioux
strikes. In Japan, owl pictures and figurines admired the snowy owl, and successful war-
ward off famine and epidemics. riors wore a cap of owl feathers to show their

Owl L ore 355
bravery. A Sioux society called the Owl Lodge Sources

believed that those who wore owl feathers Browne, Vee. Owl: American Indian Legends. New York:
would have keener eyesight. Scholastic, 1995.
De Kay, Charles. Bird Gods. New York: A.S. Barnes,
The many aspects to the folklore of the 1898.
owl ensure that storytellers have a rich and Weinstein, Krystyna. The Owl: In Art, Myth and Legend.
varied repertoire from which to choose. New York: Random House, 1988.

P
I

Palestinian Storytelling
n Palestinian society, especially before the
advent of television and radio, the telling of
tales was a main source of entertainment and
Antar and Abla, the subjects of numerous ro-
mantic love stories.
Passed from grandfather to grandchild,
from uncle to nephew, or from mother to child,
tales were shared in all parts of society and
throughout the Arab world.
a favorite way to pass the time. Storytelling in
the Arab culture is an age-old practice that of- Sources
ten centers on the family. Bushnaq, Inea. Arab Folktales. New York: Pantheon, 1987.
A generation ago, village children were Farsoun, Samih K. Culture and Customs of the Palestinians.
Greenwich, CT: Greenwood, 2004.
told tales by a female elder while doing chores, Muhawi, Ibrahim. Speak, Bird, Speak Again: Palestinian
such as cooking or knitting. Palestinian towns Arab Folktales. Berkeley: University of California
had designated guesthouses, called madhafah, Press, 1989.
where visitors were welcomed. At the mad-
hafah, the men sat together and told stories.
The storyteller, called a hakawaty, usually
told his stories while playing a tune on a
Panchatantra
stringed instrument, such as an oud, depend-
ing on his skills. He might relate a humorous
(Indian)
tale of marriage, a scary tale about war or
ghouls, a farmer’s tale about the destruction
of his crops, or a shepherd’s tale about the
T he Panchatantra of India is one of the
world’s finest collections of tales. Its five
volumes of animal fables originally were writ-
loss of his love. ten in Sanskrit sometime between 100 B.C.E.
Whether the tales were meant to be hu- and 500 C.E.
morous, to teach history, or to provide a Tradition credits the writing of the Pan-
moral lesson, they always were meant to en- chatantra to either a scholar named Bidpai or a
tertain. These tales provided a sense of unity Brahman named Vishnusharman. The word
and identity in a family, as they were passed bidpai probably comes from the Sanskrit for
down through many generations. “wise man” or “scholar,” while Vishnushar-
Stories of certain fictitious and humorous man, who is mentioned in the Panchatantra,
characters have been related from individual may be entirely fictional.
to individual in most, if not all, Arab families. The Panchatantra is said to have been writ-
Two examples are the foolish fellow, Juha, and ten as a manual to instruct three dim-witted
356

Papyrus Westcar/Papyrus Berlin 3 0 33 357
princes on how to be a king. One translation The papyrus rolls that make up the Pa-
refers to them as the “supreme blockheads.” pyrus Westcar were given to the Egyptologist
The five volumes include advice on how to Karl Richard Lepsius by Henry Westcar, who
rule, how to choose friends and ministers, and had acquired them in 1824 or 1825. Lepsius
how to behave in proper kingly fashion. was unable to decipher the text, but it was fi-
Each of the volumes has a theme: nally translated by Egyptologist Adolf Erman
in 1890.
1. The Loss of Friends
2. The Winning of Friends The Wax Crocodile
3. Crows and Owls Khufu’s son, Khafre, who ruled Egypt from
4. Loss of Gains 2576 to 2551 B.C.E., told a story of the days of
5. Ill-Considered Action King Nebka.
The wife of Ubainer, a high-ranking priest,
The stories are written in prose interspersed fell in love with a commoner. Ubainer’s stew-
with verse, and each one ends with a moral. ard witnessed the affair and informed his mas-
The Panchatantra is still in use in India today as ter, who made a wax crocodile that was seven
a guide for parents who are trying to instill fingers long. As Ubainer instructed, when the
proper cultural values in their children. steward saw the commoner in the garden, he
threw the figurine into the pool. The wax croc-
See also: Indian Storytelling. odile grew to the size of nearly 11 feet (7 cubits)
and dragged the wife’s lover beneath the water.
Sources
Seven days later, when King Nebka paid a
Edgerton, Franklin, trans. The Panchatantra. Delhi, India:
Hind Pocket Books, 1973. visit, Ubainer summoned the crocodile from
Ryder, A.W., trans. The Panchatantra. Chicago: Univer- the pool. It brought out the lover, unharmed.
sity of Chicago Press, 1956. As the priest took hold of the creature, it be-
came a wax figurine again.
The king determined that the crocodile
Papyrus Westcar/Papyrus should take the lover. The crocodile again came
Berlin 3033 to life and disappeared into the pool with the
young man, who was never seen again. As for
Ubainer’s wife, she was burned to death, and
(Egyptian) her remains were tossed into the river.
T he Papyrus Westcar, also known as Pa-

pyrus Berlin 3033, contains a cycle of at
least five interconnected tales. Probably writ-
The Jeweled Pendant
Prince Bauefre, whose existence as a historical
ten during the Second Intermediate Period individual is uncertain, told the tale of Djede-
(c. 1664–1569 B.C.E.), the papyrus contains mankh, a priest and scribe who served Khufu’s
tales told by the sons of Khufu, an Egyptian father, King Sneferu (c. 2649–2609 B.C.E.).
leader of the fourth dynasty, about marvels Djedemankh proposed to amuse the bored
performed by priests. Sneferu by having beautiful women row a boat
Due to the papyrus’s relatively poor in the palace lake. The king, pleased by this
state of preservation, only three of these tales idea, ordered up gilded oars, nets for the row-
are reasonably complete. Although liberties ers to wear as dresses, and twenty of the most
were taken with certain historical details, all beautiful women.
but possibly one of the kings and princes This distraction went along pleasantly un-
in these stories have their basis in historical til the oarswoman who was timing the stroke
fact. lost a pendant from her hair. She stopped

358 Pegasus
rowing and refused to begin again. Even Fourteen days later, when her postpartum
when the king offered her a new pendant she seclusion had ended, Ruddjedet learned that
preferred her own ornament to another just the only grain in the house was that which be-
like it. longed to the musicians. Ruddjedet bid her
Djedemankh was summoned. By means of maid fetch it. The maid heard music, dancing,
his magic, the priest took half the water in the and shouting, the kinds of noises that usually
lake and placed it atop the other half, enabling accompanied a king, coming from within the
him to retrieve the pendant. sack. When the maid told Ruddjedet, she had
the sack sealed inside a box, and she and her
husband rejoiced.
Hordedef’s Tale Later, the maid was beaten after a quarrel
Hordedef’s tale was set in the present, and had with her mistress. To avenge herself, she re-
Khufu as one of its characters. solved to tell Khufu that Ruddjedet had given
Djedi, a 110-year-old man, was capable of birth to three kings. She attempted to enlist
eating 100 loaves of bread, half an ox, and 100 her half brother in this matter, but he was out-
jugs of beer. He was also capable of taming a raged and beat her. The maid went to fetch
lion, could restore a severed head, and knew water and was taken by a crocodile.
the number of secret chambers of the god The maid’s half brother found Ruddjedet
Thoth. upset, because the maid had gone off to tell
Khufu ordered Hordedef to fetch Djedi. the king. The brother told Ruddjedet that the
The old man willingly agreed to accompany maid was dead. At this point, the papyrus
Hordedef back to the palace, where he per- ends.
formed a spell on two geese and a bull. Noreen Doyle
Next, Khufu asked Djedi the number of
Thoth’s chambers. Djedi did not have the an- Sources
swer, but he did know that the number was Parkinson, R.B. “Papyrus Westcar.” In The Oxford Ency-
concealed in a certain place in Heliopolis. He clopedia of Ancient Egypt. Vol. 3. Ed. D.B. Redford.
told Khufu that he was unable to retrieve the ———, trans. The Tale of Sinuhe and Other Ancient Egyptian
number as the king requested, but the eldest Poems, 1940–1640 BC. New York: Oxford Univer-
of the lady Ruddjedet’s unborn triplets would sity Press, 1999.
be able to do so.
“Who,” the king asked, “is Ruddjedet?”
Djedi claimed that she was the wife of a
priest of the sun god, Re, and she was preg-
Pegasus
nant with three children of Re. The eldest
would become high priest in Heliopolis. This
(Greek)
made Khufu unhappy, so Djedi told him
when Ruddjedet was due to give birth. Djedi
was rewarded by being allowed to live, well
I n Greek mythology, Pegasus was a winged
horse; a wild being that was ridden only once.
Pegasus’s parents were the god of the
provided for, with Hordedef. seas, Poseidon, or, in some versions, sea foam,
When Ruddjedet’s time arrived, Re sent and the monstrous, snake-headed woman,
three goddesses, disguised as musicians, to as- Medusa. When the Greek hero Perseus be-
sist with the birth. Ruddjedet’s three sons were headed Medusa, the winged horse sprang up
born healthy, and the goddess Meskhenet de- from her neck.
creed that each would become king of Egypt. The mortal hero Bellerophon needed Pe-
The musicians were rewarded with a quantity gasus to help him slay the monstrous Chimera.
of grain. The goddesses made three crowns While the horse was drinking from the well
and hid them in a grain sack for safekeeping. called Pirene, the hero Bellerophon stole up on

Pele/Madam Pele 359
him and caught him with a golden bridle, a gift

from the goddess Athena. In the battle to con-
trol the winged horse, Bellerophon rode him to
Mount Helicon, where, with one kick, Pegasus
caused the spring of Hippocrene to flow. This
spring is said to be the source of inspiration to
poets.
After his success in bridling the wild beast,
Bellerophon was overcome by arrogance. He
ordered Pegasus to fly him up to Mount Olym-
pus, the home of the gods.
Zeus was furious with the presumptuous
mortal and sent an insect to sting the winged
horse. Pegasus bucked Bellerophon off his
back and flew away, becoming a constellation
in the night sky.
See also: Bellerophon.
Sources
Pele is the Hawaiian goddess of fire and volcanoes.
This stylized Polynesian statue is made of wood and
South, Malcolm, ed. Mythical and Fabulous Creatures: A
hair, and dates to the seventeenth or eighteenth cen-
Source Book and Research Guide. New York: Bedrick,
tury. A strong belief in Pele continues in modern Hawaii.
1987.
(© Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY)
Pele/Madam Pele separately or together, and then vanish mys-

teriously. Some modern appearances seem to
(Hawaiian) warn people away from danger or help peo-
ple find something or somebody.
P ele, the Hawaiian goddess of fire and vol-
canoes, is a common figure in both ancient
and modern stories of Hawaii. Although not
Pele’s Anger
one of the most powerful gods, Pele is the Pele, described as a Hawaiian or part-Hawaiian
most familiar Hawaiian deity, and she is still female, may appear as an old woman, a young
worshipped today. woman, or a young girl. If she is old, her hair is
Pele is said to live inside the crater of the gray to white. If she is young, her hair may be
Kilauea volcano with her siblings and her dog. black, blond, or red, but red hair normally indi-
Her sisters are named mostly for clouds, and cates that she is angry.
her brothers are associated with storms, earth- Often called Madam Pele out of respect
quakes, and volcanic activity. Her favorite sib- and fear, she is as hot tempered as her volca-
ling is Hi’iaka, the youngest sister, whom Pele noes. She is swift to anger, swift to attack, and
raised. Pele’s entire family is associated with inclined to cool down only after major dam-
traditional hula and sorcery. Countless hulas age has been inflicted as retribution for some
and chants are dedicated to these deities. slight.
Pele and her white dog are still said to Punishment from Pele usually takes the
appear around Kilauea. They may appear form of a destructive lava flow sent to ruin

360 Pele/Madam Pele
people who have angered her. She kills people husband. The journey proved quite hazardous
and destroys the homes of families who were and difficult, and took longer than Pele
not courteous and respectful when she visited thought it should. Hi’iaka persevered in bring-
in disguise. ing Lohiau to Pele, resisting his amorous ad-
She also sends lava flows to try to kill peo- vances along the way.
ple who best her in sports. This is particularly When they got back to Kilauea, Hi’iaka
true of those who beat her at her favorite sport, and Lohiau found that Pele had killed one or
holua, a type of sledding generally done down more of the women she had promised to pro-
grass-strewn runways. Pele usually attacks after tect, out of anger over their slow return. Hi’i-
the victor boasts of winning by skill rather than aka was furious with her sister and accepted
luck, or refuses to trade sporting equipment Lohiau’s embraces. When Pele saw this, she
when Pele blames it for her loss. killed Lohiau. Hi’iaka resurrected him and as
Many rocks are said to be former rivals of many of the dead women as she could save. In
Pele. Other rocks, rock formations, and even the end, Hi’iaka married Lohiau.
whole lava flows are said to be the results of The story of Pele and Kamapua’a matches
Pele’s punishments on mortals and deities two of the shortest tempers among Hawaiian
who angered her. These remains are most of- deities in a passionate but doomed love affair.
ten found in the districts of Puna, Ka’u, and Kamapua’a, the shape-changing pig god of
Kona. Oahu, came to Hawaii to woo Pele. The god-
Pele is nearly as swift to reward good be- dess spurned his advances. Pele’s sisters even-
havior as she is to punish those who anger tually talked her into inviting Kamapua’a to
her. The most common reward—especially their home.
for courtesy toward her when she travels in When they finally met, Kamapua’a and
disguise—is to spare people and their homes Pele fell in love. They married and lived to-
from a lava flow, especially one sent to punish gether for a while, but Kamapua’a’s black rages
others who were disrespectful. and practical jokes angered Pele. The breakup
of the god and goddess was spectacular, as he
fought her fire and lava magic with his water
Pele Stories magic. The battle resulted in the two deities’ di-
Three stories stand out as particularly impor- viding the island of Hawaii between them:
tant to the Pele myth. These stories and vari- Kamapua’a took the lush, green north, and Pele
ous events in them are popular subjects of claimed the south.
hulas and chants.
The story of how Pele came to Hawaii has Anne Elizabeth Baldwin
many variations. Most versions agree that she
was born in a distant land. She left that home See also: Hi’iaka.
and came to Hawaii. Starting in the north, at ei-
ther the island of Niihau or the island of Kauai, Sources
she worked her way south, searching for a suit- Beckwith, Martha. Hawaiian Mythology. Honolulu: Uni-
able home. Pele finally settled in the crater of versity of Hawaii Press, 1970.
the Kilauea volcano on the island of Hawaii, Emerson, Nathaniel B. Pele and Hiiaka: A Myth from
Hawaii. Rev. ed. Hilo, HI: Edith Kanaka’ole Foun-
where her brothers and sisters joined her. dation, 2005.
The story of Pele, Hi’iaka, and Lohiau is Kalakaua, David. The Legends and Myths of Hawaii, ed.
particularly long and involved. Either through R.M. Daggett. Rutland, VT: Tuttle, 1972.
dreams or in her travels, Pele saw and fell in Puku’i, Mary Kawena, comp. Hawai’i Island Legends:
Pikoi, Pele and Others. Honolulu, HI: Kamehameha
love with Lohiau, a young and handsome chief Schools Press, 1996.
of Kauai. From her home in Kilauea, she sent Westervelt, William D., trans. Hawaiian Legends of Volca-
Hi’iaka to fetch Lohiau to be Pele’s lover or noes. Rutland, VT: Tuttle, 1963.

Per i/Par i 361
Penelope The origin for the folk belief in the peri

may be in the religion of Zoroastrianism,
which has a category of benign spirits known
(Greek) as paraiaka. Some Persian traditions say that
peris were originally fallen angels or that they
I n the Odyssey, the Greek epic probably cre-
ated by Homer in the eighth century, Pene-
lope was the faithful, loving wife of the
descended from those lost angels. Peris are the
enemies of the deevs, or demons, and the djinn,
who overpower the peris whenever possible
hero-king Odysseus.
and lock them up in iron cages. In world folk-
When Odysseus was forced to take part
lore, iron is the metal that is poisonous to fairy
in the Trojan War, he left Penelope at home
beings.
with their young son, Telemachus. After ten
In the folklore of Central Asia, Iran, and Af-
years passed, the local nobles began to think
ghanistan, a peri generally will appear in the
that Odysseus either was dead or was never
form of a beautiful woman, whose parallel in
coming back. Whoever married Penelope
Western folktales would be a fairy princess. The
would claim the throne.
home of the peris is Faerie, which is said to be
Penelope had no desire to marry any of
located on “the other side of Mount Qaf,” the
these suitors. She still loved her husband and
mountain that divides the human world from
was sure he would return. But she also knew
that of the fairies. The peris are ruled by their fa-
that she had to keep the suitors happy to avoid
ther, the king, and travel magically by air from
a riot. So she promised she would select one of
Faerie to the mortal world whenever they wish
them for her new husband if they would let
to encounter humans.
her finish her weaving.
In some folktales, the wild goats known as
They agreed, thinking this would be only a
ibexes are said to belong to the peris. Unwary
short delay. But Penelope, who did her weaving
hunters who come across a sleeping peri or
by day, secretly picked out all the threads at
who kill more than their share of the ibexes
night. And so the weaving was never near to
will be punished, although there is no codified
being finished. By the time the irate suitors dis-
form of punishment in the tales.
covered the trick, Odysseus returned to save
In some tales, a human woman is taken,
his wife, son, and throne.
either voluntarily or by abduction, to watch a
Today, Penelope is often viewed as a sym-
peri ceremony. After this experience, it is
bol of patience and constancy.
sometimes necessary to cure the woman by
See also: Homer; Odysseus; Odyssey. various folk religious methods to remind her
that she is not a peri.
Sources
Sometimes a peri and a human may wed,
Hard. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. though those marriages seldom last long. Usu-
Grant, Michael. Myths of the Greeks and Romans. Cleve- ally, the peri leaves her human husband to re-
land, OH: World, 1962. turn to her people.
Homer. The Odyssey. Trans. Robert Fagles. New York: Pari is still a common name for women in
Viking, 1996.
Iran. In Turkey, a woman might be named Per-
ihan, or queen of the peris.
Peri/Pari Sources
Massé, Henri. Persian Beliefs and Customs. Trans. Charles
(Persian) A. Messner. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press,
1954.
I n Persian and Islamic mythology, a peri is a

beautiful fairy being. In the myths of India,
this being is called a pari.
Mills, Margaret A., Peter J. Claus, and Sarah Diamond,
eds. South Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia. New York:
Routledge, 2003.

362 Perrault, Charles
Perrault, Charles was soon noticed by French minister Jean-

Baptiste Colbert, under whose patronage he
prospered. Colbert was officially the king’s
(1628–1703) superintendent and director general of build-
ings. He was also the king’s personal artistic
C harles Perrault was a seventeenth-century
French intellectual, royal official, and
writer. He is responsible for bringing folktales
director. Colbert gave Perrault the opportu-
nity to display his artistic flair and intellectual
skills.
to the attention of the French literary audience
Perrault was an accomplished author of sev-
during the reign of the Sun King, Louis XIV
eral literary works that included poetry, classi-
(r. 1643–1715). This work assured Perrault’s
cal parodies, and even an attempt at an epic.
place in both literary history and the history of
But he is known primarily for his retellings of
folklore as the first modern writer to transform
peasant fairy tales, which he rewrote to appeal
oral narratives into literary classics.
to the sophisticated court nobility.
Perrault was born in Paris on January 12,
Perrault’s attempt to arrange the tales in
1628, the youngest of five surviving sons in an
verse in 1695 was unsuccessful, so he recast
upper-class bourgeois family. He attended the
them in prose two years later. The prose
Collège de Beauvais, a private secondary
work was called Histoires ou contes du temps
school in Paris, but he finished his education
passé, avec des moralités: Contes de ma Mère l’Oye
on his own.
(Histories or Tales of Past Times, with Morals:
In 1651, following in the footsteps of his
Tales of Mother Goose). It included versions
father and eldest brother, Perrault became
of “Sleeping Beauty,” “Little Red Riding
a lawyer. But the talented writer and poet
Hood,” “Blue Beard,” “Puss in Boots,” “The
Fairies,” “Cinderella,” “Ricky with the Tuft,”
and “Tom Thumb.”
Perrault was vague about his sources, but
he did acknowledge that the tales were not
original. He altered the tales to fit the noble
court’s tastes, but he maintained their original
folk essence. Perrault understood and appreci-
ated the appeal of folklore more than a hun-
dred years before the Brothers Grimm began
their collection.
Perrault outlived all his siblings, his wife,
and his son, Pierre, and spent the last few
years of his life writing court poetry and his
memoirs. He died on May 15, 1703.
Maria Teresa Agozzino

Sources
Morgan, Jeanne. Perrault’s Morals for Moderns. New York:
Peter Lang, 1985.
Perrault, Charles. Histoires ou contes du temps passé, avec des
The French courtier and writer Charles Perrault is best moralités: Contes de ma Mère l’Oye. Paris: Claude
known for his retellings of such folktales as “Cinderella.” Barbin, 1697.
The author often entertained the royal court with his Zarucchi, Jeanne Morgan, ed. and trans. Charles Perrault:
sophisticated versions of the tales. (Roger Viollet/Getty Memoirs of My Life. Columbia: University of Mis-
Images) souri Press, 1989.

Phantom Ships/Ghost Ships 363
Phantom Bus Phantom Ships/

(English) Ghost Ships
M ost ghosts are the spirits of previously
animate beings, such as humans or
animals, but sometimes people claim to have
S tories about phantom or ghost ships that
sail by themselves or with a ghostly crew
can be found in most regions located near
seen the ghost of an inanimate object. One bodies of water. North American storytellers
such apparition was the phantom bus of can find a good many stories in the communi-
London. ties on their own coasts and lakes.
In the mid-1930s, a ghostly, bright red
double-decker bus apparently made several ap- Atlantic Phantoms
pearances. It always was witnessed at the inter-
section of Saint Marks Road and Cambridge The eastern shores of Canada and the northern
Gardens in North Kensington, London, at a United States face the rough, storm-swept At-
sharp curve in the road. lantic Ocean. For at least 200 years, people on
The first sighting, according to popular the coasts of Canada’s Prince Edward Island,
lore, was in 1934. A motorist, who had crashed Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick have re-
his car but fortunately was unhurt, told the ported seeing “a burning ship out there.” Some-
police that he was making a turn when a times, they report seeing the ship’s clear
bright red double-decker bus came hurtling outline. In other cases, they see only a mysteri-
toward him, forcing him off the road. The ous ball of fire, or a ball of fire that resolves into
motorist also reported that the bus lights had the shape of a ship. Those who try to approach
been on, but that he was unable to see a the ship witness it vanishing into thin air.
driver or any passengers. When the police In New Brunswick, the ship is thought to
looked into the story, it was found that no be the nineteenth-century sailing vessel Col-
buses were scheduled in the region at the bum, which was lost during a violent storm in
time of the sighting. 1838. Others call it the John Craig, since a ship
Other accidents happened. Always, the of that name was lost in the region. Along the
story was the same: A red double-decker bus coast of Nova Scotia, the ship was thought to
appeared, forced cars off the road, and then be the Isabella, which disappeared soon after
vanished. setting sail in 1868. Others argue that it is a
The London department of transportation vessel that carried immigrants to Canada, or
straightened out the sharp curve in the 1940s. perhaps it is even a pirate ship.
After that, there were no more accidents or
sightings of the phantom bus, but the tale is Ghosts of the Great Lakes
still being told.
The Great Lakes can be as deadly and storm-
See also: Ghosts and Hauntings. tossed as the North Atlantic. Perhaps the earli-
est known sighting of a ghost ship there was of
Sources the Griffon, which vanished on Lake Michigan
Brunvand, Jan Harold. Encyclopedia of Urban Legends. in September of 1678. Several sailors claimed
Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2001. to see it in the years that followed.
Hole, Christina. Haunted England. Chicago: Contempo- The schooner Western Reserve sank in Lake
rary Books, 1987.
Simpson, Jacqueline, and Steve Roud. A Dictionary of En-
Michigan in 1892, yet it is still occasionally
glish Folklore. New York: Oxford University Press, sighted. The W.H. Gilcher, a coal steamer lost in
2000. the Straits of Mackinac between Lake Michigan

364 Phoenix
and Lake Huron in 1982, still appears from time

to time, occasionally with a companion ship.
Once every seven years, the schooner Erie
Board of Trade returns. This ghost ship disap-
peared in 1883 and has been sighted on Lake
Superior ever since.
Perhaps the most recent phantom ship in
the Great Lakes is the Edmund Fitzgerald, an
ore freighter that sank in Lake Superior on
November 10, 1975. It was sighted by a com-
mercial vessel ten years later.
The Baychinco
One phantom ship had nothing of the super-
natural to it, but it was decidedly unusual.
When the freighter Baychinco became stuck in
In this double image, the phoenix at left pecks at vege-
the ice off Alaska in 1931, a storm struck so vi- tation, and the phoenix at right lies in the flames waiting
olently that all hands abandoned ship. They to be reborn. The picture comes from a bestiary, a book
were safer waiting out the storm on the thick of natural and unnatural creatures written in medieval
Latin. (© Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY)
ice than staying on board.
When the storm was over, the Baychinco
was gone. The ship had been freed of the ice a bird resembling an eagle. The phoenix was
during the storm, had broken its moorings, associated with the Egyptian sun god, Re. Since
and had sailed off on its own. It was said to be the Sun seemed to die every night and return to
seen for years afterward in the region, until a life each day, the phoenix became a symbol of
final sighting was reported in 1964. resurrection and immortality. As such, it often
was painted on sarcophagi.
See also: Flying Dutchman; Ghosts and Haunt- The Greeks took the concept of the
ings. phoenix even further, linking it with Apollo, in
his aspect of sun god. The Greek phoenix lived
Sources in Arabia. Every morning at dawn, it bathed in
Boyer, Dwight. Ghost Ships of the Great Lakes. New York:
Dodd, Mead, 1968.
a cool well, then sang so beautifully that Apollo
Creighton, Helen, comp. Bluenose Ghost. Toronto, would stop his chariot to listen. The brief pause
Canada: Ryerson, 1957. created the brightness of the sunrise.
Sherwood, Roland H. The Phantom Ship of Northumber- When the solitary phoenix felt itself near
land Strait and Other Mysteries of the Sea. Windsor,
death, which occurred every 500 to 1,000
Nova Scotia, Canada: Lancelot, 1975.
years, it built a nest of aromatic wood and set
it on fire. The flames consumed the phoenix
Phoenix and a new (or renewed) phoenix sprang up
from the pyre. The new phoenix embalmed
the ashes of the prior phoenix in an egg of fra-
(Egyptian and Greek) grant myrrh, and then flew to Heliopolis, the
T he phoenix was a legendary bird associ-

ated with ancient Greek and Egyptian
mythology.
City of the Sun. There, it left the egg on the
sun god’s altar.
The phoenix has been associated by some
In Egypt, the phoenix was generally por- scholars with two other sacred birds, or bird-
trayed as the benu, a heron, or heronlike bird, beings, the Hindu Garuda and the Chinese
although Egyptian texts sometimes described feng-huang.

Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl 365
See also: Reincarnation. pixies and never return. A Devon farmhand

named Jan Coo was lost after following voices
Sources that called his name. He was never seen again.
Barber, Richard, and Anne Riches. A Dictionary of Fabu- There are several ways to placate the pix-
lous Beasts. London: Macmillan, 1971. ies. Farmers can leave out saucers of milk or
Clair, Colin. Unnatural History: An Illustrated Bestiary.
London: Abelard-Schuman, 1967.
bowls of food for them. If the pixies approve
Gould, Charles. Mythical Monsters. London: W.H. Allen, of the gifts, they might even tidy up the farm
1886. overnight.
Pixies also have been featured in fantasy
fiction. They appear, for instance, in J.K. Rowl-
Pixies ing’s novel Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets
(1998), not as mischief makers but as nasty nui-
sances that must be caught and kept caged.
(English)
See also: Brownies.
P ixies, which also are known as piskeys or
little people, are small, mischievous beings
from English folklore, particularly the tales
Sources
Rose. Carol. Spirits, Fairies, Gnomes, and Goblins: An Ency-
from Cornwall, Dartmoor, and Devon. The clopedia of the Little People. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-
pixies usually are pictured with pointed ears CLIO, 1996.
and dressed in green clothing, the traditional St. Leger-Gordon, Ruth. The Witchcraft and Folklore of
fairy color. Dartmoor. London: Sutton, 1994.
Whitcombe, H.P. Devonshire Legends. Church Stretton,
Folklorists generally consider pixies to be Shropshire, UK: Oakmagic, 1997.
true fairies, kin to the brownies and even to the
leprechauns. But there also are medieval Chris-
tian tales from Dartmoor that claim that the
pixies originally were humans who were not
Popocatépetl and
good enough for heaven or bad enough for
hell, and so they were shrunken and returned
Iztaccíhuatl
to Earth. Another medieval tale from the same
region claims that the pixies originally were
(Aztec)
druids who refused to become Christians.
Whatever their folkloric origin, all pixies
are traditionally said to enjoy playing tricks on
I n the Aztec myth Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhu-
atl, the theme of the star-crossed lovers is
used to show how Mexico’s two most famous
humans, doing such mischief as stealing pos- volcanoes, Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl, came
sessions or taking horses and riding them all to be.
night. In the morning, the only signs that such Iztaccíhuatl, which means “white lady,”
a night ride took place are the horse’s weari- was the beautiful daughter of an Aztec em-
ness and tangled mane. peror in the Valley of Mexico. Unfortunately,
Humans who become lost on the trackless she fell in love with Popocatépetl, a mere cap-
moors of Dartmoor are said to have been tain of warriors. He was not deemed to be of
“pixie led,” or led astray by the pixies. It is high enough rank for an emperor’s daughter.
said that if travelers feel the onset of the pixie Some versions of the story add that they were
spell, they can turn their coats inside out to not of the same people, which created another
confuse the pixies and escape. barrier between them.
In many cases, the tales of those being The couple went to Iztaccíhuatl’s father
pixie led end happily, with the human eventu- and begged to be allowed to marry, despite
ally finding the way back home. There are ex- the difference in their status. The emperor did
ceptions to this, however. Some follow the not refuse them completely. Instead, he told

366 Popol Vuh
them that he would agree to their marriage The original manuscript document was re-
only if Popocatépetl first conquered an enemy discovered by a priest named Francisco
tribe and brought back their leader’s head. Ximénez in the early eighteenth century.
Some versions add that the emperor had grown Ximénez made a copy and wrote out a Span-
too old to fight and that the enemy was already ish translation. This copy survives to this day.
attacking, or that the emperor never expected It was acquired by the University of San Car-
the young man to return and had already los in Guatemala in 1830 but was taken by a
planned to wed his daughter to a more appro- French priest to Paris in the 1860s. In 1911, it
priate suitor. was acquired by the Newberry Library in
After several months of combat, a warrior Chicago, where it remains.
who hated Popocatépetl sent a false message The Popol Vuh, or Council Book, begins
to the emperor. It claimed that Popocatépetl with the gods assembling to design the world.
had died in battle. When Iztaccíhuatl heard They wanted to create humans but failed in
this, she pined away and died of sadness. their first three attempts. When they finally
As the emperor prepared his daughter’s succeeded, they went on to create a set of
funeral, Popocatépetl returned victorious from twins.
battle. When he found his beloved Iztaccíhu- The first set of twins was One Hunahpu
atl dead, he was struck with agonizing grief. and Seven Hunahpu, who were sons of Xpiya-
Taking her body in his arms, he carried her coc, the divine matchmaker, and Xmucane,
away and gently set her down, as though she the divine midwife. One Hunahpu and Blood
were merely sleeping. Popocatépetl knelt be- Woman, the daughter of one of the lords of
side Iztaccíhuatl until he died of grief. the underworld, eventually had another set of
The gods took pity on the star-crossed twins. These twins were Hunahpu and Xbal-
lovers, covered them with a soft blanket of anque, also known as the Hero Twins.
snow, and turned them into two mountains. The Quiché were interested in the cycles
of the seasons and the orientation and move-
Sources ment of bodies in the heavens. So the adven-
Ferguson, Diana. Tales of the Plumed Serpent: Aztec, Inca, tures of the twins often mirror seasonal and
and Mayan Myths. New York: Sterling, 2000. astronomical cycles, especially those of the
Miller, Mary, and Karl A. Taube. The Gods and Symbols of
planet Venus.
Ancient Mexico and the Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary.
London: Thames and Hudson, 1993. The cycle of death and rebirth is repre-
Taube, Karl A. Aztec and Maya Myths. Austin: University sented in the story when One Hunahpu and
of Texas Press, 1993. Seven Hunahpu travel to the underworld to
die. After their death, the skull of One Hu-
nahpu is still able to engender children by
Popol Vuh spitting on Blood Woman, who rises to the
earth. Blood Woman’s sons later journey to
the underworld, overcome the lords, and rise
(Mayan) as the Sun and Moon.
T he Popol Vuh is the Quiché Mayan book of

creation. It recounts the stories of gods
and men from the beginning of the world to
Following the tale of the Hero Twins, who
are not truly human, the Popol Vuh returns to
the tale of the gods’ fourth attempt to create
the founding of the Quiché kingdoms in humankind. This time, they succeed, creating
Guatemala in the first millennium C.E. The the first people: Jaguar Quitze, Jaguar Night,
story was first written down in the sixteenth Mahucutah, and True Jaguar, the ancestors of
century, during the early years of Spanish the Quiché Maya.
rule, by Mayan nobles who wanted to pre-
serve their heritage. See also: Epics.

Pr incess in the Tower 367
Sources In these tales, a princess is kept alone or im-

Markman, Roberta H., and Peter T. Markman. The prisoned in a tower until she is rescued or won
Flayed God. San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1992. by the hero. In a variant of the basic story, the
Scarborough, Vernon L., and David R. Wilcox, eds. The
Mesoamerican Ballgame. Tucson: University of Ari-
princess, or sometimes a prince, escapes from
zona Press, 1991. the tower at the beginning of the story to find
Tedlock, Dennis, trans. Popol Vuh. New York: Touch- her own destiny.
stone, 1985. The tower is constructed of various mate-
rials in the different stories. It may be made of
glass or of ordinary stone. Usually, it has no
Priam, King obvious entrance or exit.
One of the earliest versions of the princess-
(Greek) in-the-tower tale comes from Egypt in the first
millennium B.C.E. Usually called “The Doomed
I n Greek mythology and in the Iliad, Priam
was the last king of Troy, the ruler of the city
during the Trojan War.
Prince,” or “The Prince and His Three Fates,” it
contains two variations of the motif.
In the first motif variation, the prince is
Priam was an honorable, dignified man,
kept in a tower by his father to keep him
who was respectful to the gods. Priam’s wife
from his fate. In the second variation, the
was Hecuba, sometimes spelled Hecube. Priam
princess is kept in a tower by her father so
had at least fifty sons and fifty daughters with
that only the best man can reach her. The
Hecuba and various other women. The best
prince leaves his tower and rescues the
known of his children were the princes Hector
princess.
and Paris and the tragic princess Cassandra.
A Celtic version of the tale appears in the
Most of Priam’s sons died in the Trojan
story of Dierdre, one of the “Three Tragic Tales
War, including his firstborn, Hector, who was
of Erin.” Dierdre is held captive but eventually
slain by the great Greek warrior Achilles. The
escapes and winds up as a traditionally star-
king went alone to Achilles’s tent to beg for
crossed lover.
Hector’s body so he might give it a proper
A more familiar version is the European
burial. Achilles pitied the old man and re-
tale of the princess in the glass tower or atop
turned the body to him.
a glass mountain. The hero must ride up the
Later, as Priam clung to the altar of Zeus on
mountain or rescue the princess from the
the night that Troy fell, Achilles’s son Neoptole-
tower. In this type of tale, the princess is
mus killed him.
merely a cipher, a prize to be won.
See also: Iliad; Trojan War. Perhaps the most familiar version of this
tale is the Grimm Brothers’ “Rapunzel,” in
Sources which Rapunzel’s long hair provides the only
Homer. The Iliad. Trans. Robert Fagles. New York: Pen- way in and out of the tower. In this tale, of
guin, 1998. course, true love conquers all.
Willcock, Malcolm M. Companion to the Iliad: Based on the
Translation by Richmond Lattimore. Chicago: Univer- See also: Tale Types.
sity of Chicago Press, 1976.
Wood, Michael. In Search of the Trojan War. Berkeley: Sources
University of California Press, 1998.
Aarne, Antti. The Types of the Folktale: A Classification
and Bibliography. Trans. Stith Thompson. Helsinki,
Finland: Academia Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia,
Princess in the Tower 1987.
Grimm Brothers. Complete Fairy Tales of the Brothers
Grimm. Trans. Jack Zipes. New York: Bantam, 2003.
T he folk motif of the princess in the tower

is part of an ancient traditional tale type.
Polland, Madeleine. Dierdre. Garden City, NY: Double-
day, 1967.

368 Prometheus
Prometheus stand upright as the gods did, and he also

gave them fire.
Prometheus loved humans more than he
(Greek) did the Olympians, who had, after all, sent
most of his family to Tartarus. Zeus ordered
I n Greek mythology, Prometheus was the
wisest of the Titans, who were the supreme
rulers of the universe until they were over-
that all men must give the gods a portion of
every animal they killed. Prometheus made
two piles, one with just bones wrapped in
thrown by Zeus. Prometheus’s name means
juicy fat to make them look richer and the
“forethought,” and he was able to foretell the
other with the good meat made to look thin.
future.
He then asked Zeus to choose one. Zeus
When Zeus revolted against Cronos,
picked the pile of bones. Since he had given
Prometheus and his slower-witted brother,
his word, Zeus had to accept the poorer share
Epimetheus (whose name means “after-
for future sacrifices.
thought”), deserted the other Titans and fought
In his anger over the trick, Zeus took fire
on Zeus’s side. Because they had sided with
away from man. However, Prometheus lit a
Zeus, Prometheus and Epimetheus were spared
torch from the Sun and brought it back again.
imprisonment in Tartarus, the underworld.
Zeus was enraged and inflicted a terrible pun-
The brothers were given the task of creat-
ishment on both man and Prometheus.
ing humans and animals. Prometheus shaped
Zeus punished man by sending the woman
the first men out of mud, and Athena breathed
Pandora. When she took the lid off the jar she
life into the clay figures. Prometheus gave
carried, evil, hard work, and disease were re-
Epimetheus the task of giving the creatures of
leased on Earth.
the earth their speed, strength, wings, and so
Prometheus’s punishment was to be fas-
on. Unfortunately, by the time he got to man,
tened with unbreakable chains to a rock on a
Epimetheus had given out all the good quali-
mountaintop. Each day, an eagle tore out his
ties, and there were none left for man. So
liver, and every night the liver grew back.
Prometheus gave humanity the ability to
There he was to stay for all eternity, unless he
agreed to tell Zeus which of his own children
would overthrow him. The only other way
Prometheus could be freed was if an immortal
agreed to die for him and a hero killed the ea-
gle and broke the chains.
Prometheus never gave in. Eventually,
Cheiron the immortal Centaur was painfully
wounded and wished to die. He gave his life
in order to free Prometheus. The hero Her-
cules killed the eagle and broke the chains.
In the modern world, Prometheus has be-
come a symbol of the righteous rebel who re-
fuses to give in to tyranny.
Sources
A sixth-century B.C.E. Greek drinking cup illustrates Hard. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Prometheus (right) being punished by Zeus for giving fire Grant, Michael. Myths of the Greeks and Romans. Cleve-
to humans. Every day, a vulture tears out Prometheus’s land, OH: World, 1962.
liver, and, every night, the liver grows back. At left, the Rouse, W.H.D. Gods, Heroes and Men of Ancient Greece.
Titan Atlas holds up the world. (Scala/Art Resource, NY) New York: New American Library, 2001.

Ptah 369
Proverbs Tales (c. 1387–1400) and Miguel de Cervantes’s

Don Quixote (1605) both hold many examples.
Benjamin Franklin used numerous
P roverbs are brief sayings that present a

truth or some bit of useful wisdom. They
usually are based on common sense or practi-
proverbs in his Poor Richard’s Almanack, pub-
lished from 1733 to 1758. When Franklin was
not able to find a suitable proverb, he would in-
cal experience and are attributed to a specific vent one. He authored the following examples:
author or folk tradition.
Proverbs often are passed along by word of • A penny saved is a penny earned.
mouth, but written collections have been as-
• Early to bed, early to rise makes a man
sembled. Perhaps the oldest of these antholo- healthy, wealthy, and wise.
gies is a Sumerian work that dates to 2000
B.C.E. These proverbs were written on clay
Today, proverbs remain as popular—and as
tablets in cuneiform, the written language of useful—as ever.
Sumer, in what is now Iraq. Many of them
sound quite familiar: Sources
Ferguson, Rosalind. The Penguin Dictionary of Proverbs.
• He who gathers wealth must keep London: Penguin, 1963.
close watch on it. Manser, Martin H., and Rosalind Fergusson, eds. Facts
on File Dictionary of Proverbs. New York: Facts on
• Wealth is hard to get, but poverty is File, 2002.
easy. Mieder, Wolfgang. The Prentice-Hall Encyclopedia of Word
Proverbs. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1983.
• The poor are the silent ones of the land.
The book of Proverbs in the Bible is one

of the most notable collections. It includes the Ptah
following examples:
(Egyptian)
• Pride goeth before destruction, and a
haughty spirit before a fall.
• A soft answer turneth away wrath.
P tah was the great craftsman god of Egypt,
who apportioned life to all living things.
Ptah was described as the self-created fash-
• A good name is rather to be chosen ioner of the world and of all life, including the
than great riches. other gods. He was associated with intellectual
activities of thought and action.
Since the human experience is constant, Ptah’s spouse usually was regarded as the
despite differences in cultures and languages, lion goddess, Sekhmet. Among his offspring
the same proverb often occurs across several were said to be the goddess Hathor, the per-
different traditions. fume god Nefertum, and Imhotep, the deified
architect of the step pyramid at Djoser.
• Russian: A new broom sweeps clean. Images of Ptah usually show a man whose
mummiform body was wrapped in a feathered
• English: A bad broom leaves a dirty garment. Only his hands protruded to grasp
room. a certain kind of scepter, often in conjunction
• Ovambo (Africa): A new broom sweeps with other symbols. He wore a beard and a
well. tight-fitting blue cap, occasionally surmounted
by a solar disk, wavy ram horns, and two
Proverbs are also often used in fiction. feathers. A tassel hung down from the back of
Geoffrey Chaucer’s work The Canterbury his neck.

370 Puppetr y and Stor ytelling
Over time, Ptah’s identity merged with that A hand puppet is operated by putting a
of Tatanen, the personification of the mound of hand into the hollow puppet. A rod puppet
earth that rose from Nun, the primeval waters. has a stiff rod attached to it. String puppets
Ptah was also said to be the body of the creator are moved by pulling strings attached to their
god, as Re, the sun god, was this creator’s face, arms, legs, heads, and bodies. Shadow pup-
and Amun his hidden identity. pets are flat, intricately cut figures that usu-
Ptah allowed human craftsmen to translate ally are held between a sheet and a light to
thoughts into material things. He was referred create a shadow.
to as “He Who Created the Arts” and as “Lord
of Years.” In the latter role, Ptah dispensed jus- Europe
tice and destiny for the living. He was also fre-
In Europe, one of the most familiar puppet
quently referred to as “Lord of Maat” (Lord of
characters is Mr. Punch, which is short for
Truth). In some sources, Ptah ruled as the first
Punchinello. The Punch and Judy show origi-
earthly king of Egypt. As such, he was fre-
nated in England. Mr. Punch is always depicted
quently called “King of the Two Lands,”
as a hunchback with a large nose, usually
which referred to Upper and Lower Egypt.
dressed in jester costume.
The cult of Ptah was centered at Memphis,
Since the 1600s, Punch performers, called
but he was worshipped throughout Egypt. The
professors, have told the tales of Mr. Punch us-
name of a temple of Ptah at Memphis, Hut-Ka-
ing a swazzle. This device is made of two strips
Ptah, or “Mansion of the Soul of Ptah,” was
of metal bound around a cotton tape reed that
probably the source of the Greek word Aigyptos
is placed in the puppeteer’s mouth and pro-
and, ultimately, the English Egypt.
duces a raspy sound, which creates Punch’s
Noreen Doyle
unique voice.
The Punch and Judy stories traveled
Sources
Allen, James P. Genesis in Egypt: The Philosophy of Ancient through Europe, each country making the tales
Egyptian Creation Accounts. New Haven, CT: Yale its own. In Germany, Punch is called Kasper,
Egyptological Seminar, 1988. and Judy is known as Grete; in the Nether-
Holmberg, Maj Sandman. The God Ptah. Lund, Sweden: lands, Punch is Jan Klaassen, and Judy is Ka-
C.W.K. Gleerup, 1946.
trijn; and, in Italy, Punch is Pulcinello, and his
sometimes wife is Pulcinella. In Denmark,
Punch is Mester Jackel; in France, he is Guig-
Puppetry and Storytelling nol; in Russia, he is Petruschka; and in Roma-
nia, he is Vasilache.
P uppetry has long been used as a means to

tell stories for adults and children around
the world. This medium has been used to con-
In Greece and Turkey, Punch is called
Karagioz, and the performance is done with
shadow puppets rather than with the tradi-
vey social, political, and religious messages as tional hand puppets of the British version. In
well as for entertainment. It is likely that cave- Indonesia, Punch is known as Petruk.
men used their hands, the cave wall, and fire
to create shadow puppets to tell the story of Japan
the day’s hunt.
While Punch and Judy were traversing the
world, the puppetry form called Bunraku was
Types of Puppetry developed in Japan. Also called ningyo-joruri,
There are four basic kinds of puppets: hand, which literally means “puppets and story-
rod, string, and shadow. Most puppets are telling,” Bunraku came out of the Kabuki and
combinations of these basic types. Karakuri traditions.

Puppetr y and Stor ytelling 371
Indonesia
In Indonesia, there exist several unique forms
of puppetry used for storytelling. Wayang kulit
is performed with shadow puppets and tells In-
donesian versions of the Indian Hindu epics.
Wayang golek is performed with wooden rod
puppets and retells the Hindu tales, as well as
several Islamic Arabian adventure cycles.
Wayang klitik is performed with flat wooden
puppets and tells the history of the Javanese
heroes of the Majapahit Empire. A single pup-
peteer, called the dalang, manipulates his set of
as many as seventy rod puppets or between
100 and 500 shadow puppets during a wayang
performance, which can be quite long.
The oldest form of wayang play is called
the wayang pura cycle. This story cycle has mo-
tifs from pre-Hindu times that deal with plant
cultivation, fertility, and death and features
battles between gods and giants. Plays from
this cycle might be performed at rice harvests
to ritually cleanse the village.
A senior dalang might use the Murwakala
play from this cycle during a daytime perfor-
mance to exorcise evil from a village. The
dalang is believed to have powers given to him
by the gods, which allow him to tell these pow-
erfully sacred stories and not die.
China
China also has a rich tradition of puppetry.
Shown are traditional Punch and Judy puppets, to-
gether with the puppeteer’s booth and accessories. String-puppet shows are the oldest recorded
These all were made and operated by Gus Wood form of Chinese puppetry and are used to
(1912–1962) and can be seen in the Victoria & Albert drive evil spirits away or to thank the gods.
Museum in London. (Victoria & Albert Museum, Lon-
don/Art Resource, NY) These performances, which often are re-
garded as rites in reverence of the gods, also
tell the folktales of China.
Shadow puppets are used for more popu-
The plays were clever retellings of classic lar legends, folktales, and local history. Hand
Japanese folktales, along with new plays writ- puppets, the newest form of puppetry, have
ten by Chikamatu Monzaemon. Most of been around for more than a thousand years.
these stories revolved around the practice of Most hand-puppet shows are retellings of
respecting loyalty above all else, including popular historical Chinese novels. Puppetry
personal feelings, and the tragedy that ensues in China is considered a performing art with
from this attitude, as when Confucianism is universal appeal, rather than just entertain-
followed blindly. ment for children.

372 Pushkin, Aleksandr Sergeyevich
Currell, David. The Complete Book of Puppetry. Lanham,

United States MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1990.
In the United States, puppets generally are Herbert, Mimi. Voices of the Puppet Masters: The Wayang
Golek Theater of Indonesia. Honolulu: University of
used for children’s entertainment. They are Hawaii Press, 2002.
used to teach and tell stories. Simons, Ronald T., and Marc Estrin. Rehearsing with Gods:
Fred Rogers of the Mr. Rogers’ Neighbor- Photographs and Essays on the Bread and Puppet Theater.
hood (1968–2001) television series used hand White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green, 2004.
puppets to tell his stories in a land of make-
believe. These stories, which were episodic,
told tales of the various characters and taught Pushkin, Aleksandr
children about how to handle different chal-
lenges, from dealing with bullies to mailing Sergeyevich
a letter.
The long-running children’s television (1799–1837)
show Sesame Street (first aired in 1969) uses
puppets to reflect the views of children and to
help them deal with many issues, including
A leksandr Pushkin was a nineteenth-
century Russian author who has been
called his country’s greatest poet and the found-
birth, marriage, and death. Jim Henson, cre-
er of modern Russian literature. He is valuable
ator of the Muppets, used his puppets to tell
to storytellers both for his original work and for
many stories, both classic and original.
his retellings of traditional Russian folktales.
Puppetry is a thriving art form in the
Pushkin was born in Moscow to a poor
United States. Julie Taymor won a Tony
but aristocratic family. In his childhood, as
Award for her direction and design of the
was traditional in such families, he was en-
Broadway musical The Lion King (1997),
trusted to nursemaids, tutors, and governesses.
which incorporates puppets in the elaborate
Since cultured Russian families of the nine-
production. Paul Zaloom tells political stories
teenth century spoke French, not Russian, he
with found-object puppets and retells classic
learned his native language from servants and
tales using new types of puppets; Basil Twist
from his nanny, who also told him skazky, or
puts new visual twists on old folktales; Bread
folktales. Pushkin was interested in poetry
and Puppet Theater, which is based in Ver-
from an early age, and published his first
mont, presents political themes and old folk-
poem when he was only fourteen years old.
tales through a mixture of pageantry and
puppetry; and the Center for Puppetry Arts
in Atlanta, Georgia, is devoted to storytelling Political Rebellion
through puppetry. While attending the Imperial Lyceum in
Young puppeteers continue to explore the Tsarskoe Selo, Pushkin began his first major
possibilities of this ancient art form. Some use work, a folktale in verse titled Ruslan and Lud-
old, forgotten tales and others create new tales mila. Pushkin took a post at the foreign office
from current events. at Saint Petersburg in 1817, which is where he
first became involved with antitsarist politics.
See also: Wayang.
Ruslan and Ludmila was published in 1820, the
Sources same year in which Pushkin was banished be-
Adachi, Barbara. Backstage at Bunraku: A Behind-the- cause of the political poems he had penned.
Scenes Look at Japan’s Traditional Puppet Theatre. New By 1823, Pushkin was living in Odessa. He
York: Weatherhill, 1985. later relocated to various other parts of Russia.
Bell, John. Strings, Hands, Shadows: A Modern Puppet His-
But despite the upheaval in his life, Pushkin
tory. Detroit, MI: Detroit Institute of Arts, 2000.
Blumenthal, Eileen. Puppetry: A World History. New York: continued to write. In 1823, he started the
Harry N. Abrams, 2005. novel Eugene Onegin, which was published in se-

Puss in Boots 373
rial form between 1823 and 1831. Pyotr Ilyich and flirting with every man. Pushkin was wor-
Tchaikovsky wrote an opera based on this ried about the bills, and more worried about
work, which premiered in Moscow in 1879. whether his wife was faithful. Gossip spread that
Pushkin’s troubles with the authorities con- there was an affair between Natalya and the
tinued. In 1824, he was banished to his family baron Georges d’Anthès. Pushkin was told that
estate of Mikhailovskoe. Pushkin’s father tried he had been elected to “The Serene Order of
in vain to keep his son under his control, but Cuckolds.”
the young rebel was eventually exiled from the At last, Pushkin could stand it no longer.
estate. He challenged the baron to a duel to defend his
Meanwhile, Pushkin’s more radical friends wife’s honor. It was his final mistake. In the
had run into deeper trouble. They took part duel, Pushkin was shot and mortally wounded.
in the Decembrist uprising in 1825 that at- He died on February 10, 1837.
tempted to overthrow Tsar Nicholas. Several
of Pushkin’s friends were exiled to Siberia or Sources
hanged. Binyon, T.J. Pushkin: A Biography. New York: Alfred A.
Knopf, 2003.
In late spring of 1826, Pushkin sent the Pushkin, Alexander. The Collected Stories. New York:
tsar a petition requesting release from exile. Everyman’s Library, 1999.
After an investigation showed that Pushkin Troyat, Henri. Pushkin. Trans. Nancy Amphoux. Garden
had not been involved in the uprising, he was City, NY: Doubleday, 1970.
allowed to return to the capital, where he
foreswore antigovernment activities.
Puss in Boots
Ill-fated Marriage (European)
In 1829, Pushkin fell in love with sixteen-year-
old Natalya Nikolayevna Goncharova, whom
he married two years later. The marriage was
T his familiar tale of Puss in Boots is about a
clever cat that helps a hapless human.
Cats are often depicted in the world’s folklore
not happy, as his wife was not trustworthy.
as supernaturally intelligent or cunning, and it
Still, this was a productive period for
is just a small step from the supernatural cat to
Pushkin. He wrote a group of plays while quar-
the anthropomorphic Puss in Boots.
antined during a cholera epidemic in 1830.
The tale type is found throughout Europe
Among these plays were The Avaricious Knight,
in different versions. Perhaps the most familiar
Mozart and Salieri, The Stone Guest, and The Feast
version was written by the French poet and
During the Plague.
storyteller Charles Perrault.
In 1831, the year of his marriage, Pushkin’s
great historical tragedy, Boris Godunov, was
published. Based on the career of Boris Fyo-
Perrault’s “Puss in Boots”
dorovich Godunov, the tsar of Russia from A miller with three sons died and left his
1598 to 1605, the play was later turned into an youngest son only a cat. The young man was
opera by composer Modest Mussorgsky. saddened to find that he was penniless. But
Pushkin also wrote many short stories in the cat spoke and told the young man that if
the period between 1830 and 1834. The Queen of he provided him with a bag and a pair of
Spades, completed in 1834, became Pushkin’s boots, the cat would make their fortunes.
most famous short story. Tchaikovsky based an The cat pulled on the boots, slung the bag
opera on it. around his neck, and went off to a spot where
Unfortunately, by 1834, Pushkin was there were many rabbits. The cat slipped
deeply in debt. His wife was running up huge some grain and grass into the bag and played
bills, attending all the balls at the royal palace dead. Sure enough, a rabbit jumped into the

374 Puss in Boots
bag. Puss in Boots killed the rabbit and went ogre and told him that he had heard about the
to the royal palace, where he stood before the ogre’s power to turn into any animal he
king. With a gracious bow, he told the king, wished. The ogre turned into a lion, which
“Sire, I have brought you a rabbit from my terrified the cat, then turned back into an
noble lord, the Master of Carabas.” The king ogre.
graciously thanked him. Puss in Boots admitted that he had been
Next, the cat hid in a grain field and caught frightened. He challenged the ogre to turn
a brace of partridges. He presented these to the into something small, which, he told the ogre,
king in the same way. The cat continued to he was certain was impossible. The ogre, in-
bring game to the king for some time. sulted, promptly turned into a mouse, and the
cat ate him.
Deceiving the King When the king arrived at the ogre’s castle,
Puss in Boots ran out and announced, “Your
Puss in Boots learned that the king planned Majesty is welcome to the castle of my Lord
to take a drive along the riverside with his Marquis of Carabas.”
daughter, the most beautiful princess in the Now, the king was convinced the young
world. The cat told his master to go bathe in man was rich and important, as indeed he had
the river, and to leave everything else to the become. The young man and the princess were
cat. The young man agreed. married, and the cat was made a great lord.
While the young man was bathing, the Puss in Boots never again chased mice, except
king’s carriage approached. The cat shouted, for fun.
“Help! Help! The Lord Marquis of Carabas is
going to drown!”
The king’s men “rescued” the young man,
and the cat informed the king that, while his
master was bathing, some rogues had stolen
his clothes. The king promptly had a fine suit
fetched for the marquis.
The young man and the princess immedi-
ately fell in love. The king, unaware of this,
asked the marquis to join him in the royal
coach.
The cat, delighted with how well his plan
was going, ran ahead to where some farmers
were mowing a meadow. He ordered the farm-
ers to tell the king that the meadow belonged to
the Lord Marquis of Carabas. The farmers
complied. The same thing happened when the
royal coach came upon some reapers and again
with every worker the cat found along their
route. By now, the king was amazed at the vast-
ness of the Lord Marquis of Carabas’s estate.
Puss approaches a castle in this scene from the fa-

Puss and the Ogre mous folktale “Puss in Boots.” The illustrator is Gor-
don Robinson, who was active in the early twentieth
Puss in Boots arrived at a stately castle ruled century. (Victoria & Albert Museum, London/Art Re-
by a wealthy ogre. The cat went to see the source, NY)

Puss in Boots 375
Versions of this story have been found in Asbjørnsen, Peter Christen, and Jorgen Moe. Norwegian
Germany, Italy, Norway, and Russia. As long Folk Tales. Trans. Pat Shaw Iverson and Carl Nor-
man. New York: Pantheon, 1960.
as cats remain favorite household pets, it Grimm, Jacob, and Wilhelm Grimm. The Complete Fairy
seems likely that this tale will continue to be Tales of the Brothers Grimm. Translated by Jack Zipes.
popular as well. New York: Bantam, 2003.
Perrault, Charles. Histoires ou contes du temps passé, avec des
See also: Tale Types. moralités: Contes de ma Mère l’Oye. Paris: Claude
Barbin, 1697.
Sources Straparola, Giovanni Francesco. The Facetious Nights by
Afanas’ev, Aleksandr. Russian Fairy Tales. Trans. Norbert Straparola. Trans. W.G. Waters. London: Society of
Guterman. New York: Pantheon, 1976. Bibliophiles, 1901.

Q
Quest for the Missing

Husband
This quest usually takes the heroine
through strange and difficult lands. In some
cases, she must travel for seven years, or
through seven kingdoms, or until she has
worn down seven sets of iron-soled shoes, or
T
type.
he quest by a wife or lover for a missing
or stolen husband or fiancé is a world tale
some other such impossibly long stretch of
time. Strangely, no real time passes as she
searches, since she remains the same young
A familiar motif in this tale is that of the woman throughout her quest. Sometimes, she
monster or animal bridegroom. A husband is has magical helpers, such as the Slavic Baba
either completely transformed into a monster Yaga, or even demigods, such as Pan in the
or animal or is able to shift his shape from hu- “Cupid and Psyche” tale.
man to monster or animal, usually as a result Once the heroine reaches her lost hus-
of a curse. The heroine either witnesses his hu- band’s kingdom, the basic tale continues in
man appearance during the shape-shifting or one of two ways. In the simpler version, the
knows that there is a kind person under the husband has forgotten all about his wife and is
ugly exterior. about to marry another woman. When the
Up until this point, the tale is parallel to heroine appears, he remembers her, and they
the “Beauty and the Beast” tale type. But then are reunited. In the more complex version,
a prohibition is broken, often by the wife try- the husband is under the thrall of an evil but
ing to disenchant her husband, sometimes unusually beautiful witch who has enchanted
der the advice of another well-meaning but him and plans to marry him.
misguided relative. The latter version continues with the hero-
In the “Cupid and Psyche” story, the wife ine undergoing a test, such as sitting for three
is forbidden to see her husband’s face but can- nights at the side of her sleeping husband and
not resist the temptation. In many of the varia- trying to wake him. Often, she gets this chance
tions on the Scandinavian “White Bear” by bribing the witch with magical gifts given to
stories, the bearskin or other magical animal her by the helpers she met along the way. In
skin is thrown on the fire one day before the most versions, the magic of three is retained:
spell would have been broken. Once the pro- She has no luck until the third night. Then ei-
hibition is broken, the husband disappears. ther the heroine discovers that the witch placed
What follows in this tale type is the quest by an enchanted pin in the husband’s hair to keep
the heroine to find and rescue him. him asleep, or she weeps over him when he
376

Quests 377
fails to wake. In both cases, he wakes and in- In some variants on this theme, such as The
stantly remembers her. Little Humpbacked Horse, the two older brothers
The tale always ends with the spell broken are villainous and are punished by the youngest
and husband and wife happily reunited. brother. Similar tales end with the youngest
brother forgiving his siblings’ transgressions.
See also: Tale Types. Sometimes, there are three sisters. Again,
it is almost always the youngest of the three
Sources who triumphs. More rarely, such as in a vari-
Aarne, Antti, and Stith Thompson. The Types of the Folk- ant found in The Thousand and One Nights, there
tale: A Classification and Bibliography. 2nd rev. ed. may be two brothers and a younger sister, and
Helsinki, Finland: Academia Scientiarum Fennica,
1987.
it is the sister who saves her brothers.
Afanas’ev, Aleksandr. Russian Fairy Tales. Trans. Norbert During the quest, the protagonist often
Guterman. New York: Pantheon, 1976. comes across a mentor. This wise man or
Simpson, Jacqueline, ed. and trans. Scandinavian Folk- woman often appears in the guise of a beggar.
tales. New York: Penguin, 1988.
The protagonist shares food with this seem-
ingly unfortunate individual and is rewarded
with a magical object or important information.
Quests The quest itself is always difficult and often
dangerous. The Greek hero Odysseus traveled
A quest is a long and often difficult search

for something. In story, quests are gener-
ally adventurous expeditions made by the
to the underworld to obtain information on his
quest. Orpheus also visited the underworld to
recover his lost bride. The Sumerian goddess
protagonist. Inanna traveled there and suffered a ritual
The hero may have companions or may death and revival to save her lover.
travel alone, but helpers or mentors are almost Often, in shamanistic tales, the shaman
always met along the way. The quest may be must travel to other realms or the realm of
for an object, to right a wrong, or for knowl- the dead to save a life or gain wisdom. An-
edge that will save the protagonist or the pro- other danger may come from monsters that
tagonist’s people. In Sumerian and Babylonian must be overcome, or ritual trials that must
myth, the hero Gilgamesh was questing for im- be passed.
mortality. In the Arthurian tale of Perceval, the In folktales in which the heroine quests for
hero was seeking the Holy Grail. her lost husband, such as in the Norse tale
The quest also may be part of a prophecy. “The White Bear,” she travels a ritual seven
In Greek mythology, for example, Jason’s task days or seven years and wears out seven pairs
was to gain the Golden Fleece to fulfill a of iron-heeled shoes hunting for him.
prophecy and claim his crown.
In many folktales, the protagonist sets out See also: Archetype.
to find his or her fortune. There may be a
choice of gifts at the start of the quest, such as Sources
bread for the journey or a mother’s blessing. Caldecott, Moyra. Mythical Journeys, Legendary Quests: The
Spiritual Search—Traditional Stories from World
The wise hero accepts the blessing. Mythology. London: Blandford, 1996.
In some tales, three brothers set out on a Kerven, Rosalind. The Mythical Quest: In Search of Adven-
quest, either together or singly. In these tales, ture, Romance and Enlightenment. San Francisco:
the eldest brothers fail, and the third, the youn- Pomegranate Artbooks, 1996.
Leeming, David. The Oxford Companion to World Mythol-
gest, succeeds. The Russian folktales about the ogy. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
hero Ivan often follow this plot. Ivan is the vic- Puhvel, Jaan. Comparative Mythology. Baltimore: Johns
torious son. Hopkins University Press, 1987.

R
Railroad Folklore
(American)
off the catwalk by the wind. But she made it.
She raced to the Moingona station and told
the station agent of the washout.
The station agent ran out into the storm
with a red lamp just in time to halt the oncom-
S omething about railroads seems to inspire
larger-than-life stories. Some of these sto-
ries are true, some are pure folklore, and still
ing train. Kate led a rescue team to where the
two men from the pusher train were still cling-
ing to the wreckage, and they were saved.
others are based on fact but take on a life of
their own.
Casey Jones
Teenage Heroine The true story of Casey Jones has been exag-
An example of a true railroad story that has gerated over time. The basic story is of a train
not been overly embellished by folklore is that wreck that happened on the night of April 29,
of a teenager from Iowa, Kate Shelley. On a 1900.
night in 1881, a fierce storm broke over the Engineer Casey Jones was heading out
Des Moines River valley. Around 11 P.M., a from Memphis, Tennessee, with Engine 382
type of train known as a pusher was sent out to and six cars, southbound for Canton. The
check for track washouts. The storm-weakened scheduled departure time was 11:15 P.M. Rec-
bridge over Honey Creek collapsed under the ords indicate that Jones left at 12:50; an hour
train’s weight. and thirty-five minutes late. Casey was deter-
Fifteen-year-old Kate ran out to see what mined to make up the lost time and arrive on
had happened, and she found the men trapped schedule.
in the water. There was nothing she could do Unfortunately, there were trains ahead,
to help them, and the midnight express train one of which had stalled. This meant that En-
would soon be coming down the same track. gine 382, going at full speed, was unable to
The result would be a terrible crash if Kate stop in time and crashed right into the back of
failed to warn the agent at the nearest station, the stalled train. Casey Jones was fatally in-
at Moingona, about the washout. jured. Later, a formal investigation blamed
The only way to get to the station was over him for the accident, saying that he had not
a narrow catwalk that crossed the flooded properly responded to the warning flag signals.
river. In the darkness, Kate crawled on hands A local railroad worker, Wallace Skinner, is
and knees, pelted by rain and nearly thrown credited with writing a song about the accident.
378

Railroad Folklore 379
It was overheard and turned into a song per- On April 30, 1900, that rainy morn,
formed at vaudeville shows. The ballad made Down in Mississippi near the town
Casey Jones a folk hero: of Vaughan,
Sped the Cannonball Special only
Come all you rounders if you want to hear two minutes late
A story ’bout a brave engineer, Traveling 70 miles an hour when they
Casey Jones was the rounder’s name saw a freight.
’Twas on the Illinois Central that he
won his fame. The caboose number 83 was on
the main line,
Casey Jones, he loved a locomotive. Casey’s last words were “Jump, Sim,
Casey Jones, a mighty man was he. while you have the time.”
Casey Jones run his final locomotive At 3:52 that morning came the
With the Cannonball Special on the old I.C. fateful end,
Casey took his farewell trip to the
Casey pulled into Memphis on Number Four, promised land.
The engine foreman met him at the
roundhouse door; Casey Jones, he died at the throttle,
Said, “Joe Lewis won’t be able to make With the whistle in his hand.
his run Casey Jones, he died at the throttle,
So you’ll have to double out on Number But we’ll all see Casey in the
One.” promised land.
If I can have Sim Webb, my fireman, His wife and three children were
my engine 382, left to mourn
Although I’m tired and weary, I’ll take The tragic death of Casey on that
her through. April morn.
Put on my whistle that come in today May God through His goodness keep them
’Cause I mean to keep her wailing by His grace
as we ride and pray. Till they all meet together in that
heavenly place.
Casey Jones, mounted the cabin,
Casey Jones, with the orders in his hand. Casey’s body lies buried in Jackson,
Casey Jones, he mounted the cabin, Tennessee
Started on his farewell journey to the Close beside the tracks of the old I.C.
promised land. May his spirit live forever throughout
the land
They pulled out of Memphis nearly As the greatest of all heroes of a railroad
two hours late, man.
Soon they were speeding at a terrible rate.
And the people knew by the whistle’s moan. Casey Jones, he died at the throttle,
That the man at the throttle was Casey Jones, with the whistle in
Casey Jones. his hand.
Casey Jones, he died at the throttle,
Need more coal there, fireman Sim, But we’ll all see Casey in the
Open that door and heave it in. promised land.
Give that shovel all you got
And we’ll reach Canton on the dot. (The Ballad of Casey Jones)

380 Raks has as
Other Railroad Tales Rakshasas were shape-shifters, able to take

human or animal form, and some were known
A number of railroad stories are based on the to take the shape of beautiful women to lure hu-
vanishing hitchhiker folktale type. One ver- man men to their doom. In their demon shape,
sion has a beautiful ghost woman who appears the rakshasas could be blue-skinned, yellow-
from time to time on the tracks or in the engi- skinned, green-skinned, or occasionally other
neer’s cab. Sometimes, she kisses the lucky fel- colors. They had matted hair, big bellies, and
low. Sometimes, she merely vanishes, leaving slits for eyes. Some were said to have five feet.
the scent of roses behind her. Humans had good reason to fear these
Another version tells of a phantom wreck demons. Rakshasas loved to kill and eat peo-
that a passing driver tries in vain to report. ple, and they thought nothing of disturbing sa-
The wreck vanishes, and the witness discovers cred ceremonies to get their prey. They were
that it was the ghost of a wreck that happened able to possess a human or reanimate a corpse.
years back. These tales cannot be pinned Fortunately, the rakshasas were stupid. A
down to any one railroad, time, or place. human could escape the rakshasas simply by
The final type of railroad folklore is addressing them as kinsmen. They would be-
jokelore ( jokes that qualify as folklore). A fa- come confused, thinking the human had sud-
mous example that has been quoted many denly become one of them, and let the human
times in many versions is about a railroad get away.
switchman who is on the witness stand de-
scribing a head-on collision he had witnessed. See also: Retelling: The Ramayana.
One of the lawyers asked the switchman what
had gone through his mind as he saw the two Sources
trains coming together. “This is one helluva Buck, William. Ramayana (King Rama’s Way). Berkeley:
University of California Press, 2000.
way to run a railroad!” he replied. Daniélou, Alain. The Myths and Gods of India: The Classic
Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen
Sources Series. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,
Botkin, Benjamin A. A Treasury of Railroad Folklore: The 1991.
Stories, Tall Tales, Traditions, Ballads, and Songs of the Lurker, Manfred. Dictionary of Gods and Goddesses, Devils
American Railroad Man. New York: Bonanza, 1989. and Demons. New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul,
Reevy, Tony, comp. Ghost Train! American Railroad Ghost 1987.
Legends. Lawrence, VA: TLC, 1998.
Yenne, Bill, ed. The Romance & Folklore of North America’s
Railroads. New York: Smithmark, 1994.
Ramakian
(Thai)
Rakshasas
(Hindu) T he Ramakian is a Thai epic that is based
on the Indian Ramayana, although there
are specific differences between the two epics
I n Hindu mythology and folklore, the rak-

shasas were a dangerous race of human-
hating demons. The word rakshasas means
in setting and culture. One of the major differ-
ences is that the Ramayana is a Hindu epic,
while the Ramakian has been strongly influ-
“destroyers.” enced by Thailand’s Buddhist background.
There is some disagreement about the ori- Like the Ramayana, this epic tale is retold in
gin of the rakshasas. The god Brahma may many ways, through drama, dance, puppetry,
have created the rakshasas, or they may have and shadow theater.
been the children of Nirriti, goddess of death. The basic story of the Ramakian is similar
Their chief was called Ravana. to the Ramayana. The hero, Rama, and his

Ravens and Crows 381
wife and love, Sita, are exiled, she is captured Europe and parts of the United States, there
and rescued, and the couple is helped by are superstitions that claim they are birds of ill
Hanuman, the monkey god. omen, while in the Pacific Northwest and parts
The character of Rama is a divine figure of Siberia the raven is seen as a deity.
in the Ramayana, an avatar of the Hindu deity
Vishnu; in the Ramakian, he is a Thai prince Mythology
who was Buddha in a previous life. In the
Greek and Norse mythology both feature
Ramayana, the demon-king Ravana is utterly
ravens. Coronis was a mortal woman who was
evil. His counterpart in the Ramakien,
impregnated by the god Apollo. Apollo left a
Tosakanth, is a more sympathetic character.
white raven to watch over her, but just before
He is truly in love with Sita, and it is that gen-
the birth, Coronis married a mortal man, Is-
tle emotion, rather than the vicious hatred that
chys. The crow informed Apollo of this, and
motivates Ravana, that leads Tosakanth to do
Apollo killed Coronis and Ischys. He then
harm.
turned the crow black for being the bearer of
Scholars are not certain how or precisely
bad news.
when the Thai people learned of the Ra-
Odin, the head of the Norse pantheon, had
mayana. What is known is that Indian influ-
two ravens, Huginn and Muninn, whose
ences began to extend into Thailand and the
names mean “thought” and “memory,” respec-
rest of Southeast Asia in the first centuries C.E.
tively. Odin sent the two birds off around the
By the eighteenth century, there were sev-
world each morning at daybreak to bring him
eral versions of the Ramakian within Thailand.
news from the various realms of existence.
Perhaps the most popular version was written
In Aborigine mythology, Raven tried to
by the eighteenth-century King Rama I. A sec-
steal fire from seven sisters called the Pleides.
ond version was written by his son, Rama II,
He failed and ended up with charred black
for use in the Khon drama, the traditional
feathers.
Thai classical dance. The Ramakian remains
so popular in Thailand that people still name
their children after its characters.
Indigenous Cultural Beliefs
Indigenous peoples from many lands have tra-
See also: Epics; Retelling: The Ramayana. ditional beliefs about ravens. The Saami peo-
ple of Lapland say that the raven has a feather
Sources
called laevedolge, which leads it to food and
The Ramakian (Ramayana) Mural Paintings Along the Gal-
leries of the Temple of the Emerald Buddha. Bangkok: provides knowledge about the habits of
Government Lottery Office of Thailand, 1982. wolves so the raven can scavenge wolf kills.
Tarling, Nicholas, ed. The Cambridge History of Southeast The folklore adds that if anyone finds a dying
Asia. Vol. 1, part 2, From c. 1500 to c. 1800. New raven, it must be plucked and the feathers must
York: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
be placed in a slow-flowing stream. The feather
that goes against the stream is the laevedolge,
and, if it is securely kept for three days and
Ravens and Crows nights, it will act as a guide for the one who
found it.
F or thousands of years and throughout the

world, ravens and crows have been fea-
tured in mythology and folklore. Both ravens
The Finnish tradition, which clearly has
roots in the Saami belief, is that the raven may
be a bird of ill omen, but below its wing is a
and crows are members of the Corvidae family feather of fortune. If a trapper can find this
of birds, and these intelligent birds are dra- feather, he is rewarded with a bountiful catch.
matic in appearance, with glossy black feathers Raven is a major trickster deity in the in-
and no other touches of color. In Western digenous cultures of the Pacific Northwest

382 Ravens and Crows
region of the United States. He is often seen as • In Yorkshire, children were threatened
a creator, sometimes forming the earth delib- with the Great Black Bird, which would
erately and other times accidentally. The vari- carry them off if they misbehaved.
ous cultures have different names for this • A gathering of crows was sometimes
being: Dotson Sa means Great Raven, Nankil- called a murder, which probably
stlas is He Whose Voice Must Be Obeyed, and stems from a folk belief that crows
Nascakiyetl is Raven-at-the-Head-of-[the] Nass would sit in judgment of their own and
[river]. then kill a criminal crow.
Great Britain Other Cultures

It has been said that if the ravens ever leave In Kenyan folk belief, there are dwarves who
the Tower of London, it will fall and so shall the live on Mount Kilimanjaro who make sacri-
Crown of England. For this reason, ravens fices to their ancestors. It is believed that bits
are kept at the tower at all times, cared for by of meat left from these offerings become
the raven master. ravens.
In Irish Celtic mythology, the war god- In India, Brahma appears as a raven in
dess, the Morrigan, could turn herself into a one of his incarnations. Also, ravens are sa-
raven so that she could fly over the battlefield cred to Shiva and Kali.
to get a better view. In the druidic tradition, In Chinese mythology, a three-legged
the raven was believed to be an oracular bird, raven lives in the Sun, representing the Sun’s
bringing the druids knowledge from the other- three phases: rising, noon, and setting. The
world. Japanese goddess Amaterasu is sometimes
There also are many superstitions about represented as a giant raven, Yata-Garasu.
ravens and crows, the majority of which hail As long as people remain intrigued by
from Great Britain: crows and ravens, it seems likely that folk be-
liefs surrounding the birds will continue.
• Finding a dead crow on the road was These beliefs provide a rich source of material
good luck. for the storyteller.
• Crows in a churchyard were bad luck.
• A single crow over a house meant bad
Modern Studies
news and often foretold a death within. Ravens have proven themselves to be clever
• Often, two crows would be released si- birds. Scientists have seen them solve all man-
multaneously during a wedding cele- ner of puzzles. Crows, too, have been proven
bration. If the two flew away together, to be clever, with an ability to count at least up
the couple could look forward to shar- to four.
ing a long life. If the crows separated,
the couple might grow apart. See also: Odin/Odhinn; Tricksters; Retelling:
Raven Steals the Sun.
• In Wales, it was unlucky to have a crow
cross your path. But if two crows crossed Sources
your path, the luck was reversed. And if MacCulloch, John Arnott. Mythology of All Races. Vol. 3.
a raven perched on a house, it meant New York: Cooper Square, 1930.
prosperity for the family within. Martin, Laura C. The Folklore of Birds. Old Saybrook, CT:
Globe Pequot, 1993.
• In Somerset, England, locals used to
Marzluff, John M., and Tony Angell. In the Company of
carry an onion for protection from Crows and Ravens. New Haven, CT: Yale University
crows. In the same area, locals used to Press, 2005.
tip their hats to ravens, in order not to Rouse, William H.D. Gods, Heroes and Men of Ancient
offend them. Greece. New York: New American Library, 2001.

Re/Ra/Pre/Re-Harakhety 383
Beginning with the reign of Djedefre dur-

Re/Ra/Pre/ ing the fourth dynasty (c. 2584–2576 B.C.E.),
Re-Harakhety Egyptian kings took the title Son of Re. Upon
his death, a king united with the Sun, a privi-
lege that was later extended to all people who
(Egyptian) were worthy.
Re had no spouse but was closely associated
R e was the ancient Egyptian sun god.

Re was self-created from the primor-
dial earth, and then went on to create air (Shu)
with the goddesses who embodied the powers of
his divine eye, such as Hathor, Tefnut, Sekhmet,
and Maat, the personification of truth and order.
and moisture (Tefnut). In his continual cycle of Although Re was self-created, the goddess Neith
rising and setting, Re symbolized the act of was sometimes said to be his mother.
creation. In literature, Re was often described as an
s creator, Re was ruler of the gods, and, as old man. The hymn called the “Litany of Re”
A the first mythic king of Egypt, he was
closely associated with the monarchy. When
listed his seventy-four forms. Re was usually
portrayed as a falcon-headed man or mummy
Horus and Seth battled for the crown, Re or as the evening Sun with the head of a ram.
judged between them. In each case, he wore a solar disk as a crown.
The sun god Re sits in his solar barque, watching the daily killing of the serpent Aphophis, which represents the
triumph of the returning Sun over darkness. This image is from the coffin of Nespawershepi, chief scribe of the
Temple of Amun, and dates to c. 984 B.C.E. (© Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY)

384 Reincarnation
The Egyptians visualized the Sun’s jour- In some African cultures, including the
ney across the sky in a variety of ways. Per- Zulu of South Africa, a soul may pass through
haps the sky goddess, Nut, gave birth to the several incarnations, from insect to animal to
Sun in the morning and swallowed or em- human and back again in a never-ending pro-
braced it in the evening. gression. In West Africa, the Yoruba believe
Another explanation was that the god Nun that people are direct reincarnations of their
lifted above the eastern horizon a boat that held ancestors.
the solar scarab with the ball of the Sun. During In Hinduism and Buddhism, there is a
each twelve-hour day, Re and his entourage shared belief in karma and the wheel of birth,
traveled from east to west in the boat, known as in which each future incarnation depends on
the mandjet-barque. In the sixth through eighth the life lived in this one. The universe also is
hours, Re and his crew had to defeat the mon- believed to pass through several deaths and
strous serpent Apep. At sunset, they boarded rebirths.
the mesktet-barque, a special boat designed to In pagan Norse belief, the final battle,
traverse the duat, a region within the body of Ragnarok, would bring about the death of the
Nut or below the earth. In the duat, the Sun universe. But a rebirth would follow.
was believed to awaken the dead. Jackals towed A tale of reincarnation that is particularly
the night-boat from west to east, where, again, intriguing is the Japanese story of O-tei, a
Apep had to be defeated. Re and his crew young woman who was engaged to be married
emerged triumphant each dawn. to the man she loved but fell mortally ill. On
The Greeks knew Re as Helios. her deathbed, she promised to return to her
love in a healthy body. When O-tei died, the
Noreen Doyle man wandered Japan, unable to find true hap-
piness. One day, he found a girl who looked
Sources
strangely familiar. She cried out that she was
Egyptian Creation Accounts. New Haven, CT: Yale O-tei and fainted. When she recovered, she
Egyptological Seminar, 1988. did not recall saying that she was O-tei. The
Assmann, Jan. Egyptian Solar Religion in the New Kingdom: two were married anyway and lived happily
Re, Amun and the Crisis of Polytheism. Trans. Anthony ever after.
Alcock. London: Kegan Paul, 1995.
Hornung, Erik. Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The Modern musicals such as On a Clear Day
One and the Many. Trans. John Baines. Ithaca, NY: (1965) and several movies, most recently Birth
Cornell University Press, 1982. (2004), and even television programs have
dealt with the subject of reincarnation. It re-
mains a popular theme in folk culture around
Reincarnation the world. The appeal of this theme is the
sense of comfort derived from believing that
M any religions and folk beliefs feature the

idea that a dead soul returns to life in a
new body. Storytellers may or may not wish to
we will not have to leave this world forever
after death.
touch upon the religious aspects of reincarna- See also: Phoenix.

tion, but there are some intriguing tale types
to explore that utilize the theme. Sources
In Australian Aboriginal belief, human Coomaraswamy, Ananda K., and Sister Nivedita. Myths
souls were originally spirits of the ancestral be- of the Hindus and Buddhists. Mineola, NY: Dover,
ings of the mythic Dreamtime. After the spirit 1967.
lived out its human life, it would return to the NY: Dover, 1992.
spirit realm, but might choose to be reborn as Leeming, David A. The World of Myth. New York: Oxford
human again. University Press, 1990.

Reynard the Fox 385
Reynard the Fox German author and poet Johann Wolfgang von
Goethe published Reinecke Fuchs (Reynard the
Fox) in the 1820s. A modern English version by
R eynard the Fox is a fox in the role of a

tricky peasant. He is featured in several
satirical medieval beast epics that were popu-
Englishman T.J. Arnold appeared in 1860. A
version from Luxembourg, also titled Reinecke
Fuchs, was published in 1872 by Michel Ro-
lar throughout Western Europe around the dange.
middle of the twelfth century C.E. American author William Rose published
a Reynard story called Epic of the Beast in 1924.
Beginnings In 1972, the government of Luxembourg is-
Tales of Reynard can be found in Latin, sued a stamp honoring Reynard the Fox. A
French, Dutch, German, and English. The sto- French animated series, Moi, Renart (I, Rey-
ries were widely spread by minstrels. nard), aired in 1985.
The earliest written major appearance of In England, a fox still may be called Rey-
the character was in an Old French work, Le nard. It also is referred to by that name in tra-
roman de Renar (The Story of Reynard ), which ditional English hunting ballads, as in the
dates to about 1175 C.E. This basic tale involves following anonymous work:
the summoning of Reynard by King Noble Leo
the Lion to answer accusations made by Isen- On the first day of Spring in the year
grim the Wolf. Other accusers in the loosely ninety-three
connected sections of this work include Bruin The first recreation was in this country,
the Bear, Baldwin the Ass, and Tibert or Tybalt The King’s County gentleman o’er hills,
the Cat. However, Reynard is tricky enough to dales and rocks,
disprove each and every claim made against They rode out so jovially in search
him. There is even a pseudo-funeral for Rey- of a fox.
nard, in which the other animals, his enemies,
make false laments, which are cut short by his Tally-ho, hark away, tally-ho, hark away,
return from the dead. tally ho, hark away, boys, away.
The next literary appearance of Reynard
is in a medieval mock epic in Latin, Ysen- When Reynard first started he faced
grimus, from about 1200 C.E. This work con- Tullamore,
tained several tales of Reynard. Arklow and Wicklow along the seashore,
English author Geoffrey Chaucer used He kept his brush in view every yard
some of the Reynard material in his work The of the way,
Canterbury Tales (c. 1387–1400), specifically in And it’s straight he took his course through
the “Nonne’s Preeste’s Tale.” William Caxton, the streets of Roscrea.
the English publisher and printer, quickly saw
the commercial worth of the stories, and Tally-ho, hark away, tally-ho, hark away,
translated a Flemish version, which he pub- tally ho, hark away, boys, away.
lished as Historie of Reynart the Foxe in the
1480s. But Reynard, sly Reynard, he lay hid
that night,
They swore they would watch him until
Nineteenth and Twentieth the daylight,
Early the next morning the woods they
Centuries did resound,
Reynard continued to be popular through the With the echo of horns and the sweet
nineteenth century and well into the twentieth. cry of hounds.

386 Rhiannon
Tally-ho, hark away, tally-ho, hark away, annon is derived from an earlier Gaulish
tally ho, hark away, boys, away. form, Rigantona, or Great Queen.
Rhiannon is the daughter of Hyfaidd Hen,
When Reynard was started he faced the wife of Pwyll, Lord of Dyfed, mother of
to the hollow, Pryderi, and subsequently the wife of Man-
Where none but the hounds and footmen awydan. Rhiannon has close associations with
could follow, horses in the Mabinogion, where she first ap-
The gentlemen cried: “Watch him, watch pears riding on an uncatchable, shimmering,
him, what shall we do? otherworldly horse.
If he makes it to the rocks then he will
cross Killatoe!”
Rhiannon and Pwyll
Tally-ho, hark away, tally-ho, hark away, In the first branch of the Mabinogion, Pwyll was
tally ho, hark away, boys, away. waiting on the mound of Arberth for a
marvel—something unusual or wondrous—to
But Reynard, sly Reynard, away he did run, happen. He saw a beautiful woman ride by on
Away from the huntsman, away from the gun, a white, shimmering horse and sent his men to
The gentleman cried: “Home, boys, there’s find out who she was. No matter how fast they
nothing we can do, rode, they could not catch up to the mysteri-
For Reynard is away and our hunting ous woman, though she never appeared to go
is through.” faster than at a steady gait.
These events were repeated on the next
Tally-ho, hark away, tally-ho, hark away, day, and even the fastest rider on the fastest
tally ho, hark away, boys, away. horse could not catch up to her. On the third
day, Pwyll attempted to catch the beautiful
The fox figure in world folklore always is woman, but to no avail. Finally, out of desper-
portrayed as cunning and sly, whether it is a ation, he called out “Lady, for the sake of the
Japanese fox maiden out to lure herself a human you love, wait for me!”
man lover, or a fox tricking a wolf or bear, as “I will wait happily,” she replied, “and it
in many Native American folktales. would have been better for the horse had you
asked that earlier.”
See also: Tricksters. The beautiful woman revealed that her
name was Rhiannon. She had sought out
Sources
Pwyll and had loved him from afar for a long
Jacobs, Joseph, ed. The Most Delectable History of Reynard
the Fox. New York: Schocken, 1967. time. She told Pwyll that she desired to wed
Owen, D.D.R., trans. The Romance of Reynard the Fox. him rather than the man that her father, Hy-
New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. faidd Hen, had chosen. Rhiannon and Pwyll
Terry, Patricia, trans. Renard the Fox. Boston: Northeast- arranged to meet again and wed in a year.
ern University Press, 1983.
When the wedding day arrived, a
stranger came to the hall begging for a boon,
or favor. Pwyll foolishly agreed to grant the
Rhiannon stranger’s request before knowing what it
was. He was dismayed to learn that the
stranger was Gwawl, Rhiannon’s other
(Welsh) suitor. Gwawl demanded that Rhiannon
R hiannon is featured in the first and third

branches of the Welsh medieval collection
of tales the Mabinogion. The Welsh name Rhi-
marry him. Rhiannon asked that Gwawl re-
turn in a year, at which time, a second feast
would be ready.

Ring Cycle, T he 387
One year later, the feast was prepared. forced to complete in order to wed Ysbad-
Pwyll’s men hid in the orchard, and Pwyll daden’s daughter, Olwen.
went to the feast dressed as a ragged beggar. No other tales of Rhiannon have survived.
He carried a bag that he asked Gwawl to fill
with food. Gwawl agreed. Pwyll told him that Lisa Spangenberg
the bag would never be filled unless a noble-
man, replete with land and wealth, stepped Sources
into the bag, saying, “Enough has been put in Ford, Patrick, trans. The Mabinogi and Other Medieval
here.” Gwawl did this, but as soon as he Welsh Tales. Berkeley: University of California Press,
1983.
stepped into the bag, Pwyll drew the strings MacKillop, James. A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology. New
up around him and captured him in the bag. York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Once released, Gwawl promised never to
take revenge. Rhiannon and Pwyll were finally
wed. They had a son, Pryderi, whose story
completes the first branch of the Mabinogion.
Ring Cycle, The
Pryderi’s Tale
The newborn Pryderi disappeared while in
R ichard Wagner’s four-opera fantasy, Der
Ring des Nibelungen (The Ring of the Nibelung)
is commonly referred to as “The Ring Cycle.” It
the care of Rhiannon’s ladies-in-waiting. Fear- is based on Norse and German mythology and
ing punishment of death, they framed Rhian- the German epic the Nibelungenlied (Song of the
non for the murder of her son, smearing Niebelungs), and it is full of world mythic themes.
animal blood on her as she slept. The four operas are Das Rheingold (The
On hearing the news, Pwyll punished Rhi- Rhinegold; 1869), Die Walkure (The Valkyrie;
annon by sentencing her to sit every day for 1870), Siegfried (1876), and Gotterdammerung
seven years near a horse-block outside the (Twilight of the Gods; 1876).
gates of Arberth. She was to carry any willing
guest on her back through the gates.
But Pryderi had not been killed. King Das Rheingold
Teyrnon had found the baby outside his sta- (The Reingold)
bles. He and his wife had raised Pryderi as
The story begins with three water nymphs, the
their own. Once he was grown, Pryderi’s adop-
Rhinemaidens, swimming in the Rhine River.
tive parents learned his true identity and re-
They teased Alberich the Nibelung, a dwarf
turned him to Pwyll and Rhiannon.
that lived far underground, as he tried in vain
to catch them.
Later References Suddenly, a ray of sunlight shone on a pile
In the second branch of the Mabinogion, Rhian- of gold—the magical Rhinegold the Rhine-
non is mentioned in the myth of Branwen, the maidens were supposed to be guarding. They
daughter of Llyr and sister to Manawydan, Rhi- told Alberich that if someone should forswear
annon’s second husband. The story mentions all love, he would be able to forge an all-
the singing of three birds in Harlech whose powerful ring out of the Rhinegold. Raging,
song was sweeter than any other. These birds Alberich cursed all love, stole the Rhinegold,
were called “The Singing Birds of Rhiannon.” and fled back to the depths.
The birds are also featured in a version of Meanwhile, Wotan, leader of the gods,
the tale of Culwch and Olwen. The giant Ys- had hired the giant brothers Fasolt and Fafnir
baddaden demanded that the birds be to build him a mighty palace. Following the
brought to him by the hero Culwch. This was advice of the trickster fire god, Loge, Wotan
one of the tasks that the young man was had promised the giants that he would give

388 Ring Cycle, T he
them the goddess Freya, who kept the golden woman who was being forced into a marriage.
apples of immortality for the gods as payment. In the struggle, Siegmund had killed some of
When the giants finished the work and tried to her kin and saw the young woman die. His
claim their reward, Wotan stalled them until sword and spirit broken, Siegmund had fled
Loge appeared. Loge told everyone about Al- and ended up at Hunding’s house.
berich and the stolen Rhinegold and con- Hunding cried out that he had been called
vinced the giants to agree to take the treasure upon to avenge a murderer—and it was Sieg-
in place of Freya. mund. But the laws of hospitality forced Hund-
At the same time, in the dwarf kingdom of ing to give a day of sanctuary to his guest.
Nibelheim, Alberich had forced his brother Hunding announced that they would fight to
Mime to forge the Tarnhelm, a magic helmet the death in the morning and went to bed.
that let its wearer become invisible or change Sieglinde gave Hunding a sleeping potion to
shape. Wotan and Loge stole the Tarnhelm make sure he would remain asleep and re-
and carried off Alberich. Wotan demanded a turned to Siegmund.
ransom from Alberich of all the Rhinegold Siegmund told Sieglinde that his father
and the ring. Furious, Alberich placed a pow- had sworn he would have a sword when he
erful curse on the ring: Whoever had the ring most needed one. Sieglinde explained that she
would be doomed. had been forced to marry Hunding and that a
Wotan initially ignored this threat. But strange thing had happened at their wedding
Erda, Mother Earth, warned Wotan that she feast. A stranger whose face was covered by
had seen a dark day dawn for the gods. So his large hat had thrust a sword deep into the
Wotan gave up the ring, along with the rest of tree that was central to Hunding’s house and
the treasure, to the giants. The curse instantly said that it would belong to whoever could
began to work. The giants fought over the pull it from the trunk. Sieglinde was certain
treasure, and Fafnir killed his brother. that Siegmund was that hero.
Siegmund drew the sword from the tree
and named it Nothung (Needy). He and
Die Walkure (The Valkyrie) Sieglinde recognized the intense love between
The story begins with a terrible thunderstorm. them, even when they discovered that she was
An exhausted, unarmed man, Siegmund, took his long-lost twin sister.
refuge in the first house he came upon, which Wotan, who was the father of the twins,
had a live tree as a center support. The was the mysterious stranger who had thrust the
woman of the house, Sieglinde, tended to him sword into the tree. He ordered his Valkyrie
but told him that she and the house belonged daughter Brunhilde to protect Siegmund in the
to Hunding. Siegmund said bitterly that bad coming fight. Wotan’s wife was Fricka, protec-
luck haunted him, and that he planned to flee tor of wedlock, and she was furious that Wotan
this sanctuary before he could bring bad luck has sired children with another woman and
there as well. Sieglinde retorted that Sieg- that he was protecting the incestuous twins. If
mund could not bring bad luck to a place the gods broke their own laws they would lose
where it already resided. their powers, so Wotan reluctantly agreed to
Hunding returned and wanted to hear his withdraw all support from Siegmund.
visitor’s story. Siegmund told him that his fa- But Wotan confessed his concerns to
ther was a mysterious warrior named Wulf Brunhilde. If Alberich ever regained the
(Wolf) and that he had a twin sister. Siegmund magic ring made of the Rhinegold, he could
had returned home one day to find his mother turn Wotan’s heroes against him and conquer
slain, his father and sister gone, and their everything. Fafnir, once a giant, now a
house destroyed. Wandering, hunting in vain dragon, guarded the ring, but Wotan’s own
for them, Siegmund tried to protect a young treaties prevented him from attacking Fafnir

directly. That was why he engendered Sieg- challenged Mime to a riddle game. They were
mund, hoping to create a free hero. As his son, each to ask three riddles, and the other must
however, Siegmund was hardly free. Wotan answer all three correctly or lose his head.
had no idea what to do. He ordered Brunhilde Mime asked three simple riddles. After
to protect Hunding instead of Siegmund. answering Mime’s riddles, Wanderer coldly
Brunhilde pitied Siegmund. She disobeyed told him that he should have asked things he
her father and tried to shield Siegmund. really wished to know, rather than wasting his
Wotan, though, shattered Nothung and Sieg- chances.
mund was slain. Brunhilde fled with Sieglinde Wanderer then asked his riddles. Mime
on horseback. She gave the woman the shards answered the first two riddles but was
of Nothung and explained to Sieglinde that she stumped by the third, which was “Who will re-
was pregnant with a great hero, who would be forge Nothung?” Wanderer refused to take
named Siegfried. Mime’s head, saying that task would go to the
Sieglinde fled as the furious Wotan ar- one who had never known fear.
rived. He stripped Brunhilde of her godhood Once Mime realized in horror that Wan-
and put her into an enchanted sleep. She derer was Wotan, he knew that he could only
would stay in that state until a hero wakened have meant that Siegfried would kill him.
her. Wotan then had Loge surround Brunhilde Siegfried had grown up half wild and knew
with a ring of flame that none but the bravest nothing of fear. When Siegfried returned,
would dare to penetrate. Mime told the youngster that he had prom-
ised Siegfried’s mother to teach the boy the
meaning of fear, so they had to go and visit
Siegfried Fafnir. Siegfried easily reforged Nothung, and
Siegfried’s story begins in a cave in the deep Mime prepared a potion for Siegfried and led
forest, where Mime, a dwarf smith, was forg- him to Fafnir’s lair.
ing a sword and fuming because no matter Siegfried fearlessly summoned Fafnir,
how good a blade he forged, his young “foster telling the dragon that he merely wanted to
son” Siegfried broke it. There was only one learn the meaning of fear. Fafnir attacked, and
sword that Siegfried would not be able to break: Siegfried killed him.
Nothung, the enchanted sword. But Nothung Some of the dragon’s blood spilled onto
was in shards and Mime could not forge it Siegfried’s fingers. It burned, and so Siegfried
anew no matter how hard he tried. He mut- licked his fingers. As he tasted the blood, he
tered to himself that the only reason he had could suddenly understand the speech of
taken all this pain with Siegfried was because birds. A bird told Siegfried to take the ring
he wanted to use the young man to slay the and the Tarnhelm, the helmet of invisibility.
dragon Fafnir. The dragon guarded the ring The bird warned him of Mime’s plan to mur-
forged from the Rhinegold. der him. When Mime offered Siegfried the
Siegfried demanded to be told who his drugged potion, Siegfried killed him.
real parents were. Mime finally admitted that Now that he was alone, Siegfried asked the
he had found Siegfried’s mother as she was bird if it knew where he could find a suitable
dying after giving birth. He showed Siegfried companion. The bird told him about Brunhilde,
the shards of Nothung. Siegfried, delighted to the young woman who was once a Valkyrie but
learn he was not related to the dwarf, told now lay in deep sleep atop a mountain, sur-
Mime to reforge Nothung, and went out into rounded by a magic fire that could be pene-
the forest. trated only by one who knew no fear. Siegfried
As Mime sat worrying, he was startled by set off to find Brunhilde.
the sudden appearance of Wotan, who was in Siegfried met Wotan at the base of the
disguise and called himself Wanderer. He mountain and challenged him. The angry

390 Ring Cycle, T he
Wotan blocked Siegfried’s path with his Rune- In the human realm, in the hall of the
spear and told him to flee before he shattered Gibichungs, Lord Gunther asked his clever
Nothung—again. Now Siegfried knew that he half brother Hagen (whose father was Al-
had met the one responsible for his father’s berich) how he could win more fame and
death. A single blow from Nothung broke the glory. Hagen told Gunther that he should
Runespear in two. Wotan, all power gone, was marry, and that only one wife would be noble
made to flee. enough for him—Brunhilde.
Siegfried climbed the mountain and went Gunther lacked the courage to break
through the enchanted fire. He found Brun- through the ring of fire. Hagen agreed, saying
hilde lying there. Since she was in full armor the one with such courage was Siegfried. He
and he had never seen a woman before, he at went on to say that Gunther’s sister, Gutrune,
first thought she was a man. should marry Siegfried. Gutrune thought Ha-
As Siegfried removed Brunhilde’s armor gen was jesting. How could she charm the
he recoiled, realizing that this definitely was not bravest hero in the world? Hagen reminded
a man. For the first time in his life, he experi- her of a magic potion that would make
enced fear. Unsure how to waken her, Siegfried Siegfried lose his memory and fall in love with
kissed Brunhilde. By this kiss, Brunhilde was the first woman he saw.
awakened. Overcome by the suddenness of Siegfried arrived at the castle. He wanted
love, they fell into each other’s arms. Gunther to either fight with him or become
his friend. Gunther, afraid, asked that they be-
come friends.
Gotterdammerung Hagen asked if it was true that Siegfried
really was the owner of the Nibelung treasure
(Twilight of the Gods) hoard. When Siegfried said yes, Hagen
The story begins with the Three Norns, the wanted to know if he had taken anything from
Fates, spinning the rope of fate. They talked the hoard. Siegfried showed Hagen the Tarn-
about things that are, have been, and will be. helm, which Hagen immediately identified.
They spoke of how Wotan lost his eye He told Siegfried of its powers. The Tarnhelm
drinking from the Spring of Wisdom and allowed its wearer to change shape at will and
carved his Runespear from a branch of the to travel from one place to another at the
World-Tree Ash. The spring had dried up, the speed of a thought. Siegfried also mentioned
Ash had died, and Wotan’s Runespear had the ring and said that “a most marvelous lady”
been shattered. Wotan ordered the dead Ash was keeping it safe.
to be cut down and the wood piled around Just then, Gutrune appeared and gave a
Valhalla as a great pyre, which would one day welcoming toast to Siegfried. She offered
be ignited by Loge, god of fire. Siegfried the magic potion that would make
As the Norns discussed Alberich and his him lose his memory and fall madly in love
curse, the rope of fate snapped and was bro- with her. Once under the spell, Siegfried de-
ken. The wisdom of the Norns was at an end, vised an ingenious plan: He would use the
and the Norns hurried to their mother, Erda. magic of the Tarnhelm to disguise himself as
Meanwhile, a new day dawned around the Gunther and would win Brunhilde for Gun-
Valkyrie Rock, where Siegfried and Brunhilde ther if Gunther would allow him to marry
rested. Siegfried wanted to go wandering in Gutrune. Hagen made Gunther and Siegfried
search of new heroic deeds. Brunhilde gave swear an oath of blood brotherhood. Secretly,
him her horse, Grane, to ride, and Siegfried he was interested only in the ring.
gave the ring—the fateful cursed ring forged Meanwhile, Brunhilde’s Valkyrie sister
by Alberich—to Brunhilde as a token of his Waltraute visited her. She told Brunhilde that
faith before riding off. Wotan claimed that the gods and the whole

world would be freed from the ring’s curse had fallen prey to a wild boar. Gutrune accused
only if Brunhilde would give it back to the Gunther of murdering Siegfried, but Gunther
Rhinemaidens. Brunhilde refused to give up replied that Hagen was the “wild boar.” Hagen
Siegfried’s gift. She was sure that Siegfried confessed to murdering Siegfried. When Gun-
would return. ther tried to take the ring, Hagen killed him as
A figure emerged from the fire surround- well. But Siegfried’s corpse raised a hand to
ing Brunhilde. It was Gunther—actually keep Hagen from taking the ring.
Siegfried in Gunther’s guise. He imitated Gun- Brunhilde had heard everything. She
ther’s voice, informed Brunhilde that she was made Gutrune admit that Siegfried had loved
now Gunther’s wife, and took the ring from Brunhilde all along. Brunhilde had a funeral
her finger. Using the Tarnhelm’s power of tele- pyre built with Siegfried’s corpse placed on
portation, Siegfried returned to Gutrune. top. She forgave Siegfried and mourned her
Gunther brought Brunhilde back to the loss, then put on the ring and said that the fire
castle, and she was shocked to see Siegfried would cleanse it from the curse. Taking a torch
and Gutrune together and the ring on from a vassal, she shouted up to Loge to go to
Siegfried’s finger. She declared that Siegfried Valhalla and set it aflame, for the downfall of
was a traitor. He swore a new oath on Hagen’s the gods had come. As the earthly funeral
spear: If he lied, Hagen’s spear should stab pyre blazed up, Brunhilde rode her Valkyrie
him. Brunhilde also placed her hand on the steed full into the flames.
spear and blessed the blade for this purpose. The flames engulfed the world. Then the
Later, Hagen offered to avenge Brunhilde, Rhine swelled up, flooding over the fire. Rid-
but Brunhilde told him that Siegfried was pro- ing the waves were the Rhinemaidens, who
tected with magic that made him invulnerable seized Hagen and dragged him under. They
to any weapon. Only his back was unpro- retrieved the ring with wild joy.
tected. She had left it vulnerable, because she At last, the Rhine returned to its normal
knew Siegfried would never turn and run banks. Valhalla and the gods were gone, and a
from combat. That, Hagen decided, was new day dawned.
where his spear must strike. Hagen also told
Gunther that the only thing that could restore See also: Norse Mythology; Operas and Their
his honor was Siegfried’s death. Stories.
Siegfried joined a hunting party made up
Sources
of Hagen, Gunther, and a few vassals. Gun-
Armour, Margaret. Richard Wagner’s The Ring of the
ther was very depressed, and Siegfried tried to Niblung, Siegfried and The Twilight of the Gods. New
cheer him with a story from the years when he York: Abaris, 1910.
was a boy. As he sipped from a drink Hagen Cooke, Deryck. I Saw the World End: A Study of Wagner’s
had given him, Siegfried began to remember Ring. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
Gilman, Lawrence. Wagner’s Operas. New York: Farrar
Mime and how he could understand the bird Rinehart, 1937.
that told him not to trust Mime. Then Hagen’s Gorham, Melvin. Melvin Gorham’s Interpretation of Richard
drink restored all of Siegfried’s memory. Wagner’s the Valkyrie: A Play in Three Acts Together with
Siegfried recalled Brunhilde and their love. the Morality of the Early Northern Europeans.
Rochester, WA: Sovereign, 1987.
Two ravens circled Siegfried, then flew
Hodson, Phillip. Who’s Who in Wagner’s Life and Work.
away. Hagen asked if he knew what the birds London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1984.
had said. Siegfried replied, “Revenge for Ha- Sabor, Rudolf, trans. Gotterdammerung. New York:
gen.” With that, Hagen plunged his spear into Phaidon, 1997.
Siegfried’s back. Siegfried fell, saw one last vi- Wagner, Richard. The Authentic Librettos of Wagner Operas.
New York: Crown, 1938.
sion of Brunhilde, and died. Winkler, Franz Emil. The Mythology in Richard Wagner’s “The
Siegfried’s corpse was taken back to Gun- Ring of the Nibelung.” Garden City, NY: Myrin Insti-
ther’s hall. Hagen told Gutrune that Siegfried tute for Adult Education, Adelphi University, 1966.

392 Rivers, Greek Mythological
Rivers, Greek this river so that they could forget about their
past lives on Earth.
Mythological Phlegethon was the river of fire that
burned but did not consume.
The most famous of these unearthly rivers is
M any of the actual rivers around the world

have had stories and mythology cen-
tered on them, but the world’s mythology also
the river Styx. It wound around the underworld
of Hades nine times, separating the world of the
living from that of the dead. The Greek gods
contains rivers that do not exist on Earth. swore by this river when making vows. Should
Ancient Greek mythology contains five of a god break a vow sworn on the river Styx, that
these rivers. They are Acheron, the river of god would be forced to drink from its waters
woe; Cocytus, the river of lamentation; Lethe, and would become mute for nine years.
the river of forgetfulness; Phlegethon, the
river of fire; and Styx, the river of hate. All
Sources
five were thought to have been linked to the
Hesiod. Theogony, Works and Days; Shield. Trans. Aposto-
passage of the soul to the afterworld. los N. Athanassakis. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Uni-
Acheron was the river over which Charon versity Press, 1983.
ferried the dead to Hades. It was called the Powell, Barry B. Classical Myth. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle
river of woe, because it was at this point that River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001.
Rose, H.J. Gods and Heroes of the Greeks. New York:
the dead were lost to the living. Meridian, 1958.
Lethe was the river of forgetfulness or Rouse, W.H.D. Gods, Heroes and Men of Ancient Greece.
oblivion. The shades of the dead drank from New York: New American Library, 2001.
Charon, the ferryman of Hades, the Greek underworld, transports dead souls across the river Styx. Once in the
land of the dead, the souls lose all memory of their lives on Earth. This painting is by Flemish painter Joachim
Patinir (c. 1480–1524). (© Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY)

Rolandslied 393
Rocs/Rucs/Rukhs/ the French in about 1170 C.E. by an author

who identified himself as Priest Konrad.
Rukhkhs The Rolandslied begins with the marriage
and the subsequent banishment of Charle-
magne’s sister Bertha, who offended the em-
(Arabic) peror when she wed without his permission.
Bertha gave birth to a son, Roland, who expe-
R ocs were immense mythical birds of Ara-
bian folklore.
Rocs were so strong that they could carry
rienced an impoverished but optimistic child-
hood. As the boy grew, he became a true hero
off elephants, their favorite food, and were so in the making, triumphing over adversaries
huge that the spread of their wings could blot and exacting tribute from his playmates to
out the Sun. They were best described in The procure clothes.
Arabian Nights: The Thousand and One Nights (c. Roland then boldly appeared at his uncle
800–900 C.E.), in the second voyage of Sinbad. Charlemagne’s palace, introduced himself,
The heroic Sinbad was trapped and tied and just as boldly seized meat and drink from
himself to a roc’s leg. The roc carried him out the royal table to satisfy his mother’s needs.
of danger. Sinbad described the roc’s egg, Charlemagne eventually forgave his sister her
which was so huge he had mistaken it for a transgression, mostly for the sake of her spir-
great, white, domed building. The roc was ited boy. The Rolandslied parallels the Song of
shown to be vengeful, dropping rocks to sink Roland from this reconciliation to the punish-
the ships of those who had killed a roc chick. ment of the traitor Ganelon, which ends the
The Venetian merchant Marco Polo also earlier epic.
mentioned the roc, but he claimed that it lived Legends that were later added to the
in Madagascar and that envoys from that Rolandslied leave the Song of Roland behind and
country presented the great khan of China claim that Roland did not die but was only
with a roc feather. It is possible that both the badly injured. In these additions, after the
roc and the bird described by Marco Polo ac- hero recovered from his wounds, he went
tually was the flightless, ostrichlike giant ele- back to Germany and to his fiancée, Aude.
phant bird (Aepyornis maximus), which lived in Upon his return to Germany, Roland
Madagascar, possibly as late as 1700. learned that Aude, who had thought he had
died, was now a nun. Overcome by sorrow,
Sources Roland constructed a hermitage at Roland-
Burton, Richard Francis, trans. The Arabian Nights: Tales seek. From there, he could constantly keep
from a Thousand and One Nights. New York: Modern watch over the island of Nonnenwörth, where
Library, 2001.
his beloved wore her life away praying for
Haddawy, Husain, trans. The Arabian Nights. New York:
Alfred A. Knopf, 1992. his soul.
Polo, Marco. The Travels of Marco Polo. Trans. Ronald After a time, Aude died. The Rolandslied
Latham. New York: Penguin, 1958. concludes with Roland’s death. He was buried
at Rolandseek, with his face turned toward the
grave where his sweetheart had been laid to
Rolandslied rest.
See also: Epics; Song of Roland.

(German)
Sources
T he Rolandslied, a German epic poem, is
based on the Song of Roland, the medieval
French epic about Emperor Charlemagne.
Thomas, J.W., trans. Priest Konrad’s Song of Roland. Lon-
don: Camden House, 1994.
Vries, Dr. J. De Heldenlied en Heldensage. Utrecht, The
The Rolandslied was originally translated from Netherlands: Spectrum, 1959.

394 Role-Playing Games
Role-Playing Games or game masters contact the original designer

to share how the game-world has evolved.
This can result in an alteration to the official
R ole-playing games, or RPGs, are interac-

tive and collaborative forms of story-
telling. These games are acted out by
game rules.
The shaping of a role-playing game can be
more chaotic than a traditional storytelling
participants who take the roles of characters in session, but there is never more than one per-
a story. son speaking at a time to describe the action
A role-playing game is made up of two or the scene. The narrative crown passes from
separate parts, the written text and the actual one player to another, with each picking up
performance. Unlike the script of a play, a where the previous player left off. In this way,
role-playing game text, called the manual, the group of authors shares responsibility for
does not dictate the dialogue and actions of the their creation, each adding narrative threads
performance, nor does it have a true narrative. to create a tighter, more cohesive whole.
Instead, it provides a general setting and an
idea of the sort of characters, dialogues, and ac-
tions that might be appropriate to the game. In Form
the case of a fantasy or science fiction game, Even though the initial plot may become sig-
the text also dictates what physical laws hold nificantly altered during the progression of
true. events, there usually is a sense of continuity.
Most role playing is performed in the gen- The same starting characters remain central to
res of fantasy, science fiction, and horror. the action throughout, and early events have
There are also historical games, such as those an effect on current and future plans and ac-
set during the American Civil War, but such tivities. There is also an element of closure,
games do not have the widespread appeal of since every adventure has a beginning, mid-
other types. dle, and end.
There are usually several narratives occur-
Mechanics of the Game ring at once, as each player sees the story from
What makes a role-playing game an unusual the point of view of his or her character. The
form of storytelling is that the story passes events remain consistent as the story is passed
through several minds and aesthetic senses from player to player. Each player can partici-
and is altered by each one in turn. pate as much or as little as he or she likes.
The process begins with the game designer, Role-playing games are not generally in-
who creates the background and defines the tended as entertainment for an audience.
world in which the story takes place. It then Watching a role-playing game in progress is
moves to the game master, the player in charge much like watching a staged reading of a play.
of the game, who creates the initial plot for the This is generally an unsatisfying experience
story. Then, the players create their characters because of the spontaneous collective nature
and, in playing them, alter the plot and perhaps of the game.
even the game world. For the players, however, role-playing
The creation of the story is a collaborative games are both storytelling and literature in
effort of all those who are present during the the truest sense, wrapping the participants in a
game. This leads to a constant interweaving of spell and carrying them along through the
story threads and a lack of boundaries that story-world and events. Every participant has
might limit creativity. an active role and is caught up fully in the ac-
The game world and the rules that define tion as it occurs. Disbelief is suspended, as the
it can be altered during the course of a game. story is happening in real time and events are
This world is sometimes altered when players occurring as a result of the players’ actions.

Romance of Antar, T he 395
The lack of an audience also allows for an stage, screen, jet-setting, steamy sex, and fash-
unlimited creative experience. Without the ionable clothes. Again, the tales ultimately are
need to satisfy outsiders or to explain the con- of monogamous love.
text, the players may more freely express The historical romance puts the lovers in a
themselves and remain unconcerned with out- setting in the past, often in medieval times or
side criticism, unlike actors in a public play. the early days of the American West. Regency
Sometimes, the final story is written down romances are set in the time of Jane Austen
after the game is over. As with other forms of (1775–1817).
oral storytelling, creating a written record can There are also genre-crossing romances,
make the story more recognizable and more such as those that include time travel, fantasy
permanent, but it does not alter the core of the elements, light horror (involving perhaps a
performance itself. Nor does it alter the fact vampire or werewolf hero), or science fiction.
that the narrative structure was created by an In all such variations, the romance is still the
interactive performance. Even without a writ- main element of the plot.
ten record, the story lives on in the memories There are even inspirational romances.
and minds of its performers. These do not include explicit sex scenes but
Aaron Rosenberg do have a religious aspect along with the
happy ending.
Sources
Ede, Lisa, and Andrea Lunsford. Singular Texts/Plural See also: Fantasy.
Authors: Perspectives on Collaborative Writing. Carbon-
dale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1990.
Sources
Fine, Gary Alan. Shared Fantasy: Role-Playing Games as
Social Worlds. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Krentz, Jayne Ann, ed. Dangerous Men and Adventurous
1983. Women: Romance Writers on the Appeal of the Romance.
Lauffer, Armand. The Aim of the Game. New York: Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992.
Gamed Simulations, 1973. Radway, Janice A. Reading the Romance: Women, Patri-
archy, and Popular Literature. Chapel Hill: University
of North Carolina Press, 1991.
Regis, Pamela. A Natural History of the Romance Novel.
Romance Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press,

2007.
T he romance genre originally referred to

sweeping epics, such as those written dur-
ing the Middle Ages. These stories became
Romance of Antar, The
much less grand and more intimate in the
twentieth century. A modern romance is a tale
(Arabian)
with the emphasis on a quest for a special
someone.
There are many subcategories of today’s
T he Romance of Antar, an epic about the
hero Antar, is made up of more than forty
tales. Since new stories were added over the
romance literature. In a contemporary ro- centuries, it is difficult to know the original
mance, the setting and characters are modern, count. The tales of Antar originated in the
with modern mind-sets and goals. Love and Bedouin tradition but quickly passed into the
marriage generally are the main goals. But wider Islamic tradition. Although Antar is rel-
there is a whole range of romances, from very atively unknown in the West, he and his sto-
mild-mannered, platonic love affairs, where sex ries soon became as important in the Islamic
only occurs after marriage, to passionate prose world as the stories of King Arthur became in
filled with detailed descriptions of lovemaking. Western Europe.
In a Hollywood romance, the timeframe is The authorship of these tales is uncertain.
modern but there are the added trappings of They may have been the work of ninth-century

396 Rusalk a/Rusalki
scholar Al Asmai, or they may come from the Sources

anonymous folk tradition, but there is no gen- Hamilton, Terrick, trans. Antar: A Bedoueen Romance.
uine proof of either. Antar may have been an 1819. Delmar, NY: Scholars’ Facsimiles and
Reprints, 1981.
actual man, a hero-poet of perhaps the fifth Richmond, Diana. ’Antar and ’Abla: A Bedouin Romance.
century, around whom fantastic tales were New York: Quartet, 1978.
gathered. Tietjens, Eunice. The Romance of Antar. New York:
In the tradition of a culture hero who must Coward-McCann, 1929.
rise up from humble beginnings, Antar’s par-
ents were Shaddad, an Arab chieftain, and an
Ethiopian slave-woman. The boy was raised
as a slave among his father’s tents and was de-
Rusalka/Rusalki
scribed as unbelievably ugly. At the age of ten,
Antar killed a wolf that was threatening the
(Slavic)
tribe’s herds. By the age of fifteen, he fought
the tribe’s enemies with such courage that his
father freed him and acknowledged him as a
A ccording to Slavic, particularly Russian,
folklore, the rusalki were the pale, often
wild, and supernaturally beautiful water spirits
true hero and protector of his people. or nature beings.
The adult Antar became known as both a A rusalka is usually described as dancing
heroic warrior and a poet. The main thrust of or singing in the moonlight, or sitting and
his story concerns his quest to win the beauti- swinging on birch branches with her long hair
ful Ibla (or Ablah) for his wife. This quest flowing free. Her slender figure is either naked
takes him all over the Mediterranean region, or clad in a flowing white gown. She is usually
through fantasy and reality, through all the dripping wet from the lake, and some tales
Arab lands, and into the Christian realms as claim that if a rusalka, or more specifically her
well. He met many important figures, includ- hair, dries out, she will die.
ing the king of Rome, with whose sister he had But for all her beauty, the rusalka is a per-
a son. Antar also met with the Byzantine em- ilous figure, especially for men. She generally
peror and the Frankish nobility. is waiting for an unwary male to pass near
The nineteenth-century composer Niko- enough to be snared, though she may seize the
lay Rimsky-Korsakov wrote a symphonic occasional woman as well. Some rusalki kill
suite, his Second Symphony, also called the Antar by tickling or drowning their prey; others may
Symphony (1869). The composer had read kill by torture.
some of the tales in Russian translation. His There are different ideas in folklore about
version of Antar is only loosely based on the what force or mischance created the rusalka.
actual tales. The most common folk belief was that the
In Rimsky-Korsakov’s four-part work, An- rusalki are the souls of young women or girls
tar saves the peri, or fairy, called Gul Nazar, who died unnatural or violent deaths. If a girl
and is granted three joys: glory in war, glory was murdered in or close to a lake, she would
in power, and glory in love. Antar eventually become a rusalka and inhabit that particular
grows weary of war and power, and turns to lake. Some tales state that the girl died at the
Gul Nazar for love. They spend a long time hands of a betraying lover. Others say that the
living happily together. Antar told Gul Nazar rusalka was a girl who had drowned herself,
that if she sensed that he was becoming dis- again because of a lover’s betrayal.
tant, she should take his life. She noticed one There is some evidence that the rusalka
day that he was distracted, she embraced him, originally may have been a nature spirit, one
and Antar died in her arms. of spring fertility. In pagan Russia (and into
modern Russia in some regions), there was a
See also: Epics. spring festival called rusal’naia nedelia during

Rustam 397
which people celebrated the new growth.

Homes were decorated with fresh birch Rustam
branches and girls adorned trees with cloth
and garlands and danced the khorovod, a ritual (Persian)
circle dance.
It was believed that during this festival, the
rusalka left her lake and wandered through
R ustam is the most important hero of the
Persian epic Shah-nameh (Epic of kings),
written by Ferdowsi in the eleventh century C.E.
the forests and fields. The implication is that
Rustam was educated at the court of King
by doing this, she was bringing water to the
Minuchihr. He first showed his heroism at ten
land and increasing its fertility.
years of age. The shah’s white elephant broke
At the end of rusal’naia nedelia, girls es-
loose and endangered everyone present. Rus-
corted an effigy of the rusalka back toward
tam hit the animal with such power that the
the water. In some areas, they burned or tore
beast fell down, dead.
up and scattered pieces of the effigy over the
As a young man, Rustam caught and
grain fields or pretended to be priests and
tamed the stallion Rakush. The intelligent
blessed it.
horse stayed faithful to him forever after and
Other traditions included combing the ef-
helped the hero fight evil demons and dragons.
figy’s hair as though it were a rusalka, bidding
Faithful Rakush was stolen away while
farewell to her at the local body of water, fas-
Rustam slept in the wilderness. The hero fol-
tening stones to her coffin, throwing her into
lowed his horse’s tracks and came upon a
the water, and, finally, dancing the khorovod.
strange city where he met Tamine, the king’s
The implication again is of a powerful fertility
daughter. Tamine confessed that she had stolen
spirit that had to be carefully greeted and re-
Rakush in order to lure Rustam to her. She
turned to her wild realm, or of a death-and-
wished to become his wife.
resurrection ritual.
Rustam and Princess Tamine were mar-
A rusalka also was featured in two Slavic
ried, and Rustam continued to fight against
operas. Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov’s The May
evil. While Rustam was away, Tamine gave
Night (1878) features a rusalka who is freed
birth to a boy, Sohrab.
from her fate by a young hero. In Czech com-
Years passed and Rustam did not return to
poser Anton Dvořák’s Rusalka (1901), the
Tamine. In his travels, he came face-to-face
rusalka is a tragic fairytale figure and not at all
with a strong young warrior. They fought, and
dangerous.
as the youth lay dying, Rustam learned that he
See also: Mermaids; Slavic Mythology. had killed his own son.
Sources See also: Ferdowsi/Firdawsi/Firdusi/Firdousi;

Haney, Jack. The Complete Russian Folktale. Vol. 1. Ar- Retelling: Shah-nameh.
monk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1999.
Ivanits, Linda. Russian Folk Belief. Armonk, NY: M.E. Source
Sharpe, 1992. Ferdowsi. The Epic of Kings: The Shah-nama, the National
Warner, Elizabeth. Russian Myths. Austin: University of Epic of Persia. Trans. Reuben Levy. London: Rout-
Texas Press, 2002. ledge, 1967.

S
Sadko
(Russian)
Instantly, the ships’ sails fill with wind, and the
crew headed toward Novgorod.
Sadko, meanwhile, floated down to the
bottom of the sea and the tsar’s palace. Tsar
Morskoi had heard of Sadko’s musical gifts and
T he story of Sadko is a bylina, or Russian

epic poem, about a middle-class hero.
Whereas the bylini of the Kiev cycle dealt with
wished to hear him play. Sadko performed, de-
lighting the tsar and the tsar’s wife with his
music. They decided to keep Sadko with them
the adventures of heroic knights, Sadko’s tale forever and marry him to their daughter,
is true folklore. Princess Volkhova (in some versions, Cher-
Sadko was an impoverished merchant in nava). But Sadko explained to the princess that
the city of Novgorod who was also an excel- he still loved his wife, Lubava.
lent psaltry, or zither, player. His efforts to be- There are two different variants of what
come a successful merchant were thwarted happened next. In one, a mysterious man, who
by the aloofness of the other merchants, who may have been either a priest or a saint, made
did not want him to join their ranks. With the the sea people sleep so that Sadko could es-
help of the sea people, Sadko challenged the cape. In another, Volkhova led Sadko to the
wealthy merchants to a wager: his life against shore of Lake Ilmen, near Novgorod. She loved
their financial assistance on a voyage. Sadko so much that she wept herself into mist,
Sadko bet the other merchants that there becoming the River Volkhova, which flows
was a golden fish in the water. Thanks to the from Lake Ilmen to the sea.
sea people, Sadko was able to bring a golden In the end, a wealthy Sadko was reunited
fish up out of the water. The merchants were with his wife. Presumably, they lived happily
forced to provide him with ships and supplies. ever after.
Sadko asked the townspeople to take care of
his wife, Lubava, and he set sail. See also: Bylina/Bylini.
The outward-bound trip was a success. Sources
Sadko visited many countries and profited Bailey, James, and Tatyana Ivanova, trans. An Anthology
from the journey. But on the way back, the of Russian Folk Epics. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe,
ships stalled, and Sadko realized that the sailors 1999.
Costello, D.P., and I.P. Foote, eds. Russian Folk Literature.
had not made any sacrifices to Tsar Morskoi, Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1967.
tsar of the sea. To save his crew, Sadko leapt Hapgood, Isabel Florence. The Epic Songs of Russia. New
into the ocean, offering himself as the sacrifice. York: Scribner’s, 1916.
398

Sampo 399
The anonymous author of the saga wrote

Saga of the Volsungs that the name of Sigurd would remain known as
long as the world endured. Today, the name it-
(Norse) self is not as well known as the mythic elements
of the story, which can be found as elements
T he Saga of the Volsungs, or Völsunga Saga,

relates the story of the Volsung clan. The
central character of this work is the legendary
in works ranging from Richard Wagner’s nine-
teenth-century operatic Ring Cycle to J.R.R.
Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings (1954–1955).
hero Sigurd.
The stories that make up the saga were See also: Epics; Norse Mythology.
handed down for generations as epic poems. Sources
The saga was first written down by an anony- Anderson, George K., trans. The Saga of the Volsungs.
mous author in Iceland during the thirteenth Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1982.
century, and this original manuscript was sent Bylock, Jesse L., trans. The Saga of the Volsungs. London:
to King Frederick III of Norway and Denmark Penguin, 1990.
Morris, William, trans. Volsunga Saga: The Story of the Vol-
by Bishop Brynjólfur Sveinsson of Skalholt, sungs and Niblungs. London: Walter Scott, 1888.
Iceland, in 1656. It was delivered to the Royal
Library of Copenhagen and promptly mislaid.
The manuscript was not registered as an acqui-
sition until 1821.
Sampo
The story is divided into five parts: Sig-
urd’s familial background, his youth, his inter- (Finnish)
actions with the Gjukings and his murder, the
life of his widow Gudrun, and Gudrun’s mar-
riage to Jonak, which signals the end of the
I n the Finnish epic the Kalevala (1835), the
sampo was a magic mill invented by the
smith Ilmarinen at the request of the wizard
Gjuking line. Vainamoinen. It was made of several magical
Sigurd, like Siegfried in the Bavarian ingredients, including a swan’s quill tip, a bar-
Niebelungenlied, proved his mettle by pulling ren cow’s milk, a barley grain, and the wool of
a magical sword from an oak tree. Other one ewe.
similarities between the saga and tales found In the tale, the device ground corn, gold,
in France, Britain, Ireland, and Wales are ev- and salt. It was given to Louhi, who was the
idence of an oral tradition in which stories mistress of the land of Pohjola. She had saved
were passed among neighboring peoples. Vainamoinen and demanded such a price for
The stories were changed to suit the local cul- his life.
tures, but many of the key ingredients—magical But when the rest of the lands began to suf-
swords, dragons, and magic rings—remained fer and only Pohjola thrived, Vainamoinen and
the same. other heroes set out to steal back the sampo.
Sigurd is a supernatural hero who de- Louhi chased them in the form of a giant bird
scended from Odin, the chief Norse god. Sig- of prey.
urd was able to alter his shape and talk to birds. In the ensuing battle, the sampo was
His horse, Grani, was a descendant of Odin’s smashed and fell into the sea. There, it contin-
steed, Sleipnir. ued to grind and turned the sea to salt water.
In spite of these special gifts, Sigurd had an
ordinary man’s problems. He grew up without See also: Kalevala.
a father, a fact that the dragon Fafnir used
Sources
to mock him, and he had a terrible relation- Lönnrot, Elias. The Kalevala: An Epic Poem After Oral Tra-
ship with his in-laws. One of his brothers-in-law dition. Trans. Keith Bosley. New York: Oxford Uni-
eventually murdered him. versity Press, 1999.

400 Sandman
Pentikäinen, Juha Y. Kalevala Mythology. Trans. and ed. It could easily be argued that storytelling
Ritva Poom. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, is more important than plot in The Sandman.
1999.
Many of the narratives are framed as a story
told by one character to another. The tragic
tale of the love between Morpheus and the
Sandman African queen Nada, for example, is told by a
father to his son as a coming-of-age story in
T his graphic novel series by author Neil

Gaiman is a fine example of how a story-
teller can meld folklore and mythology with a
“Season of Mists.” In the episode titled “Ra-
madan,” Dream takes a Middle Eastern city
into his realm, effectively transforming it into
modern story. Gaiman’s character, Sandman, legend. A writer kidnaps one of the classical
borrows from the sandman of nursery rhymes Muses in “Calliope” and discovers what hap-
only in its relation to sleep-induced fantasy. pens when the flow of stories will not cease.
This Sandman is the personification of the ar- And the entire arc of “World’s End” consists
chetype of dreaming. of a collection of travelers trapped in an inn,
Comic books are more often associated telling stories to pass the time. The latter is
with action than with story. They call to mind a nod to Boccaccio’s Decameron (written c.
spandex-clad heroes who wreak swift and phys- 1349–1353) or Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales
ical justice upon evildoers. But in 1988, the (c. 1387–1400).
Sandman comic series appeared and not only Other episodes take well-known stories and
challenged but completely upended the com- deliver them with a twist. For example, Dream
mon perception of comics and the role story- invites the real Oberon and Titania, characters
telling played in that medium. in Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream
The Sandman, also known as Morpheus, (c. 1595–1596), to see the first performance of
Dream of the Endless, and a score of other the play. In another story, the legendary Greek
names, is far from a typical comic hero. He is hero Orpheus is found to be Dream’s not-quite-
not human. Nor is he an alien, an angel, a de- mortal son, with disastrous consequences for
mon, or even a god. While he interacts with all them both. On the lighter side, “Three Septem-
of these, they all acknowledge that the Sand- bers and a January” includes a charming ac-
man is something separate and distinct. count of Emperor Norton. This character lived
Morpheus, the King of Dreams, is one of during the nineteenth century and believed he
seven archetypes, the brothers and sisters of the was an emperor of part of North America.
Endless. The others are Destiny, who reads all The Sandman is not for children. Gaiman
of the world’s story in his book; Death, an un- does not shrink from tragedy, violence, heart-
expectedly chipper Goth-girl; the twins Desire break, or horror. These dark elements are never
and Despair; the long-absent Destruction (one present simply to shock or disgust, but have a
of the story arcs involves a quest to find this crucial role in the story. Gaiman also balances
prodigal); and Delirium, who used to be De- them with beauty, nobility, and moments of un-
light. These archetypal figures have existed expected humor. And always, through the dark
as long as humankind, and, depending on the and the light, the horror and the beauty, the
point of view, they either control and shape story winds like a silken thread, binding the uni-
humans or are controlled and shaped by them. verse together.
In the ten story arcs that make up The Shanti Fader
Sandman, the seven Endless siblings change
and evolve, appearing through the lenses of See also: Motifs; Tale Types.
many different cultures. In some cases, they Sources
die only to be replaced, as one character says Gaiman, Neil. The Sandman. 10 vols. New York: Vertigo,
in “The Wake,” by another point of view. 1993–1997.

Satire 401
Kwitney, Alisa. The Sandman: King of Dreams. San Fran- (1749). The poet Alexander Pope penned ele-
cisco: Chronicle, 2003. gant and clever satires, such as The Rape of the
Rauch, Stephen. Neil Gaiman’s The Sandman and Joseph
Locke (1712).
Campbell: In Search of the Modern Myth. Rockville,
MD: Wildside, 2003. In France, playwright Jean-Baptiste Po-
quelin, who was commonly known by his pseu-
donym, Molière, wrote dramatic plays. But he
was best known for his farces, which satirized
Satire the court of King Louis XIV. François-Marie
Arouet, better known as Voltaire, wrote novels
A satire is a literary work that ridicules hu-

man vice and is characterized by sar-
casm or irony. Satire also can be expressed as
that criticized the church and other institutions.
His novel Candide (1759), which poked fun at
an influential philosopher, was censored.
visual art, as in political cartoons. The word In the nineteenth century, English satire
satire comes from the Latin word satura, which blossomed with the plays and writings of Os-
means a dish of mixed ingredients. car Wilde and George Bernard Shaw, among
All satirists, regardless of the era in which others. At the same time, the American hu-
they lived, have had the same goal: to hold morist, satirist, and entertainer Samuel Lang-
up to mockery human and institutional flaws, horne Clemens, better known as Mark Twain,
from pedantry to bigotry, with the intent of was writing the novels and stories that made
bringing about change and reform. him America’s most beloved social critic.
The earliest recorded satirists were the With the wider venue for entertainment
Greeks, the most famous of whom was the play- that became available in the twentieth century,
wright Aristophanes. In 422 B.C.E., his play The satire turned up in many different forms. Amer-
Wasps satirized the courts of Athens. Another of ican author Joseph Heller’s Catch-22 (1961) is
his plays, The Clouds, satirized the philosopher still considered a classic satire on the murderous
Socrates, whom Aristophanes disliked. insanity of war. A number of films, such as Sul-
There were a great many Roman satirists. livan’s Travels (1941) and the savagely antiwar
Quintus Horacius Flaccus, better known as Dr. Strangelove, Or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying
Horace (65–8 B.C.E.), created satires that were and Love the Bomb (1964), are brilliantly satirical.
sophisticated and relatively gentle. Iunius On television, one of the longest-running
Juvenal (c. 55–138 C.E.) had a sharper style. programs to date, The Simpsons (the first
Throughout the Middle Ages, beast fables episode aired in 1989), is further proof that
and fabliaux, comic tales told by French jon- satire is alive and well in popular culture, as
gleurs, continued the satiric process. And in En- is the political satire of The Daily Show with
gland, Geoffrey Chaucer satirized many levels Jon Stewart (since 1998) and The Colbert Re-
of society in The Canterbury Tales (c. 1387–1400). port (since 2005).
During the Renaissance the genre flour- The Internet is rife with examples of po-
ished with authors such as the playwright and litical satire, such as the parody newspaper The
poet Ben Jonson and Miguel de Cervantes. Onion.
Cervantes’s novel Don Quixote (1605) was in-
tended as a comic satire of chivalric romance. Sources
Many satirists were at work in the seven- Clark, J.R., ed. Satire—That Blasted Art. New York:
teenth and early eighteenth centuries. The work Perigee, 1973.
of English writer Jonathan Swift included the Highet, Gilbert. The Anatomy of Satire. Princeton, NJ:
fiercely satirical Gulliver’s Travels (1726), which Princeton University Press, 1962.
Kernan, Alvin B. The Plot of Satire. New Haven, CT: Yale
is often mistaken for a children’s book. Henry University Press, 1965.
Fielding wrote entertaining but cynical novels, Seidel, Michael. Satiric Inheritance: Rabelais to Sterne.
such as Joseph Andrews (1742) and Tom Jones Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979.

402 Saxo Grammaticus
Sources
Saxo Grammaticus Elton, Oliver, trans. The Nine Books of the Danish History
of Saxo Grammaticus. New York: Norroena Society,
1905.
(c. 1150) Grammaticus, Saxo. L’Archer du Roi. Lausanne, Switzer-
land: Editions Esprit Ouvert, 1991.
S axo Grammaticus was a Danish historian
who wrote an important work on the his-
tory of Denmark called the Gesta Danorum, or
Hansen, William F. Saxo Grammaticus and the Life of Ham-
let: A Translation, History, and Commentary. Lincoln:
University of Nebraska Press, 1983.
the Great Deeds of Denmark.
Saxo, as he is commonly known, was prob-
ably born about 1150, possibly in Zealand. He
was a cleric with a strong knowledge of classical
Scapegoats
lore and theology. He may have studied at a
major university, possibly in Paris. Saxo’s his-
tory of Denmark was written at the suggestion
A scapegoat is a person, animal, or object
that is blamed for bad luck or disease.
Typically, a scapegoat is either driven off or
of Archbishop Absalon of Lund, who died in
ritually slain to eliminate the evil from an indi-
1201, before the work was finished. The assign-
vidual or group.
ment of this work to Saxo probably means that
The term scapegoat derives from Jewish tra-
he held a high office and may have been a close
dition. In the Old Testament, in the Book of
acquaintance of the archbishop.
Leviticus, Aaron is said to have symbolically
It is believed that the writing of the his-
placed all the sins of the people onto a goat,
tory occupied the greater part of Saxo’s life.
subsequently sending it off into the wilderness.
Originally intended to be a contemporary
The concept, however, is much older and is
history of Saxo’s time, Gesta Danorum eventu-
found worldwide.
ally became a complete history of Denmark
In ancient Greece, an individual would take
from the earliest mythical period to the year
on all the sins of a city, then be driven outside
1187. It is written in elegant, highly ornate
and stoned to death. In less violent folk cures,
Latin, which is why the author was nick-
the problem of a wart might be transferred sym-
named Grammaticus, which means “the let-
bolically to a stone or tree. In South America,
tered one.”
in the Inca Empire, a black llama might be used
The book is divided into sixteen parts.
as a scapegoat to remove illness from a village.
The first nine parts contain a great deal of
In some South American villages, a guinea pig
mythological material, and the last seven con-
would be chosen as the scapegoat and would be
cern historical events close to the author’s own
ritually slain.
time. The sources for this work appear to have
An extreme example of a scapegoat would
been ancient Danish poems, runic inscrip-
be a deity who died for the sake of a specific
tions, and Norwegian-Icelandic sagas.
people or for all people, as Jesus is believed to
Among the famous stories included in the
have done for Christians. An unfortunate psy-
work are the myth of Balder’s death; the his-
chological version of choosing a scapegoat is
tory of Amleth, the Danish prince who was
the placing of blame on a person or group,
the inspiration for Shakespeare’s Hamlet; and
racial or national, for any societal problems.
the story of the archer Palnatoki, the Danish
This results in racism, sexism, ageism, and sim-
version of William Tell.
ilar worldwide issues.
Saxo’s legacy lies in the stories that are in
Scapegoats also are used in politics. A
many cases the only versions that exist from
politician or political party might be blamed
Denmark. The Gesta Danorum sheds light on
for national problems. In sports events, one
Norse mythology and Danish history.
player might be blamed for an entire team’s
See also: Gesta Danorum. losses.

Science Fiction 403
In literature, perhaps the most obvious ex- dawn began to break, Scheherazade deliber-
ample of a scapegoat appears in William Gold- ately broke off her story at the most exciting
ing’s novel Lord of the Flies (1954), in which an point. Demurely, she pointed out that the
overweight boy becomes the victim of other night was over. So eager was the king to hear
boys. the rest of the story that he spared her life for
that day.
See also: Motifs. Each night for the next thousand nights,
Scheherazade repeated her ruse. She told the
Sources
Douglas, Tom. Scapegoats: Transferring Blame. New York:
king a series of exciting stories, one leading
Routledge, 1995. in an unbroken succession into the next, and
Golding, William. Lord of the Flies. 1954. New York: the last tale each night ended in a cliffhanger.
Perigee, 1959. At the end of the thousand and one nights,
Perera, Sylvia Brinton. The Scapegoat Complex: Toward a
King Shahryar was so overwhelmed by
Mythology of Shadow and Guilt. Toronto, Canada: In-
ner City, 1986. Scheherazade and her storytelling talents that
he kept her as his wife and swore never again
to slay a woman.
Scheherazade Scheherazade’s story has inspired several
composers. Russian composer Nikolay Rimsky-
Korsakov wrote an 1880 symphonic suite that
(Arabic) bears her name, and the French composer Mau-
S cheherazade is perhaps one of the world’s

most famous storytellers. The character
exists in the framing story of the collection of
rice Ravel wrote a piece by the same name in
1898.
tales known as The Thousand and One Nights, Source

Haddawy, Husain, trans. Arabian Nights. New York: Al-
or The Arabian Nights, which may date to the fred A. Knopf, 1992.
ninth or tenth century C.E. It is not certain Irwin, Robert. The Arabian Nights: A Companion. London:
whether this legendary character was based Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 2004.
on a historical figure.
In The Thousand and One Nights, King
Shahryar, the legendary king of Samarkand in Science Fiction
present-day Uzbekistan, found out that his wife
had been unfaithful to him. He was so horrified
by this deception that he promptly vowed to
trust no woman. He slew his wife. He then re-
S cience fiction is a literary genre that is
based on real or imagined developments
in science or technology. The basic themes of
married over and over again, killing each wife science fiction include space travel, marvelous
in turn before she had an opportunity to be inventions or discoveries, life in other worlds,
unfaithful to him. first contact with aliens, time travel, and the
Scheherazade was the daughter of an offi- invasion of Earth by aliens.
cer at Shahryar’s court. She offered to marry Perhaps the earliest author to use genuine
the king, believing she could put a stop to this science in his work was the French novelist
cruel practice. Even though her father tried to Jules Verne, who wrote during the late nine-
dissuade her, Scheherazade insisted on her teenth and early twentieth centuries. Two of
plan. Verne’s early works, From the Earth to the Moon
On her first night with King Shahryar, (1865) and Around the Moon (1870), contain
Scheherazade told the king that she would some major factual errors. But they also include
entertain him with a story. So exciting was some amazingly accurate details—a launch
her tale that the king listened in wonder, from what is now Cape Canaveral, Florida, the
never noticing the passing hours. But as the retrofiring of the capsule’s engines on the far

404 Seanachai
From the 1950s to the present, many great

science fiction writers have written novels and
short stories. Among the greats have been
Isaac Asimov, Arthur C. Clarke, and Robert
A. Heinlein. Women writers had to use pseu-
donyms until the 1980s, since publishers did
not think that women could write successful
science fiction; Andre Norton, for instance,
actually was Alice North, and C.L. Moore ac-
tually was Catherine Lucille Moore.
Science fiction writers today strive to con-
vince their readers that their stories are possible
and are derived from scientific principles. So-
called hard science fiction generally is written
by authors who also are scientists. Geoffrey Lan-
dis, formerly of the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA), keeps as true to
the sciences, such as physics or astronomy, as is
possible in his stories. Works in the subgenre of
soft science fiction, by writers such as Lois Mc-
Masters Bujold, emphasize the cultural angles of
the stories and are based on social sciences, such
Jules Verne, a novelist who wrote from the late nine- as anthropology and sociology.
teenth to the early twentieth century, was one of the Another category of science fiction, called
masters of early science fiction. This original illustra- space opera, is pure storytelling. These stories
tion from his most famous work, Twenty Thousand
of space adventures make little or no attempt at
Leagues Under the Sea, shows the crew of the Alec-
ton attacking a giant squid. (© Art Resource, NY) scientific plausibility. A fine example of space
opera is the works of E.E. “Doc” Smith, partic-
ularly his Lensmen series.
side of the Moon to get the capsule back to
Earth, and a splashdown. Verne’s novel Twenty See also: Fantasy; Horror; Mystery Stories;
Thousand Leagues Under the Sea (1869) is also Romance.
quite accurate, and it has been made into sev-
eral movies. Sources
Disch, Thomas M. The Dreams Our Stuff Is Made Of: How
Verne’s contemporary, British author H.G. Science Fiction Conquered the World. New York: Free
Wells, created some of science fiction’s most Press, 2000.
enduring works. Wells was more interested in James, Edward, and Farah Mendelsohn, eds. The Cam-
storytelling than in getting the scientific details bridge Companion to Science Fiction. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press, 2003.
right, and his storytelling was strong enough Roberts, Adam. The History of Science Fiction. London:
in such works as The Time Machine (1895) and Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.
The War of the Worlds (1898) to influence later
generations. Wells’s works also have inspired a
number of films.
Many works in the genre were published
Seanachai
in the first decades of the twentieth century. But
it was not until about 1930 that magazine pub-
(Irish)
lisher Hugo Gernsback coined the term science
fiction—and it stuck. T he word seanachai, pronounced shan-u-kee
or shen-u-kee, is Gaelic for “storyteller.”

Seers 405
Originally a wandering storyteller who was

akin to bards and medieval troubadours, the Seelie Court and
seanachai was an important part of ancient
Irish and Scottish preliterate society. These sto-
Unseelie Court
rytellers were largely the ones who ended up
being responsible for the survival of oral tradi- (Scottish)
tions and folktales.
In small Irish and Scottish villages, stories
always were told at night, after the day’s work
I n Scottish folklore, the seelie court and un-
seelie court are the two groups of the fairy
folk. The seelie is good and the unseelie is evil.
was done. People from the village would con- The seelie, or blessed, court is made up of
gregate at the house where the seanachai was beings that tend to be benign and kindly to-
staying to hear everything from the stories of ward humans. Members of the seelie court
ancient Celtic mythology to the latest gossip sometimes can be seen at twilight, often in ele-
from the next village. gant, courtly processions. The seelie court may
The seanachai was often the center of a help humans in need by offering gifts of magic
ceilidh, pronounced kay-lee, an informal gath- or food, and they will be sure to repay any
ering of villagers around someone’s hearth kind deed. However, they are just as swift to
for an evening of entertainment. Ceilidhs avenge any wrongs or insults. Fairy folk who
still exist in Ireland and Scotland and in are members of the seelie court usually are
Celtic areas of North America, though they beautiful.
are now usually formal music and storytelling The unseelie, or unholy, court is made up
events. of beings that are evil in nature and despise
The seanachai also served a more sub- humans. They sneer at kindness and have no
versive purpose during the time of English understanding of mercy. These beings are
dominance of Ireland. From about the six- rarely seen, at least not by humans who live
teenth century to the twentieth century, the to tell the tale. There is no way for a human
English tried to suppress the native Gaelic to appease them, but there are many ways to
language and Irish culture. So while the sea- anger them. So avoidance is the safest defense.
nachai appeared to be doing nothing more Members of the unseelie court are usually ugly
than innocently traveling around and telling and sometimes outright hideous.
stories, they were actually teaching the chil-
dren their native language and culture, and Sources
also keeping the culture alive in the minds Briggs, Katherine. An Encyclopedia of Fairies: Hobgoblins,
and hearts of adults. Brownies, Bogies, and Other Supernatural Creatures.
Modern seanachai no longer need to worry New York: Pantheon, 1976.
Simpson, Evelyn B. Folk Lore in Lowland Scotland. Nor-
about being the only means of keeping oral tra-
wood, PA: Norwood Editions, 1977.
ditions alive, and they do not have to tell their Wentz, W.Y. Evans. The Fairy-Faith in Celtic Countries.
stories in secret. Instead, modern seanachai are New York: H. Frowde, 1911.
openly honored as storytellers.
See also: Retelling: The Storyteller at Fault. Seers

Sources
Foster, Robert F. Modern Ireland: 1600–1972. New York:
(Greek)
T
Penguin, 1990. he ancient Greeks had many myths featur-
Ó Súilleabháin, Seán. Storytelling in Irish Tradition. Cork,
Ireland: Mercier, 1973.
ing seers, which are individuals who could
Zimmermann, Georges Denis. The Irish Storyteller. Dublin, see the future and make prophecies for good
Ireland: Four Courts, 2001. or ill.

406 Seers
Apollo and the Delphic Oracle that had young. Melampus took pity on the
young ones and took care of them. One day as
Apollo was the Greek god of prophecy. The he slept, the now-grown snakes licked his ears,
Delphic oracle, located in the city of Delphi, which gave him the language of birds and
was sacred to Apollo. snakes, as well as other creatures. This gave
The oracle, a priestess called the Pythia, him the ability to foretell future events, since
sat in a cave and made prophesies that were the beasts often knew what would happen be-
said to come from Apollo. Her proclamations fore humans did.
were open to a great deal of interpretation. If a In one myth, Melampus was caught and
king asked the oracle about the outcome of an imprisoned. While in captivity, Melampus
upcoming battle, for example, the oracle’s re- heard the termites whispering. They said they
sponse of “a kingdom will be lost” could mean had nearly eaten through the roof timbers and
either victory or defeat. that the roof was about to collapse. Melampus
warned his captors and demanded that they
Teiresias release him. They took his warning in time,
Teiresias is perhaps the most familiar of the and when the roof did come crashing down,
Greek seers. He was the blind prophet who no one was harmed.
saw more clearly than any other man.
He was also the only man who knew from Aesacus
experience what it was like to be a woman. Aesacus was one of the many children of King
This understanding was the result of a foolish Priam of Troy and one of three who were
deed: Teiresias once struck apart two mating prophetic. It was Aesacus who foresaw that his
snakes, which was against the gods’ rules. He brother Paris would cause the downfall of Troy
was instantly turned into a woman for seven and advised his father not to let his brother live.
years. Some versions say that as a woman Aesacus was one of the few members of
Teiresias married and settled down. Others the royal house of Troy who was not killed in
say that he became a prostitute to experience the Trojan War or enslaved after it. In fact, he
all he could about the sensual life. avoided Troy, preferring to wander the coun-
At the end of the seven years, Teiresias tryside, where he fell in love with Hesperia,
wanted to be male again. He sought and found the daughter of the Cebren River. Some tales
two snakes mating, struck them apart, and be- say that the two were wed, but others claim
came a man once more. He was then asked by that Aesacus pursued Hesperia in vain.
Zeus and Hera which gender received more Hesperia was struck by a poisonous snake
pleasure from sex. Zeus said it was women; and died. The grief-stricken Aesacus dove from
Hera claimed it was men. Teiresias agreed with a high cliff into the sea. The goddess Tethys
Zeus that yes, women had more fun. turned Aesacus into a seabird.
Hera, who hated to lose, struck the mortal
man blind. Since Zeus could not undo what Helenus
his wife had just done, he tried to compensate
by giving Teiresias the gift of prophecy. The second prophetic son of King Priam of
Troy was Helenus, whose mother was Queen
Hecuba.
Melampus Helenus was captured by the Greeks dur-
Melampus of Thessaly was a cousin of ing the Trojan War and forced to tell them
Bellerophon, the only man to ride Pegasus, how Troy could be taken. He prophesied that
the winged horse. they must first persuade Neoptolemus, son of
Melampus gained the gift of prophecy af- Achilles, to join them, which the Greeks did. In
ter witnessing some servants killing a serpent an alternate version, Helenus predicted a win

Sekhmet 407
if the Greeks could kill Troilus, half-brother to This was an eminently suitable name to give
Helenus, which Achilles did. the destructive and protective lion goddess.
After the war, Helenus was enslaved by Sekhmet came into being when the eye
Neoptolemus and taken to the Greek city-state of the sun god, Re, was sent forth in the form
of Epirus. When Neoptolemus was slain, He- of the goddess Hathor to destroy rebellious
lenus found himself free and the inheritor of humans. The eye ran amuck and became
part of Epirus. Sekhmet.
Andromache was another slave who was Her violent nature, which it was necessary
freed and the widow of Helenus’s brother, to placate, made her a goddess of disease. One
Hector. Helenus married Andromache, and of her titles was the Lady of Plague. Her ar-
their story ended happily. rows were invisible deliverers of illness and
Cassandra
Cassandra was the third of King Priam’s chil-
dren with the gift of prophecy. Her mother
was also Queen Hecuba.
Cassandra promised to lie with Apollo if he
gave her the gift of prophecy, but then she
broke her promise. The angry god cursed her
so that although her prophesies were accurate,
no one would believe them. Cassandra warned
of the coming of the Trojan War, but in vain.
She pleaded with the Trojans not to take in the
Trojan horse, but they would not listen.
After the city fell, Cassandra tried to find
safety in the temple of Athena. She was caught
and raped and made the concubine of King
Agamemnon of Mycene. Cassandra tried to
warn Agamemnon that his wife, Clytemnestra,
was going to kill him. Agamemnon refused to
listen, and he and Cassandra were both slain.
Sources
Buxton, Richard. The Complete World of Greek Mythology.
London: Thames and Hudson, 2004.
Hansen, William. Classical Mythology: A Guide to the Myth-
ical World of the Greeks and Romans. New York: Ox-
ford University Press, 2005.
Pollard, John. Seers, Shrines, and Sirens: The Greek Religious
Revolution in the Sixth Century B.C. South Brunswick,
NJ: A.S. Barnes, 1965.
Sekhmet Sekhmet was a fierce lion-headed goddess of ancient

Egypt. She could be a raging warrior, whose arrows
delivered illness and death, but Sekhmet also was the
(Egyptian) patron deity of the bonesetters’ guild of physicians.
This statue comes from the tomb of King Tutankhamen
I n ancient Egyptian language, the word

sekhmet means the (female) powerful one.
and dates to the fourteenth century B.C.E. (Borromeo/
Art Resource, NY)

408 Seth/Set/Sutekh
death, and medical texts gave directions for god, Geb, divided Egypt equally between them
warding off her messengers. Priests of her tem- but changed his mind, revoking Seth’s portion.
ple practiced medicine and also may have Seth was commonly referred to as the son
served as veterinarians. of Nut, the sky goddess. Texts assigned various
In the Egyptian city of Memphis, Ptah was spouses to Seth, usually his sister, Nephthys, or
Sekhmet’s consort. Their offspring was Nefer- the hippopotamus goddess of pregnancy and
tum, a solar god who was associated with per- childbirth, Theouris. Although he was a mem-
fume and war. Sekhmet first appeared in the ber of the Ennead of Heliopolis (a group of
texts of the late Old Kingdom (2919–2513 nine gods), he was the separated, unsocial god,
B.C.E.), in which it is told that she conceived called the “enemy of boundaries.” He violated
the king. the accepted limits of sex by raping Horus.
Sekhmet appeared most frequently as a Seth’s existence, however terrible, was es-
woman with the head of a lioness. Her symbol sential to the Egyptian view of a balanced uni-
was an aegis, or shield, depicted as a broad verse. He ruled the regions beyond the Nile
collar-type necklace topped with the head of Valley proper, principally the so-called red
a lioness. The aegis later became a symbol of lands (the desert) and foreign places. The sun
Bastet, who is frequently cited as Sekhmet’s god, Re, put Seth’s aggressiveness to good use
balancing opposite, embodying maternal and by employing him to defeat the serpent Apep,
benign forces. who threatened the solar barque, or ship, each
Noreen Doyle night. Re gave Seth the power of thunder.
Horus and Seth were ultimately reconciled,
Sources and there were temples devoted to a composite
Matthiae, Gabriella Scandone. “L’occhio del sole: le di- Horus-Seth deity. Worship of Seth seems to
vinità feline femminile dell’Egitto faraonico.” Studi have come to an end at about 1100 B.C.E., when
epigrafici e linguistici sul Vicino Oriente antico 10 (1993):
10–19.
Egypt’s foreign empire dwindled. Particularly
Nunn, John F. Ancient Egyptian Medicine. Norman: Uni- after the Assyrian occupation of Egypt in the
versity of Oklahoma Press, 1996. sixth century B.C.E., he became more demon
than god, a reviled figure in myth and ritual.
The Greeks knew Seth as Typhon.
Seth/Set/Sutekh Noreen Doyle
(Egyptian) Sources
Griffiths, J. Gwyn. The Conflict of Horus and Seth from
T he Egyptian god Seth embodied the forces

of chaos. He appeared in the earliest texts
as an enemy (and occasional ally) of the falcon
Egyptian and Classical Sources. Liverpool, UK: Liver-
pool University Press, 1960.
Velde, Herman. Seth, God of Confusion: A Study of His Role
in Egyptian Mythology and Religion. 2nd ed. Leiden,
god, Horus, who was his brother and rival for The Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1977.
the crown.
Seth usually was represented as a strange
animal with tall, flat-topped ears and a long,
curving snout, or a man with the head of this
Setne Khamwaset Cycle
beast. The animal has never been identified
and may have been entirely imaginary. Seth
(Egyptian)
also was associated with a variety of animals,
particularly pigs and donkeys.
In the course of Seth’s battle with his
T he literary character Setne Khamwaset was
inspired by the fourth son of Ramses II
(c. 1304–1237 B.C.E.). The name Setne derives
brother for the crown, he wounded Horus’s eye from a priestly office held by the historical
and Horus wounded Seth’s testicles. The earth prince of the same name.

Setne Khamwaset Cycle 409
The historical prince Khamwaset was priest temporarily resurrected, Naneferkaptah learned
of the god Ptah in Memphis, Egypt. He insti- of Thoth’s accusation. He became afraid to
tuted a new kind of tomb for the sacred bulls return to Memphis: What would the king do
and undertook restoration of the Old King- upon learning of the deaths of his daughter and
dom monuments at Giza and Saqqara. These grandson? So Naneferkaptah tied the book to
antiquarian interests have prompted some to his body, jumped into the river, and drowned.
call him the first Egyptologist. His intellectual His body was recovered and buried with the
activities inspired a reputation that survived book.
him by more than 3,000 years. After hearing of these grim events from
Two of the stories built around Khamwaset’s Ahwere, Setne still wanted the book. He gam-
intellectual reputation survive more or less in- bled with Ahwere for it, playing senet, a board
tact. Others survive as fragments. game, only to be caught in a spell that trapped
his body in the earth. Inaros managed to save
his brother, and they escaped with the book.
Setne and Naneferkaptah One day, Setne caught sight of Tabubu, a
The beginning of the text about Setne and beautiful woman whose father was a priest of
Naneferkaptah is lost, but it is assumed that the cat goddess, Bastet. Setne badly wanted to
the story begins with Setne Khamwaset seek- sleep with her. Arrangements were made for
ing out the tomb of Prince Naneferkaptah. them to meet at her palatial house in Bubastis.
This tomb was rumored to contain a book of But before she would make love to him, Tabubu
spells composed by the god Thoth. insisted that Setne grant all his possessions to
Setne and his adopted brother Inaros found her, which he did. Then Tabubu demanded
the book, which was defended by two ghosts, the death of Setne’s children. Again he com-
Naneferkaptah and his wife, Ahwere. Ahwere plied, and Tabubu threw their bodies to the
warned Setne that Naneferkaptah’s possession dogs and cats.
of the book had led to their deaths. She also Just as Setne and Tabubu were about to
told the story of how she and Naneferkaptah, consummate the relationship, Setne came to
both children of King Mernebptah, fell in love his senses. He found himself naked, and the
and wished to marry. pharaoh was nearby. Ashamed, he called,
King Mernebptah, wishing for numerous “Naneferkaptah did this to me!” Setne then
descendants, had planned to marry Ahwere to learned that his children were still alive.
a general, but a clever verbal jest by Ahwere The pharaoh insisted that Setne return the
changed his mind. Ahwere and Naneferkap- book to the tomb of Naneferkaptah. Setne com-
tah married and had a son, Merib. From an plied. Naneferkaptah’s spirit asked that the
ancient priest, Naneferkaptah learned of the bodies of Ahwere and Merib be moved from
magic book, which was in a series of nested Coptos to Memphis. Setne was unable to find
boxes surrounded by noxious creatures and their graves until Naneferkaptah disguised him-
an eternal serpent. self as an old man and indicated the place be-
Naneferkaptah departed from Coptos in neath a house. The bodies were brought to
a magical boat made of wax with a waxen Naneferkaptah’s tomb, which was sealed shut
crew to seek the magic book. He defeated the again.
guardians and gained the magic spells, re-
turning safely home. Naneferkaptah copied
out the book, dissolved the copy in beer, and
Setne and Siosiris
drank it, literally imbibing its knowledge. The part of the story of Setne and Siosiris that
Thoth learned of the theft and petitioned has been preserved begins with Setne’s wife
Re for help. The sun god drowned Merib and being told to prepare a special drink so that
Ahwere. From his dead family, whom he she could conceive. Conception was achieved,

410 Shaggy Dog Stor ies
and Setne dreamt that the boy was to be happened to him during the night. So the king
named Siosiris, which means son of Osiris. summoned his own magician, Horus-son-of-
Siosiris was a prodigy who quickly learned Paneshe. This magician determined through a
to write better than his instructor. One day, dream that a hidden book of magic was needed
Siosiris and his father witnessed two funer- to end the Nubian sorceries, which were now
als, one of a rich man accompanied by many taking place each night.
mourners and the other of a poor man with no Horus-son-of-Paneshe sent wax figures to
mourners at all. Setne proclaimed how much Nubia to kidnap the Nubian king, beat him, and
happier the rich man seemed to be, to which return him to Nubia, in the span of six hours.
the boy replied that he hoped to have the fate The enraged Nubian king ordered Horus-the-
of the poor man in the netherworld. son-of-the-Nubian-woman to go to Egypt to cast
Siosiris took Setne to the netherworld, spells there.
where they witnessed punishments of the The Nubian and Egyptian magicians con-
wicked. They saw people braiding ropes that fronted each other in Menkhpresiamun’s court,
were forever being eaten by donkeys and where they undertook a magical duel. Horus-
a man whose eye socket was used as a door the-son-of-the-Nubian-woman took the shape
pivot. They came upon the hall of Osiris, of a gander, and Horus-son-of-Paneshe became
where they saw a richly dressed man. Siosiris a fowler.
identified him as the poor man. The rich man At this moment, Horus-the-son-of-the-
was the one who lay beneath the door. Nubian-woman’s mother received prearranged
By the age of twelve, Siosiris was unsur- signs indicating that her son was in mortal
passed in learning and magic. But one day, a danger. She flew to Egypt as a goose, only
Nubian magician came to the court with a chal- to be likewise threatened by Horus-son-of-
lenge. He would “take the shame of Egypt to Paneshe. The two Nubians promised to leave
Nubia” unless someone could read a sealed and not return to Egypt for 1,500 years.
document he carried without breaking the seal.
The king sent for Setne, who prepared him- Noreen Doyle
self for ten days. Siosiris offered to help, but
Setne dismissed his offer because of the boy’s See also: Wizards.
youth. Siosiris, however, demonstrated that he
Sources
was able to read all of Setne’s books without Kitchen, Kenneth A. Pharaoh Triumphant: The Life and
opening them. Times of Rameses II, King of Egypt. Warminster, En-
gland, UK: Aris and Phillips, 1983.
Lichtheim, Miriam. Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of
The Nubian Magician’s Tale Readings. Berkeley: University of California Press,
2006.
The next day, Siosiris related the following Tait, John. “Setna Khaemwase Cycle.” In The Oxford
tale, which was contained within the sealed Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt. Vol. 3. Ed. D.B. Red-
document: ford. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
A Nubian king overheard three Nubian
sorcerers saying they were each capable of
sending a plague upon Egypt. Horus-the-son- Shaggy Dog Stories
of-the-Nubian-woman said that he could kid-
nap the pharaoh, beat him, and return him to
Egypt in the span of six hours. At the order of
the king of Nubia, the Egyptian King Menkh-
A shaggy dog story is a lengthy, humorous
story that is drawn out for as long as an au-
dience will allow with a surprise letdown of an
presiamun was subjected to this humiliation. ending. This type of joking story has existed
The king’s councilors did not believe for centuries. These stories became known as
Menkhpresiamun when he related what had shaggy dog stories in the mid-twentieth century,

Shape-Shifters 411
when the quintessential shaggy dog story was These enigmatic characters are popular in leg-
popular. ends around the world.
There are two versions of the basic tale, Shape-shifter characters appear in folk-
both set in England. In the first version, an ad- lore from all historical eras and have been
vertisement was placed in the Times of Lon- successfully transplanted to modern novels
don, announcing a competition to find the and movies. Dracula and the werewolf are
shaggiest dog in the world. So the protagonist two such timeless characters.
underwent a lengthy and detailed amount of
effort to find the right dog. But he was re- Lycanthropy
jected with, “We don’t think he’s so shaggy.” A Lycanthropy, from the Greek lykoi, meaning
Canadian variant on the story concludes with, “wolf,” and anthropos, meaning “human be-
“Not shaggy enough!” ing,” is a psychiatric state in which the patient
In the second version, an aristocratic noble- believes he or she is a wolf or some other non-
man lost his highly valuable and very shaggy human animal. This psychiatric condition has
dog. He advertised repeatedly in various news- spawned many shape-shifter stories.
papers. At last, a man in New York saw the ad- Folklore, fairy tales, and legends from
vertisement and underwent great trouble to many nations show evidence of lycanthropic
find a dog that matched the specifications in belief. These examples can be linked to the
the advertisement. The American went through concepts of animal guardian spirits, vampires,
more trouble to bring the dog to London. He totemism, witches, and werewolves. Tradition-
presented himself at the owner’s majestic home ally, the afflicted person takes the form of the
but was rejected by the butler, who exclaimed, most dangerous beast of prey in the region:
“But not so shaggy as that, sir!” the wolf or bear in North America, Europe,
Another type of shaggy dog story ends in and northern Asia; the hyena or leopard in
a pun or play on words, such as hiding a baby’s Africa; and the tiger in southern Asia.
gender by saying “We have to skirt the issue.”
In the Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, Wolfman Variants
the shaggy dog story ending in a pun is known
as a “feghoot.” In a regular feature of the mag- In countries where wolves are not present,
azine, “The Adventures of Ferdinand Feghoot shape-shifters morph into creatures rang-
in Time and Space,” each episode was a shaggy ing from weretigers in India to African
dog tale. wereleopards, werehyenas, werejackals, and
even weretoads.
See also: Tall Tales. European werefox legends portrayed the
creature as a usually female, almost fairylike
Sources being that lived as a fox in the wild. There are
Partridge, Eric. The Shaggy Dog Story; Its Origin, Develop- many European stories of fox-maidens running
ment and Nature (with a Few Seemly Examples). away from their husbands after recovering the
Freeport, NY: Books for Libraries, 1970. skins that the husbands had hidden away.
Richard, E., and Linda R. Churchill. 101 Shaggy Dog Sto-
In China and Japan there are numerous
ries. New York: Scholastic, 1986.
Schwartz, Alvin. Witcracks: Jokes and Jests from American werefox legends. In these legends, werefoxes
Folklore. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1973. lived as human beings and were witnessed in
the act of transforming or roaming around in
a half-transformed state.
Shape-Shifters Seaside Shape-Shifters
S hape-shifters are human or humanlike be-
ings that are able to transform into animals.
The wereseals, also called silkies or selkies,
are fairly common in the folklore of regions

412 Shipwrecked Sailor, T he Stor y of the
located near the sea. Wereseals sometimes exist identity is shaped by the aspects of animals
in large groups of mixed gender or occasionally that it recognizes in its personality and actions.
as lone females. These single wereseals develop Spiritual shape-shifters are able to assume
relationships with human males on land and animal as well as human spirit forms. This
then later return to the sea. type of shape-shifting is common to many of
The kelpies of Celtic folklore are able to the totemic tales of tribal societies. There are
live underwater. They can take a number of also stories concerning deities that are able to
forms, from a horse, to a horse with a fish tail, change their forms into any number of ani-
to a man covered in horsehair. Their main mals and birds.
function seems to be abducting or drowning James A. Hartley
people.
Even waterfowl can be shape-shifters, as See also: Werewolves; Retelling: The Six Swans.
seen in the many tales of swan-maidens in
world folklore from India to Scandinavia. Sources
Anseki, Masaharu. Japanese Mythology. London: Marshall
Jones, 1928.
Japanese Traditions Ashley, Leonard R.N. The Complete Book of Werewolves.
New York: Barricade, 2001.
The playful and prankish kitsune and tanuki of Baring-Gould, Sabine. The Book of Werewolves. Mineola,
the Far East are almost the direct opposite NY: Dover, 2006.
of European werewolves. Rather than people Copper, Basil. The Werewolf in Legend, Fact and Art. New
who turn into animals, they are usually animals York: St. Martin’s, 1977.
Gordon Smith, Richard. Ancient Tales and Folklore of
who can choose to masquerade as humans.
Japan. London: Senate, 1995.
The tengu of Japanese legend were not as Piloan, Teresa. White Wolf Woman and Other Native Ameri-
troublesome or mischievous as the kitsune or can Transformation Myths. Little Rock, AR: August
tanuki. Although some pranksters were found House, 1992.
among them, they were generally seen as wise Williamson, Duncan. Tales of the Seal People: Scottish Folk
Tales. Northampton, MA: Interlink, 1992.
and respected teachers. They were either hu-
mans who had become tengu or demigods or
a race of monsters entirely separate from hu-
mans. Tengu could take several forms, ranging Shipwrecked Sailor,
from human to bird and all combinations in
between.
The Story of the
The Japanese also believed in a shape-
shifting demon that appeared as a cat. This cat (Egyptian)
often had two tails. Sometimes, it could change
size and become larger than a person. Its main
purpose was sucking human blood. After it
T aken from a source dating to the mid-
twelfth dynasty (c. 1991–1786 B.C.E.), the
literary work The Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor
had killed someone, it was able to transform is narrated by an unnamed sailor whose only
into an exact copy of that person. The cat be- function is to present the events. This text
ing would use this ability to get close to new consists of three nested tales: a framing story
victims. describing the present circumstances of the
unnamed sailor and two tales that he tells of
Theriomorphism and past events.
The sailor and his companions moored
Shape-Shifting Deities their vessel in Lower Nubia at the end of an un-
Another name for a shape-shifter is a theri- successful mission. The expedition leader was
omorph, a being that can assume an animal as despondent over their failure. The sailor sug-
well as a human form. The theriomorph’s gested that he should present himself honestly

S hu 413
to the king and hope for the best: After all, at Punt, including myrrh, oils, spices, and ivory.
least no one had died. The sailor then pre- The sailor and the rescue ship’s crew gave
sented a story of something similar that had praise to the serpent and returned to the king’s
happened to him. residence in Egypt. The sailor gave the king the
serpent’s gifts and, in return, he was made an
The Sailor’s Tale official. And so the sailor’s tale ended.
The expedition leader, after listening pa-
The sailor had set sail for the king’s mines in the
tiently to all of this, remarked, “Don’t act clever,
Sinai with a good, experienced crew. Despite
my friend! Who gives water to a goose when
their skill, a storm wrecked the ship. The sailor
the land brightens for its slaughter in the morn-
found himself the sole survivor cast ashore on
ing?” This concluded the story. It has since
an island where food was so abundant that he
been interpreted variously as an expression of
gathered up more than he could carry.
hope or an expression of despair.
As the sailor prepared a burned offering to
the gods, an enormous bearded serpent ap-
Noreen Doyle
peared. The serpent threatened him with an-
nihilation if he did not explain how he had See also: Tale Types.
come there. The sailor complied.
This knowledge mollified the serpent, who Sources
declared that it was a god who had brought the Baines, John. “Interpreting the Story of the Ship-
sailor to this “island of the ka (soul).” The ser- wrecked Sailor.” Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 76
pent predicted that a ship would rescue the (1990): 55–72.
Parkinson, R.B., trans. The Tale of Sinuhe and other Ancient
sailor, and the sailor would return to his home. Egyptian Poems, 1940–1640 BC. New York: Oxford
Then, the serpent told his own tale of woe. University Press, 1999.
Verhoeven, U., and E. Graefe, eds. Ancient Egypt: Festschrift
The Serpent’s Tale for Philippe Derchain on His 65th Birthday. Louvain,
Belgium: Uitgeverij Peeters, 1991.
The serpent had once lived on the island with
seventy-four members of his family, including
a little daughter. A star fell from the sky, and,
when the serpent arrived home, he found the
Shu
burned corpses of his kin. Only his daughter
survived.
(Egyptian)
The serpent then pointed out that the
sailor would return home again and be among
his own family, which was the best that any-
S hu was the Egyptian god of the air. Shu
was either sneezed or exhaled into exis-
tence along with his sister and consort, Tefnut,
one could hope to have happen. by Atum as the first act of creation.
The sailor promised the serpent riches Shu and Tefnut went on to conceive the
from Egypt, where he would be worshipped as earth god, Geb, and the sky goddess, Nut. Shu’s
a god. At this, the serpent laughed, because he name means both emptiness and dryness, and
had all these things already: He was the Lord of he served as the counterpart of Tefnut, who was
Punt, the land from which incense and many associated with moist air. Like Tefnut, Shu ap-
other Egyptian valuables used in temple rituals peared sometimes as a lion but more often as
originated. He told the sailor that upon his de- a man wearing a false beard and a feather on
parture, the island would become water again. his head.
The Egyptian ship came as the serpent Shu lifted Nut from Geb, separating Earth
had said. The serpent then asked the sailor to from heaven. Typically shown as a man stand-
spread word of the serpent’s name at home. ing with his arms raised to support the vault
He rewarded the sailor with the products of of the sky above his head, Shu thus stands

414 Simurgh
In this ancient Egyptian creation scene, the air god Shu, assisted by two ram-headed gods, separates the sky god-
dess Nut from the earth god Geb. The image is a detail from the coffin of Nespawershepi, chief scribe of the Temple
of Amun, from the Twenty-first Dynasty (c. 984 B.C.E.). (Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY)
between Nut and Geb. To help with this task, Sources

Shu created the Ogdoad, or Eight Infinite Allen, James P. Genesis in Egypt: The Philosophy of Ancient
Ones, one pair to hold each of Nut’s limbs. Egyptian Creation Accounts. New Haven, CT: Yale
Shu ruled Egypt as its second mythic king, Hornung, Erik. Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt: The
after the sun god, Re. He was the creator of One and the Many. Trans. John Baines. Ithaca, NY:
light and was sometimes called the father or Cornell University Press, 1982.
begetter of the gods. Houser-Wegner, Jennifer. “Shu.” In The Oxford Encyclope-
dia of Ancient Egypt. Vol. 3. Ed. D.B. Redford. New
Shu was associated with life (ankh), change,
and “eternal recurrence, the never-ending yet
ever-changing cyclical aspects of the world.”
The space provided by Shu’s existence was
where life and activity took place, and the air
Simurgh
that he provided permitted creatures to breathe
and therefore to live. The wind was said to be
(Persian)
his ba, a term encompassing a number of con-
cepts including soul and reputation.
Later, Shu was represented in a number of
I n the lore of Persia, which is present-day
Iran, the simurgh was a gigantic, winged bird-
creature with the tail of a peacock, the head of
gods, including Osiris and Horus. a dog, and the claws of a lion. It sometimes
Noreen Doyle was shown with a human face.

Sinuhe, T he Stor y of 415
The simurgh was said to be so old that it army and captives from the campaign. Sinuhe
had seen the world destroyed three times over. was traveling with them. Messengers arrived
It had learned so much in its long life that it with news of Sehetipibre’s death. Sinuhe over-
possessed the wisdom of all the ages. The heard a conversation between other princes
simurgh was known to take children into its who were also on campaign. What they said is
nest to nurse them or foster them. Its touch never revealed, but it inspired in Sinuhe such
was said to heal all wounds. Its natural habitat fear that he fled for his life.
was a place with plenty of water, although With the aid of some Bedouins along the
some accounts say that it nested in the Tree of way, Sinuhe traveled to Syria. Once there, he
Knowledge or in the Elburz Mountains. was invited to live with Amunenshi, ruler of
The simurgh played a major role in the Upper Retjenu, present-day Syria. Amunenshi
Shah-nameh, the epic poem about the legendary had heard of Sinuhe’s reputation from other
kings and heroes of Persia. When the hero Zal Egyptians and wanted to know why he had
was born, his father was horrified to see that come to Syria.
the baby had white hair. This was taken to Sinuhe explained the circumstances of his
be an ill omen. The baby was cast out by his flight in half-truths, admitting that he did not
father and rescued by the simurgh, who fos- really know what brought him to Syria, except
tered Zal. that it was not his own guilt. Perhaps it was
When Zal grew up to be a great warrior, the plan of a god. He poetically praised Sen-
the simurgh reunited him with his father and wosret, the new king, as one who was strong
gave Zal a feather he could burn to call the in battle yet kind and loved by his people.
great bird to him in an emergency. Years later, Amunenshi gave Sinuhe his eldest daughter as
Zal’s wife was in terrible labor. Zal burned the a wife and granted him the rich agricultural
simurgh’s feather, and the simurgh helped him land of Yaa.
deliver his son. The child grew up to be Rus- Years passed, and Sinuhe fathered sons
tam, the greatest hero in the Shah-nameh. who grew into heroes. Sinuhe’s home be-
came the resting place for passing envoys. He
See also: Retelling: Shah-nameh. guarded the borders, defeating hill tribes that
threatened the lands of Syria.
Sources
Bürgel, Johann Christoph. The Feather of Simurgh: The
“Licit Magic” of the Arts in Medieval Islam. New York: Sinuhe Is Challenged
New York University Press, 1988.
Ferdowsi, Abu’l-Qasem. The Shahnameh (Book of Kings). One day, a Syrian hero challenged Sinuhe. A
New York: Bibliotheca, 1988. discussion with Amunenshi about this inci-
dent made it clear that the people of Retjenu
were resentful of Sinuhe, an outsider who had
Sinuhe, The Story of become so great in their land.
That night, Sinuhe prepared his weapons.
The following day, the Retjenus gathered to
(Egyptian) witness the fight.
T he Story of Sinuhe is about the adventures

and rise of an Egyptian official. It was most
likely composed sometime after the death of
The battle opened with Sinuhe immediately
gaining the Syrian’s axe and javelins after
successfully avoiding a volley of arrows. In a
King Senwosret I (1971–1928 B.C.E.). charge, the Syrian fell on one of Sinuhe’s ar-
The story opens as those in the Egyptian rows. Sinuhe then finished the challenger off
palace learn of the death of King Sehetipibre with the Syrian’s own axe and praised the
(Amenemhat I). Senwosret, the king’s son, was Egyptian war god, Montu. The cattle and every-
traveling home from what is now Libya with an thing else owned by the Syrian were now the

416 Sirens
property of Sinuhe, which made him exception- Sources

ally wealthy Baines, J. “Interpreting Sinuhe.” Journal of Egyptian Ar-
But Sinuhe longed to return home to Egypt chaeology 68 (1982): 31–44.
Parkinson, R.B., trans. The Tale of Sinuhe and other Ancient
and live under the rule of his king, serving the Egyptian Poems, 1940–1640 BC. New York: Oxford
queen and her children. Sinuhe, feeling the ef- University Press, 1999.
fects of old age, proclaimed that death was near
and that he wished to be buried in Egypt.
King Senwosret heard of Sinuhe’s longing
and sent a letter stating that Sinuhe had done
Sirens
nothing wrong and need not have feared for
his life in Egypt. Sinuhe’s flight was not the re-
(Greek)
sult of the king’s heart but rather of Sinuhe’s.
The king then invited Sinuhe to return to
Egypt and promised him a rich burial.
I n Greek and other mythologies, sirens were
partly human creatures described as having
irresistibly beautiful voices. In many cases,
Sinuhe responded with a letter in which he they used their lovely songs to lure sailors to
praised the king highly and admitted that, al- their deaths.
though his flight was his own fault, he still did In Greek mythology, the sirens (also
not know the cause—the episode seems to have called the seirenes) were a form of naiad, or
been a dream. Although he heard nothing that sea nymph. They lived on a perilously rough
should have made him afraid, he did fear; it and rocky island called Sirenum Scopuli and
was as though a god had dragged him away. sang their songs to lure sailors to them. The
ships would crash onto the island’s rocks, and
Sinuhe Returns Home the sailors would drown or be slain by the
Sinuhe made his eldest son the leader of his sirens.
tribe, disposed of his possessions, and departed The sirens were the daughters of the
for Egypt. Eventually, he arrived at the Egypt- Greek river deity, Achelous. There were said
ian palace and was ushered into the presence of to be anywhere from two to eight sirens, de-
the king. Terror seized Sinuhe again, but the pending on whether a Greek or a Roman was
king ordered his courtiers to raise Sinuhe up. telling the tale. The eight Greek sirens’ names
The queen and royal children entered are Thelxiepia, Molpe, Aglaophonos, Pisinoe,
and were overjoyed to see Sinuhe again. The Ligeia, Leucsoia, Raidne, and Teles.
daughters, carrying instruments associated with According to the Roman poet Ovid, the
priestesses, performed before their father, in- sirens were originally Persephone’s friends.
voking the goddess Hathor and asking for But they were changed into demonic creatures
mercy on behalf of Sinuhe. They attributed by the angry Demeter after they failed to stop
his flight to terror of the king. Hades from stealing Persephone.
The king appointed Sinuhe as a royal Two Greek heroes, Odysseus (in Roman
courtier and assigned him a new house. This myth, Ulysses) and Orpheus, had encounters
place, which once belonged to another courtier, with the sirens and survived. Odysseus, as re-
was rebuilt for Sinuhe and luxuriously ap- counted in Homer’s Odyssey (likely written in
pointed. The king also granted him a pyramid- eighth or ninth century B.C.E.), escaped by
tomb, mortuary priests, and land to support plugging up the ears of his crew with wax so
them. Sinuhe was even given a gilded statue that they were deaf to the sirens’ songs. He had
and remained in the king’s good graces until the his men lash him to a mast so that he could
day he died. hear the music without coming to harm. Once
Noreen Doyle Odysseus became calm, his men knew they
were safe, removed the wax from their ears,
See also: Fantasy. and untied him.

Sius 417
See also: Lorelei; Mermaids.
Sources
Buxton, Robert. The Complete World of Greek Mythology.
New York: Thames and Hudson, 2004.
Dixon, Roland B. Oceanic. Vol. 9 of The Mythology of All
Races, ed. Louis Herbert Gray. New York: Cooper
Square, 1964.
Evslin, Bernard. Heroes, Gods and Monsters of the Greek
Myths. New York: Four Winds, 1967.
Sius
A pen and ink drawing of a siren depicts her as a
(Hittite)
S
beautiful but dangerous woman. The illustration is by ius was the Hittite sun god and was some-
M.J. Engel and dates to the late nineteenth century.
(© Snark/Art Resource, NY)
times additionally listed as king of the gods.
He was a god of justice and an ally of Teshub,
the storm god.
Orpheus was one of Jason’s Argonauts, It was Sius who first noticed the giant Ul-
the band of heroes that accompanied Jason in likummi in the sea and warned Teshub, refus-
his quest for the Golden Fleece. When their ing to eat until he had finished delivering his
ship, the Argo, sailed past the island of the message.
sirens, Orpheus, a master musician, played his In another myth, Teshub’s son, Telepinu,
music to drown out their voices. Some stories disappeared, which caused a famine. Sius
claim that the sirens were so frustrated over arranged a feast, but his efforts could not allevi-
losing either Odysseus’s ship or the Argo that ate the people’s hunger. At Teshub’s request,
they drowned themselves. Sius dispatched an eagle to search for Telepinu,
In Malaysian folklore, a similar story is at- but the bird was unsuccessful. Finally, a bee
tached to Gua Langsuir, a cave located on the discovered Telepinu. Sius had the people per-
island of Pulau Dayang Bunting. Three female form a ritual, presumably one of thanksgiving
demons would sing so provocatively that and magical significance.
sailors would drown trying to reach them. In another version of this missing-god
Those sailors who were unfortunate enough myth, Sius was missing. He was kidnapped by
to actually reach the female demons would the sea god, who caught him in a net as he
then be tortured to death. sank below the horizon. During Sius’s absence,
One day, a deaf fisherman resisted the Hahhimas (frost) took hold. Sius was rescued
song of these demons, as he was unable to by Telepinu.
hear them. The sirens were alarmed, thinking Ira Spar
that humans had found a way to resist them.
They fled and were never seen in mortal lands See also: Anu; Zeus.
again. Whether or not there is a link between
the Greek and Malaysian traditions has not Sources
been fully ascertained. Gurney, O.R. The Hittites. Rev. ed. New York: Penguin,
In modern usage, a seductive but danger- 1990.
ous woman is often called a siren. The phrase ars, 1991.
siren song means something with a dangerous Hooke, S.H. Middle Eastern Mythology. Mineola, NY:
but irresistible appeal. Dover, 2004.

418 Sk ald
Skald Skulls
(Norse)
S kulls that let out horrible screams, talk, or
refuse to talk at unexpected or dangerous
S kald is the Old Icelandic or Old Norse

word meaning “bard” or “poet.” These
were the singers and storytellers of the Viking
moments are eerie subjects of many ghost
tales and horror stories. Some skulls also cause
poltergeist activity. The oldest such tales go
era and the Scandinavian poets of the Middle back to the sixteenth century.
Ages. Screaming skulls are unique to England.
Unlike European troubadours and min- Stories of such skulls have been recorded in
strels, most skalds did not wander the country- many counties, including Cumbria, Derbyshire,
side. They were members of royal or noble Dorset, Lancashire, Somerset, Suffolk, Sussex,
households who used their creations to honor and Yorkshire.
their patrons and their patrons’ ancestors.
The major era of the skalds was between Screaming Skull Tales
900 and 1200 C.E. They performed across the
Perhaps the most famous of the screaming
land in Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark,
skulls was at Bettiscombe Manor in Dorset.
and the various other Viking settlements that
The tradition hints that it was the skull of a ser-
were found at that time throughout Europe.
vant whose dying wish was to have his body
Unfortunately, many of the early skalds’
returned home to the West Indies. The master
creations were oral and have therefore been
of the house, Azariah Pinney, refused to grant
lost. Some later skaldic poetry survived as
his servant’s wish, and the servant was buried
part of the medieval Icelandic sagas of gods
in the local churchyard.
and heroes, which were written down and
Soon after the servant’s burial, terrible
later translated.
screams issued from the grave, and the house
Skaldic poetry was very complex. It in-
was plagued by poltergeist activity. When
cluded specific designs of alliteration, as in
the family could take no more of this, they
Harold’s hammer, and syllables ending in the
disinterred the skeleton and brought it into
same consonant, as in blunt and flat.
the manor. The screams and weird activity
Skaldic poetry also used a type of meta-
ceased.
phorical compound phrase called a kenning, a
The skeleton was lost over the centuries,
word that comes from the Old Norse kenna,
leaving only the skull. One owner is said to
meaning “to know.” A storm of swords, for ex-
have thrown the skull into a nearby pond,
ample, could be a kenning for battle. Kenning
only to be plagued by unearthly screams all
as a style was also used in Anglo-Saxon works
night. He quickly retrieved the skull and re-
such as Beowulf.
stored it to its pride of place. In another story,
an owner hastily buried the skull. In the morn-
See also: Griots/Griottes/Jelis; Jongleurs;
ing, he was horrified to find that the skull had
Minnesang/Minnesingers; Troubadors.
dug itself out and sat waiting for him to return
it to the house.
Sources
Anderson, Theodore M. The Problem of Icelandic Saga The skull was finally examined in 1963 by
Origin. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, the archaeologist Michael Pinney, who found
1964. that it was about 2,000 years old and proba-
Bouman, A.C. Patterns in Old English and Old Icelandic Lit- bly female. Evidently, it no longer screams.
erature. Leiden, The Netherlands: Universitaire Pers,
1962.
Another skull, called Dickie, “lived” at Tun-
Magnusson, Magnus. Icelandic Saga. London: Bodley stead farm in the nineteenth century. It was
Head, 1987. supposedly the skull of a woman who was said

Slavic Mythology 419
to have been murdered in the house, express- Sources

ing with her dying breath the desire to stay Cohen, Daniel. Screaming Skulls: 101 of the World’s Great-
there forever. Over the years, the skeleton was est Ghost Stories. New York: Avon, 1996.
Courlander, Harold, and George Herzog. The Cow-tail
lost and only the skull remained. The skull was Switch and other West African Stories. New York:
stolen once, but it made so much noise that the Henry Holt, 1986.
thieves hastily returned it. Another story about O’Donnell, Elliot. The Screaming Skulls and Other Ghost
this skull claimed that it was the remains of Ned Stories: The Collected True Tales and Legends of Elliott
O’Donnell. Arranged by Harry Ludlam. New York:
Dixon-Dickie, who was murdered at the farm
Taplinger, 1969.
by his cousin.
The skull at Burton Agnes Hall was
thought to reside behind one of the walls
where it had been bricked up and forgotten Slavic Mythology
about years before. It was said to have be-
longed to one of three sisters who lived in the
Elizabethan era. She had been murdered, and T here are few complete written records
documenting Slavic pagan beliefs. Re-
search into the Slavic pre-Christian belief
her sisters had buried her. Afterward, the sis-
ters learned from its screams that her skull system is complicated, because the Slavic
wanted to remain in the house. The skull was nobility and peasantry worshipped separate
disinterred and placed in the hall. deities. In addition, Christian beliefs eventu-
All went well, until a servant wrapped the ally were integrated into the myths, which
skull in a cloth and threw it on the back of a further complicates the task of determining
wagon. What happened was dramatic: The the original deities and their myths.
horses reared in fear and the hall shook, caus- The names and attributes of some of the
ing pictures to fall off the walls, until the skull major and minor deities are known, however.
was replaced. After this incident, the skull was They are presented here to serve as spring-
placed in a niche in the wall, which was safely boards for further research by storytellers and
sealed up. scholars.
Talking Skulls Major Deities

Talking skull tales originate from West Africa. In • Byelabog: the deity of light, of all good-
ness and happiness. His name means
the basic tale, a traveler finds a skull by the side
“white god” and his prime adversary is
of the road and says, “I wonder what brought Chernabog, the black god. Some schol-
you here.” To his surprise, the skull answers, ars believe that rather than representing
“Talking brought me here.” the forces of good and evil, Byelabog
The man rushes off to the chief to tell him may have been the deity of the warm
about this amazing skull. The chief follows him and fertile months of the year, while
to the skull, which says nothing, no matter how Chernabog was the ruler of the dark
the traveler cajoles it. The furious chief has the months of winter. Their participation in
traveler beheaded. Now, there are two skulls. the battle between light and darkness as
The new one says to the first, “Talking brought good and evil may be a later, Christian-
me here.” ized concept.
There are variants of this tale, in which the • Dazhdebog: god of gifts or blessings.
object can be a frog, a dog, or even a chair, • Khors: a seemingly contradictory char-
and the end result is failure for the man rather acter described as the god of the Sun,
than death. chaos, and darkness.
• Kupalo: a god of vegetation and the
See also: Motifs. center of the celebration called Kupala.

420 Slavic Mythology
The festival was timed to midsummer • Veles (also Volos): deity of cattle and
night, which marked the summer sol- commerce. He may have been a trick-
stice and the height of the growing ster figure like the Greek god Hermes.
season. Loosely translated, the word
• Yarilo (also Jarilo or Yaro): god of the
kupala means bathed, and ritual
springtime and spring fertility. He is
bathing was part of the celebration.
portrayed as a young man in white,
The coming of Christianity did not
with a wheat wreath on his head, a
completely erase the worship of Ku-
wheat sheaf in his right hand, and a
palo, as he became Ivan Kupalo, or
human head in his left.
John the Bather, better known as John
the Baptist. Kupala is still celebrated
as “the merriest, sexiest night.” Minor Deities and
• Mokosh: the mother goddess and, in Supernatural Beings
some traditions, the wife of Perun. In • Baba Yaya: a magical hag in Russian
pagan Russia, oaths sworn in her name folklore. She was said to live in a hut
were said to be unbreakable. that stood on giant chicken legs and to
• Perun: god of thunder and lightning, travel in a mortar and pestle propelled
sometimes portrayed as the chief of by a broom. Her hut was surrounded
the Slavic gods. Generally pictured as by stakes topped with human skulls.
a man with silver hair and a golden • Bannik: the spirit of the bathhouse in
mustache, Perun fights against de- Russian and Ukrainian folklore.
monic forces with bolts of lightning
that are said to become stones (or Ne- • Domovoi: the spirit of the household in
olithic stone tools) on Earth. Russian and Ukrainian folklore.
• Rod: possibly the most ancient of the • Leshy: shape-shifting spirit and trickster
Slavic deities and probably a peasant’s of the forest.
deity. His name means “kin,” and he is • Rusalka: a water spirit; often thought
rarely mentioned except in the earliest to be the ghost of a murdered or be-
hymns. He is credited with the cre- trayed woman.
ation of the universe and founding di-
vine law, which is called pravda, or • Simargl: a winged dog who protected
truth. seed and new crops. His name is
Persian with a Slavic ending, and
• Rozhenitsa: the birth-giver, goddess of he is probably not a native mythic
fertility or childbirth. being but a form of the Persian dog-
headed, winged creature called
• Stribog: god of the wind, cold, and Simurgh.
conflicts.
• Svantavit: god of war, described as a See also: Baba Yaga; Bogatyr/Bogatyri;
protective warrior. He was portrayed Retelling: Koschei the Deathless.
as a four-headed man, able to face the
four directions simultaneously so that Sources
no enemy could steal up on him. He Afanas’ev, Aleksandr. Russian Fairy Tales. Trans. Norbert
carried a sword and spear, and his sa- Curtin, Jeremiah. Myths and Folk-Tales of the Russians,
cred bird was the eagle. Western Slavs and Magyars. Mineola, NY: Dover,
2000.
• Svarog: god of fire and patron of Reeder, Roberta. Russian Folk Lyrics. Blomington: Indi-
smiths. He also may have been a pa- ana University Press, 1993.
tron of artists and craftsmen. Svarog is Warner, Elizabeth. Russian Myths. Austin: University of
the father of Dazhdebog. Texas Press, 2002.

Sleepers, Enchanted 421
Sleepers, Enchanted
T he fairy tale of Sleeping Beauty tells of per-
haps the most familiar magical sleeper.
But there are many other such characters, both
divine and mortal, found in world folklore.
Heroic Sleepers
At Lake Lucerne in Switzerland, three sleeping
members of the Tell family (descendants of
William Tell) awaited the hour when their
country would need to be delivered from its
oppressors. The medieval emperor Charle-
magne reposed in Untersberg Mountain, sword
in hand, waiting for the coming of the An-
tichrist. Olger Danske, one of Charlemagne’s
companions, similarly dreamed away his time Sleeping Beauty and all the royal court are held by the
in Avalon, the island of Arthurian legend. wicked fairy’s sleep spell. They will not wake until the gal-
lant prince comes, kisses Sleeping Beauty, and breaks
The German hero Siegfried, pierced by the the spell. This illustration dates to about 1812. (Hulton
thorn of winter, slept until he was called forth Archive/Stringer/Getty Images)
to fight. And on a lofty mountain in the Ger-
man region of Thuringia, the great Emperor
Frederic Barbarossa slumbered with his knights his reverie, he discovered that a thousand years
around him. He would waken when the time had flown by.
came for him to sally forth and raise Germany To the same family of legends belongs the
to the first rank among the kingdoms of the notion that St. John sleeps at Ephesus until the
world. The latter story is also told of the Viking last days of the world.
leader Olaf Tryggvesson, of Don Sebastian of Among the Algonquin people of North
Portugal, and of the Moorish King Boabdil. America, the sun god Michabo is said to sleep
Brunhilde, the Valkyrie in the Norse Völ- through the winter months. At the time of the
sunga Saga was protected by the god Odin. He falling leaves, he fills his great pipe and smokes,
placed her in a castle or on a high mountain forming the blue clouds that gently float over
that was surrounded by a fiery barrier. Then, the landscape and filling the air with the haze
she was put into a deep, magical sleep until of Indian summer.
a sufficiently brave hero rescued her.
Other Sleepers
Religious Sleepers There are a number of magical sleepers
The Seven Sleepers of Ephesus took refuge in who cannot be categorized. These include the
a cave from the persecutions of the heathen Arthurian tale of the enchanter Merlin, who
Decius. They slept 164 years and awoke to was spellbound by Vivien; the story of the
find a Christian emperor on the throne. Cretan philosopher Epimenides, who dozed
The Saxony monk of Hildesheim doubted away fifty-seven years in a cave; the Greek
the concept that God perceived a period of shepherd Endymion, who preserved his fresh-
a thousand years as a single day. The monk ness in a perennial slumber; and Rip Van
listened for three minutes, enthralled by the Winkle, who took a twenty-year nap in New
singing of a bird in the forest. On waking from York’s Catskill Mountains.

422 Sleepers, Heroic
In a related tale type, a man discovers the the golden bridles to see it more closely. But as
magical sleepers and is asked by one of them soon as he touched it, he heard a voice cry out,
if it is time to wake. He nervously replies no, “Is it time now?” and an answer, “No, not yet!”
and the magical sleep continues. The peasant hurried out in fright. Once
outside, he found that he had gone into a
See also: Saga of the Volsungs; Tale Types. mountain instead of a mansion. What he had
witnessed were the twelve knights who slept
Sources there until the country was in some great dan-
Hardy, James, ed. The Denham Tracts. London: Folklore ger. Once their services were required, they
Society, 1895.
Hofberg, Herman. Swedish Fairy Tales. Trans. W.H. My-
would awaken to help Sweden defend herself
ers. Chicago: W.B. Conkey, 1893. against foreign enemies.
Kennedy, Patrick. Legendary Fictions of the Irish Celts. Lon-
don: Macmillan, 1866.
Waring, Elijah, ed. Recollections and Anecdotes of Edward England and Wales
Williams. London: Charles Gilpin, 1850.
A Welshman carrying a hazel staff as a walk-
ing stick was met by an English magician. The
Sleepers, Heroic magician told the Welshman about a great
treasure hidden under the spot where he had
cut his hazel staff. The magician then said that
(Western European) if the Welshman could lead him to that spot,
he could have the treasure.
A common Western European tale type is
that of the heroic sleepers who are dis-
covered by a curious explorer or a treasure
Going together to Craig-y-Dinas, the Welsh-
man pointed out the spot. When the two men
dug down, they found a broad, flat stone cov-
hunter. When the explorer or hunter enters,
ering the entrance to a large cavern. They both
one of the sleepers asks if it is time to wake
entered. In the middle of the passage hung a
and defend the realm. When the intruder an-
bell that the magician warned the Welshman
swers no, the heroic sleepers return to their
not to touch.
enchanted slumber.
They reached the wide lower part of the
This tale is tied to the common belief that
cave and found many thousands of warriors
a hero does not die, but lies in enchanted sleep
fast asleep in a large circle. Each one was clad
until his people need him.
in bright armor. Swords, shields, and other
weapons lay nearby, ready to be taken up in
Sweden an instant whenever the bell should ring and
A peasant with a load of rye to sell came at twi- awaken them. All the arms were so highly pol-
light to Alborg, where he discovered a grand ished and bright that they lit up the cavern
mansion. “Maybe I can sell my rye here,” he like ten thousand flames. Among the warriors
thought, and knocked on the door. was one who was greatly distinguished from
The door swung open, and the peasant en- the rest by his arms and armor, with a crown
tered. He found himself in a grand hall. In the of gold set with precious stones at his side.
middle of the floor stood a large table, and In the midst of this circle of warriors, the
upon the table lay twelve golden helmets. Scat- two intruders saw two large heaps, one of
tered around the room, deep in slumber, were gold, the other of silver. The magician told
twelve knights in glittering armor. the Welshman that he might take as much as
The peasant went on and came to a large he could carry away, but that he was not to
stable, where he found twelve magnificent take from both the heaps. The Welshman
steeds bedecked with golden trappings and sil- loaded himself with gold. The magician took
ver shoes on their hooves. He picked up one of none, saying that he did not want it, that gold

Sleepers, Heroic 423
was of no use to those who wanted knowl- abled and very poor. He often returned with
edge. some of his friends to Craig-y-Dinas, but they
On their way out, the magician again could never find the entrance to the cave,
warned the Welshman not to touch the bell. If though they dug over every inch of the hill.
by some mischance he did, one or more of the
warriors would awake, lift up his head, and ask, Scotland
“Is it day?” Were that to happen, the Welshman
was to answer without hesitation, “No, sleep Tradition has asserted that King Arthur, his
thou on,” and the warriors would sleep on. queen, Guinevere, his court of lords and ladies,
On their way up, however, the Welshman, and his hounds lie enchanted in a cave or in a
overloaded with gold, was not able to pass the hall below the Castle of Sewingshields. There,
bell without touching it. It rang, and one of the they will remain until someone blows a bugle
warriors raised up his head and asked, “Is it that lies on a table near the entrance of the
day?” hall and, with the legendary sword of the
“No,” answered the Welshman promptly, stone, cuts a garter that is placed beside it.
“it is not; sleep thou on.” And so they left the No one knew where the entrance to this
cave, laid down the stone over its entrance, enchanted hall was until a farmer sat knitting
and covered it over once more. at the castle ruins. He dropped his work in a
The magician warned the Welshman to be rush of briars and nettles. The farmer tried to
careful with his treasure. But if he should need retrieve his knitting, broke through the thorny
more, he could return if he was wary. If he plants, and arrived in a deep subterranean pas-
should touch the bell, he must remember to sage. The farmer knew he had found the en-
give the proper answer. trance to King Arthur’s hall.
He also said that the distinguished person Passing through into a vaulted passage-
they had seen was King Arthur. The others way, the farmer followed a dim, distant light
were his knights, who lay asleep with their until it grew brighter. All at once, he found
arms ready at hand for the dawn of that day himself in a vast hall. At the center was a fire
when the black eagle and the golden eagle that blazed without fuel. The firelight revealed
should go to war. Then, the bell would ring carved walls and a fretted roof, and the
loudly, and the warriors would awake, take up monarch and his queen and court reposing
their arms, and destroy all the enemies of the on thrones and costly couches. On the floor,
Welsh. And the land would be blessed with lay the faithful pack of hounds and, on a table
peace for as long as the world endured. before the fire, was the spell-dispelling horn,
The time came when the Welshman’s trea- sword, and garter.
sure was all spent. He returned to the cave and, The farmer forgot the proper order of
as before, took as much gold as he could carry. things. He reverently but firmly grasped the
As he left, he touched the bell and it rang. A war- sword. As he drew the sword from its rusty
rior lifted up his head and asked if it was day. But scabbard, cutting the garter in the process, the
the Welshman, who had covetously overloaded eyes of the monarch and his courtiers began to
himself, was quite out of breath and laboring un- open. Then the king exclaimed:
der his burden. He was struck with terror and
was unable to give the necessary answer. O woe betide that evil day
Some of the warriors got up, took the gold On which the witless wight was born,
away from the Welshman, and beat him Who drew the sword—the garter cut,
dreadfully. They threw him out and drew the But never blew the bugle horn.
stone after them over the mouth of the cave.
The Welshman never recovered from the With that, Arthur and his court sank back
beating. He lived the remainder of his life dis- into slumber.

424 Sleipnir
None of the tales of this type end with the Loki was not concerned. Since it was the
sleepers waking to save the land. mighty Svadlifari who was doing all the heavy
work, Loki took the form of a sexy young mare
See also: Tale Types. and lured Svadlifari away. By the time the stal-
Sources lion returned, it was too late—the deadline had
Hardy, James, ed. The Denham Tracts. London: Folklore passed. The furious Blast revealed himself as a
Society, 1895. giant, and Thor promptly slew him with one
Hofberg, Herman. Swedish Fairy Tales. Trans. W.H. My- swing of his hammer.
ers. Chicago: W.B. Conkey, 1893. Loki disappeared for almost a year. But at
Waring, Elijah, ed. Recollections and Anecdotes of Edward
Williams. London: Charles Gilpin, 1850. last, he returned accompanied by a gray colt
with eight legs that could travel as easily
through the air as it could over land and water.
Sleipnir Loki gave the colt, Sleipnir, to Odin. Sleipnir
was the foal of Loki in his mare form and the
stallion Svadlifari.
(Norse)
See also: Norse Mythology; Odin/Odhinn.
S leipnir was the swift, eight-legged horse
that belonged to Odin, head of the Norse
pantheon.
Sources
Sleipnir’s story took place at Asgard, which Pantheon, 1981.
was home of the Aesir, the principal race of Hollander, Lee M., trans. The Poetic Edda. Austin: Uni-
versity of Texas Press, 1928.
Norse gods. The Aesir were in a battle with the
rival gods, the Vanir, and the giants. During Rituals, and Beliefs. New York: Oxford University
the battle, the wall that enclosed Asgard had Press, 2002.
been destroyed. This left the Aesir vulnerable Sturluson, Snorri. The Prose Edda: Tales from Norse Mythol-
to an attack by their primary enemy, the gi- ogy. Trans. Jean I. Young. Berkeley: University of
ants. The Aesir did not have either the magical
skills or engineering abilities necessary to re-
pair the wall.
A stonemason named Blast appeared at
Snakes
Asgard and offered to rebuild the wall. In re-
turn, Blast wanted the beautiful Freya for his
wife, as well as possession of the Sun and
S nakes hold a place of importance in folk-
lore and mythology from around the world.
A snake’s ability to shed its skin has made it a
the Moon. These terms were totally unaccept-
symbol of immortality in stories such as the
able to the gods.
Epic of Gilgamesh. This also may be the reason
Loki, the cunning one, came up with a plan
that snakes appear as deities or representations
to outwit the mason and get the wall built for
of rebirth or the return to youth in stories from
free. The gods listened to him. They announced
many cultures.
that they would agree to Blast’s terms only if he
completed the work within six months.
Blast agreed, and he set to work with his
Snakes as Symbols
mighty stallion, Svadlifari. The work went far Images of intertwined snakes symbolized
more rapidly than the gods had expected. healing and fertility in ancient Babylon. One
They grew worried. What if Blast did finish of the oldest mystical symbols in the world
the wall within the agreed upon time? The is the Ouroboros, literally “tail-devourer,”
gods would have to meet his outrageous de- which dates to ancient Egypt. The Ouroboros
mands. Odin grew so angry that he threatened is the symbol of perfection, the endless cycle
to kill Loki if the wall was finished on time. of being. It usually is pictured as a serpent

Snakes 425
with its tail in its mouth, forming a perfect his cradle, but Hercules triumphed, strangling
circle. them. Later, Hercules slew the Hydra, a terri-
The Greek god of medicine, Asclepios, is ble serpent with nine heads.
depicted holding a caduceus, which is a staff
with two intertwined serpents coiled around Legendary Snake Creatures
it. According to the myth, he discovered med-
Sea serpents are mythological and legendary
icine by watching a snake use herbs to heal
marine animals that traditionally resemble
or, in some versions, to resurrect another
enormous snakes. Not all sea serpents are hos-
snake. Since the sixteenth century, the ca-
tile. In Melanesian mythology, Amam was a
duceus has been a symbol for various med-
huge snake that lived in the ocean. Anyone
ical organizations.
accidentally sailing into the snake became dis-
oriented in the darkness and could be led out
Snakes as Symbols of Divinity again only by a willing bird.
Snakes appear as deities in many ancient In Norse mythology, the Midgard serpent
cultures. The Aztec god Quetzalcoatl, the encircled the world. The god Thor, while out
feathered, or plumed, serpent, whose Mayan fishing, caught what he thought was an enor-
counterpart to Quetzalcoatl is Kulkulcan, is mous fish, but the powerful god of thunder had
a powerful god of civilization, credited with actually hooked a coil of the Midgard serpent.
providing corn, the arts, and science to Another monstrous snake in Norse mythol-
humankind. ogy was Nidhogg, or Tearer of Corpses. Nid-
Ancient Egyptians worshipped Renenutet, hogg forever gnawed on the roots of the World
a cobra goddess associated with fertility and Tree, Yggdrasil, in an attempt to destroy it.
the protection of children and the pharaoh. The Still other malevolent snake monsters in-
Egyptians also idolized Nehebkau, a snake de- cluded the Greek king of snakes, the basilisk
ity that guarded the entrance to the under- or cockatrice, which was so poisonous that it
world, protected the pharaoh after death, and could kill with a glance. In Roman times, Pliny
traveled with the sun god, Re, during his nightly the Elder described this creature simply as a
journey through the underworld. snake with a small golden crown.
In Australian aboriginal culture, Wollunqua By the Middle Ages, the basilisk had re-
is the Rainbow Snake, a giant snake connected ceived its own mythology. It had become a
with the rainbow as well as with Creation itself. rooster-headed or sometimes human-headed
Eingana is an aboriginal snake goddess and snake. It could come only from a round egg
mother goddess who made the land, the water, laid by a seven-year-old rooster and hatched by
and all living things. a toad. It caused death with a single glance. The
In Hindu mythology, nagas are a race of only way to kill a basilisk was to hold a mirror
demigod serpent-people that are half human up to it so that its own gaze would slay it.
and half snake. Some African cultures look A less perilous but still monstrous snake was
upon rock pythons as sacred and consider the the Greek Amphisbaena. It had a head at either
killing of one to be a serious crime. end of its body and eyes that glowed with their
own light. Its name means “goes both ways.” If
Snakes as Symbols of Evil it was cut in half, the halves would join again.
In the Old Testament, a serpent tempted Eve
to taste the forbidden fruit. In Greek mythol-
Snakes in Folklore
ogy, one of the god Apollo’s earliest deeds was In world folklore, there is a recurring theme of
the slaying of the deadly serpent Python. the snake or serpent husband. In this tale type,
The goddess Hera, who hated the infant the heroine marries, either knowingly or un-
Hercules, sent two serpents to destroy him in wittingly, a snake. In most versions, the snake

426 Snegurochk a/Snowmaiden
husband turns out to be a human under an en- In another tale, a woman feels pain in her
chantment that is broken by the heroine. neck after wearing a coat for the first time.
Folk beliefs about snakes abound in West- Sure enough, she has a snakebite. A snake had
ern cultures. Some people still believe that accidentally been sewn into the coat’s lining.
snakes charm their prey, swallow their young This children’s jump-rope rhyme com-
for protection, poison people with their breath, bines Cinderella with snakes:
roll like hoops, and suck milk from cows. Fol-
lowing are just a few of the multitude of snake Cinderella, dressed in yella,
superstitions to be found in North America Went upstairs to kiss her fella,
and Great Britain: Made a mistake,
Kissed a snake.
• A hair from a horse’s tail placed in a bar- How many doctors did it take?
rel of rainwater becomes a living snake.
• A rattlesnake’s rattle carried as an Storytellers deal with snakes as a subject
amulet brings good luck. in many ways. Though much modern West-
• A rattlesnake will never strike a small ern lore casts the snake in a negative light,
child. the legends and beliefs of many cultures tes-
• A snake crawling into your tent on the tify that serpents should not always be said to
battleground means enemies are near. be evil.
• A snake killed is an enemy conquered.
• A snake will not die until sundown. See also: Nagas.
• A snake will swallow her young in times
of danger; when the danger is over, the Sources
Henderson, Joseph L., and Maude Oaks. The Wisdom of
baby snakes will crawl out again.
the Serpent: The Myths of Death, Rebirth and Resurrec-
tion. New York: George Braziller, 1963.
Snakes and Modern Howey, M. Oldfield. The Encircled Serpent. New York:
Arthur Richmond, 1955.
Western Culture Morris, Desmond, and Ramona Morris. Men and Snakes:
The Full Story of Man’s Relationship —Uneasy, Weird,
In Western culture, snakes either personify Fantastic—with the Snake. New York: McGraw-Hill,
evil or represent evil that is to be overcome. 1965.
The biblical tale of the Garden of Eden and
the serpent’s role in Adam and Eve’s fall
from grace is the basis for this antisnake bias.
In the Appalachian Mountains, as well as in
Snegurochka/Snowmaiden
some other regions, Christians handle ven-
omous snakes as part of ritual ceremonies, re-
(Russian)
lying on faith to protect them from bites.
There are no snakes in Ireland, legend credit-
ing Saint Patrick with casting them out.
S negurochka, or the Snowmaiden, is a Rus-
sian folk being, a miraculous young woman
who comes to life from cold snow.
Recently, the snake has appeared in several Snegurochka plays different roles in three
urban legends and children’s rhymes. One ur- Russian stories: a folktale; a story that is part
ban tale, collected throughout North America of modern Russian Christmas tradition; and
and popular even though disproved, is of a a nineteenth-century opera titled Snegurochka
child on an amusement park ride who com- (The Snow Maiden) by Russian composer Niko-
plains about bites or stings. The cause turns out lay Rimsky-Korsakov. The latter is based on a
to be an infestation of poisonous snakes that play by Aleksandr Nikolayevich Ostrovsky.
live in the ride. All three versions are of interest to storytellers.

Song of Igor’s Campaign 427
A childless couple longed for a baby and

dreamed of watching their child playing in the Song of Igor’s Campaign
snow. One winter’s day, they built a snow
maiden, making her as realistic as possible. To (Russian)
their astonishment, the snow maiden smiled at
them and came to life. They called her Sne-
gurochka.
Snegurochka grew to be a beautiful young
T he epic poem Song of Igor’s Campaign is one
of the earliest known pieces of Russian lit-
erature, probably composed around 1187 C.E.
woman, pale and cool skinned. As the weather The poem relates the defeat of Prince Igor by
grew warm, she refused to go outside and hid the nomadic Kumans.
in the darkest corners of the house. When sum- The poem deals with complex themes of
mer came, she became even more withdrawn. prophecy and magic. The consistent use of
Then one day, her friends asked her to join these themes and the use of symbols that are
them on a trip into the woods to pick berries. repeated in different sections have led schol-
Snegurochka did not wish to go, but her ars to the conclusion that this was the work of
parents persuaded her. As night fell, the other a single author, rather than an amalgamation
girls sat by a fire, but Snegurochka refused to of separate traditions assembled at a later
join them. At last, she grew lonely and moved date.
toward the fire. In just a few moments, she Igor set out from Novgorod-Seversk on
melted away. August 23, 1185, to stop the Kuman raids on
In modern Russia, as though the people are Kievan Russia. The three-day battle was a dis-
reluctant to let Snegurochka melt away, Christ- aster. Igor, his son, and two other princes were
mas tradition often portrays a cheerful snow captured, and their armies were largely anni-
maiden. She is the assistant to Grandfather hilated.
Frost, the Russian equivalent of Santa Claus. Igor’s son, Vladimir, married the daugh-
Ostrovsky’s play and Rimsky-Korsakov’s ter of the Kuman ruler who had held him cap-
opera include elements of traditional Russian tive. Vladimir was sent home in 1187 with his
lore. In this version, Snegurochka is the daugh- wife and child. The ever-noble Igor refused to
ter of Frost and Spring. Refusing to listen to the break his vow not to flee from captivity. Only
warnings of her parents, she goes to seek the when he was reminded of his prior vow to
company of mortals. protect his people did Igor make his escape.
Snegurochka is drawn to the songs of Lel, a This poem was unknown until a copy
shepherd, but he shows no interest in her. Lel was found in 1790 by Count Aleskey Musin-
is in love with a villager woman, Kupava, who Pushkin. He realized that one of the manu-
is engaged to another man, Mizguir. Mizguir is scripts was a completely unknown piece of
so smitten with Snegurochka that she receives early Russian literature.
the power of human love. It melts her almost Musin-Pushkin’s copy was not an origi-
instantly, and her death brings the return of nal, but rather a transcription, dating from
springtime. the sixteenth century. Whoever had made
the transcription was not familiar with many
See also: Operas and Their Stories; Slavic
twelfth-century words and phrases, and con-
Mythology.
sequently a number of mistakes had been in-
Sources troduced. Further errors were added to the
Afanas’ev, Aleksandr. Russian Fairy Tales. Trans. Norbert text when Musin-Pushkin published an edi-
Guterman. New York: Pantheon, 1976. tion of the poem in 1800. Musin-Pushkin and
Curtin, Jeremiah. Myths and Folk-Tales of the Russians, West-
ern Slavs and Magyars. Mineola, NY: Dover, 2000.
his assistant inserted modern punctuation,
Ivanov, Mikhail. “Of Soviet Santas and Snegurochkas.” misinterpreted some of the words, and clum-
Russian Life ( January 2000): 23–24. sily chopped the manuscript into paragraphs.

428 Song of Roland
The original copy purchased by Musin- was retained. The Basques had become Sara-
Pushkin was destroyed in a fire in 1812, but cens, Charlemagne, who was thirty-six in 778
copies of the 1800 publication still exist to- C.E., is portrayed as an old man in the Song of
day. This edition consists of approximately Roland, and his one-season expedition became
860 lines, a total of 3,000 words, and is di- a war of seven years.
vided into five parts: Exordium, Narration, The most central change that was made be-
Conjuration, Liberation, and Epilogue. tween the historical event and the poem was to
The Song of Igor’s Campaign was used the main character, who in history was Hrod-
as source material by the Russian composer land, the Count of the Marches of Brittany. The
Aleksandr Borodin for his opera Prince Igor. count was a vassal of the emperor but was not
The work premiered in 1887, after the com- related to him. In the Song of Roland, Hrodland
poser’s death. is transformed into Roland, Charlemagne’s
nephew. Roland is also given a boon compan-
See also: Culture Heroes; Epics. ion, the knight Oliver, and a fiancée, Alda.
While Roland is depicted as a superior war-
Source rior, he is not given any superheroic qualities.
Nabokov, Vladimir, trans. The Song of Igor’s Campaign:
An Epic of the Twelfth Century. New York: Vintage
He remains very human, with a fatal flaw—
Books, 1960. pride. It is pride that keeps Roland from blow-
ing the horn that will summon additional
troops. In the end, despite the treachery of
Song of Roland Ganelon, it is Roland’s pride and heedless reck-
lessness that ultimately cause his own death
and the demise of the rest of the rear guard.
(French) The poem is composed of about 4,000 lines
T he Song of Roland is one of the earliest

French poems known as chansons de geste,
or songs of (heroic) deeds. Composed some-
divided into 298 irregular stanzas called laisses.
Most lines have ten syllables and are bound to-
gether by assonance; that is, vowels at the end
time during the late eleventh century, Song of of the line are often not identical but only simi-
Roland is part of the cycle of tales that focus lar in sound. The poem flows quickly, with only
on the eighth-century Emperor Charlemagne glimpses of setting or character provided—
and his peers, or knights. a view of the mountains, or a brief show of
While the poem’s subject matter is con- anger—before the story moves on.
sistent with other chansons de geste, it lacks the No one is certain who wrote the Song of
elements of magic that appear in other tales. Roland, although the last line mentions the
The Song of Roland tells of the betrayal of name Turoldus. The vagueness in original lan-
the noble knight Roland by the false knight guage could indicate that Turoldus was ei-
Ganelon. Ganelon is secretly allied with the ther the author or merely the transcriber. The
enemy Saracens, the medieval Christian name poem was written to be performed rather than
for Muslims. Roland and his entourage were read, and would have been accompanied by
slaughtered in the Pyrenees mountain valley music. The abbreviation “AOI” appears in
of Roncesvaux. the margins of the text and remains a mys-
The heart of the poem, the ambush of tery, but some speculate that it is an instruc-
Roland and his retinue, is based on a historical tion for the musicians.
event of August 15, 778 C.E. The rear guard of Because the Song of Roland was written
Charlemagne’s army, led by Count Hrodland, during the time of the First Crusade, it is often
was annihilated by the Basques in the Pyrenees. considered to be a kind of early propaganda,
However, by the time the poem was written designed to encourage Christians to take up
three centuries later, little of the actual history arms against the Muslims.

Sphinx 429
See also: Culture Heroes; Epics; Rolandslied. view of the apprentice. In 1898, French com-
poser Paul Dukas composed a tone poem, L’ap-
Sources prenti sorcier (The Sorcerer’s Apprentice). This piece
Cook, Robert Francis. The Sense of the Song of Roland. was used in the Walt Disney animated film Fan-
Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987.
Eliot, Charles W., ed. The Harvard Classics. Vol. 49, Epic
tasia (1940), in which Mickey Mouse played the
and Saga. New York: Collier, 1910. role of the apprentice.
Sisson, C.H., trans. The Song of Roland. Manchester, UK:
Carcanet, 1983. See also: Tale Types; Retelling: The Sorcerer’s
Apprentice.
Sorcerer’s Apprentice Sources

Aarne, Antti, and Stith Thompson. The Types of the Folktale:
A Classification and Bibliography. 2nd rev. ed. Helsinki,
T he world tale of the sorcerer’s apprentice

has been told by almost every culture in
Europe, the Near East, and Asia, wherever the
Finland: Academia Scientiarum Fennica, 1987.
Grimm, Jacob, and Wilhelm Grimm. The Complete Fairy
York: Bantam, 2003.
concept of a master and an apprentice exists. Mercatante, Anthony S. The Facts on File Encyclopedia of
A lazy or egotistical apprentice learns the hard World Mythology and Legend. New York: Facts on File,
way that he is not yet a master himself. 1998.
The basic story starts with the master sor- Thompson, Stith. The Folktale. Berkeley: University of
cerer heading out for some unspecified reason
and leaving his apprentice with chores to do.
The chores usually include refilling a large tank
with water. The apprentice soon grows weary
of the tedious task of lugging bucket after heavy
Sphinx
bucket. He either knows a spell (or at least
thinks he does), or uses his master’s book of
(Egyptian and Greek)
magic to find one. He either enchants an inani-
mate object, such as a broomstick, or summons
a demon to do the job for him while he rests.
I n ancient Egyptian mythology, the sphinx
was either a male figure or a man-headed
lion that was sometimes winged. The Greek
But the apprentice is not as clever as he Sphinx was a winged female monster.
thinks, because he cannot stop the object or The Egyptian sphinx was a statue that gen-
demon from bringing more and more water. erally represented a pharaoh, possibly in its as-
Soon, the place is flooded, and the apprentice pect as sun god. The most famous of these
is in danger of drowning. Nothing the increas- Egyptian sphinxes is the Great Sphinx of Gizeh,
ingly frantic apprentice does will stop the wa- located near the pyramids. This is believed to
ter bringer. When a magic book is involved in be a symbolic representation of Pharaoh Kahf-
the story, the apprentice grabs the heavy tome ra, or Chephren, and may date to the time of
and desperately holds it up to keep it safe the fourth dynasty (2723–2563 B.C.E.), although
from the water until his arms ache. the date is still a subject of debate.
In all versions, the sorcerer returns just in The word sphinx is Greek, and it is related to
time, easily breaks the spell, and sets every- the word sphingo, to strangle, from when the
thing to rights. In most versions, he forgives Greeks visited Egypt in later centuries. Whether
the apprentice, since the scare was punishment or not this was because these figures reminded
enough. the Greeks of their own mythic Sphinx, or
This story has inspired storytellers, poets, whether the Greek Sphinx is derived from these
and composers. In 1775, German poet and figures is unknown.
playwright Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote Regardless of its origin, the Greek Sphinx
his version as a ballad told from the point of bears almost no resemblance to the Egyptian

430 Squonk
See also: Oedipus.

Sources
Graf, Fritz. Greek Mythology: An Introduction. Trans.
Thomas Marier. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity Press, 1996.
Mavromataki, Maria. Greek Mythology and Religion.
Athens, Greece: Haitalis, 1997.
Squonk
(American)
T he squonk is an unhappy and unlikely

folklore creature invented by nineteenth-
century immigrants to the United States. The
squonk is wholly American, with no known
counterpart in Europe, Africa, or Asia.
Native to the once-abundant hemlock
forests of Pennsylvania, the squonk has been
described as a very small, very shy, and very
This ivory sphinx from Arslan Tash in Syria dates to the
second half of the ninth century B.C.E. The figure’s body ugly animal. Its loose skin is covered with
and ornaments are Egyptian, but the pose and face are moles and warts.
Near Eastern. (© Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY) Sadly, squonks are all too aware of their ug-
liness. As a result, they are unhappy creatures
that weep all the time and try to avoid being
figures. The Greek Sphinx is female, the mon- seen. Anyone trying to hunt a squonk must en-
strous offspring of Typhon and Echidna. She is ter a hemlock forest and follow the trail of tears.
sometimes described as being a woman- It is advised to wait for very frosty nights when
headed winged lion and sometimes as being the squonk’s tears freeze and sparkle in the
a woman to the waist, with the rest of her moonlight and the squonk is unable to move
body that of a winged lion with a snake’s tail. around quickly. Careful squonk hunters actu-
The Greek Sphinx sat on a high rock ally can hear their prey weeping under the
near Thebes. She posed a riddle to all who hemlock trees.
passed, slaying anyone who could not answer Catching and holding a squonk is said to
the riddle. be difficult. One man thought he had cap-
Oedipus happened to pass that way, and tured a squonk after he lured it into a sack by
the Sphinx asked him, “What animal is that mimicking its cry. On the way home, the
which in the morning goes on four feet, at hunter’s burden lightened, and the sobbing
noon on two, and in the evening upon three?” ceased. When he opened the sack, there were
Oedipus found the answer. “Man,” he only tears and bubbles inside. The explana-
said, “who in childhood creeps on hands and tion for this is that when a squonk is captured,
knees, in manhood walks erect, and in old age it sobs in despair and shame so powerfully
with the aid of a staff.” that it dissolves, leaving only tears. This gives
The Sphinx was so mortified at the solving the squonk its pseudo-scientific Latin name of
of her riddle that she cast herself down from lachrimacorpus dissolvens, meaning “body dis-
the rock and perished. solves into tears.”

Standing Stones 431
The squonk has entered popular culture Stonehenge

in music and theater. In 1974, the folk-rock
group Steely Dan released a song titled, “Any Stonehenge, in the county of Wiltshire, En-
Major Dude Will Tell You,” which features gland, is perhaps the most familiar of all groups
a couplet about the squonk: “Have you ever of standing stones. According to archaeologi-
seen a squonk’s tears? Well, look at mine. / cal evidence, construction probably was begun
People on the street have all seen better about 2400 B.C.E. and completed as many as a
times.” thousand years later.
In 1976, the band Genesis released the al- The medieval writer Geoffrey of Mon-
bum A Trick of the Tail, which contained the mouth added a fantastic element to the history
song “Squonk.” This song is a retelling of the of the monument. He wrote that the stones
story of a Mr. Wentling, squonk hunter, and is were brought from Africa to Ireland by giants
clearly an allegory on the human condition. In and that the wizard Merlin used magic to bring
the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, area, a local per- the stones to England and build Stonehenge.
forming arts troupe calls itself the Squonk Christian folklore added a new variation,
Opera. claiming that it was the devil, not Merlin, who
had built Stonehenge, transporting the stones
See also: Tall Tales. by magic from Ireland. Then, the devil bet the
people of nearby Amesbury that they could not
Sources accurately count the stones. But a friar tricked
Borges, Jorge Luis. Book of Imaginary Beings. New York: the devil with the answer, “More than can be
Avon, 1970.
counted.”
Cohen, Daniel. Monsters, Giants, and Little Men from Mars:
An Unnatural History of the Americas. Garden City, The enraged devil then flung one of the
NY: Doubleday, 1975. great stones at the friar. One version claims
Cox, William T. Fearsome Creatures of the Lumberwoods. that this stone crushed the unfortunate man.
Philadelphia: Judd and Detweiter, 1910. Another says that from a lifetime of going bare-
Headon, Deirdre. Mythical Beasts. London: Hutchinson,
1981.
foot, the friar’s heel had become as tough as
the stone, so the great stone bounced off his foot
and landed upright, becoming what is known
Standing Stones as the Heel Stone.
(Western European) Other English Sites

S tanding stones are ancient monoliths that
generally date to the first millennium B.C.E.
These massive stone structures were somehow
Another stone circle with a demonic tale is the
Stanton Drew Stone Circle in Avon, which
probably dates to the second millennium B.C.E.
shaped and placed in the landscape of Western Christian folklore claimed that a group of rev-
Europe, particularly in Britain, Ireland, and elers at a wedding that began on a Saturday af-
Breton France. Often, the stones are placed in a ternoon did not wish to stop celebrating. At
circle. midnight, however, the fiddler refused to go
Probably because of uncertainty about on playing since it was now the Sabbath day.
their origin or original purpose, a great many The bride swore that the party would con-
folktales exist about the standing stones. The tinue even if she had to get a fiddler from hell.
folktales tell of transformed humans or giants Sure enough, a mysterious stranger appeared
that are able to walk or that stand in defense and began to play. It was the devil, who fiddled
of the land or as punishment for some sin. The on until all but the fiddler had turned to stone.
stones in several of the circles are said to be At the borders of Oxfordshire and War-
uncountable. wickshire stands the solitary King Stone, the

432 Standing Stones
Rollright Stones, and two stone barrows, or bur- Rise up stick, and stand still stone,
ial chambers, called the Whispering Knights For king of England thou shalt be none.
and the Archdruid’s Barrow. Folklore says that Thou and thy men hoar stones shall be
all these stones were once a king and his invad- And I myself an eldern tree.
ing army. Their way was blocked by a local
witch, who declared: The king instantly turned into the King
Stone, his men became the Rollright Stones,
Seven long strides shalt thou take. and his noble knights became the Whispering
If Long Compton thou can see Knights. The witch, it is said, forever watches
King of England thou shalt be. over them in the form of an elder tree. As late
as the nineteenth century, it was believed that
The king shouted back at her: if the elder tree was cut it would bleed and
that the King Stone could move its “head.”
Stick, stock, stone,
As king of England I shall be known. Cornish Standing Stones
But when he had taken the seven strides, all One of the famous stones near Land’s End
he could see was the Archdruid’s Barrow, in Cornwall is Men-An-Tol, also known as
which blocked his view of the village of Long the Crick Stone, a standing stone with a hole
Compton. The witch cried: worked through it. Although it may once have
been part of a Neolithic tomb, folk belief for
As Long Compton thou canst not see, centuries has claimed that crawling through
King of England thou shalt not be! the hole nine times counterclockwise cures
Men-an-Tol, a monolith in Cornwall, England, may date to the second millennium B.C.E. Folk tradition claims that
crawling through the hole will cure disease and that sickly children passed through the hole will grow strong. (Rob
Cousins/Robert Harding World Imagery/Getty Images)

Straparola, Giovanni Francesco 433
“cricks” or similar ailments, including rickets

in children.
Straparola, Giovanni
Near Men-An-Tol is a second standing
stone, Men Scryfa, which means “the inscribed
Francesco
stone.” This stone bears a Latin inscription: Ri-
alobrani Cunovali Filii, which means “Rialo- (c. 1480–1557)
bran, son of Cunoval.” This stone may honor a
fallen warrior or even a king. Folk belief claims
that Rialobran was 9 feet tall and that he lies
G iovanni Francesco Straparola was a noted
Italian Renaissance writer, poet, and sto-
ryteller who lived in the late fifteenth and early
beneath the stone with his treasure. sixteenth centuries. Straparola was one of the
The Merry Maidens circle is a ring of first writers to use folklore in his fiction.
nineteen stones. The folktale about them is of Straparola’s year of birth usually is given
Christian origin. On a Sunday, the nineteen as sometime around 1480, but the actual date
maidens danced and played in the open field of his birth is unknown, as are many details
instead of going to church. A heavenly thun- about his life. Even the spelling of his personal
derbolt turned them to stone for their sin. name is uncertain. It may have been Giovanni
A similar story centers around the circle Francesco or Gianfrancesco. The only thing
known as the Hurlers of Saint Cleer. In this known for certain is that he was an educated
case, it was a local saint, Saint Cleer, who man, which is made evident through his exist-
turned a group to stone for the sin of playing ing works.
hurling on a Sunday. Straparola’s poetry was not outstandingly
successful during his lifetime and is not con-
Scotland sidered particularly memorable today. How-
ever, his two-volume work, Le Piacevoli Notti,
A number of solitary standing stones are lo-
or The Facetious Nights of Straparola (also The
cated in the Orkney Islands. The Yetnasteen
Nights of Straparola), which he wrote between
and Stane o’ Quoybune are said to be giants
1550 and 1553, was very successful with crit-
turned to stone that “walk” once a year. This is
ics and the public both in his time and after-
believed to occur on New Year’s Day or some
ward. Le Piacevoli Notti is a collection of
other notable day. The giants walk down to
seventy-five novellas and fairy tales that in-
nearby lakes or pools to drink. These tales of
cludes the original version of “Beauty and the
giants probably come from the Norse tradi-
Beast.”
tions of the Jotun, the Norse giants, since the
Straparola modeled his work after Boccac-
Vikings colonized these islands.
cio’s mid-fourteenth-century Decameron, whose
There are three stones on the island of
format involved a group of people telling one
North Uist, called Na Fir Bhreige, or the False
another stories; this device also was used by
Men. They are said to have been three men
Geoffrey Chaucer in The Canterbury Tales, writ-
who abandoned their wives and ran afoul of an
ten in the late fourteenth century. The frame-
avenging witch, who turned them into stone.
work of Straparola’s Le Piacevoli Notti is thirteen
The many tales about standing stones are
nights of revelry in a luxurious villa on the is-
a rich source of material for storytellers.
land of Murano near Venice, during which the
Sources participants told each other stories.
Bord, Janet, and Colin Bord. The Secret Country. New The tales include elements of magic and
York: Walker, 1977. the supernatural, as well as bawdy jokes and
Burl, Aubrey. From Carnac to Callanish: The Prehistoric anecdotes. Straparola’s work is one of Eu-
Stone Rows and Avenues of Britain, Ireland, and Brit-
tany. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993.
rope’s earliest collections of stories based
Peck, M. Scott. In Search of Stones: A Pilgrimage of Faith, largely on folklore.
Reason, and Discovery. New York: Hyperion, 1995. Straparola died in about 1557.

434 Str ing Figures
Sources String figure activities have been docu-

Straparola, Giovanni Francesco. The Facetious Nights. Trans. mented in cultures as diverse as Native Amer-
W.G. Waters. London: Society of Bibliophiles, 1898. ican groups, the Maori in New Zealand,
———. The Merry Nights of Straparola. Trans. Charles
Carrington. New York: Panurge, 1931.
Aborigines in Australia, Rapanui on Easter Is-
land, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Bornean, Fi-
jian, Melanesian, Hawaiian, Filipino, Papua
String Figures New Guinean, Peruvian, African, New Cale-
donian, Indian, and Tibetan.
It is likely that the string activity known as
S tring figures are used by some storytellers to
illustrate their tales. The figures are created
by knotting a length of string to make a loop,
cat’s cradle was introduced to England in the
1600s as a result of the tea trade with China and
fitting the loop around the teller’s two hands, Japan. In Japan, cat’s cradle is called itotori,
and pulling the string around and over the which means “taking up string,” or aya ito tori,
palms of the hands and fingers to depict various which refers to a pattern used in weaving. In
objects, including animals, birds, people, build- China, the pattern is called “well rope,” as in the
ings, and sites. rope that is used to pull a bucket out of a well.
Sometimes, the teller uses his or her teeth Two anthropologists, Drs. W.H.R. Rivers
and even feet to hold the string in place. The and A.C. Haddon, studied string figures in the
string traditionally is derived from plant fiber, Torres Strait islands off Australia. They pub-
although leather thongs, fishing line, dried lished their findings in 1902 and created an
animal guts, and even human hair sometimes anatomical classification for the fingering pro-
are used. Contemporary tellers generally use cess that was used to create string figures. Al-
commercially colored string or yarn. though Rivers and Haddon questioned the link
String figure artists may depict similar between this pastime and Torres Strait cosmol-
subjects. But the designs depicting the illus- ogy, the string stories they collected seem to in-
trative shapes vary from culture to culture, dicate that such a connection exists. They note
within a culture, and even within individual that “one figure which represents boys playing
string artists’ repertoires. is subsequently converted into two rings, which
Making string figures remains primarily a represent two of the sacred grounds of Mer
nonverbal game for children in North Amer- (Murray Island) in which important initiation
ica and England—as with the familiar cat’s ceremonies into the Malu fraternity were held;
cradle, for example. People in other cultures and another is supposed to represent the pass-
create string figures while speaking, singing, ing of the stone-headed clubs from hand to
or chanting the actions or incidents that are hand during the Malu dances.”
represented by the string shapes.
Polynesian Tradition
String Figures Around the World The Maori in New Zealand describe the origin
Two characteristics of this craft suggest that it is of string stories in a myth accredited to Maui,
a device for passing on a culture’s cosmology. a Polynesian demigod. They refer to string ac-
First, the figures are often accompanied by po- tivity as maui, whai, huhi, and more formally,
etic, descriptive narrative, and second, the fig- te whai wawewawe a Maui. Their string stories
ures themselves frequently represent persons, and songs often depict tales of the gods. Some-
incidents, and objects associated with mythol- times, a drama is played out through the
ogy and religious beliefs. The narrative may changing shapes alone. Two favorite stories in-
accompany the transformation of the string de- volve the ascent of Tawhaki, the lightning god,
sign as it progresses, or the chant or story may to heaven and the creation of the land by the
be uttered after the string design is completed. hero Maui.

Str ing Figures 435
Rapa Nui, commonly known as Easter Is- The performer changes the string design with
land, is one of the world’s most remote inhab- each line of the text, which is translated here:
ited islands. An annual folk festival is held there
that includes string figure (kai kai) competitions. The tangarot people
Two families are selected for the final competi- We ran away to hide
tion event, each sending its best candidates. We made a tent
When the pattern is completed, the performer [untranslatable]
holds up the string figure and chants the story They ran away.
that accompanies the shape. Judging criteria in-
clude finger dexterity, creativity, and the quality When the last line is spoken, the string is
of the chant. The language used in these chants manipulated so that the two center loops
often includes vocabulary from an archaic Rapa move away in opposite directions.
Nui language no longer spoken on the island. Longer Native American stories from this
One example of such a chant is “Tatatat te region also are adapted for string presentations.
vaka pÇ iluihu. Meamea o’ou ‘Hoke hore.” For example, the following story has been
This means “The boat’s fishing net is caught in transposed to string:
a reef. Bad luck. Cut it free. The outermost An orphan boy was ill-treated by the in-
part of the fishing net is now red and bloody.” mates of the house in which he lived. His
place was just inside the door, and he was not
allowed to go farther in. The others threw him
Native American Tradition scraps of food when they were eating. There
A less formal style of string figure competition he was, always sitting in his corner, with his
was popular among the Kwakiutl Indians in the arms withdrawn from the sleeves of his coat
American Northwest. American ethnologist Ju- and pressed against his body to keep them
lia Averieva described an activity following the warm, while his knees were tucked up toward
evening meal, in which participants created fig- his chin and covered with the bottom of his
ures without revealing the method of construc- coat. At last, he grew old enough to take care
tion. In one string story, called “Brother Came of himself and went away.
from the Hiding Place Because He Was Afraid The chant that accompanies the figure is
of the Coming Rain,” the seventh string design translated here:
in the telling of the story is repeated four times,
a typical repetition pattern in many Native Door-closer [the boy’s name]
American oral narratives. Door-closer who stays over there
One brother is depicted looking four times Door-closer, shut the door
for the other brother. With each repetition, the Why don’t you shut the door?
presenter repeats the refrain, “The snow is com- My knees I have covered with my coat
ing. Where are you, brother? The hail is The boy going away
coming. Where are you, brother? The rain is
coming.” As the finale, the strings are shifted so As the presenter recites the last line, the
that the round shape that is hidden behind the string is manipulated to show a shape moving
hand to represent the hiding brother is pulled to off to the side, toward the hand, representing
the center, and the two loops, which represent the boy leaving home.
the two brothers, face each other. On the west coast of Hudson Bay, which is
In his 1888 study of Eskimo culture, an- part of the Arctic Ocean, there is a taboo that
thropologist Franz Boas documented string says that boys must not play cat’s cradle. Two
artists redesigning string shapes to accompany hunters lost their fingers in harpoon lines, and
a story. An Inuit string story collected in Siberia it was believed that this resulted from their hav-
describes the adventures of men called tanayoy. ing played cat’s cradle when they were young.

436 Sundiata
Hawaiian Practice original string-story adaptations to Belinda

Holbrook’s book, String Stories: A Creative,
In Hawaii, creating string figures is known as Hands-on Approach for Engaging Children in Lit-
hei (net), koko, and makali. The chants that erature, published in 2002. Nineteen stories
accompany the string figure creations often are accompanied by instructions for forty-five
contain names of gods and physical sites. The string figures. The book brings long-deserved
chant is sometimes of a simple nature: While recognition to the use of string as a traditional
saying, “At night, at night, the stars overhang and entertaining technique for storytellers.
us,” the string artist creates seven stars in the The International String Figure Associa-
design. Then, with “At dawn they are gone,” tion was founded in 1978 by Japanese mathe-
the string is pulled so that the stars disappear. matician Hiroshi Noguchi and Philip Noble,
Studies into Hawaiian culture have found an Anglican missionary stationed in Papua New
connections between the people’s rituals and Guinea. The nonprofit organization strives to
beliefs and the creation of string figures. At gather, preserve, and distribute knowledge of
least one string figure, called hana ka uluna (pre- string figures to ensure that this ancient pas-
pare the pillow), was used by priests to find out time is enjoyed by generations to come.
whether the gods of the sick decreed that a pa-
tient would live or die. If the chain of five to Ruth Stotter
seven knotted loops did not come undone
smoothly, the patient would die. Sources
Although many of the Hawaiian string Abraham, A. Johnston. String Figures. Algonac, MI: Ref-
story chants appear to be straightforward, the erence Publications. 1968.
Hawaiian language is filled with metaphors. Andersen, Johannes C. Maori String Figures. Wellington,
New Zealand: Board of Maori Ethnological Re-
The words in a string story chant may contain
search, 1927.
a combination of meanings, including puns, as Dickey, Lyle A. String Figures from Hawaii. New York:
in this example: Kraus Reprint, 1971.
Firth, Raymond, and Honor Maude. Tikopia String Fig-
ures. London: Royal Anthropological Institute of
The youngsters were digging for large Great Britain and Ireland, 1970.
potatoes. Holbrook, Belinda. String Stories: A Creative, Hands-on
“You can’t get this big potato.” Approach for Engaging Children in Literature. Wor-
“It’s a little second-class one.” thington, OH: Linworth, 2002.
Hornell, James. String Figures from Fiji and Western Polyne-
“Well, you can’t get even a little second- sia. New York: Kraus Reprint, 1971.
class one.” Jayne, Caroline Furness. String Figures and How to Make
Them: A Study of Cat’s Cradle in Many Lands. Mine-
ola, NY: Dover, 1962.
The string figures that accompany this chant
O’Connor, Briar, and Libby Patterson. He Whai: Old and
represent a boy and girl who have been digging New String Figures from Aoteoroa. Auckland, New
for potatoes. The girl refers to herself as a potato Zealand: Reed, 2002.
that the boy cannot get, and he retaliates by say-
ing she is not worth having. She replies that he
could not even get a second-rate one. Sundiata
Current Practitioners (Mali)
String figures are used by many contempo-
rary professional storytellers, including David
Novak, Barbara Schutz-Gruber, and Dave
S undiata is an epic that memorializes the
founder of a thirteenth-century empire in
Mali. Originally an oral epic, it was compiled
Titus. These three have contributed their in the eighteenth century into its current form.

Sundiata 437
Although there are some fictional elements in the epic of Sundiata of Mali, he was a historical figure. Kirina, shown
here, is one of the three Mandinka towns that formed the foundation of Sundiata’s empire. This is where Sundiata
fought his rival, Sumanguru, in 1235 C.E. (Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY)
Sundiata is still recited in the oral tradition by fold. In exile, Sundiata had the opportunity to
the Mande people of West Africa. travel widely and become an excellent warrior.
The historic Sundiata lived in the early After his mother’s death, he returned to Mali to
thirteenth century. He was the son of Nare claim the throne.
Maghan, king of the Mandingo, and his wife, Sundiata discovered that while he was in
Sogolon Conde. A prophecy predicted that exile, the Sosso king Sumanguru had attacked
the hunchbacked, ugly Sogolon would bear Sassouma and her son, who had fled in fear.
the beautiful Maghan a son who would grow Sundiata returned with an army and defeated
up to become Mali’s greatest king. Sumanguru at the Battle of Kirina in 1235.
The king’s first wife, Sassouma, viewed the The epic of Sundiata is full of esoteric
prophecy as a threat to her own son, Dankaran images and references to sorcery. All of
Touman, whom she felt should inherit the Maghan’s wives are powerful sorceresses, and
throne. She felt less threatened when she real- Sogolon must use her own great power to over-
ized that Sogolon’s son, Sundiata, was sickly come their tricks and trials, because her co-wives
and weak. are angered by the prophecy. By defeating the
After Maghan’s death, Sassouma’s son be- co-wives during a seven-year pregnancy, So-
came king. Sundiata, who had walked on all golon proves she is worthy of bearing greatness.
fours until this point, stood up for the first time. The historic Sundiata adopted Islam late
Sensing that he was becoming powerful, So- in life, and one version of the epic traces
golon went into exile with her son and waited his descent from Bilal, an African servant of
for the time to be right for the prophecy to un- Muhammad. In the epic, however, Sundiata

438 Sunken Cities
uses his native religion and sorcery to defeat Other recent discoveries include a city
his enemies and maintain his position as the found off the eastern coast of the Tamil region
greatest king of Mali. of India. This site has not yet been dated or
identified but may be several thousand years
See also: Culture Heroes; Epics. old. Japanese archaeologists announced in
Sources 2004 that they may have found the ruins of a
Austen, Ralph A., ed. In Search of Sunjata: The Mande Oral submerged city from the Kamakura shogunate
Epic as History, Literature, and Performance. Blooming- (1192–1333 C.E.) off the western coast near
ton: Indiana University Press, 1999. Shizuoka Prefecture.
Jones, James A. “Background to the Epic of Sundiata These sunken cities fire the imaginations
Keita.” http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his311/notes/
sundiata.htm.
of storytellers or scholars hunting for tales
Niane, D.T. Sundiata: An Epic of Old Mali. Harlow, UK: from the past.
Longman, 1965.
See also: Dahut/Ahes; Lyonesse; Ys/Ker-Ys.
Sunken Cities Sources

Goddio, Franck, and Alain Xavier Wurst. “Lost Cities.”
In Encyclopaedia of Underwater Archaeology. London:
C ommonly found in both folklore and

myth, sunken cities also exist in the real
world. The folklore of Brittany tells of the del-
Periplus, 2004.
Halls, Monty. “Lost Cities.” Diver magazine, June 2002.
Also at http://www.divernet.com.
uge that submerged Ys; Greek myth describes
the sinking of Atlantis; and archaeologists dis-
cover and study the remains of flooded cities.
The real sunken city of Port Royal was dis-
Superman
covered on the island of Jamaica. Port Royal
was described in the seventeenth century as the
(North American)
wickedest city in the world, a pirate town. But
the glory of Port Royal was short-lived. On the
morning of June 7, 1692, a massive earthquake
F irst introduced in the premier issue of Ac-
tion Comics in 1938, Superman has gone
on to be the most recognized superhero in the
struck Jamaica, and much of the city disap- world. He can be seen as an example of the ar-
peared under the sea. It never fully recovered. chetypical strongman and can be used by sto-
In 2000, archaeologists working in the rytellers as a lead-in to earlier strong heroes,
Gulf of Corinth off the Greek mainland discov- such as Hercules and Samson.
ered what they believed to be the remains of The red-caped hero was originally con-
the ancient Greek city of Helike. Classical texts ceived by writer Jerry Siegel and artist Joe
say that the city was lost to earthquakes and Shuster as a villain. The pair soon realized that
tidal waves and that all its inhabitants died. Superman had the makings of a great hero.
Some scholars have speculated that such a his- Superman is the alternate identity of Clark
toric catastrophe may well have given Plato Kent, a reporter for the Daily Planet newspa-
the idea for his story of lost Atlantis. per in the city of Metropolis. He is an orphan,
Another team of scientists working in the born with the name Kal-El, the last surviving
Mediterranean just off the Egyptian coast dis- son of a dying planet.
covered the remains of two 2,500-year-old Sent to Earth, young Clark was raised by
cities, possibly Menouthis and Herakleion. Jonathan and Martha Kent, Kansas farmers
These important trading cities, which flourished who saw his spaceship crash. Although he
between about 400 and 100 B.C.E., were sub- worked hard to appear like a normal boy, it
merged by at least two violent catastrophes, but was hard to mask the fact that he had ex-
scientists have not discovered the exact cause. traordinary powers, including X-ray vision,

Sword, Broken 439
superstrength, invulnerability, incredible speed,

and the power to fly. Driven by the urge to help Sword, Broken
people and make the world a safer place, the
young Clark used his powers for good. He (Norse)
eventually adopted the persona of Superman to
keep his identity a secret.
Superman is the quintessential good guy,
the unwavering hero who always knows
T he world theme of the broken sword has
been found in folklore, mythology, and
even psychology. In this theme, a hero inherits
right from wrong. He is invulnerable to every his father’s shattered sword and must then forge
weapon known to man, but he does have the broken pieces into a true hero’s weapon.
one weakness—Kryptonite. These meteor One of the most famous of these weapons
fragments from his home planet weaken him. in mythology comes from Teutonic lore. This
Prolonged exposure to them would kill him. was the sword called Gram, which also is re-
In 1940, the radio show The Adventures of lated to the sword in the stone of Arthurian
Superman premiered. A year later, Superman legend. Gram is thrust into a tree by the Anglo-
cartoons were made by Fleischer Studios for Saxon god Wotan, who is called Odin in Norse
Paramount. In 1951, the movie Superman and mythology. Only the hero Sigurd could with-
the Mole Men was released. In 1978, actor draw it.
Christopher Reeve starred in the first of four In the Norse Völsunga Saga, Odin’s wife,
Superman movies. Frigg, was outraged that Sigurd and Siglinde,
Superman cartoons and live-action series who were brother and sister, had become
also have appeared on television. In 1953, the lovers. So Frigg turned Odin against Sigurd.
popular show starring George Reeves came to In the battle between Odin and Sigurd, Odin
life. In 1993, Dean Cain donned the cape. In broke the sword, and Sigurd was slain. Sigurd’s
2001, Tom Welling took on the challenge of son, Siegfried, took the shards of the sword,
portraying a young Clark Kent who was just and they were forged into a blade again.
discovering his powers in Smallville. The Arthurian cycle contains two swords
Superman has even been on stage. He had that are broken. Arthur’s first sword was a
his debut on Broadway in 1966 in a musical en- nameless blade that was broken in battle.
titled It’s a Bird . . . It’s a Plane . . . It’s Superman! That blade was replaced by the more power-
Few heroes have captured the American ful Excalibur, which was significant in the leg-
imagination like Superman. In many ways, he end of the Grail. Excalibur was broken when
is the guy next door. He has a regular job and a Saracen wounded Joseph of Arimathea in
everyday responsibilities, and he suffers from the thigh. At first, the knights on the quest for
an unrequited love for Lois Lane. On the other the Grail were unable to reforge this broken
hand, he is someone who is fantastically be- sword; the only one who could do it was Sir
yond reach with powers that everyone wishes Galahad, the perfect and holy knight.
he or she possessed. He is both everyman and In fantasy fiction, two prime examples
the hero that every man would like to be. of the broken sword motif stand out. J.R.R.
Tolkien used the broken sword motif in his
See also: Culture Heroes. novel The Lord of the Rings (1954–1955). The
hero Aragorn bears the broken sword of
Sources his royal line, until it is eventually reforged
Daniels, Les. Superman: The Complete History. San Fran- into a kingly blade. Poul Anderson also used
cisco: Chronicle, 2004. the motif in his fantasy novel inspired by
Gresh, Lois, and Robert Weinberg. The Science of Super-
heroes. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2003.
Norse sagas, The Broken Sword (1954), in which
Sherman, Josepha. Once Upon a Galaxy. Little Rock, AR: the hero and his changeling brother vie for
August House, 1995. the weapon.

440 Sword in the Stone/Sword in the Tree
See also: Motifs. See also: King Arthur; Motifs.
Sources Sources
Anderson, Poul. The Broken Sword. New York: Ballantine, Barber, Richard. The Figure of Arthur. London: Longman,
1971. 1972.
Byock, Jesse L. The Saga of the Volsungs: The Norse Epic of Byock, Jesse L. The Saga of the Volsungs: The Norse Epic of
Sigurd the Dragon Slayer. Berkeley: University of Cal- Sigurd the Dragon Slayer. Berkeley: University of Cal-
ifornia Press, 1990. ifornia Press, 1990.
Hatto, A.T. The Niebelungenlied. New York: Penguin, Chambers, Edmund K. Arthur of Britain. New York: Oc-
1965. tober House, 1967.
Tolkien, J.R.R. The Lord of the Rings. Boston: Houghton Jones, W. Lewis. King Arthur in History and Legend. Cam-
Mifflin, 2002. bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1911.
Kennedy, Edward Donald, ed. King Arthur: A Casebook.
New York: Garland, 1996.
Sword in the Stone/
Sword in the Tree Swords
T he sword in the stone or tree is a common
folk and mythological motif. The weapon
is embedded in a stone or tree until the true
I n the world of folklore and storytelling,
swords are more than inanimate weapons.
They are companions to the heroes who wield
hero or chosen ruler removes it. Related mo- them and often possess spirits of their own.
tifs are the bow that only the hero can wield Swords have been made in many shapes
and the broken sword. and sizes since at least the second millennium
Perhaps the most familiar version of the B.C.E. They range from the short sword of the
motif is found in Arthurian legend. A sword Romans—the gladius used by gladiators—to the
was embedded in a stone, and only Britain’s Scottish claymore, which was as long as a man
rightful king could remove it. This sword was was tall. Swords have been made from every
not Arthur’s later weapon, Excalibur; it had no metal that will hold an edge or a point—from
significance or name, but was merely a test. bronze to steel—and have often been engraved
Every knight in the land attempted to remove with runes or other symbols. In folkloric tradi-
the sword, and, of course, each of them failed. tion, the spirit of each sword is extremely sensi-
Arthur, who was still a boy, drew the sword tive to the spirit of its owner.
from the stone and was immediately pro- Ideally, a swordsman would be present
claimed king. during every stage of the weapon’s manufac-
There is a second sword in the stone in the ture in order to create a strong bond between
Arthurian cycle, simply called the Sword with himself and his sword. The sword of the Al-
the Red Hilt. The sorcerer Merlin thrust this banian hero Iskander Beg is a perfect example
sword into a stone. Sir Galahad, the saintly of the spiritual relationship between weapon
son of Sir Lancelot, removed it. This showed and warrior. When this sword was wielded by
his worthiness to become the Grail Knight, the a brave man, it instantly became both sharper
only one pure enough to find and hold the and stronger. When it was handled by a cow-
Holy Grail. ard, it grew blunt.
In Norse and Germanic mythology, specifi- From the ancient Greeks to the era of Em-
cally in the Norse Völsunga Saga, Odin, king of peror Charlemagne, all heroes bore a special,
the gods, thrust a hero’s sword deep into a tree named blade.
(or alternately, into a flaming log). He an-
nounced that only the true hero would be able Greek Mythology
to remove it. The true hero was revealed as Sig- • The sword of Peleus, which magically
urd, who was the human son of Odin. made a swordsman victorious in battle.

Symphonic/Tone Poems 441
Teutonic Mythology Sources

• The god Frey’s sword, the sword of Bulfinch, Thomas. The Age of Chivalry and Legends of
sharpness. Charlemagne: Or Romance of the Middle Ages. New
York: NAL, 1962.
• Hofud, the sword of the god Heimdall, Geoffrey of Monmouth. The History of the Kings of Britain.
who guarded Asgard. Trans. Lewis Thorpe. Harmondsworth, UK: Pen-
• Nothung, the sword of Siegfried. guin, 1966.
• Gram, the sword of Sigurd. Rituals, and Beliefs. New York: Oxford University
• Hruntung, the sword of the hero Press, 2002.
Beowulf.
Celtic Mythology Symphonic/Tone Poems

• Caladbolg, the magic sword of Fergus
MacRoich, sharp and strong enough
to cut off the tops of three hills.
• Claiomh Solais, the sword of light,
I n classical music, a symphonic poem is an
orchestral work that is inspired by nature,
art, or literature. A symphonic poem is a
used by the gods. strictly instrumental work that attempts to tell
• Fragarach, the sword of air, which was a story using the music alone, with the lis-
forged by the gods and held the power tener’s imagination filling in the gaps. Exam-
of the winds. ples of symphonic poems include Richard
Strauss’s Til Eulenspiegel’s Merry Pranks (1894–
Japanese Mythology 1895), Claude Debussy’s The Afternoon of a
• Kursanagi-no-tsurugi, the sword of the Faun (1894), and Ottorino Respighi’s Roman
god Susanoo. Festivals (1928). In general, this genre is writ-
ten in a single movement.
Arthurian Lore
• Excalibur, King Arthur’s sword, given Telling a Story with Music
to him by the Lady of the Lake. Composers use a variety of techniques to con-
• Clarent, the sword in the stone. vey an idea in music. Some attempt to tell a
• Cernwennan, King Arthur’s dagger. complete story, particularly when the tale is
a familiar one. Less familiar stories receive a
• Galatine, the sword of Sir Gawain.
less literal treatment. Strauss’s Don Quixote
• Secace, the sword of Sir Lancelot. (1897) is an example of a literal interpretation,
while Debussy’s The Afternoon of the Faun
Charlemagne Lore is only loosely based on the poem “L’Après-
• Durindana/Durandal/Durendal, Midi d’un Faune” (1876) by Stéphane Mal-
Roland’s sword. larmé. A composer can tell the story through
• Hauteclere, Olivier’s sword. the use of several techniques, such as sound ef-
• Curtana, the sword of Ogier the Dane. fects, melodic themes, and specific instrumen-
tation to represent different characters, or
The tradition of named or magical swords simply by evoking a mood.
continues in modern fantasy fiction. British Music can reproduce or approximate
author Michael Moorcock’s doomed hero El- sounds, from a train whistling past, as in Arthur
ric of Melniboné, whose series of stories has Honneger’s Pacific 231 (1923), to the sound of
run from the 1980s to the present, wields a sheep bleating in a meadow, as is heard in
sword called Stormbringer. Don Quixote. The device of re-creating authentic
sounds musically has probably been used since
See also: Motifs. the first musical instruments were made.

442 Symphonic/Tone Poems
While music can imitate real-life sounds, with the Country Folk,” “Thunderstorm,” and
it also can evoke emotions. Moods are por- “Calm and Thanks After the Storm.”
trayed through the use of the following de- Along with titles and subtitles, composers
vices: melody, which is a recognizable tune; often provide information in the form of pro-
harmony, the combination of sounds accom- gram notes. The first composition for orchestra
panying the melody; mode, either major or with a “real” story line usually is considered to
minor; and rhythm and tempo. be Hector Berlioz’s Symphonie Fantastique. Writ-
ten in 1830 and subtitled Episode in the Life of
Instrumentation and Theme an Artist, this work tells the story of the French
composer’s nightmare that comes, in part, from
To convey the details of a story, composers
his failed desire to win the heart of the Irish ac-
sometimes assign a musical theme or specific
tress Henrietta Smithson. This symphony also
instrument to a character.
has five movements with subtitles: “Dreams
A theme can be a whole melody or just a
and Passions,” “A Ball,” “Country Scenes,”
fragment of one, but either way, it is something
“March to the Scaffold,” and “Dream of a
unique that acts as a reminder of a single charac-
Witche’s Sabbath.” Berlioz also wrote program
ter or a group. The French horn melody heard at
notes that describe in detail what occurs in the
the beginning of Strauss’s Til Eulenspiegel is Til’s
five portions of his nightmare.
theme. This melodic line suits the character per-
fectly, as it jumps from high to low the way a ball
might bounce down a flight of stairs. A very dif- Other Works
ferent theme is used in Pyotr Ilich Tchaikovsky’s Some symphonic poems do not tell a story but
Romeo and Juliet (1880), to represent the ill-fated attempt to give an impression of something
lovers of Shakespeare’s famous play. real, as in Honneger’s ode to the steam locomo-
Some composers also associate particular tive, Pacific 231; Debussy’s Nuages (Clouds; 1897);
instruments with their main characters, such as and Respighi’s Pines of Rome (1926). Bedrich
the French horn in Til Eulenspiegel. In The After- Smetana’s cycle of six symphonic poems, Ma
noon of a Faun, Debussy assigns the flute to the Vlast (My Country; 1874–1879), is a conceptual
main character. Debussy’s melody resembles work in this genre. In all cases, symphonic
the music of pan pipes, an instrument made of poems seek to convey stories through music.
several hollow reeds that dates to biblical times. Film scores are similar to symphonic po-
ems in the methods and techniques used to tell
Subtitles and Program Notes a story or evoke feelings. They are, in a way,
the “modern” symphonic poems.
If the story is not a familiar one, the composer
may supply a written summary or descriptive
Steven Rosenhaus
titles and subtitles to fill in important infor-
mation. In Ludwig van Beethoven’s Symphony Sources
no. 6, written in 1809 and published as the Pas- Bacharach, A.L., and J.R. Pearce, eds. The Musical Com-
toral Symphony, each of the five movements has panion. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,
a subtitle that suggests the action or feeling that 1977.
Beethoven was trying to evoke. Loosely trans- Downes, Edward. The New York Philharmonic Guide to the
Symphony. New York: Walker, 1976.
lated from the original German, they are “Be- Harnsberger, Lindsey C. Essential Dictionary of Music: Defi-
coming Cheerful on Arriving in the Country,” nitions, Composers, Theory, Instrument and Vocal Ranges.
“A Scene at a Brook,” “A Merry Get-together Los Angeles: Alfred, 1997.

T
I
Tail Tales

n the tail tale, a world folktale type, a foolish
animal is tricked by a clever one into losing
its tail.
The most familiar version, which is com-
stone-filled basket, jumps over a fire and loses
his tail.
Sources
mon to the folklore of Norway and England,
Asbjornsen, Peter Christen, and Jorgen Moe. Norwegian
features a fox and a bear. At the start of the Folk Tales. Trans. Pat Shaw and Carl Norman. New
story, the bear has a long, flowing tail. The fox York: Pantheon, 1982.
tells the bear that the best way to catch fish in Dasent, George Webbe. Popular Tales from the Norse. 2nd
the winter is to cut a hole in the ice, using its tail ed. Edinburgh, UK: Edmonston and Douglas, 1859.
as fishing line. The bear believes this and is
soon frozen fast to the ice. The only way for it
to get free is to tear loose, leaving its tail be- Tale Types
hind. This is why bears have stubby tails today.
Variations on this basic story are found
from Finland to India. The trickster’s motiva-
tion in these tales ranges from an act of pure
T he term tale type has multiple meanings.
Literary scholars, storytellers, psycholo-
gists, and folklorists each apply this term dif-
spite to a need either to teach a bully a lesson ferently.
or to escape a predator. In English and world literature studies, the
In a related story, the gullible character term tale type generally refers to a genre, such as
buries its tail, only to be attacked by the trick- horror, fiction, or theater. Storytellers may use
ster when it is unable to flee. It has to tear free, the term similarly, referring to tale types such
and winds up with a stubby tail. This version as tall tales, ghost stories, urban legends, or
is found in India, Indonesia, and Spain, as Celtic mythology. In psychology, a tale type
well as in the West Indies. generally refers to stories categorized by similar
In another variant, a bear or wolf is functions, such as women’s stories, stories deal-
tricked into thinking that a basket tied to its ing with abuse, or magical tales. Folklorists also
tail is full of fish, when it is actually filled with use tale types as a method of categorization.
stones. The weight of the basket slows the ani- Folklore tale types are part of a number-
mal down so that the trickster can escape. In ing system formulated by nineteenth-century
a German version, the bear, again dragging a Finnish folklorists Kaarle Krohn and Julius
443

444 Talismans
Krohn. This system of categorization was fur- Tale types can be a very useful source of
ther developed by Antti Aarne in his work The inspiration for storytellers. If a storyteller is
Types of the Folktale (FFC 3; 1910), which was hunting for a fresh version of a familiar tale, a
translated and expanded by Stith Thompson look at any collection of tale types can help.
in 1928, and again in 1961, in The Types of the Such collections also can help a storyteller
Folktale: A Classification and Bibliography. This who wants to combine tale elements into a
work is referred to as the Aarne-Thompson fresh story.
tale type index or, more simply, as the tale type Ruth Stotter
index.
In the tale type index, traditional folk See also: Motifs.
narrative plots are grouped together, based
Sources
on their similar motifs, and numbered. Each Aarne, Antti. Verzeichnis der Märchentypen (The Types of the
of these groups is a tale type. The index lists Folktale). FFC 3. Helsinki, Finland: Folklore Fellows
2,499 tale types. Cinderella, for example, is Communications, 1910.
tale type 510, the persecuted heroine. Each Aarne, Antti, and Stith Thompson. The Types of the
Folktale: A Classification and Bibliography. FFC 74.
tale type is identified by a specific combina- Helsinki, Finland: Folklore Fellows Communica-
tion of motifs. The Aarne-Thompson tale tions, 1961.
type numbers are noted as AT or AaTH, fol- Ashliman, D.L. A Guide to Folktales in the English Lan-
lowed by the number assigned to that partic- guage: Based on the Aarne-Thompson Classification Sys-
tem. New York: Greenwood, 1987.
ular tale, as in the following excerpt from the
Shannon, George, comp. A Knock at the Door. Phoenix,
index: AZ: Oryx, 1992.
Sierra, Judy, comp. Cinderella. Phoenix, AZ: Oryx, 1992.
AT 360: “The Shoes That Were Stotter, Ruth. The Golden Axe. Stimson Beach, CA: Stot-
Danced to Pieces.” Plot summary: ter, 1998.
Twelve princesses wear out their shoes
every night. A soldier, with the aid of
an invisible cloak, solves the mystery, Talismans
discovering that they are dancing.
His reward is the hand of one of the
princesses. Motifs that combine to T alismans are objects that act as charms.
Generally, they are specially prepared
objects made of a specific material—stone,
structure AT 360: T68 Princess offered
as a prize. F1015.1.1 Danced-out shoes. metal, wood, or parchment—that has been in-
D1364.7 Sleeping potion. D1980 scribed with magical signs, characters, or draw-
Magic invisibility. D2131 Magic under- ings that endow them with magical properties.
ground journey. H80 Identification by These objects are believed to bring the owner
tokens. Variants of AT 360 include: good luck, success, health, and virility.
“The Danced-Out Shoes” (Rus- A talisman is not meant to be worn. In-
sian), in Stith Thompson’s 100 Folk- stead, it is carried or placed near the person or
tales, no. 6. object that must be protected.
“Elena the Wise,” Afanaysev, Rus-
See also: Amulets.
sian Fairy Tales, p. 545.
“Hild, Queen of the Elves,” Simp- Sources
son, Icelandic Folktales and Legends, Budge, E.A. Wallis. Amulets and Talismans. New York:
p. 43. Collier, 1970.
“The Shoes That Were Danced to Pavitt, William Thomas, and Kate Pavitt. Book of Talis-
mans, Amulets, and Zodiacal Gems. 3rd ed. New York:
Pieces” (German), Grimm, No. 133. S. Weiser, 1970.
“Twelve Dancing Princesses,” Lang, Thompson, C.J.S. Amulets, Talismans and Charms. Ed-
Red Fairy Book. monds, WA: Holmes, 1994.

Talmudic Stor ytelling 445
Tall Tales politician, had a cycle of tall tales told about

him—many of them created by Crockett
himself.
T all tales are stories that feature a larger-

than-life or superhuman main character
that has a specific task. The task takes the form
Other tall tales are told about regions or lo-
cal claims to fame. These include tales of the gi-
gantic size of Texas, where everything is larger
of an outlandish problem that is solved in a than life, or Idaho’s potatoes, which grow larger
humorous or outrageous way. The main ele- than any others—or so the stories claim.
ments in a tall tale are the story’s exaggerated In telling a tall tale, the storyteller should
and improbable details. make the audience aware that the story is fic-
The word tall acquired a meaning of tion, not fact. This can be done by using a spe-
“grandiose” or “high-flown” in the seventeenth cific opening, such as overdoing the idea that
century. The term tall tale probably dates to the yes, this is the truth—really it is—or by using a
mid-nineteenth century, although there is no sly tone or delivery. Once the audience real-
proof of its first use. In modern usage, a tall tale izes that what they are hearing is a tall tale, it
is simply a lie or an outlandish excuse. is up to the teller to embellish the story with
Tall tales have a long tradition that may the creativity and cleverness necessary to hold
date to the ancient Greeks. The Romans were the audience’s attention.
also familiar with this type of story, as were Gregory Hansen
the Celts.
In Europe, tall tales are sometimes called See also: Urban Legends.
Münchhausen tales, after the eighteenth- Sources
century German storyteller Karl Friedrich Hi- Bauman, Richard. Story, Performance, and Event: Contex-
eronymus Baron von Münchhausen, who was tual Studies of Oral Narrative. New York: Cambridge
nicknamed the Baron of Lies. University Press, 1986.
In the United States and Canada, tall tales Brown, Carolyn S. The Tall Tale in American Folklore and
Literature. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press,
are called yarns, windies, whoppers, stretch- 1989.
ers, and gallyfloppers. Many tall tales from the Randolph, Vance. We Always Lie to Strangers: Tall Tales
New World originated with immigrant groups. from the Ozarks. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1974.
Something about the vastness of the new land
seemed to inspire these humorous, larger-
than-life stories. Over time, groups of Ameri- Talmudic Storytelling
can workers, from cowboys to steelworkers,
each created their own tall-tale champions— (Jewish)
superhuman heroes who shared their work
experience and triumphed over all obstacles.
Tall tales are linked closely with oral tradi- A lthough the Talmud is usually thought of
simply as a repository for Jewish legal de-
cisions, it also contains a wealth of folktales
tion, but many of them are created tales with
known authors. The character Pecos Bill, for ex- and stories. Many of the stories tell of the lives
ample, made his first appearance in the “Saga of and deeds of major biblical figures and of bib-
Pecos Bill,” which was written by Edward lical events, such as the Genesis story of cre-
O’Reilly in the early 1920s. There is also some ation. The stories also use biblical themes to
evidence that Paul Bunyan, the giant logger, teach important lessons.
and his great blue ox, Babe, might have been a
newspaperman’s creation. Today, Paul Bunyan,
The Oral Law
like Pecos Bill, has entered the folk tradition. The Torah is the first five books of the Bible,
Not every tall-tale hero was imaginary. or the five books of Moses. These are the sto-
Davy Crockett, the famous frontiersman and ries that Moses received directly from God.

446 Talmudic Stor ytelling
The first part of the Talmud is called the given to Adam as a reminder of all that had
Mishnah and is referred to as half of the been lost.
“whole Torah of Moses at Sinai.” The religious This story goes on to explain that Adam
and civil laws contained in the Mishnah were passed the glowing stone to his son Seth, who
handed down orally from generation to gener- gave it to his son, and so on down to Noah,
ation and were finally written down around who used the tzohar to illuminate the ark. The
200 C.E. Talmud records Abraham wearing a glowing
Rabbi Judah the Prince took it upon him- stone around his neck that had healing powers.
self to oversee the Mishnah’s transition from In the end of days, when the Messiah ar-
an oral work to the written format that is stud- rives, the light from the stone will be released
ied to this day. By the time the Mishnah was and restored to the original light of creation.
codified, other traditions had risen up around Thus, a contradiction is paved over and a hope
the laws. Stories and folklore were seen as im- for the future is introduced.
portant enough to include in the work, espe-
cially those that shed light on some of the more Emulating God’s Attributes
obscure laws.
Certain stories in the Talmud relate directly to
The Mishnah together with these later
God’s deeds. Others point out divine charac-
stories and lessons became the Talmud. This
teristics to show how these attributes should
blending has provided the basis for still more
be mastered by mortals on Earth.
commentary, and, in this way, the Talmud
This example of the former is found in
continues to expand today.
God’s reaction to the death of his own crea-
tures; it is meant to teach us not to be over-
Types and Purpose of joyed by the fall of anyone, even our enemies:
Talmudic Stories When the Egyptian armies were
Many stories in the Talmud detail the lives of drowning in the sea, the Heavenly
the rabbis, while others speak of the rabbis’ in- Hosts broke out in songs of jubilation.
teractions with one another and with laymen. God silenced them and said, “My
The stories that serve to explain or expand creatures are perishing, and you sing
upon biblical events and personalities are praises?”
among the most intriguing in this work.
Another passage illustrates God’s modesty:
Explaining Contradictions
Modesty is a quality of God. When
Several contradictions arise in the Torah text,
He appeared to Moses the first time
and Talmudic rabbis attempt to reconcile these
He did not appear in the form of a
inconsistencies in inventive ways.
proud cedar tree, but in the form of a
In one example, the rabbis noticed that
lowly bush. When He gave the Torah
God created light before he created the Sun
to the Jews He did so from Sinai,
and the Moon. To explain this, they suggested
which is small compared to the great
that the light mentioned prior to the crea-
mountains.
tion of the Sun must be a different kind of
light. This light enabled Adam to see from
one end of the universe to the other. When
Stories of the Patriarchs
he and Eve ate the forbidden fruit, the light A fascinating element in the Torah is that many
was extinguished for them. A small part of of the most prominent figures are shown “warts
that light was hidden by God inside a glow- and all.” They doubt. They are indecisive. They
ing stone known as the tzohar. The tzohar was get angry.

Talmudic Stor ytelling 447
The rabbis of the Talmud are not afraid and asked: “What is your occupation?”
to speak out against the mistakes made by They replied: “We are merrymakers.
even the most important personages, includ- When people are sad we cheer them
ing the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Ja- up, and when we see two people who
cob. The rabbis dissect the biblical stories to have quarreled we try to make peace
show where the great men of the past could between them.”
have done better.
Learning from the Adversary
Remembering to Rely on God In Jewish thought, Satan is simply “the adver-
Jewish tradition holds that everything is just sary,” one of many divine beings who present
the way that God intended. This is referred to themselves before God from time to time.
as divine order. Humans should not attempt to One story in the Talmud shows the best way
understand God’s will or to alter his plan. to avoid being ensnared by Satan:
A story is told of King Solomon, who
overheard two birds talking about the im- Plemo used to say every day: “I defy
pending death of two of the king’s closest ad- Satan.” One day before the Day of
visers. Solomon knew that the Angel of Death Atonement Satan appeared to him in
was not allowed into the city of Luz and in- the guise of a poor man. Plemo brought
structed his advisers to go there. him out a piece of bread. The poor
Solomon continues, “But when they ar- man said to him, “On a day like this
rived they saw, to their horror, the Angel of everyone is inside but I am outside!”
Death waiting for them. ‘How did you know to He took him inside and gave him the
look for us here?’ they asked. The angel bread. The poor man now said, “At a
replied: ‘This is where I was told to meet you.’ ” time like this everyone eats at the table,
This story exemplifies the futility of trying but I am alone!” He seated him at the
to escape the inevitable, stressing that we table. He feigned that his skin was full
should be dependent on God and trust that of scabs, and he acted repulsively.
even if we cannot understand his ways, that he Plemo said to him, “Sit properly.” He
knows what is best for his creation. then said, “Give me a cup of wine to
drink.” He gave it to him. He coughed
The Prophet Elijah and threw his phlegm into the cup.
The prophet Elijah teaches several important Plemo rebuked him, and [the disguised
lessons in the Talmudic stories. In an oft- Satan] pretended he was dead. The ru-
repeated story, Elijah teaches a rabbi that mor began to circulate: Plemo killed a
there is a great value in making people feel man. Plemo ran away and hid himself
better about themselves: in a toilet outside the city. When Satan
saw how distressed he was, he revealed
Rabbi Beroka Hazzah used to frequent himself to him and said, “Why did you
the market of Be Lapat, where Elijah speak so defiantly of Satan?” “But how
often appeared to him. Once he asked else should I have spoken?” he asked.
Elijah, “Is there anyone in this market Satan answered, “You should say, ‘May
who is worthy of a share in the world the Merciful One rebuke Satan.’ ”
to come?” He [Elijah] replied, “No.”
While they were walking, two men This lengthy passage is meant to show that
passed by and he said, “These two are nothing can be accomplished unless God is in-
due for a share in the world to come.” volved. Plemo cannot defy Satan himself; he
He [Rabbi Beroka] approached them can only ask that God do so on Plemo’s behalf.

448 Tasmisus
Judaism is a covenantal religion, and so both Sources

parties—Israel and God—have their parts to Gurney, O.R. The Hittites. Rev. ed. New York: Penguin,
play in the continuing existence of the people. 1990.
From the very first verses of the Torah, ars, 1991.
when the world is brought into being, to the Hooke, S.H. Middle Eastern Mythology. Mineola, NY:
last, when Moses is praised for a final time, it Dover Publications, 2004.
can be demonstrated that Judaism has a very
strong storytelling tradition. The stories of the
Torah are meant to educate students on the Tefnut
proper way to live, the proper way to worship,
and the proper way to treat others. (Egyptian)
David M. Honigsberg
See also: Retelling: King Solomon and the Demon.

T he Egyptian goddess Tefnut was the coun-
terpart and consort of her brother Shu,
the air god. The meaning of her name is not
known, but, like her husband, she had an at-
Sources mospheric association, perhaps as moist air.
Bader, Gershom. The Encyclopedia of Talmudic Sages. Lan-
ham, MD: Jason Aronson, 1993.
Both Tefnut and Shu came forth from the
Bosker, Ben Zion. The Talmud: Selected Writings. New nose or mouth of the primordial god, Atum.
York: Paulist Press, 1989. Together, they produced the earth god, Geb,
Hebrew-English Tanakh. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication and his sister, the sky goddess, Nut. Artists de-
Society, 1999.
picted Tefnut as a lioness or as a woman with
Neusner, Jacob. The Mishnah: A New Translation. New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988. the head of a lion.
Schwartz, Howard. Reimagining the Bible: The Storytelling
of the Rabbis. New York: Oxford University Press,
1998.
Tasmisus
(Hittite)
T asmisus is a Hittite deity. His parents were

Anu and Kumarbi, who conceived Tas-
misus along with Aranzahus and the storm
god, Teshub.
Tasmisus was spat out by Kumarbi onto
Mount Kanzuras. After this rough and unnatu-
ral birth, Tasmisus joined up with Anu and the
storm god to destroy Kumarbi.
He served as the storm god’s messenger
and attendant and had the power to control
the storm winds, rain, and lightning in the
storm god’s name. Tasmisus took part in
the storm god’s final, successful battle against The Egyptians loved animal fables. Here, Tefnut,
daughter of the sun god Re, is portrayed as a lioness and
Ullikummi.
Thoth, god of wisdom, is a baboon. This artist’s sketch
Ira Spar was found in western Thebes and dates to about
1250–1100 B.C.E. (Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz/
See also: Hermes. Art Resource, NY)

Telepinu/Telepinus 449
Tefnut was identified with the governing He then left his home and wife and trav-
principal of maat, or order, as Shu was with eled to Elis and then on to Thesprotia. There,
forces of change. She also was identified with Odysseus was involved in an affair with Queen
the eye of the sun god, Re, which brought her Callidice, who bore him a son, Polypoites.
into close association with other goddesses, Odysseus fought for the Thesprotians in a war
such as Hathor and Sekhmet. against their neighbors, but when Callidice
Certain texts tell of a quarrel between died in the battle, Odysseus returned to Ithaca.
Tefnut and Re. The goddess ran away to sulk Meanwhile, Circe gave birth to another
in Nubia. Re sent Thoth, god of wisdom, to of Odysseus’s sons, Telegonus, who lived
convince her to return. Ultimately successful, with Circe on her island called Aeaea. When
Thoth returned with the pacified Tefnut, who Telegonus had grown to manhood, Circe re-
was sometimes considered to be Thoth’s wife. vealed the name of his father and gave him a
spear made by the smith god Hephaestus.
Noreen Doyle The spear was tipped with the sting of a poi-
sonous stingray. Telegonus went in search of
See also: Maat. Odysseus.
A storm forced Telegonus onto Ithaca, al-
Sources though at the time he did not know where
Egyptian Creation Accounts. New Haven, CT: Yale he had landed. Desperate for food, he stole
Egyptological Seminar, 1988. some cattle, unaware that they were the prop-
Málek, Jaromír. The Cat in Ancient Egypt. Philadelphia: erty of his father. Odysseus defended his
University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997. property and fought Telegonus, neither one
Shirun-Grumach, I. “Remarks on the Goddess Maat.” In
Pharaonic Egypt: The Bible and Christianity. Ed. Sarah
knowing the other’s identity. Telegonus killed
Israelit-Groll. Jerusalem, Israel: Magnes, 1985. Odysseus with his spear. As Odysseus lay dy-
ing, he and Telegonus discovered their rela-
tionship. Telegonus lamented his mistake.
Telegonia Telegonus, Odysseus’s widow, Penelope,
and her son, Telemachus, traveled with
Odysseus’s body to Aeaea. There, Odysseus
(Greek) was buried, and Circe made the others im-
T he lost Greek epic that is known as the

Telegonia is named for its hero, Telegonus,
the son of Odysseus and Circe.
mortal. Telegonus and Penelope were wed, as
were Telemachus and Circe.
The written form of this epic is believed to See also: Epics; Odyssey.
date to the fifth century B.C.E. and has been at-
tributed to a poet named Eugamonn. An earlier Sources
oral version may have existed, since some of Davies, Malcolm. The Greek Epic Cycle. Bristol, UK: Bris-
tol Classical Press, 1989.
the Telegonia’s elements are found in Homer’s
West, M.L., ed. and trans. Greek Epic Fragments from the
Odyssey, which was written in the eighth or Seventh to the Fifth Centuries B.C. Cambridge, MA:
ninth century B.C.E. Although the original of the Harvard University Press, 2003.
Telegonia is lost, there is a complete summary
contained in the Chrestomatheia, a later work at-
tributed to the philosopher Proclus Diadochus.
The story begins after Homer’s Odyssey
Telepinu/Telepinus
ends. Odysseus has returned home to Ithaca
and has done away with his wife’s suitors. The
(Hittite)
Telegonia states that after the burial of the suit-
ors Odysseus made sacrifices to the nymphs. C alled the noble god, Telepinu was an agri-
cultural deity of the Hittite pantheon and

450 Teshub
the firstborn and favorite son of the storm god. phallus. Teshub plotted with Anu, Tasmisus,
It was Telepinu who introduced plows, har- and Aranzhus to destroy Kumarbi, and seized
rowing, and irrigation. the kingship in heaven.
In one myth, Telepinu was angered and Among his battles, Teshub fought the mon-
stormed off onto the vast steppes. There, he strous diorite giant, Ullikummi, and, with the
was overcome by weariness and fell into a help of the other gods, defeated him. He also
deep sleep. Without the god of agriculture, the battled and defeated the dragon called Il-
lands, crops, and herds lost their fertility. Both luyankas.
gods and humans were faced with the peril of In one myth, Teshub’s son, Telepinu, flew
famine. into a wild rage and went into hiding. But in an-
The goddess Hannahanna was asked for other, very similar myth, it was Teshub who ran
help. She sent one of her bees after Telepinu, off and journeyed to the so-called Dark Earth
which found him and stung his hands and feet in a rage. He returned with the help of his
to awaken him. This made Telepinu even an- mother, Wuruntemu (or Ereshkigal), the sun
grier, and he sent floods that destroyed houses. goddess.
At last, the gods found a way to remove Ira Spar
Telepinu’s anger through magic. Telepinu went
home, and fertility was restored to the land. See also: Upelluri/Ubelluris; Wurusemu.
In another myth, Telepinu’s father asked Sources
him to bring back the sun god from the sea Gurney, O.R. The Hittites. Rev. ed. New York: Penguin,
god. Telepinu so frightened the sea god that he 1990.
not only won the day but was given the hand Hoffner, Harry A. Hittite Myths. 2nd ed. Atlanta: Schol-
of the sea god’s daughter as well. ars, 1991.
Ira Spar Dover, 2004.
See also: Culture Heroes.
Sources Theseus
1990.
Hoffner, Harry A. Hittite Myths. 2nd ed. Atlanta: Schol- (Greek)
ars, 1991.
Dover, 2004. T heseus is one of the most famous heroes
in Greek mythology. He was the son of
Aegeus, king of Athens, and Aethra of Troezen.
Some versions say that Theseus’s father was
Teshub Poseidon, god of the oceans.
When Aethra was pregnant, Aegeus left
Troezen to return to Athens. Before leaving,
(Hittite) he placed a sword and sandals under a rock. If
T eshub was the Hittite storm god, also

known as Taru, Tarhun (the conqueror),
and the king of Kummiya (king of heaven).
Aethra bore a boy, he was to go to Athens to
claim his birthright as soon as he was strong
enough to lift the rock.
Chief among the gods, with a bull as his sym- The young Theseus came of age and lifted
bol, Teshub was a god of battle and of victory the rock. Retrieving the sandals and sword, he
and the consort of Wurusemu. set out for Athens.
Teshub was a child of Anu and Kumarbi, On his way to Athens, Theseus had sev-
conceived along with Tasmisus and Aranzahus eral adventures with wild beasts and brigands.
when Kumarbi bit off and swallowed Anu’s One of the latter, Procrustes, was particularly

T heseus 451
notorious. He would invite guests to sleep on the sea. The sea was named the Aegean Sea in
his bed, and if the unfortunate guest was too his honor.
short for the bed, Procrustes would stretch After Aegeus’s death, Theseus’s brother,
him to fit it. If the guest was too tall, Procrustes Pallas, conspired to assassinate him. So The-
would make him fit by cutting off his feet. seus killed Pallas and took the throne.
Medea Further Adventures

Theseus and his good friend Peirithous both
When Theseus reached Athens, he faced a new
wanted to marry daughters of Zeus. They be-
problem—Medea, the wife of Aegeus. Medea
gan by kidnapping the young Helen, who
was the sorceress who had helped her husband,
would later play a major role in the Trojan
Jason, to win the Golden Fleece, only to be be-
War. Theseus won Helen in a bet with Peirit-
trayed by him. She had slain their children and
hous, and then had to accompany his friend to
fled to Athens.
Hades to steal away Persephone. Peirithous
When Theseus arrived in Athens, Aegeus
did not survive this adventure.
did not know that the young man was his
Theseus also fought against the Amazons,
son. Medea saw Theseus as a possible rival
the mythical female warriors. Some accounts
and persuaded Aegeus to kill him by sending
say that he alone fought them; others say he
Theseus to capture the savage Marathonian
fought at the side of Hercules. But all the stories
Bull. To Medea’s disappointment, Theseus
agree that Theseus returned with a captured
was victorious, so she told Aegeus to give
Amazon wife, either Antiope, the queen’s sis-
Theseus poisoned wine. But just as Theseus
ter, or Hippolyte, the Amazon queen. A battle
was about to drink, Aegeus recognized The-
followed, as the Amazons fought to free their
seus’s sword and knocked the goblet away.
comrade. Depending on the version of the
Medea fled.
story, she was either slain or freed, but she left
After Medea’s departure, there was blood-
a son with Theseus, called Hippolytus.
shed between the houses of Aegeus and Mi-
Theseus then married Ariadne’s sister,
nos, his brother, in Crete. A drought struck
Phaedra. But that marriage was to end in
Athens, and an oracle warned that Minos must
tragedy. Phaedra was much younger than
be offered compensation. Minos demanded
Theseus and tried to seduce his son, Hippoly-
seven maidens and seven youths to be sacri-
tus. When the young man refused her, she ac-
ficed to the Minotaur, the monstrous creature
cused him of rape. Hippolytus, escaping his
that was half man and half bull, once every
father’s anger, rode too close to the cliffs and
nine years.
was killed by a wave sent by Poseidon. Phae-
Theseus was among the chosen victims.
dra, overcome by guilt, killed herself.
He promised Aegeus that his ship’s black flag
Late in his life, Theseus was exiled from
would be replaced with a white flag if he was
Athens. He died in a fall from a cliff.
victorious, and sailed off to Crete to vanquish
the Minotaur. Ariadne, a young Cretan woman See also: Culture Heroes; Minotaur.
already betrothed to Dionysus, fell in love with
Theseus and helped him defeat the Minotaur. Sources
Ariadne left Crete with Theseus, but he aban- Apollodorus. Library of Greek Mythology. Trans. Robin
doned her on the island of Dia. Theseus later Hard. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
married Ariadne’s sister, Phaedra. Grant, Michael. Myths of the Greeks and Romans. Cleve-
Returning to Athens, Theseus forgot to Tyrrell, William B., and Frieda S. Brown. Athenian Myths
switch the black sail to the white one. Aegeus, and Institutions: Words in Action. New York: Oxford
sure that his son was dead, hurled himself into University Press, 1991.

452 T hompson, Stith
Thompson, Stith In 1946, Thompson published The Folktale,

which contained a selection of folktales from
various geographical regions, as well as expla-
(1885–1976) nations of forms, classification, collections, and
a summary of scholarship and theories.
T he twentieth-century American folklorist

Stith Thompson is known for his work
with folklore, mythology, and folktale types.
Thompson served as president of the
American Folklore Society from 1937 to 1939.
He was the U.S. delegate to the 1937 Interna-
Thompson created a center for folklore stud- tional Folklore Congress in Paris.
ies and established folklore as an academic An excellent administrator, Thompson
discipline. Among his numerous publications, established the first U.S. doctoral program in
perhaps his most important contribution was folklore at Indiana University in 1949. Dur-
the Motif-Index of Folk Literature. This reference ing his tenure as dean of Indiana University,
work in six volumes, first published between Thompson founded a summer institute for
1932 and 1936, catalogs recurrent subjects, scholars and students for the study of folklore
characters, themes, motifs, and other elements and established a folklore collection in the li-
found in world folklore. brary. In recognition and appreciation of his
Thompson was born in Bloomfield, Ken- tireless industry, Thompson was named a
tucky, on March 7, 1885. As a young man, he distinguished service professor in 1953.
studied English literature at the University of Thompson died in Columbus, Indiana, on
Wisconsin, where he earned his bachelor’s de- January 13, 1976.
gree in 1909. He went on to complete his Maria Teresa Agozzino
master’s degree in English literature at the Uni-
versity of California. Thompson’s dissertation, See also: Aarne, Antti; Motif Index.
“European Tales Among the North American
Indians,” earned him a Ph.D. in English from Sources
the same university. In 1921, Thompson was Aarne, Antti. Verzeichnis der Märchentypen (The Types of the
Folktale). FFC 3. Helsinki, Finland: Folklore Fellows
appointed associate professor of English and di-
Communications, 1910.
rector of composition at Indiana University, Aarne, Antti, and Stith Thompson. The Types of the
where he was promoted to professor of English Folktale: A Classification and Bibliography. FFC 74.
and folklore in 1939. He remained at Indiana Helsinki, Finland: Folklore Fellows Communica-
University until his retirement in 1955. tions, 1961.
Dorson, Richard M. “Stith Thompson.” Journal of Ameri-
While teaching folklore courses, Thomp- can Folklore 90 (1977): 3–7.
son continued to work on codifying folk nar- Thompson, Stith. A Folklorist’s Progress: Reflections of a
ratives. His first major contribution was the Scholar’s Life. Bloomington: Indiana University Press,
translation and enlargement of Finnish folk- 1996.
———. The Folktale. 1946. Berkeley: University of Cali-
lorist Antti Aarne’s tale type index, Verzeichnis fornia Press, 1977.
der Märchentypen (The Types of the Folktale) in ———. Motif-Index of Folk Literature. Bloomington: Indi-
1928, which he revised again in 1961. The in- ana University Press, 1932–1936.
dex is now commonly referred to as the
Aarne-Thompson tale type index or as just
the tale type index. Tales are classified by
Aarne-Thompson numbers (noted as AT or
Thor
AaTH).
Thompson also compiled the Motif-Index
(Norse)
of Folk Literature between 1932 and 1936. Both
the tale type and motif indexes are essential
reference works for folklorists and storytellers.
T hor, the Norse god of thunder, generally
was portrayed as a powerfully built man
with flaming red or red-gold hair and beard.

T hor 453
This mighty warrior had gloves of iron and a

magic belt called Megingjard that doubled his
strength. His favorite weapon was his ham-
mer, Mjollnir. Thor threw Mjollnir to make
the lightning flash, and it always returned to
his hand.
During thunderstorms, Thor was believed
to be riding across the heavens in his chariot
pulled by two goats, Tanngrisni (gap-tooth)
and Tanngnost (tooth-grinder). Whenever
Thor grew hungry, he would slay and eat the
goats, who would then magically return to life.
Thor’s home was his hall, Bilskirnir, which
he shared with his wife, Sif. He also had a
long-lasting affair with a woman of the giants,
Jarnsaxa, by whom he had three children: two
sons, Magni and Modi, and a daughter,
Thrud.
Thor and Thrym

A giant called Thrym stole Thor’s hammer
and demanded the hand of Freya, the god-
dess of love and beauty, in exchange. This
was out of the question, so Thor and the mis-
chievous Loki devised a plot to get the ham-
mer back. Thor was the Norse god of thunder and lightning. In this
Thor disguised himself as Freya and set first-century C.E. bronze, Thor is holding his hammer,
called Mjollnir. The figurine, which dates to about 1000
off for Thrym’s hall. There, the giants were C.E., was found in Iceland. (Werner Forman/Art Re-
amazed at how much the “bride” ate and source, NY)
drank, but Loki explained that this was be-
cause she had not eaten or drunk for nine days
Thor sailed out with the giant Hymir as
in anticipation of this day. Thrym wanted to
guide and took the boat farther out to sea than
kiss his bride, but he was put off by her fiery
Hymir would normally have ventured. Thor
eyes and ruddy complexion. Loki explained
baited his hook and cast his line, hooking the
that she was feverish from lack of sleep.
Midgard serpent.
Eager to get the marriage over and done,
A tremendous battle ensued between god
Thrym had the magic hammer placed on the
and beast. Thor began to win the savage bat-
bride’s knees, as was the custom. This was a
tle, and might have killed the serpent, but the
fatal error. Thor, shedding his disguise, took
terrified Hymir, sure he would be drowned,
up the hammer. Soon, all the giants in the hall
cut the line. The force of the release sent Thor
lay dead.
crashing back into Hymir, and the giant was
drowned.
The Midgard Serpent In another version of this tale, after Hymir
Thor was a great fisherman and decided to cut the line, Thor struck him an angry blow
catch the ultimate prize: the Midgard serpent. that hurled the giant overboard. Hymir man-
This incredibly large snake encircled the world, aged to climb back aboard the boat, while
holding its tail in its mouth. Thor waded ashore.

454 T hoth/Djehuty
The Common Man’s God Thoth’s knowledge extended to all

branches of learning. He taught Isis the magic
Odin, the supreme god and creator, was the necessary to revive the dead and was capable of
preferred god of the Norse noblemen. But his restoring the lost eye of Horus. By the Middle
son Thor was a deity of the common man. This and New Kingdoms (c. 2106–1786 B.C.E. and
was perhaps because Odin was a fairly am- c. 1550–1069 B.C.E., respectively), he was viewed
biguous figure and worship of him included as the establisher of laws and the principles of
human sacrifice. Thor was benevolent toward sacred architecture, decoration, texts, and rites.
mankind and did not demand sacrifice. At Hermopolis, which was Thoth’s princi-
ple cult center, he created the Ogdoad, a set of
See also: Norse Mythology; Retelling: Thor eight divinities that included Nun and Amun.
Catches the Midgard Serpent. He also was regarded as the eldest son of Re,
whom he often accompanied in the solar bar-
Sources que (the ship that represents the rising and set-
Crossley-Howard, Kevin. The Norse Myths. New York: ting Sun) as either the scribe of the divine book
Pantheon, 1980.
Hollander, Lee M., trans. The Poetic Edda. Austin: Uni- at the right of Re or the scribe of Maat.
versity of Texas Press, 1928. The Book of Thoth was purported to con-
Lindow, John. Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, tain all knowledge, cultural and natural. While
Rituals, and Beliefs. New York: Oxford University Thoth could see into anyone else’s heart, he
Press, 2002.
himself was mysterious and unknown.
ogy. Trans. Jean I. Young. Berkeley: University of Seshat, goddess of writing, is variously
California Press, 2001. credited as Thoth’s wife or daughter. In Greek
mythology, he is Hermes.
Noreen Doyle
Thoth/Djehuty See also: Wise Man or Woman.
(Egyptian) Sources
Boylan, Patrick. Thoth, the Hermes of Egypt: A Study of Some
T hoth is the Egyptian god most closely asso-

ciated with intellectual pursuits, including
writing and magic. Divine scribe and so-called
Aspects of Theological Thought in Ancient Egypt. New
Doxey, Denise M. “Thoth.” In The Oxford Encyclopedia of
lord of the sacred words, he often was shown Ancient Egypt. Vol. 3. Ed. D.B. Redford. New York:
making calculations, recording events, or an- Oxford University Press, 2001.
Griffiths, J. Gwyn. The Conflict of Horus and Seth from
nouncing judgments. Egyptian and Classical Sources. Liverpool, UK: Liver-
Thoth appeared as a yellow baboon, a sa- pool University Press, 1960.
cred ibis, or a man with the head of an ibis. As
a moon god, he often wore a crown of a lunar
disc cradled in a lunar crescent.
Thoth was cast as an impartial judge in the
Tiamat
contest between the gods Horus and Seth for
the crown. Thoth eventually became an advo-
cate for the young Horus. He took on a similar
role for the mortal dead, recording the out-
come of the weighing of their hearts against
T iamat, a goddess of the ocean, is described
as the primordial mother of the gods in
the Babylonian creation myth, Enuma Elish.
maat (truth) and proclaiming the results before Her consort in this myth is Apsu, the god of
Osiris, god of the dead. As such a participant in the subterranean waters.
the divine judicial system, Thoth had weights The myth begins before the existence of
and measures under his jurisdiction. the heavens and Earth, as the mother, Tiamat,

Tiamat 455
and her husband, Apsu, mingled their waters of the gods, for advice. Anshar ordered Ea to
together, creating their progeny. Their first two subdue Tiamat, but Ea’s powers were not
children were Lahmu and Lahamu. Later, the strong enough to counter her spells. Finally,
pair Anshar and Kishar were born, who then Ea summoned Marduk, who offered to cham-
gave birth to Anu, the supreme god of heaven. pion the gods and fight against Tiamat.
Anu fathered Nudimmud, also known as Ea,
the god of wisdom. The Battle with Marduk
The noise created by the divine offspring
Marduk challenged Tiamat to one-on-one
greatly disturbed the goddess Tiamat, but she
combat. The two gods were soon locked in
indulged her young. Apsu complained about
battle. Marduk spread out his net, encircled
loss of sleep at night and lack of rest during the
Tiamat in a trap, and released an ill wind to-
day. Frustrated, angry, and pushed to his limit,
ward her face. The wind entered Tiamat’s
Apsu decided to kill the deities.
mouth and bloated her belly. Marduk then
When she heard of Apsu’s decision, Tia-
shot an arrow into her belly. It cut her innards
mat urged tolerance, but to no avail. When
and pieced her heart. Marduk killed Tiamat,
the gods learned of Apsu’s decision, they were
flung down her carcass, and stood on it. He
stunned. The wise Ea decided that they must
smashed her remaining forces, captured
act. He fashioned a magic spell and placed it
Qingu, and took away the tablet of destinies.
on Apsu, putting him into a deep slumber. Ea
Next, Marduk turned his attention to the
then bound both Apsu and Mummu, Apsu’s
body of Tiamat. He crushed her skull with his
vizier (or chief adviser). He killed Apsu and
mace and cut open her arteries. He then split
made Mummu a prisoner.
her body in two. He set up half of her body as
a roof for the heavens and the other half as the
Tiamat and Marduk surface of the earth. The Tigris and Euphrates
rivers flowed from her eyes, and mountains
Soon afterward, Marduk, the hero, was born
were formed from her breasts.
to Ea and his wife, Damkina. Anu formed
As for Tiamat’s twelve creatures, Marduk
and produced four terrifying winds that he
smashed their weapons and made statues of
gave to Marduk. Marduk toyed with the
them to be set up before the gate of Apsu.
winds, creating a storm that agitated Tiamat
Qingu was sentenced to death, and mankind
and kept her and her offspring awake. Tia-
was formed from his blood.
mat’s offspring complained bitterly to their
Storytellers may view this myth in several
mother to do something. They urged Tiamat
ways. Depending on the age and knowledge
to respond to Marduk’s aggressive, provok-
level of the audience, this story may be told as
ing behavior.
a psychological tale, a dragon-slaying tale, a
Tiamat agreed and prepared for war. She
creation tale, or a hero tale.
gave birth to twelve monster serpents: three
Ira Spar
types of horned snakes, a snake-dragon, a hairy
hero-man, a storm-beast, a lion-demon, a lion-
See also: Mother Goddess/Earth Mother.
man, a scorpion-man, the essence of fierce
storms, a fish-man, and a bull-man. Tiamat Sources
appointed her lover, Qingu, as chief of these Foster, Benjamin R. Before the Muses: An Anthology of Akka-
forces. She also gave him control over the dian Literature. Potomac, MD: CDL, 1996.
tablet of destinies, which held the power to Jacobsen, Thorkild. The Treasures of Darkness: A History of
control divine authority as well as human life. Mesopotamian Religion. New Haven, CT: Yale Uni-
Tiamat assembled her creatures to pre- Reiner, Erica. Your Thwarts in Pieces, Your Mooring Rope
pare for battle. Her array of powers was so Cut: Poetry from Babylon and Assyria. Ann Arbor: Uni-
great that Ea was forced to go to Anshar, king versity of Michigan Press, 1985.

456 Tibetan Stor ytelling
Tibetan Storytelling ary bards known as drungpas (male) and drung-

mas (female). It is said that in the past, the
hoofprints of Gesar’s horse might magically
T he Chinese occupation of Tibet, which

began in 1951, led to a loss of many tra-
ditional practices, including storytelling. The
appear in a cleared circle around which the
audience sat.
wandering storytellers known as lami manipas See also: Yeti; Retelling: Geser.
or lama manis are no longer sanctioned by
Sources
the current regime. Although they are not of- Coleman, Graham. A Handbook of Tibetan Culture: A
ficially banned, their tradition, which dates Guide to Tibetan Centres and Resources. Boston:
back to perhaps the twelfth century C.E., is Shambhala, 1994.
slowly dying out. Hyde-Chambers, Frederick, and Audrey Hyde-
Chambers. Tibetan Folk Tales. Boston: Shambhala,
The lami manipas were traditionally of
1981.
common birth and served a religious func-
tion. They traveled around Tibet carrying
small shrines and sets of thangkas, which are
traditional scrolls painted with religious
Tolkien, J.R.R.
themes.
The stories the lami manipas told were (1892–1973)
based on the paintings and served a dual pur-
pose. They provided entertainment and edu-
cated the audience about the symbolism and
T he English author John Ronald Reuel
Tolkien is perhaps best known for his epic
fantasy novel The Lord of the Rings.
meanings of the paintings and, through them,
the traditional Tibetan Buddhist principles Childhood
and legends. Whole villages would gather to
Tolkien was born on January 3, 1892, in Bloem-
hear these stories, especially during the holy
fontein, South Africa, to Arthur Reuel Tolkien
month of the Buddha’s birth, often chanting
and Mabel Suffield Tolkien. His father died
religious mantras together.
when the boy was four, and young John, his
Another form of storytelling that has been
brother, Hilary, and their mother settled near
exiled for its religious nature is a type of
Birmingham, England. Their mother joined the
dance. There are two major types, cham,
Roman Catholic Church soon after their return
which is sacred monastic dancing meant to
to England. She raised the boys in the new faith
banish evil and bring blessings, and achi
and cut them off from both sides of their Angli-
lhamo, the folk dances and operas that portray
can family.
moral stories of good versus evil.
Tolkien’s mother died in 1904, and Father
Despite the Chinese occupation, one tra-
Francis X. Morgan, of the Birmingham Ora-
ditional form of storytelling is very much alive
tory Church, made sure the boys were pro-
in Tibet: the recitation of the Tibetan national
tected. They lived with an aunt for a time and
epic, Gesar of Ling. This story of the hero-
then in a rooming house for orphans.
magician-king is known in all the Himalayan
John had proven himself adept at lan-
nations. In neighboring Ladakh it is known as
guage, mastering Latin and Greek at an early
Kesar’s Saga.
age. He later added Finnish to his repertoire.
One of the longest epics still in active
recitation, the nearly 200 episodes may take a
total of three months to recite. The episodes
Love and War
are recited only at night and in the winter, and Tolkien’s life was changed when, at sixteen, he
several nights are required to complete each met a fellow lodger at school named Edith
one. The recitation is performed by the vision- Bratt. She was nineteen, and their friendship

Tolkien, J.R.R. 457
soon deepened. Tolkien, distracted by his new read Norse mythology and drink beer. During
relationship, failed to gain admission to Ox- this period, Tolkien and his wife had two more
ford on his first attempt. This caused Father sons, Michael Hilary Reuel and Christopher
Francis to forbid Tolkien from having any con- Reuel.
tact with Miss Bratt until he was twenty-one. In 1925, Tolkien took a position at Oxford
Tolkien dutifully followed Father Francis’s University, where he stayed until 1959. He en-
order and entered Oxford’s Exeter College. joyed the academic life. During his time at Ox-
As soon as he reached the proper age, Tolkien ford, he helped found a group called the
once again took up his relationship with Edith. Inklings, which included the author C.S. Lewis.
She ended a previous engagement and con- When he was not working, he continued to de-
verted to Catholicism. fine his imaginary world and successfully raise
The young couple’s plans were interrupted a family. His only daughter, Priscilla, was born
by the outbreak of World War I. Tolkien did in 1929.
not immediately enlist. Instead, he finished his
degree in June 1915. By then, he had com- The Hobbit
pleted his first invented language, Qenya, and
As Tolkien told it, one day he was marking
was enthralled with lyric poetry.
papers and found that a student had left an
Tolkien entered the army and was made
exam page blank. Professor Tolkien wrote on
second lieutenant. He and Edith married at
the page, “In a hole in the ground there lived
last on March 22, 1916, before he shipped out
a hobbit.” Inspired, he went on to start a tale
to France. While at the front near the Somme
of adventure featuring the hobbit and his
River, Tolkien began to work on his epic
world.
mythology and contracted trench fever. He
Editor Susan Dagnall of the George Allen
was discharged and returned home in Novem-
and Unwin publishing company saw an in-
ber 1916.
complete version of the book and asked the
professor to finish it. After the publisher’s ten-
Early Works and Career year-old son approved of the story—and
earned a shilling for the effort—it was pur-
Tolkien completed his first work of fantasy,
chased. The Hobbit was published in 1937.
Book of Lost Tales, during his recovery. He con-
The Hobbit sold so well that the Unwin
tinued to refine his imaginary beings, their
asked Tolkien if he had a sequel in mind. It
world, and their languages for the rest of his
took Tolkien sixteen years to complete his
life. During Tolkien’s extended recuperation,
epic masterpiece, The Lord of the Rings. The
Edith gave birth to their first son, John Francis
novel, written in three parts—The Fellowship of
Reuel, in 1917.
the Ring, The Two Towers, and The Return of the
Shortly after the end of the war, Tolkien left
King—was published in 1954 and 1955. De-
the service and took his first job, as assistant
spite mixed reviews, it found an eager audi-
lexicographer for The New English Dictionary
ence, which quickly grew after the production
(later known as The Oxford English Dictionary).
of a radio adaptation in 1956.
He then worked at the University of Leeds,
where he taught English language and litera-
ture until 1925.
Widespread Success
It was at Leeds that Tolkien collaborated The Lord of the Rings was more than a tale of
with Eric Valentine Gordon on a highly re- men, wizards, trolls, dwarves, hobbits, and
garded translation of the fourteenth-century elves. Tolkien had been heavily influenced
poem Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Tolkien by his war experiences and what he saw as
was also a founding member of the Viking man’s careless disregard for Earth’s natural
Club, where students and teachers gathered to resources.

458 Tom T humb
Despite its epic scope and fantastic im- Curry, Patrick. Defending Middle-Earth: Tolkien, Myth and
agery, people identified with the work’s tales of Modernity. New York: St. Martin’s, 1997.
Grotta, Daniel. The Biography of J.R.R. Tolkien: Architect of
love, courage, and friendship. The latter theme Middle Earth. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: Running Press,
was presented in myriad combinations, but 1978.
most notably between the two hobbits, Frodo Pearce, Joseph. Tolkien: Man and Myth. San Francisco: Ig-
Baggins and Samwise Gamgee. Tolkien’s deep natius, 1998.
Tolkien, J.R.R. Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien. Ed. Humphrey
knowledge of the English language led him to
Carpenter and Christopher Tolkien. Boston:
name characters and settings using ancient Houghton Mifflin, 1981.
tongues, in addition to his own inventions. ———. The Lord of the Rings. 1954–1955. Boston:
A paperback edition of the work was pub- Houghton Mifflin, 2003.
lished in 1965. An American publisher re- ———. The Monsters and the Critics, and Other Essays.
Boston: Allen and Unwin, 1983.
leased the three parts as separate books and ———. The Silmarillion. Ed. Christopher Tolkien.
fell into a highly publicized copyright dispute Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977.
with Tolkien’s British publisher. The media at- ———. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Pearl, Sir Orfeo.
tention caught the imagination of the Ameri- New York: Del Rey, 1977.
can youth and propelled the book to cult
status as sales skyrocketed.
Tolkien appreciated the notoriety and rev-
enue, but he disliked being the object of atten-
Tom Thumb
tion. He and Edith relocated to Bournemouth
on England’s south coast in 1969, where they
(English)
lived quietly until Edith died in 1971.
After Edith’s death, Tolkien moved into
rooms provided by Merton College. He died
T om Thumb is perhaps the earliest minia-
ture human hero. One of the first stories
written about the diminutive character dates
on September 2, 1973. from 1621, but he may well have existed in
folklore long before that writing.
The Silmarillion The most familiar version of Tom Thumb’s
story takes place in an Arthurian setting. The
Tolkien spent his final years revising his mythol-
wizard Merlin is present at the birth of the
ogy and trying to complete a more heavily
thumb-sized boy. But the rest, the tongue-in-
mythic work, The Silmarillion, to his satisfaction.
cheek exploits and too-cute clothing—a dou-
Working alongside him was his son Christo-
blet made of thistledown and an oak-leaf
pher, who spent twenty-five years editing and
hat—reflect the tone of the early seventeenth
polishing this complete history of Middle Earth
century. Tom Thumb is, in fact, reminiscent of
after his father’s death. The work was never
the fairy folk of Shakespeare’s A Midsummer
finished.
Night’s Dream (c. 1595–1596).
Tolkien’s works gained an even wider au-
One of the earliest written versions of Tom
dience with the worldwide success of director
Thumb’s tale was The History of Tom Thumbe the
Peter Jackson’s faithful three-film adaptation
Little, for his small stature surnamed, King Arthvrs
of the novel. The final film of the trilogy, The
Dwarfe: Whose Life and aduentures containe many
Return of the King (2003), was awarded eleven
strange and wonderfull accidents, published for the
Academy Awards.
delight of merry Time-spenders (1621) by Richard
Bob Greenberger
Johnson. An anonymous verse version ap-
peared in 1630 as Tom Thumbe, His Life and
See also: Fantasy.
Death: Wherein is declared many Marvailous Acts of
Sources Manhood, full of wonder, and strange merriments:
Carpenter, Humphrey. Tolkien: A Biography. Boston: Which the little Knight lived in King Arthurs time,
Houghton Mifflin, 1977. and famous in the Court of Great-Brittaine.

Tomte/Tomten/Tomtar 459
In 1730 and 1731, the English author Henry The famous showman P.T. Barnum featured in
Fielding wrote a play based on the story of his show Charles Sherwood Stratton, who was
Tom Thumb. He used it to satirize both heroic just 25 inches (64 centimeters) tall, under the
drama and government politics. name General Tom Thumb. And in 1829, the
For 300 years, the tale has turned up in var- Baltimore and Ohio Railroad experimented
ious forms, from plays to children’s books. with its first steam engine, which was called the
Bawdy elements relating to Tom’s stature and Tom Thumb.
fame with the ladies often were included, as was There seems to be something innately fas-
the mention of Merlin and King Arthur. The cinating about the idea of miniature human
story has been given both tragic and happy life. The topic was explored in the movies The
endings. The former include Tom being swal- Incredible Shrinking Man (1957; 2008), The In-
lowed by a cow or bitten by a venomous spider. credible Shrinking Woman (1981; 1994), and
The children’s versions, however, usually omit Honey, I Shrunk the Kids (1989).
both King Arthur and the tragic ending. Audiences’ fascination with small beings,
In the United States in the nineteenth cen- combined with the symbolism of the common
tury, there were two unique uses of the story. man getting the better of the big men, make
Tom Thumb an enduring character.
See also: No-Bigger-than-a-Finger; Retelling:

Tom Thumb’s Adventures.
Sources
Bauer, Susan. “Tom Thumb in the Arthurian Tradition.”
University of Rochester Libraries. http://www.lib.
rochester.edu/camelot/TTMenu.htm.
Desmond, Alice Curtis. Barnum Presents General Tom
Thumb. New York: Macmillan, 1954.
Hirsch, Richard S.M., ed. The Most Pleasant History of Tom
a Lincolne. Columbia: University of South Carolina
Press, 1978.
Tomte/Tomten/Tomtar
(Swedish)
E very farm in Sweden was said to have a

tomte (the plural is tomten or tomtar), a help-
ful little being.
The tomte was about the size of a four-year-
old child but had an old man’s face and a long
white or gray beard. He generally wore a knit-
ted hat that resembled those found on garden
gnomes, a jacket, knickers, red stockings, and
sturdy shoes. In Finland, the tomte is called a
The story of Tom Thumb originated in England during tontu.
the Middle Ages. In the nineteenth century, showman The folklore does not mention female
P.T. Barnum gave this performer the stage name of tomten. There generally was only one tomte
General Tom Thumb. His real name was Charles Sher-
wood Stratton (1838–1883). (London Stereoscopic per household. A shy being, unwilling to be
Company/Stringer/Getty Images) seen by humans, the tomte could make himself

460 Tongue Twisters
invisible. In some stories, this ability came from child knows, is to say it as quickly and as accu-
his hat, which he would twist around. This may rately as possible. A tongue twister may sound
be derived from the tarnkap or tarnhelm of invis- like a real sentence, such as “She sells seashells
ibility, out of Norse and Germanic lore. by the seashore.” But it also may be a combi-
When he was treated nicely and when the nation of words put together just to make the
farm animals were treated well, the tomte was sentence difficult to say, such as “How much
happy and willingly took care of the home wood could a woodchuck chuck, if a wood-
and farm, including the animals and people. chuck could chuck wood?”
The best way to reward him was to leave a Tongue twisters are often used in speech
bowl of rice pudding in the stable on Christ- therapy, to help those with speech problems or
mas night, which also may have served as a those who are trying to diminish an accent.
way of including the tomte in the festivities. Creating tongue twisters is a common and en-
If the tomte was not treated with courtesy joyable exercise that also can teach word skills.
or the farm folk mistreated the animals, the Above all, tongue twisters have the pri-
tomte would become furious. And if he was mary purpose of being fun. Here are some
mocked, he would see that some misfortune samples from around the world:
befell the mocker. This punishment varied
from something relatively mild, such as tying France: Tongue twister in French is
the cows’ tails into knots, to the more serious virelangues.
penalty of causing the harvest to fail or the Je suis ce que je suis et si je suis ce que je
cows’ milk to go sour. The tomte even might suis, qu’est-ce que je suis? (I am what I
abandon the farm altogether, leaving the farm am and if I am what I am, what am I?)
folks to regret losing their helper.
The Christmas rice pudding tradition and Spain: The Spanish word for tongue
an 1881 painting of a tomte by the Swedish il- twister is trabalenguas.
lustrator Jenny Nystrom have led people to re- ¡Usted no nada nada? No, no traje traje.
late the tomte to Santa Claus. Santa sometimes (Don’t you swim? No, no swimming
is said to be helped not by elves but by tomten. suit.)
See also: Brownies. Germany: The German word for

tongue twister is zungenbrecher.
Sources Kluge kleine Katzen kratzen keine
Blecher, Lone Thygesen, and George Blecher. Swedish
Folktales and Legends. New York: Pantheon, 1993.
Krokodile. (Clever little cats don’t
Braekstad, H.L., trans. Swedish Folk Tales. New York: scratch crocodiles.)
Hippocrene, 1998.
Miles, Clement A. Christmas Customs and Traditions: Their China: The Mandarin for tongue
History and Significance. Mineola, NY: Dover, 1976.
twister is jao k’ou ling.
Ma ma qi ma, ma man, ma ma ma ma.
(Mother is riding a horse. The horse
Tongue Twisters moves slowly. Mother chides the
horse.)
T ongue twisters are alliterative rhymes or

sentences that are difficult to say without
making a mistake and are perfect for audi-
Indonesia: The words in Indonesian
for tongue twister are pelincah lidah.
ence participation during a storytelling session. Kuku kaki kakekku kaku. (My
Tongue twisters are a multilingual phenome- grandfather’s toenail is stiff.)
non that can be found in almost all languages.
The point of a tongue twister, as every See also: Nonsense Rhymes.

Tree Spir its 461
Sources after he finished teaching her the secrets of his

Reck, Michael. First International Collection of Tongue magic.
Twisters. www.uebersetzung.at/twister/. In Shakespeare’s play The Tempest (c.
Rosenbloom, Joseph. World’s Toughest Tongue Twisters.
New York: Sterling, 1987.
1611), the magician Prospero speaks of hav-
Schwartz, Alvin. A Twister of Twists, a Tangler of Tongues. ing rescued Ariel from a “cloven pine,” where
Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1972. the spirit had been imprisoned by a witch.
He then threatens to shut Ariel in an oak,
presumably a more uncomfortable prison, if
Tree Spirits she does not submit to serving him.
M any of the world’s cultures have be-

lieved that trees had spirits. Among the
earliest known spirits of this type were the
The Green Man
In medieval Europe, the tree spirit appeared
dryads of Greek mythology. Dryads were in the form of the Green Man (called ghille-dhu
nymphs, or nature spirits, who inhabited trees in Scotland). The Green Man has worn many
and presided over woodlands. guises.
The word dryad means “oak spirit.” The In Arthurian legend, the terrifying Green
Greeks had other names for inhabitants of dif- Knight let Sir Gawain cut off his head, then put
ferent types of trees, but they have fallen out it back on and rode away, challenging Gawain
of use. The name dryad currently refers to any to accept an axe blow from him in a year’s
tree spirit. time. Fertility figures, such as England’s John
Hamadryads were a subset of tree nymphs. Barleycorn, were sacrificed each year so the
They were so closely bound to their trees that crops would grow.
they lived only as long as their trees stood, dy- Many Polynesian cultures include tales of
ing when their trees fell or were cut down. a vegetable god who dies and is buried so food
plants can grow from his body for a starving
village. To the American Indians, all living
Female Tree Spirits things have a spirit, though they usually do
Usually appearing as beautiful young women, not manifest as a separate being.
dryads and other nymphs often were pursued Evidence of the Green Man can be found
by satyrs and the nature god Pan. They were in architecture around the world. Buildings
said to entrance humans as well. Eurydice, the in America and Europe are often decorated
doomed bride of Orpheus, was a dryad. with faces sprouting leaves, vines, and flow-
The mortal lovers Baucis and Philemon ers. Surprisingly, these images often appear
prayed to never be parted, even in death. Zeus on churches. It is unclear whether they were
answered their prayers and turned them into holdovers from pre-Christian traditions or
trees upon their deaths. were meant to represent Jesus’s incarnation.
The god Apollo pursued the reluctant Sculptures from the Indian Jain tradition,
nymph Daphne, who transformed into a lau- which teaches kindness and reverence for all
rel tree to escape his attentions. Apollo con- forms of life, including plants, depict human
soled himself by claiming the laurel as his tree figures so entwined with vegetation that it is
and weaving her leaves into a wreath. Laurel difficult to tell where one ends and the other
wreathes, real or symbolic, are still used as a begins.
prize for athletic prowess. The English author C.S. Lewis included
There are several examples of spirits and dryads in his fantasy world of Narnia. J.R.R.
other beings that were trapped in trees. In Tolkien described sentient and often malev-
some versions of the King Arthur myths, the olent trees that were shepherded by the gi-
sorceress Nimue locked Merlin inside a tree ant, treelike Ents in his Lord of the Rings

462 Tr icksters
(1954–1955). More recently, little white ko- ity, or unchecked appetite of characters such as
dama, tree-dwelling nature spirits, played a Coyote, Rabbit, Turtle, and Inktomi shows an
small but crucial role in Hayao Miyazaki’s audience exactly what becomes of people who
animated film Princess Mononoke (1997). conduct themselves in similar ways.
Like animal spirits, dryads and other tree Tricksters sometimes turn their attention
spirits remind us that there are more voices in and energy toward fighting against monsters
the world than our own and that it is impor- or ridding a place of a corrupt leader. In these
tant to listen to them all. stories, a trickster’s quick wit and silver tongue
Shanti Fader can be held up as an example of how to deal
with adversity or extract oneself from a diffi-
See also: Adroanzi; Lutin. cult situation.
A trickster also can succeed where tradi-
Sources
Grant, Michael. Myths of the Greeks and Romans. Cleve- tional methods and wisdom fail. Since they
land, OH: World, 1962. are unpredictable, they are that much harder
Mercatante, Anthony S. The Magic Garden: The Myth and to foil. One Hindu tale tells of a compassion-
Folklore of Flowers, Plants, Trees and Herbs. New York: ate Brahman who freed a tiger from a cage.
Harper and Row, 1976.
The tiger tried to eat his benefactor (despite
having promised while still in the cage that it
Tricksters would not) as the Brahman begged for his life.
Grudgingly, the tiger agreed to spare the Brah-
man if he could find three creatures who
T ricksters are archetypical figures—basic
images in the world’s folklore, mythology,
and popular culture. They may be divine or
agreed that it would be wrong to eat him. The
Brahman tried in vain to find three advocates,
but he did encounter a jackal who tricked the
mortal, but they always exist as agents of pure tiger back into its cage. Trickery succeeded
change, characters who breaks taboos and laws where appealing to virtue had failed.
without a thought and who lack the ordinary Tricksters often act as heroes for the un-
concept of human morality. The tricksters’ derprivileged. While some tricksters are gods,
greatest weapons are their quick wits. kings, and queens, most are simple people—
Although a trickster may be the hero or farmers, peasant girls, animals, thieves, gyp-
heroine of a story, he or she is very different sies, and wanderers. They represent the poor
from the traditional hero of folktale, fairy tale, and oppressed, give power to those who are
or myth. Traditional heroes are fearless, while traditionally powerless, and help those who
tricksters often are cowards who trick or bribe generally have no way to protect themselves
others into fighting for them. Heroes are com- when their rulers are corrupt.
passionate and loving, but tricksters usually are Tricksters pit themselves against those who
selfish, or at least appear to be so. And heroes try to cheat the honest poor or who wield tyran-
seek to restore order, while tricksters do every- nical power. One such corrupt official was the
thing in their power to overturn it—as long as plantation master in the American folktales of
they can profit from the resulting chaos. High John the Conqueror. High John scored
numerous victories against his master, some
General Characteristics trivial, some not, on behalf of all the slaves who
One important function of the trickster in story had to bend their heads and obey.
is to teach the difference between right and
wrong by pointing out correct and incorrect be-
haviors. Native American trickster tales, with a
Female Tricksters
few exceptions, teach this way, through nega- While female trickster figures are less com-
tive example: The outrageous behavior, stupid- mon than male tricksters, they are far from

Tr icksters 463
absent in world myth and folklore. Female embittered man, King Shahryar, who had
tricksters tend to fall into one of two categories: killed each of his previous wives the morning
clever wives or daughters who use their wits to after their wedding. Scheherazade managed to
save their family, or wronged wives who must stay alive by telling a story each night that
resort to trickery to prove their innocence and ended on a dramatic cliffhanger. The king was
win back their beloved. so eager to learn what happened next that he
Clever wife or daughter tricksters can an- let her live another night to finish the story,
swer difficult questions that stump their hus- and so on for the thousand and one nights.
bands or fathers. In one tale that appears in It is interesting to note that while most
many different cultures, a king threatened to traditional stories involving love end with a
take a poor family’s home and land unless one wedding, stories featuring female tricksters
of them appeared before him neither dressed sometimes go further and portray married life,
nor naked, neither riding nor walking, and with its compromises and strife. Perhaps the
bringing him a gift that was not a gift. The lesson here is that the spirit of the trickster is
clever daughter wrapped herself in a fishnet, needed in life beyond the wedding day.
appeared on the back of a goat with her feet
brushing the ground, and offered the king a
bird that flew away when released from its
Western Tradition
basket. The king was so impressed that he not The Greek god Hermes was a trickster. Within
only returned the land but also married the days of his birth, Hermes stole a flock of cattle
clever daughter. from his brother, Apollo, and reversed his
The character of the wronged wife gener- footprints to hide the deed. When the angry
ally turns to trickery out of necessity. The hus- Apollo eventually found his little brother and
band brags about his wife’s fidelity, or decides demanded that he return the cattle, Hermes
to test it, and a friend tries in vain to seduce made peace by giving Apollo the lyre, or
her. The friend then bribes someone, often an harp, that he had fashioned from a turtle shell.
elderly woman, to gain the faithful wife’s con- Hermes was allowed to keep the cattle.
fidence and learn some intimate secret about The Norse pantheon also had a trickster,
her—a description of her bedroom, or a mark called Loki. But while Hermes eventually
on her body. The friend then presents this in- learned to behave himself and became the
formation to the husband as proof of his con- messenger of Olympus, Loki was a more
quest. The husband believes the man and malevolent force. Loki gladly cheated the gi-
throws his wife out of their home, despite her ants who built Midgard, the home of the gods,
protests of innocence. The wronged wife often out of their payment. He also tricked the blind
disguises herself as a man, taking on the role god, Höd, into killing his half brother, Balder,
of warrior, judge, or sage in order to learn how who was the most beloved of the gods. Loki
she was tricked. She then returns to set up an eventually was punished by the other gods,
elaborate show that reveals the would-be se- who bound him under the earth, but it was too
ducer’s falsehood and proves her chastity. late—he already had sired the monsters that
A third type of female trickster is the un- would eventually bring about the gods’ de-
faithful wife. This character resorts to trickery struction.
to hide her infidelity from her husband. In In Europe, perhaps the most famous trick-
most cases, this woman is tricked in return, ster is the ubiquitous Jack. He is best known
and both she and her lover are punished. for planting a magic beanstalk and then rob-
One of the most famous female tricksters bing the giant who lived at the beanstalk’s top.
is Scheherazade, the central character in The The Flemish trickster-fool Till Eulenspiegel
Thousand and One Nights or The Arabian Nights. told fortunes and wandered around playing
Scheherazade was married to a jealous and pranks on the rich and pompous.

464 Tr icksters
Somewhat nastier is the Danish trickster three impossible tasks. Instead of seeking su-
Little Claus, who was a character in the Hans pernatural help, Anansi used his wits.
Christian Andersen story “Little Claus and Big Downtrodden and utterly without rights
Claus.” Little Claus convinced his neighbor Big or liberty, African slaves in early America
Claus to slaughter all his cattle and murder his loved trickster tales and wove them into the
old grandmother. Little Claus then persuaded culture they shaped for themselves. Many
Big Claus to throw himself into a river by de- of their stories were animal tales, often mod-
scribing the fabulous city that lay at the bottom. eled after African or Native American stories.
These included the fearless and inventive Brer
Eastern Tricksters Rabbit, who could talk his way out of any
trouble. The Brer Rabbit story, in which the
Hindu mythology has the trickster god,
rabbit is caught and tricks his captor into
Krishna, who was the eighth incarnation of the
throwing him into a briar patch, is based on a
compassionate preserver god, Vishnu. As a
Cherokee rabbit tale.
child, Krishna stole butter from his mother
Many Native American tricksters are ani-
and neighbors. When he was a young man,
mals: Raven, in the Pacific Northwest; Ink-
he stole the clothing of the village cowherd
tomi, the spider trickster of the Sioux; Rabbit,
women, called gopis, while they bathed in the
among the Cherokee; and perhaps the best-
river. At night, he would play his flute, and the
known trickster of all, Coyote. Coyote appears
gopis would rise from their husbands’ beds
in the stories of many Native American tribes,
and run into the forest to dance in a holy
including the Navajo, Hopi, Zuni, and Nez
frenzy around him.
Percé.
In the Chinese legend of Monkey, an auda-
Some of these tribes honor Coyote as a cre-
cious warrior and magician tried to leap to the
ator with the power to sing and unsing the en-
end of the earth. He succeeded only in leaping
tire world, as well as a protector who destroys
to the edge of the Buddha’s hand, where he
monsters using his wits and magic. Others
marked his supposed triumph by urinating on
paint Coyote as a bumbling fool whose plans
the Buddha’s finger.
consistently backfire, or as amoral, greedy, and
Japanese tricksters often are more mali-
lecherous, forever undone by his boundless ap-
cious. Examples include the shape-shifting fox
petites. Many books and collections of stories
and tenuki (badger) spirits, who play tricks on
are devoted to the exploits of Coyote. He is
humans.
portrayed either as the trickster or as the tricked
In the Middle East, there are a number of
one, and sometimes he shifts between the two
stories of Jewish tricksters. The great Hebrew
roles, even within the same story.
King Solomon appeared in a trickster’s role in
Tricksters cross boundaries and ignore
some stories, as in the famous tale of the child
what is proper. They dance outside the lines of
claimed by two women. By offering to cut the
what is acceptable. In doing so, they shatter our
child in half and watching the reactions of
dull routines and our preconceptions. Perhaps
the two women, Solomon was able to deter-
most important, tricksters can make us laugh at
mine who the real mother was.
our own foolishness. It is no wonder that they
are such popular and enduring figures.
From Africa to America
One of the best-known African tricksters is Shanti Fader
Anansi, the spider. Though tiny and weak,
Anansi is clever enough to trick the powerful See also: Anansasem; Archetype; Gremlins;
tiger into giving up his box of stories, thus Hermes; Lange Wapper; Leprechauns; Leshy,
making Anansi the keeper of wisdom. To win Leshiye; Lutin; Maui; Ravens and Crows;
the box of stories, Anansi had to accomplish Reynard the Fox.

Trojan War 465
Sources Naoise flee from King Concobar. It is also sim-

Chinen, Allan B. Beyond the Hero: Classic Stories of Men in ilar to stories of the lovers Grainne and Di-
Search of Soul. New York: Putnam, 1993. armid, who fled from Fionn McCumhail.
———. In the Ever After: Fairy Tales and the Second Half of
Life. Wilmette, IL: Chiron, 1989.
There are numerous modern versions of
Jurich, Marilyn. Scheherazade’s Sisters: Trickster Heroines the story, including Matthew Arnold’s Tristram
and Their Stories in World Literature. Westport, CT: and Iseult (1852), A.C. Swinburne’s Tristram of
Greenwood, 1998. Lyonesse (1882), and Joseph Bédier’s retelling,
Ramsey, Jarold, comp. Coyote Was Going There: Indian
Tristan and Iseult (1900). Richard Wagner’s
Literature of the Oregon Country. Seattle: University of
Washington Press, 1977. opera Tristan und Isolde premiered in 1865.
See also: King Arthur; Tale Types.

Tristan and Isolde Sources
Bedier, Joseph. The Romance of Tristan and Iseult. 1900.
(Celtic) Trans. Hilaire Belloc. New York: Pantheon, 1965.
Grimbert, Joan T., ed. Tristan and Isolde: A Casebook. New
I n the story of Tristan and Isolde, a pair of York: Garland, 1995.

Malory, Sir Thomas. Le Morte d’Arthur: The Winchester
star-crossed lovers, Sir Tristan (also Tristram
Manuscript. Ed. Helen Cooper. New York: Oxford
or Tristrem) was sent to Ireland to bring Isolde University Press, 1998.
the Fair (also Yseult or Iseult) back with him to
Cornwall to wed his uncle, King Mark.
A magic potion that Tristan and Isolde un-
wittingly swallowed bound them together in
Trojan War
eternal love. After many trysts and difficulties,
not the least of which was the anger of King
(Greek)
Mark, the lovers separated, or were forced
apart. In some versions, Tristan married an-
other Isolde, Isolde of the White Hands.
T he Trojan War was a conflict between the
united forces of ancient Greece and the
powerful Anatolian trading city of Troy. Leg-
In all versions, Tristan later lay dying of a end places the war at about 1200 B.C.E. It is
battle wound. He sent for Isolde the Fair. De- not known whether the events actually took
ceived into believing she would not come, or place as written, were purely mythological, or
after she deliberately delayed her coming, were partially based on a real war.
Tristran died of despair. Isolde, finding her According to Greek mythology, the war
lover dead, died of grief beside him. began with an insult to a goddess. At the wed-
There are versions of this medieval ro- ding of mortal King Peleus of Phthia and the
mance from many countries, including En- sea nymph Thetis, all the gods and goddesses
gland, France, and Germany. The earliest were invited—except one, Eris, goddess of
existing written version is in Anglo-Norman discord. Eris was insulted by the omission and
French verse, authored by Thomas of Britain plotted to cause trouble. She created a beauti-
in about 1185. Gottfried von Strassburg wrote ful golden apple and inscribed on it, “For the
a German version of the story in about 1210. most beautiful.” She then sent the lovely apple
The story was originally not part of the to the feast, sat back, and watched.
Arthurian cycle but somehow entered that leg- As Eris had expected, three of the god-
end. In the fifteenth century, Sir Thomas Mal- desses, Hera, queen of the gods, Athena, god-
ory included a version of Tristan and Isolde in dess of wisdom, and Aphrodite, goddess of
his classic Morte d’Arthur. love and beauty, promptly claimed the apple.
The story is mainly Irish in origin. It bears They quarreled over it without coming to a res-
a strong resemblance to the Irish tales of olution. Before matters got out of hand, they
Deirdre, in which the lovers Deirdre and called upon Paris, a son of King Priam of Troy,

466 Trojan War
This fifteenth-century painting on wood shows a scene from the Trojan War in which the Trojans drag the great horse
into their city, never guessing that it is full of Greek warriors. (Réunion des Musées Nationaux/Art Resource, NY)
to judge the impromptu beauty contest. Paris Achilles, the Trojans, led by Hector, son of
was in a dangerous position, but he boldly King Priam, were able to attack and drive the
awarded the apple to Aphrodite because she Greeks back to their ships. But when Hector
promised him Helen, the most beautiful slew Achilles’s best friend, Patroclus, Achilles
woman in the world. returned to combat and killed Hector to
avenge Patroclus’s death.
Paris and Helen The Trojans had received help from their
two allies, the Ethiopians and the Amazons.
Helen was already married to King Menelaus
But Achilles demoralized the allies by killing
of Sparta. But when Paris arrived in her hus-
Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons, and Mem-
band’s court, Helen promptly fell in love with
non, king of the Ethiopians. But then Paris,
him. Helen was either abducted or willingly
aided by the god Apollo, shot an arrow at
fled with Paris to Troy. Menelaus and his
Achilles, hit his one vulnerable point, his heel,
brother Agamemnon, who was married to He-
and killed him.
len’s sister, Clytemnestra, organized a large
Greek expedition against Troy to win Helen
back. The Greek army included the notable
The Trojan Horse
heroes Achilles and Odysseus. The siege continued. Odysseus, who had not
The walls of Troy proved to be impene- wanted to go to war and desperately wanted
trable. The Greek army laid siege for ten to get home, finally came up with a scheme to
years without success. Because of this frus- get the Greeks inside the Trojan walls. The
trating situation, trouble arose in the Greek Greeks built a huge wooden horse, now known
camp. The great Achilles refused to fight as the Trojan horse, and placed it outside the
because he felt that Agamemnon, the Greek walls of Troy. The horse was hollow, and
commander, had insulted him. Without Odysseus and several other warriors hid inside

Troubadours 467
while the rest of the Greek army sailed away, breached and it was ruined not once, but sev-
appearing to retreat. eral times. There may have been several small
Cassandra, daughter of King Priam, had battles fought against the Greeks, or there ac-
the gift of prophecy, which she had gained tually may have been one large war. If there
from the god Apollo. But because she had re- was a major Trojan War, it was most likely
fused Apollo’s advances, the god put a curse fought over trade, not Helen.
on her so that no one would believe her
prophecies. Cassandra warned the Trojans See also: Iliad.
that they must not take this horse into their
Sources
city, but no one listened to her. The rejoicing Allen, Susan Heuck. Finding the Walls of Troy: Frank
Trojans, sure the horse was a token of the Calvert and Heinrich Schliemann at Hisarlik. Berkeley:
Greek surrender, pulled the horse into Troy. University of California Press, 1999.
That night, the Trojans fell asleep after cel- Grant, Michael. Myths of the Greeks and Romans. Cleve-
ebrating their apparent victory. Odysseus and
Homer. The Iliad. Trans. Robert Fagles. New York:
the others stole out of the horse and opened Viking, 1990.
the city gates for the rest of the Greek war-
riors, who had returned from a nearby island.
The Greeks stormed into Troy and massa-
cred the Trojans, killing most of the men and
Troubadours
enslaving the women, including Cassandra.
They burned the city and took back Helen.
(French)
The Trojan War was over at last.
T roubadours were composers and profes-
sional singers of medieval Europe. They
Works Inspired by the are believed to have originated in eleventh-
century France. The first troubadour may well
Trojan War have been William IX, Duke of Aquitaine,
The story of the Trojan War has inspired sto- who was known as a songwriter.
rytellers, playwrights, writers, and composers The word troubadour comes from the
throughout the ages. The plots of the epic French verb trobar, meaning “to find” or “to
works the Iliad and the Odyssey center around compose.” The themes of troubadours’ songs
the war, and various Greek playwrights took ranged from the adventures of gallant knights
the war for their subject. Among the plays are to romantic ballads of courtly love. Their songs
Euripides’s sympathetic treatment of the vic- were often, though not always, secular and
tims of war in Hecuba (named for King Priam’s were sung in the regional vernacular. Since
wife) and The Trojan Women. The Roman poet many troubadours created true narrative bal-
Virgil added a new dimension to the story by lads, they also can be considered storytellers.
inventing another Trojan prince, Aeneus, and The troubadours rarely had fixed resi-
writing the Aeneid about his adventures. dences. They wandered the land, passing along
In the nineteenth century, Hector Berlioz news, songs, and stories as they went. The im-
composed an opera, Les Troyens. Irish writer age of the wandering troubadour has been ro-
James Joyce loosely based his novel Ulysses manticized over time.
(the Roman name for Odysseus), first pub- Perhaps the most familiar story about a
lished in serial form from 1918 to 1920, on the troubadour is that of Blondel. Jean de Nesle,
story of Odysseus. whose nickname, Blondel, referred to some-
Historians and archaeologists have yet to one with flowing blond hair, was either a trou-
find definitive proof of an actual war. Troy ex- badour at the court of King Richard I of
isted at a strategic point overlooking the en- England or the monarch’s personal friend.
trance to the Black Sea, but its walls were The stories claim that when Richard returned

468 Truth and Falsehood, T he Tale of
from the Crusades, he was taken prisoner in gods blinded Truth and assigned him to act as
what is now Germany. Blondel went in search his brother’s doorkeeper.
of him, singing a song only the two of them Falsehood soon grew tired of seeing his
knew. When Blondel finally heard Richard’s virtuous brother sitting at his threshold. He or-
voice singing the song from a barred tower dered two servants to cast him out where lions
window, Blondel knew he had found his king would eat him. Truth asked the men to spare
and returned to England with the news. This him, and, through adventures that have not
tale is almost certainly fiction, but it is true been preserved, he succeeded in avoiding this
that Richard ceded land to someone named fate. A lady whose servants had found Truth
Blondel; whether or not this was the trouba- lying in the brush was struck by his handsome
dour is unknown. appearance. She made him her doorkeeper
Another troubadour has earned a foot- and slept with him one night.
note in modern musical history. In the thir- The lady gave birth to a godlike son. The
teenth century, Adam de la Halle became boy excelled at writing, as well as at the art of
the first of the troubadours known to com- war, arousing the envy of the older school-
pose only secular music. He was the author boys. They taunted him, saying “You don’t
of the first musical comedy, Le Jeu de Robin et have a father!”
Marion (The Play of Robin and Marion). This So the young man went to his mother
light tale tells of a girl who chooses her true demanding to know who his father was.
love over a wealthy knight. The play and its When he discovered that his father was none
songs still can be found in print and recently other than their blind doorkeeper, he was en-
have been recorded. raged. He brought Truth into the house and
promised vengeance on whoever had blinded
See also: Jongleurs; Minstrels. him. Truth told his son that Falsehood was
responsible, so the young man formulated
Sources a plan.
Press, Alan R., comp. Anthology of Troubadour Lyric Poetry. Truth’s son paid Falsehood’s herdsman to
Smythe, Barbara, trans. Troubadour Poets. New York:
guard an exceptionally beautiful ox. Some
Duffield, 1911. months later, Falsehood noticed the fine ox
in his herd and decided to eat it, although the
herdsman warned him that it belonged to
Truth and Falsehood, someone else. When word of Falsehood’s deed
reached Truth’s son, the youth took his case
The Tale of before the ennead.
“My ox,” he said, “was so big that the
horns stretched from the eastern mountain to
(Egyptian) the western mountain. The Nile was its bed,
T he Tale of Truth and Falsehood, an allegorical

Egyptian tale, dates to the nineteenth dy-
nasty (c. 1315–1201 B.C.E.).
and sixty calves were born to it each day.” The
ennead did not believe that such a creature ex-
isted. Truth’s son then asked Falsehood if
In the lost opening to the story, Falsehood there had ever been a dagger so big that all the
complained to the Great Ennead of Heliopolis copper of a mountain and all the trees in a for-
(the nine gods of Heliopolis) that his elder est went into its manufacture. The gods again
brother, Truth, had stolen a marvelous dagger were charged with judging between Truth and
from him. According to Falsehood, all the cop- Falsehood.
per from Mount Yal and all the trees in the for- Believing that his brother had been eaten
est of Coptus had gone into the creation of this by lions long ago, Falsehood vowed that if
dagger. At the behest of Falsehood, the nine Truth were still alive, then he should be blinded

Two Brothers, Tale of the 469
and made to serve his older brother. Shown by tage of her. Instead, he went on to disenchant
the boy that Truth was still alive, the gods his brother.
blinded Falsehood and appointed him Truth’s But that brother, smitten by jealousy, in-
doorkeeper. stantly thought he had been betrayed. In many
Noreen Doyle versions, he killed his twin. Then, learning the
truth a bit too late, the surviving twin killed the
See also: Tale Types. witch (or demon), and his brother was returned
to life. In an alternate ending, the brother was
Sources returned to life through a magic potion.
Griffiths, J. Gwyn. The Conflict of Horus and Seth from Variations of this basic story have been
Egyptian and Classical Sources. Liverpool, UK: Liver-
pool University Press, 1960. found throughout Europe and in Greece,
Lichtheim, Miriam. Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Turkey, India, and Indonesia. The story is also
Readings. New ed. Vol. 2. Berkeley: University of known in North America and the Caribbean,
California Press, 2006. having been brought to the New World by im-
migrants.
Twin Brothers See also: Motifs.
Sources
T he “twin brothers” is a world folktale type
in which the basic elements are the same
from culture to culture, but the details can dif-
tale: A Classification and Bibliography. 2nd rev. ed.
Helsinski, Finland: Academia Scientiarum Fennica,
fer widely. 1987.
Grimm, Jacob, and Wilhelm Grimm. The Complete Fairy
Twin sets of boys, hounds, and horses were Tales of the Brothers Grimm. Trans. Jack Zipes. New
born. This was usually the result of magic, York: Bantam, 2003.
whether accidental, as in their mothers eating Mercatante, Anthony S. The Facts on File Encyclopedia of
magic fruit, or deliberate. In some cases, it was World Mythology and Legend. New York: Facts on File,
1998.
the result of a magic fish that was caught three
Thompson, Stith. The Folktale. Berkeley: University of
times. Upon being caught a third time, the fish California Press, 1977.
told the fisherman to divide it in three and feed
it to his wife, his hound, and his mare.
The boys grew up, either normally or
with miraculous speed, and were given twin
Two Brothers, Tale of the
swords. The two young men set out to find ad-
venture on separate paths after exchanging to-
(Egyptian)
kens or learning signs that would tell either
brother if the other was in trouble. The tokens
or signs ranged from a knife blade that would
T he ancient Egyptian source for the Tale of
the Two Brothers, commonly referred to as
“the oldest fairy tale in the world,” was written
turn black or rusty to tracks suddenly filling at the end of the nineteenth dynasty (early thir-
with blood. teenth century B.C.E.). This tale of two brothers
The first brother rescued and married a and their wives is an early incarnation of the
princess. He was then lured away from her poor-boy-becomes-prosperous motif that be-
side by a witch or demon, who either impris- came popular in later European folktales.
oned him or turned him to stone. The characters are identifiable with one
The second brother saw from the token or or more of the Egyptian deities: The elder
learning sign that his twin was in deadly dan- brother, Anpu, can be identified with Anubis;
ger and went hunting for him. He met his the younger brother, Bata, with Osiris, an older
brother’s wife, who took this twin for her hus- funerary deity named Bata, or Seth; and the
band, but he was too honorable to take advan- unnamed two wives with forms of Hathor.

470 Two Brothers, Tale of the
A parallel with the biblical tale of Samson and Bata’s Wife

Delilah also can be drawn.
The brothers went their separate ways. Bata
settled down in the Valley of the Pine, initially
The Betrayal dwelling under the pine tree that bore his
Anpu, Bata, and Anpu’s wife lived together in heart but eventually building a house.
Anpu’s house. Bata was exceptionally hand- The Great Ennead of Heliopolis (nine gods
some and strong and understood the language of Heliopolis) visited Bata with news that Anpu
of cattle. One day, while fetching seed grain, had slain his wife and thrown her corpse to the
Bata encountered his brother’s wife braiding dogs. They also provided Bata with a wife,
her hair. His ability to carry five sacks greatly made by the god Khnum, and told Bata that his
impressed Anpu’s wife, who offered herself to wife’s fate was to die by the knife. Bata pro-
him. This repulsed Bata, who thought of this vided for his new wife and told her the secret of
woman as his mother. He promised to keep his heart. He also warned her not to leave the
her attempted adultery a secret. house, because the sea might seize her, and
While the two brothers were sowing in the Bata, castrated, was unable to fight the sea.
fields, Anpu’s wife applied fat and grease to But Bata’s wife did leave the house, and
her body to give the appearance of bruises. the sea did attempt to catch her. She escaped
Arriving home, Anpu found his wife lying in back into the house, but not before the pine, at
the darkened house, vomiting and injured. the sea’s request, snagged a lock of her hair.
She claimed that Bata had made unwanted ad- The sea brought the hair to the place where
vances toward her and beat her into silence. If the royal laundrymen washed the king’s linens,
Anpu refused to kill him, she would die. and a marvelous odor impregnated the clothes.
Infuriated by these allegations, Anpu took The king, who was told that the scented hair
a spear and waited for his brother in the stable. must come from a daughter of Re-Horakhty,
When Bata brought the cows in from the dispatched messengers abroad to seek out this
fields, the animals saw Anpu hiding behind the woman.
door and warned Bata of the danger. Bata fled, Bata killed all but one of the messengers.
with Anpu in pursuit. The god Re-Horakhty This last messenger returned to Egypt and
heard Bata’s prayers and separated the broth- told the king that Bata had killed the others.
ers with a body of crocodile-infested water. The king sent an army to the valley. The army
Bata explained to his brother what had re- returned with the woman, Bata’s wife, and the
ally transpired. He was deeply hurt that Anpu people rejoiced. She instructed the king to
would take the word of a “filthy whore” above have the pine felled and destroyed. When this
that of his own brother. To demonstrate his was done, Bata fell dead.
grief, Bata cuts off his penis. He threw his mem- Recognizing the sign of his brother’s death,
ber into the water, where it was eaten by a fish. Anpu armed himself and set off for the valley,
Anpu was consumed with sorrow, but Bata told where he found Bata lying dead in the house.
him to go home to take care of the cattle. For three years, Anpu sought Bata’s heart. Just
Bata announced that he would go to the as he was about to give up and return to Egypt,
Valley of the Pine, where he would place his he discovered it. Anpu placed the heart in wa-
heart on the blossom of a pine tree. If that tree ter, and Bata’s body trembled. He drank the
was ever felled, Bata would die. Anpu would water and recovered. Bata enlisted Anpu in a
receive a sign on Bata’s death: A jug of beer in plan for revenge against his traitorous wife.
Anpu’s hand would begin to foam. On receiv-
ing this sign, Anpu should seek Bata’s heart
The Brothers Unite
and, upon finding it, put the heart into a bowl Bata transformed into a beautiful bull. Anpu
of cool water so that Bata might live again. rode him to the palace, where the king and all

Typhon 471
the people praised the fine animal. The king After many years the king died, and his son
rewarded Anpu with silver and gold, and became king.
Anpu became a close friend of the king. The newly crowned king made known all
One day, Bata the bull entered the kitchen, that had happened to him. He passed judg-
where he met the noble lady who had been ment on the noblewoman and appointed Anpu
his wife. “See, I live again,” he told her, making crown prince. He reigned for thirty years. On
her greatly afraid. She tricked the king into the day of his death, Anpu became king.
promising to give her anything she wished.
Then, she asked to eat the liver of the bull. Noreen Doyle
Although he was deeply upset by this re-
quest, the king sacrificed the bull. Two drops See also: Tale Types.
of the bull’s blood fell beside the palace gate.
Overnight, two trees, called persea trees, grew Sources
Hollis, Susan Tower. The Ancient Egyptian “Tale of Two
up, which caused great rejoicing throughout Brothers,” the Oldest Fairy Tale in the World. Norman:
Egypt. University of Oklahoma Press, 1990.
One day, when the king and the noble- Lichtheim, Miriam. Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of
woman were honoring the persea trees, Bata Readings. Vol. 2. New ed. Berkeley: University of
again announced himself to his former wife. Velde, Herman te. Seth, God of Confusion. 2nd ed. Leiden,
Yet again the noblewoman tricked the king The Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1977.
into granting her wish. This time, the two
persea trees were cut down to be made into
furniture.
As the noblewoman watched the felling,
Typhon
a splinter flew into her mouth. As a result, she
was impregnated and gave birth to a son, and
(Greek)
again the king and Egypt rejoiced. The king
loved the boy greatly and appointed him
viceroy of Nubia and, later, crown prince.
I n Greek mythology, Typhon was a dragon-
like monster that tried to wrest control of
the heavens from Zeus, king of the gods.
In Greek mythology, the monstrous Typhon tried unsuccessfully to steal power from Zeus, chief of the gods. This
illustration shows Zeus and Typhon in combat. Zeus appears poised to win. (Foto Marburg/Art Resource, NY)

472 Typhon
Typhon was a massive creature, winged But at last, Zeus cast Mount Etna down
and breathing fire, with a man’s body from the upon Typhon, trapping him forever. To this
head to the thighs, and coils of vipers for legs. day, the blasts of fire that shoot up from Mount
He was the offspring of Gaia, the earth, and Etna are said to be the remnants of Zeus’s thun-
Tartarus, the lowest realm of being. derbolts and Typhon’s fire.
Typhon attacked heaven with roars, hurl-
ing blazing rocks and breathing great blasts of See also: Dragons.
fire. When the gods on Mount Olympus saw
Sources
him rushing at them, they fled in the shapes of Evslin, Bernard. Gods, Demigods and Demons: An Encyclo-
animals. pedia of Greek Mythology. Reissue ed. New York:
Only Zeus stood his ground, hurling thun- Scholastic, 1988.
derbolts at the monster and then attacking him Grant, Michael. Myths of the Greeks and Romans. Cleve-
with a sickle. It was a savage fight that covered South, Malcolm, ed. Mythical and Fabulous Creatures: A
all the land that now is Greece. At times, it Source Book and Research Guide. New York: Green-
seemed as though Typhon would win. wood, 1987.

U
E
Ugly Baby

very mother thinks her child is beautiful,
even if everyone else disagrees. This truism
can be found in stories and folktales from
around the world, as well as in various folk
bies in the world, and the eagle agreed not to
eat them. But the eagle did eat the owlets.
When confronted by the owl, the eagle could
not understand the fuss: To him, the babies
had been truly ugly.
In a Norwegian folktale, a hunter agrees
not to kill a snipe’s “beautiful” babies. After the
jokes. Storytellers can share these jokes and hunter kills the ugly babies, the snipe mourns,
tales from either a sympathetic or cynical point as every child is beautiful to its mother.
of view, depending on the situation. A Romanian folktale has a happier end-
The sixth-century Greek fabulist Aesop ing, in which God sees the crow’s babies and
told the story of Zeus and the monkey, in wonders how he could have created such ugly
which the god offered a prize to the mother things. The mother crow defends them. God
with the most beautiful offspring. Among the agrees that every mother sees her babies as
other animals came the monkey, with her beautiful and blesses the crows.
hairless, flat-nosed, ugly baby in her arms.
When they saw it, the gods all laughed. But
the monkey hugged her little one to her and
Ugly Baby Jokes
said, “Zeus may give the prize to whomever There are also several related folk jokes about
he likes. But I shall always think my baby the ugly babies.
most beautiful of them all.”
Haitian folklore agrees with Aesop. A Woman, crying: Everyone thinks my
Haitian proverb states, “Makak pa janm kwe baby is ugly!
petit-li led,” or “A monkey never thinks her Man: Aw, he isn’t. And here’s a ba-
baby is ugly.” nana for your monkey.
European Fables and Folktales A minister schooled himself not to react
French fabulist Jean de La Fontaine told of a to ugly babies but to smile at them and
rather tragic misunderstanding between an ea- say innocuously, “Now, that’s a baby!”
gle and an owl. The eagle agreed not to eat the But one day, confronted by a truly
owl’s babies if the owl would only describe hideous baby, he heard himself say, to
them. The owl spoke of the most beautiful ba- his horror, “Now, that’s a baby? ”
473

474 Ullikummi
A woman got on a bus holding a baby. the storm god and his allies. To hide him from
The bus driver said, “That’s the ugliest the storm god, the sun god, and Ishtar, the god-
baby I’ve ever seen!” dess of fertility, Kumarbi placed him on the
In a huff, the woman slammed her shoulder of Upelluri, the dreaming god, where
fare into the fare box and took an aisle he grew an acre in a month.
seat near the rear of the bus. She fumed After fifteen days, Ullikummi had grown
for a few stops and started getting really enough to stand waist deep in the sea, which is
worked up. The man seated next to her where the sun god first spotted him. Warned by
sensed she was agitated and asked her the sun god, the storm god fought Ullikummi
what was wrong. on Mount Imgarra, but the battle had no clear
“The bus driver insulted me!” she victor. Then, Ullikummi drove the goddess
fumed. Hebat out of her temple. An army of seventy
The man sympathized and said, gods attacked him, and they all plunged off the
“Hey! He’s a public servant, and he mountain, falling down into the sea.
shouldn’t say things to insult the pas- Ullikummi rose out of the sea, a huge
sengers.” 31,000 miles (about 9,000 leagues) tall. He
“You’re right!” said the mother. “I towered over the city of Kummiya. Ea, god of
think I’ll go back up there and give the sky, cut off Ullikummi’s feet with the cop-
him a piece of my mind.” per knife that had separated the heavens from
“That’s a good idea,” the man said. the earth. Despite his wounds, Ullikummi still
“Here, let me hold your monkey!” boasted that he would take the kingship of
heaven.
Every so often a baby is born that is so Although no complete text remains, it
horrifyingly ugly, the father screams, seems clear that despite his boasts, Ullikummi
“Put it back, put it back, put it back!” was defeated.
Ira Spar
Of course, anyone using ugly baby jokes
in his or her repertoire had better first make See also: Giants.
sure that no one in the audience is holding an
ugly baby. Sources
See also: Tall Tales; Urban Legends. 1990.
Sources Scholars, 1991.
Asbjornsen, Peter Christen. Popular Tales from the Norse, Hooke, S.H. Middle Eastern Mythology. Mineola, NY:
by George Webbe Dasent. 3rd ed. Edinburgh, UK: Dover, 2004.
Douglas, 1888.
Gaster, Moses. Rumanian Bird and Beast Stories Rendered into
English. London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1915.
Unicorns
Ullikummi U nicorns are fabulous creatures, beautiful
symbols of immortality, power, justice,
and purity. They are said to resemble a horse,
(Hittite) goat, or deer with a long, shining horn in the
I n Hittite mythology, Ullikummi was born

from the mating of the god Kumarbi with the
Rock, a sentient boulder. Ullikummi, made en-
center of the forehead.
Usually depicted as pure white in the West
and multicolored in the East, unicorns were
tirely of diorite, a type of dark, coarse-grained once believed to be native to India. However,
rock, had been created as a weapon to defeat folklore about unicorns, as well as reputed

Unicorns 475
physical sightings, can be found throughout the second, the so-called Indian ass, more
the world. closely resembled a horse. It is possible that,
given Aristotle’s authority, subsequent gen-
The Unicorn in the erations of naturalists and mythographers
conflated his descriptions of two different one-
Classical World horned creatures into the figure we now know
In 416 B.C.E., the Greek physician Ctesias left as the unicorn.
his native Cnidus to tend to the ailing Persian Aristotle’s student Alexander the Great
King Darius II. After eighteen years in Persia, once boasted that he rode a unicorn into battle.
Ctesias returned to Cnidus and wrote a book
describing his travels. Of the unicorn, which The Unicorn in the
he had not actually seen, Ctesias wrote,
Roman Empire
There are in India certain wild asses Julius Caesar, the Roman ruler and general,
which are as large as horses, and larger. who lived during the first-century B.C.E.,
Their bodies are white, their heads are claimed in his work De Bello Gallico (The Gallic
dark red, and their eyes dark blue. They War) that unicorns could be found in the
have a horn on the forehead which is Hercynian Forest in southwestern Germany.
about eighteen inches in length. The Apollonius of Tyana, a Greek writer who lived
dust filed from this horn is administered close to the time of Caesar, claimed to have
in a potion as a protection against seen a unicorn in India.
deadly drugs. The Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder, who
died during the eruption of Mount Etna in 79
About a century later, the Ionian historian C.E., gave the description that has influenced
Megasthenes visited India. The four books of most subsequent portrayals of unicorns in the
his work Indika offered educated Greeks the West. According to Pliny, the unicorn, or mo-
most complete account of India available. This noceros, was a very ferocious beast, similar “in
work is now lost, and only extracts remain, the rest of its body to a horse, with the head of
cited in writings of other scholars. Megasthenes a deer, the feet of an elephant, the tail of a
described an Indian unicorn, called a cartazoon, boar, a deep, bellowing voice, and a single
even though, like Ctesias, he had never actually black horn, two cubits in length, standing out
seen one. He stated that the cartazoon, which in the middle of its forehead.” He added that it
kept to itself in the mountains, had a black, spi- could not be taken alive. Pliny very possibly
ral horn and excellent hooves. Megasthenes may have been confusing his monoceros with
described the unicorn as gentle toward other the rhinoceros.
species of animals, yet likely to engage in bat- The Roman natural philosopher Aelian
tles to the death with other unicorns. wrote about unicorns several times. In one
Another notable Greek historian who wrote passage, he described a creature resembling a
about the existence of unicorns was Herodotus. wild ass. It was about the size of a horse, with
Writing in the third century B.C.E., he com- a white body, red head, and blue eyes. He
mented on the “horned ass” of Africa. elaborated on Ctesias’s description of the uni-
Although the philosopher Aristotle criti- corn’s horn, saying that the horn was white at
cized Ctesias’s writing, he never denied the ex- the base, crimson at the top, and black in the
istence of one-horned creatures. Aristotle middle. Aelian also claimed that the Indians
characterized the different types of unicorns by used the horns as drinking cups, which they
the kind of hooves they possessed, and men- believed kept them safe from convulsions and
tioned, in particular, two types of one-horned the holy disease, epilepsy, as well as from poi-
animals. The first was a sort of antelope, while sons. Like Ctesias, Aelian claimed that the

476 Unicorns
unicorns lived in the mountains of the Indian

interior that were inaccessible to men.
The Unicorn in the Bible

and in Biblical Folklore
The King James Version of the Bible includes
six specific references to unicorns.
Numbers 23:22: “hath as it were

the strength of an unicorn.”
Numbers 24:8: “the strength of an
unicorn: he shall eat up”
Job 39:9: “Will the unicorn be will- A unicorn often is pictured as a white horse with a single
ing to serve thee?” horn, sometimes with cloven hooves. The three-toed
unicorn in this illustration resembles a cross between
Job 39:10: “Canst thou bind the a horned horse and a lion. This representation is from
unicorn with his band?” the thirteenth-century Harleian Bestiary. (© British
Library/HIP/Art Resource, NY)
Psalm 29:6: “a calf; Lebanon
and Sirion like a young unicorn.”
Psalm 92:10: “with the horn of an drowning, to surviving as unicorns, to trans-
unicorn: I shall be anointed” forming into narwhals.
These biblical references to unicornis re- The Unicorn and the Narwhal
flect the Latin translation of the Hebrew word
In the West, medieval sightings of narwhals
re’em, which was used as a metaphor for
added to the body of written work and oral
strength. Later versions of the Bible have no
tales about unicorns. The narwhal (Monodon
references to unicorns, although the goat with
monoceros) is an arctic whale that is conspicu-
a prominent horn between his eyes in the
ous for the long, fluted, single tusk that pro-
book of Daniel does seem distinctly unicorn-
trudes from its upper lip.
like. In the later versions, the word re’em has
For centuries, such “unicorn” horns were
been translated to mean wild ox, as in Num-
brought back to Europe by sailors and were
bers 23:22, “He has as it were the strength of
regarded as great treasures. Queen Elizabeth I
the wild ox.”
of England owned one of these so-called uni-
Nevertheless, the unicorn seems to have
corn horns, which was said to be worth 10,000
left its tracks in Judeo-Christian tradition. Jew-
pounds.
ish folklore calls the unicorn the fiercest of all
animals, able to kill an elephant with a single
thrust from its horn. Certain stories claim that
The Unicorn in the Middle Ages
the unicorn was the first animal named and that Mentions of unicorns continued through the
it accompanied Adam and Eve into exile. Middle Ages. Prester John, the fabled twelfth-
Some stories say that the unicorn did not century priest-king of a vast realm in Asia, sup-
make it onto Noah’s ark and thus perished in posedly possessed a number of tame unicorns.
the flood waters. Others versions say that The medieval polymath Hildegarde of Bingen
Noah brought the unicorns onto the ark, but thought that unicorns could heal illness.
they demanded so much space and attention An early-thirteenth-century story holds
that he banished them. Their fate upon leav- that Genghis Khan encountered a unicorn as
ing the ark differs from story to story, from he prepared to take India and turned back,

Unicorns 477
convinced that this was a sign from heaven not is accompanied by various animals that wait
to attack. And in the late thirteenth century, by a stream until the unicorn dips its horn into
Marco Polo reported seeing a large unicorn. the water to purify it. The unicorn is subse-
This sighting, like so many others, was most quently snared by a pure maiden and places
likely of a rhinoceros. its head in her lap. The unicorn is then cap-
The work known as the Physiologus, which tured and killed by hunters. The tapestries de-
was written by an unknown author in Alexan- pict the triumph of the unicorn’s purity, as it is
dria during the second century C.E., not only restored to life in the final scene, where it is
described every beast in Christendom, but shown with a collar and chain in a garden.
also provided allegories that linked them to
their rightful place in creation. The Physiologus Unicorns in Heraldry
says this of the unicorn: During the reign of Scotland’s King Robert
III, the Scottish royal arms were designed
He is a small animal, like a kid, but sur- with two unicorns supporting the royal shield.
prisingly fierce for his size, with one Upon the ascension of King James VI of
very sharp horn on his head, and no Scotland to the throne of England, which ef-
hunter is able to catch him by force. Yet fectively united Scotland and England, James
there is a trick by which he is taken. retained the lion on the left of the new royal
Men lead a virgin to the place where he arms of England and added a unicorn on the
most resorts and leave her there alone. right. Unicorns had long been held to be
As soon as he sees this virgin, he runs deadly enemies to lions, so this new configura-
and lays his head in her lap. She fon- tion signified the reconciliation between the
dles him and he falls asleep. The Scottish unicorn and the English lion.
hunters then approach and capture him
and lead him to the palace of the king. The Unicorn in Astronomy
The Medieval church equated the unicorn Western astronomers placed a unicorn in the
with Christ, and its horn to the unity of Christ heavens. The first historical reference to a con-
and the Father. That no hunter could capture stellation named for a unicorn is a seventeenth-
him alone reminded readers that the will of the century star chart. The chart was drawn by
Messiah was not subject to earthly authority. Jakob Bartsch, the son-in-law of the German as-
The unicorn’s small stature became a metaphor tronomer Johannes Kepler. A constellation is
for Christ’s humility, and its likeness to a kid marked Unicornu, which is Latin for the constel-
was a reference to Christ’s association with sin- lation Monoceros (One-Horn).
ful men. The virgin in this description repre-
sented the Virgin Mary.
Unicorns in China
Probably the most familiar depiction of Unicorns have been loved and venerated in
the Christian unicorn allegory is found in the China for thousands of years. It was said that
sixteenth-century Dame a la Licorne (Lady with two unicorns lived during the reign of the Em-
a Unicorn) tapestries, which are thought to peror Yao, fourth of the mythic five emperors
have been designed in France and woven in who shaped the world 4,000 years ago. Indeed,
Brussels. This series of textile artworks is now along with the dragon, the phoenix, and the
housed in the Cloisters, a branch of the Met- tortoise, the unicorn is supposed to have helped
ropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. to create the world.
In the central tapestry, a lady is accompa- Other emperors also associated with uni-
nied by a unicorn, set on a background of ex- corns were the Emperor Fu Hsi, to whom the
quisitely woven flowers. The other tapestries unicorn gave the secret of written language,
in the series show the unicorn in the forest. It and the first emperor, Huang Di, who took his

478 Unicorns
sighting of a unicorn as an indication that his Stories of unicorns also appear in Mongo-
reign would be long and peaceful. lia, Tibet, and Arabia. The horn of the
Unicorn stories are associated with the sage karkadann (probably an oryx) is supposed to
Confucius, including several accounts of Confu- be good luck against scorpions, and eating its
cius’s mother. In one story, she is said to have meat is said to rid one of demons.
met a unicorn while on her pilgrimage to ask for
a child. The unicorn spoke to her, predicting the
birth of a “king without a crown.” In another
Unicorns in Popular Culture
story, while Confucius’s mother was pregnant, Today, images of unicorns are almost as popu-
she encountered a unicorn in the woods. It gave lar as those of teddy bears. They show up on
her a piece of jade, told her that her child-to- T-shirts, as stuffed or sculptured ornaments,
be would possess great wisdom, and placed its and on wall hangings.
head in her lap. When Confucius was an old There have been attempts to create flesh-
man, he is said to have seen a unicorn, which he and-blood unicorns. One such creature was
believed meant that he would soon die. recently exhibited at Ringling Bros. and Bar-
The Chinese unicorn is said to have the num & Bailey circus, which was duly picketed
body of a deer, the tail of an ox, and the by animal-rights activists. Unicorn fiction has
hooves of a horse. Its horn is short and grows become a veritable subgenre of fantasy, and
out of the middle of its forehead. This unicorn sooner or later most writers of genre fantasy
is called the ki lin, a combination of the ki, include a unicorn in one of their books.
which is male, and the lin, which is female. Although unicorns are mentioned in
The Chinese unicorn is a brightly colored Lewis Carroll’s Through the Looking Glass (1872)
creature. The hair on its back represents the and T.H. White’s novel The Once and Future
five sacred Chinese colors—red, yellow, blue, King (1958), probably the most beloved story
white, and black—and it has a yellow belly. of a unicorn in the past few decades is Peter S.
Some accounts claim that the Chinese unicorn Beagle’s The Last Unicorn (1968). This tender,
has green scales like another magical and aus- wry story tells of Schmendrick the Magician
picious Chinese creature, the dragon. and his quest to free the unicorns from King
Another Chinese unicorn is the zhi, a goat- Haggard.
like animal that points out the guilty and pun- In Patrick O’Brian’s novel The Hundred
ishes them. Because the zhi was a mythic Days (1998), the naturalist Dr. Stephen Maturin
creature that served to ward off evil and evil- brings a narwhal’s horn on board the HMS
doers, it was considered a guardian, second Surprise about the time that Napoleon returned
only to the dragon and the tiger in power. from Elba and attempted to regain power. The
Logically enough, the zhi became associated horn, however, was broken, and the supersti-
with Chinese courts. In ancient China, uni- tious crew believed that their ship was afflicted
corns were painted on the doors of court- by bad luck until the horn was repaired.
houses and government buildings. This led to In Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone
the use of the zhi as a symbol of the govern- (1997), by J.K. Rowling, the wicked Voldemort
ment’s incorruptibility. drinks the silver blood of a unicorn to sustain
In Japan, the name for unicorn is kirin, an his own life.
image preserved on the label of a popular ex- Perhaps the most astonishing thing about
ported beer. Like the ki lin, the kirin is associ- unicorns in western culture is that they have
ated with justice. It has been said to appear at managed to survive as untameable figures of
courts to free the innocent and kill the guilty, wonder and power. Unicorns continue to be
by piercing them through the heart with its symbols of strength and purity in a skeptical
horn. The Japanese also have another unicorn- world.
like creature, called the sin-you. Susan M. Shwartz and Josepha Sherman

Urban Legends 479
See also: Bestiary. (or at least claimed) to be true. They concern

recent events that involved people and places
Sources that are fairly familiar to the teller and mem-
Beagle, Peter. The Last Unicorn. New York: Roc, 1991. bers of the audience.
Gotfredsen, Lise. The Unicorn. New York: Abbeville,
1999.
In both their fantastic elements and the in-
Nigg, Joseph. The Book of Fabulous Beasts: A Treasury of sistence that they are true, urban legends dif-
Writings from Ancient Times to the Present. New York: fer from myths and folktales. Myths are sacred
Oxford University Press, 1999. stories believed by members of a particular
Shepard, Odell. The Lore of the Unicorn. Mineola, NY:
culture. Folktales may take place in the actual
Dover, 1993.
world but are not taken to be true.
Urban legends are an important resource
Upelluri/Ubelluris for storytellers because they express modern
concerns in urban societies and are told and
believed by individuals in all segments of
(Hittite) those societies. These legends are not the ex-
clusive domain of any single age, race, profes-
T he Hittite gods built the earth and
heaven upon the powerful sleeping giant
Upelluri. But he did not notice, even when
sion, or socioeconomic group.
Unlike traditional folklore, urban legends
heaven and Earth were separated with a cop- are formulated and transmitted not only by
per knife. the general population but by the mass me-
Kumarbi’s messenger, Imbaluri, com- dia as well. They may be transmitted orally
manded the Issira deities to place Ullikummi, or spread electronically via e-mail. They are
the giant made of rock, on Upelluri’s right the subject of numerous Web sites and online
shoulder. Ea, the sky god, questioned Upelluri discussions and are retold visually in film,
in his search for Ullikummi. Upelluri admitted television, and comic book formats. Urban
that there was a small pain in his shoulder, al- legends also have been the inspiration for
though he could not identify which god was short stories, poems, plays, and other literary
causing it. works.
In his world-carrying aspect, Upelluri can Feelings of unease about strange places,
be seen as related to, and possibly even the unfamiliar people, and bewildering situations
ancestor of, Atlas, who also carried the world and innovations are related through these leg-
on his shoulders. ends. Urban legends often are cyclical, resur-
Ira Spar facing to help articulate new fears about
universal issues. There are legends about top-
See also: Atlas; Giants. ics as diverse as animals, both strange and fa-
miliar, car culture, contaminated food, other
Sources threats to our children and our own personal
Gurney, O.R. The Hittites. Rev. ed. New York: Penguin, safety, famous celebrities, and various horrify-
1990.
ing incidents.
Scholars, 1991.
Dover, 2004. Elements
Urban legend narratives share many features
with other traditional folk stories. They usu-
Urban Legends ally are anonymous, are primarily communi-
cated face-to-face, and often exist in multiple
U rban legends, also known as urban folk-

lore, are fantastic stories that are believed
versions, as they are adapted and re-created
with each retelling and circulated among

480 Utu/Shamash
members of certain economic, familial, occu- process. If the legends are being told around
pational, or cultural groups. But what sets ur- campfires or at slumber parties, rather than in
ban legends apart from their more traditional the course of regular conversation, they are
counterparts are two elements: authentication being told for effect, and therefore will reflect
of content and film-noir tone. that purpose. Stories told in such a setting will
Authentication, which corroborates the generally be much lengthier and usually will
truth of the story, is handled in three basic be polished for maximum effect.
ways. The most frequent form of authentica- Urban legends usually are conveyed in in-
tion is the use of the “friend-of-a-friend” (or formal, face-to-face conversations, generally
FOAF) motif, “My grandmother’s neighbor’s are brief, and often are constructed and told
cousin” and the like as the source of the tale. communally rather than by a single teller.
Because these sources are supposedly known Questions are encouraged, and comments
to the teller, they are perceived as reliable. from the listener during and at the end of the
A second method of authentication is the telling help to move the story along and de-
use of actual names, dates, and events to velop its shape.
ground the stories in reality. This often works Because the legends serve diverse func-
so well that urban legends are printed in news- tions, their format is flexible and is influenced
papers as actual news items. These concrete by the teller’s purpose in relating the legend,
details change over time and space, usually by the situation in which it is being told, and the
tellers who refresh the relevance of the tales people who are interacting in the telling. When
for each particular audience and situation. transferred to the storyteller’s repertoire, these
The third common methodology is to at- stories become much more formalized, but
tribute the story to the mass media. For exam- some audience interjection—“That is not the
ple, “I heard it on Oprah” or “I read it in the way I heard/read/saw it”—is still anticipated.
newspaper.” The audience for urban legends generally
The setting in an urban legend also must is teenaged and older. The tales are generally
appear authentic. The lover’s lane of “the too dark and frightening or simply too sophis-
boyfriend’s death” may be generic, but the ticated for a younger audience, which may not
teller still must take the listener there to visu- have the necessary background to fully appre-
alize the action. Details such as the moonlight ciate these cautionary tales.
or the make of the car are added for further Gail de Vos
validation.
Film noir refers to a film genre that pro- See also: Hook, The; Ugly Baby; Vanishing
vides steamy, dark, urban landscapes and or- Hitchhiker.
dinary characters facing unexpected twists
and turns throughout the plot. Urban legends, Sources
for the most part, reflect this dark, steamy Brunvand, Jan Harold. Encyclopedia of Urban Legends.
tone. They feature black comedy derived ———. Readings in American Folklore. New York: W.W.
from the ill fortune of their characters and ha- Norton, 1979.
bitually depend on twisted endings and am-
biguous characters and situations for effect.
Utu/Shamash
Presentation
Even the grimmest tale of warning or the most
(Sumerian)
sincere testimony of belief has to be told effec-
tively if it is to impress its audience. Setting
plays an important role in the communication
I n the ancient Middle East, the god Utu,
known as Shamash in Akkadian, was a
Sumerian sun deity. As the personification of

Utu/Shamash 481
the sun, whose light illuminates darkness, the cowherd and shepherd whose animals had
god Utu sought justice for both gods and been bewitched by a sorcerer.
mankind. In the Babylon legend of Etana, Utu, here
In Sumerian myths, Utu was the son of called Shamash, helped a trapped eagle to es-
Nanna, the moon god. He was also the twin cape from a pit. The legendary King Etana
brother of Inanna, the goddess of heaven. In had no heir and prayed to Shamash to grant
later Akkadian traditions, he was the son ei- him one. In a dream, Etana heard the voice of
ther of the sky god, An, or of Enlil, a god of the god of justice, who told him to go to the
creation. aid of the eagle. In return for his assistance,
Utu’s consort was Sherida (Akkadian, Aya), the bird would help him find the mythical
the goddess of light. In narrative tales of the plant of fertility. Etana freed the eagle, which
land of Aratta, the hero Lugalbanda was called carried him to heaven in search of the “Plant
the son of Utu. of Giving Birth.”
Utu is depicted in examples dating from In the Epic of Gilgamesh, Shamash (again,
the twenty-fourth century B.C.E. as a bearded the name used for Utu), upon the request of
deity with rays emanating from his shoulders. the goddess Ninsun, the mother of Gilgamesh,
He usually is shown with his emblem, a ser- protected and assisted the hero in his battle
rated saw, which probably referred to his role with the Humbaba monster. In a later episode,
as the guardian of justice. A Babylonian hymn after Gilgamesh and Enkidu subdued and
indicates that the saw was used to punish crim- killed the Bull of Heaven, the two heroes
inals. Some images show Utu emerging from ripped out its heart, prostrated themselves be-
the eastern mountains in the morning, as two fore the god Shamash, and presented the heart
deified attendants open the gates of heaven. to him.
Utu was also believed to have an attach- Ira Spar
ment to humans. Meshkiagasher, a legendary
king of the city of Uruk, was said to have been Sources
an offspring of the god. Utu is also a character Alster, Bendt. Dumuzi’s Dream: Aspects of Oral Poetry in a
Sumerian Myth. Copenhagen, Denmark: Copenhagen
in the Sumerian poem “Dumuzi’s Dream,” Studies in Assyriology 1, 1972.
which describes how Dumuzi, husband of Black, Jeremy A., and Anthony Green. Gods, Demons and
Inanna and brother-in-law of Utu, prayed to Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia. Austin: University of
Utu for help. Texas Press, 1992.
In the Sumerian tale of the enmity be- Hawker, E. Robson, J. Taylor, and G. Zólyomi. The
tween Enmerkar and Ensuhgirana, the lord Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature. http://
of Aratta, Utu responded to the cries of the www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/.

V
Vainamoinen
(Finnish)
that Ilmarinen, the master smith, would forge
a magical artifact, called a sampo, for Pohjola.
On his way home, Vainamoinen met
Louhi’s daughter, the Maiden of Pohjola, and
asked her to marry him. She agreed on the
V ainamoinen was the wise wizard and ad-

venturer of the Finnish epic the Kalevala.
Vainamoinen was the son of the heavenly
condition that Vainamoinen would carry out
certain seemingly impossible tasks. While
Vainamoinen carved a wooden boat, how-
maiden, the demigoddess Ilmatar. Trapped in ever, his axe slipped, wounding his knee so he
her womb for more than 700 years, he grew to was unable to complete the tasks. He searched
adulthood and then finally escaped into the for an expert blood stauncher and found an
world as an active, white-bearded old man. old man who stopped the flow of blood by
In the land that would become Finland, using magic incantations.
Vainamoinen brought the world such gifts as The Maiden of Pohjola chose to marry Il-
agriculture and fire. He also invented the kan- marinen, the forger of the sampo, as he per-
tele, a type of harp or lyre, from the bones of formed the three tasks she set before him: He
a giant pike. plowed a field full of vipers, hunted down the
Among Vainamoinen’s adventures was bear of Tuonela and the wolf of Manala, and
an encounter with the young, brash Jouka- fished the Great Pike out of the Tuonela River.
hainen, who challenged him to a duel of magic. Vainamoinen held no ill will toward the cou-
Vainamoinen literally sang the younger man ple and entertained the wedding guests with
into the ground, and Joukahainen escaped his singing.
only because he promised Vainamoinen that Now, Vainamoinen and other heroes set
Joukahainen’s sister, Aino, would marry him. out to steal back the sampo from Pohjola.
Vainamoinen agreed, but Aino threw herself Vainamoinen put the people of Pohjola to
into the sea to avoid marrying the old man. sleep with his kantele playing, and the sampo
Joukahainen sought revenge, shooting was taken away. Louhi set off in pursuit in the
Vainamoinen’s horse and sending the wizard form of a giant bird of prey. In the ensuing
tumbling into the sea. Vainamoinen was res- battle, the sampo was smashed and fell into
cued by a large eagle and was carried to the the sea. There, it continued to grind and
land of Pohjola. The mistress of Pohjola, Louhi, turned the sea to salt water.
tended to Vainamoinen until he recovered. She Louhi sent diseases to destroy the people
then refused to let him go until he promised of Kalevala, but Vainamoinen cured the sick.
482

Valhalla 483
Louhi sent a bear to attack the Kalevala cat- honorably in battle. Those who came to Val-
tle, but Vainamoinen slew the bear. The mis- halla were chosen for this honor by the
tress of Pohjola, Louhi, hid the Sun and the Valkyries, the nine warrior daughters of Odin.
Moon inside a hill and stole the fire as well. Each day, these warriors rode out to take part
Vainamoinen and Ilmarinen freed the fire and in military games and mock battles. Every
forged keys needed to release the Sun and night, they returned to the hall to feast. Any
Moon. wounds sustained during the day healed in-
In his final adventure, Vainamoinen set sail stantly, and the fine roasted boar and intoxicat-
in a copper boat. He planned to return when ing mead never ran out. The warriors waited in
he was needed. Valhalla for the final battle, called Ragnarok, at
J.R.R. Tolkien, author of The Lord of the which time they would march forth into a
Rings (1954–1955), was familiar with the Kale- doomed but glorious fight against the giants,
vala. Tolkein’s wizard adventurer, Gandalf, was the enemies of the gods.
almost certainly inspired by the wise wizard Valhalla was the ideal afterlife for Norse
Vainamoinen. Viking warriors. They could think of no worse
fate for themselves than losing their fighting
See also: Kalevala; Wizards; Retelling: abilities through crippling injuries or old age
Vainamoinen. and gradually becoming useless in a warrior
society. It was far better for true warriors to die
Sources in glorious combat at the peak of their powers,
Lönnrot, Elias. The Kalevala: An Epic Poem After Oral Tra- assured of a true and honorable warrior’s af-
dition. Trans. Keith Bosley. New York: Oxford Uni- terlife in Valhalla.
versity Press, 1999. There was also a place at Valhalla for
Ritva Poom. Bloomington: Indiana University women in the hall of Frigga, Odin’s wife.
Press, 1999. Women who died in childbirth were welcomed
as warriors. Couples who died when they were
fervently in love with each other also were per-
Valhalla mitted to enter.
Warriors who did not get to Valhalla,
whether through cowardice, dying in bed, or
(Norse) some other shameful end, went to the dark
V alhalla was the great hall, or palace, that

stood in the Grove of Glesir in Asgard,
the realm of the Norse gods. It was presided
home of the dead. This was ruled over by the
grim goddess Hel in a realm deep within the
underworld. The Vikings considered such an
over by the head god of the Norse pantheon, end to be literally a fate worse than mere death.
Odin. The name Valhalla means hall of the
slain. See also: Norse Mythology; Odin/Odhinn;
Valhalla was said to be truly enormous, Valkyries.
with 540 doors. Each door was large enough
for 800 warriors to pass through at once. The Sources
walls were made of spears, the benches of Crossley-Holland, Kevin. The Norse Myths. New York:
Pantheon, 1981.
breastplates, and the roof of shining shields. Hollander, Lee M., trans. The Poetic Edda. Austin: Uni-
The hall held countless warriors, all of whom versity of Texas Press, 1928.
were former mortals. A wolf guarded Val- Lindow, John. Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes,
halla’s main door, and an eagle flew watch Rituals, and Beliefs. New York: Oxford University
Press, 2002.
over it. Sturluson, Snorri. The Prose Edda: Tales from Norse
Valhalla was home to the Norse heroes Mythology. Trans. Jean I. Young. Berkeley: Univer-
called the einherjar, who had died bravely and sity of California Press, 2001.

484 Valkyr ies
Valkyries The Valkyries also often acted as Odin’s

messengers. According to the myth, when they
rode forth on their errands, their bright, glint-
(Norse) ing armor caused the strange lights of the au-
rora borealis.
T he Valkyries were the daughters of Odin,

chief god of the Norse pantheon. They es-
corted the spirits of the bravest slain warriors,
Some scholars have speculated that origi-
nally the Valkyries were priestesses. These
were not beautiful young maidens in armor
the einherjar, to Valhalla, Odin’s great hall. The but old women who selected victims for human
name Valkyrie means choosers of the slain. sacrifice. But the image of beautiful women
The einherjar were taken to Valhalla to taking the brave warriors up to Valhalla re-
prepare for the final battle, called Ragnarok. placed this less pleasant image.
This battle would mark the end of the gods The nineteenth-century German composer
and change the fate of everything. Richard Wagner included the Valkyries in his
The Valkyries’ names were Brynhild, Göll, operatic work Der Ring des Nibelungen (The Ring
Göndul, Gudr, Gunn, Herfjoturr, Hildr, Hlad- of the Nibelung; 1869–1876), commonly known
gunnr, Hlokk, Hrist, Sigrdrifa, Sigrún, and as “The Ring Cycle,” which is based on Norse
Svafa. They were portrayed as beautiful young mythology. One of the most familiar melodies
women armed with helmets and spears, and from that work is the orchestral overture, com-
they rode winged horses. monly known as “Ride of the Valkyries.”
See also: Brunhilde/Brynhild/Brunnehilde;

Norse Mythology; Odin/Odhinn.
Sources
Crossley-Holland, Kevin. Norse Myths. New York: Pan-
theon, 1981.
Davidson, H.R. Ellis. Myths and Symbols in Pagan Europe:
Early Scandinavian and Celtic Religions. Syracuse, NY:
Syracuse University Press, 1988.
Rituals, and Beliefs. New York: Oxford University
Press, 2002.
Vampires
V ampires are undead beings who feed off
the blood and life of the living. They have
existed in the folklore of many cultures for
thousands of years.
The fear that the dead can return to spread
disease or sap the vitality of the living has
caused many superstitions and beliefs to spring
up concerning how vampires are made, de-
“The Ride of the Valkyries,” an oil painting by British tected, and destroyed. Legends of vampires are
artist William T. Maud (1865–1903), shows the most common in Eastern Europe but also oc-
Valkyries, accompanied by one of Odin’s two ravens, cur in China.
riding out to find those who had died honorably in bat-
tle. The chosen men will be carried to Valhalla, Odin’s Although the vampire in recent fiction is
great hall. (Snark/Art Resource, NY) often depicted as lanky, tall, and pale, the most

Vampires 485
common of the folkloric vampire are bloated Someone who died while under a curse.
and ruddy. In Greece, vampires sometimes are Someone who died while excommuni-
thought to have dark blue or black faces. This cated from their religion.
may be due to the practice of burying people
A convert to Islam.
who were suspected of being vampires face-
down. The blood in the corpse would pool in A priest who celebrated Mass while
the face rather than the back; if the corpse was living with an unconfessed mortal sin.
exhumed at a later date to determine if it had A person born or conceived on a
become a vampire, the face would be dark Church holy day.
rather than pale. Someone whose godparents stumbled
The word vampire first appeared in English while reciting the Apostle’s Creed at
in 1679, but there is no agreement as to the ul- his or her baptism.
timate origin of the word. One theory is that
the word comes from the Slavic upior, or upyr, A person also might be doomed to be-
which are in turn derived from the Turkish come a vampire after death if a cat or dog
uber. Others think it may come from the Greek jumped across the corpse or if the shadow of a
pi, Serbo-Croatian pirati, or Lithuanian wempti. man fell on it. Consequently, the danger of be-
The theory that is most widely accepted is that coming a vampire was very real and of great
the word derives from the Serbian bamiiup, concern to people living with these beliefs,
which essentially means “vampire.” so precautions were often taken with every
In Hungary and Romania, where legends corpse to attempt to protect the dead.
of vampires are very common, the word was
introduced fairly recently. In Hungary, the
earliest evidence of the word occurred in 1786.
Protecting the Dead
In Romania, the word first appeared around Since piercing a vampire with a sharp object
1815, but the more common terms are strigoi was one way to destroy it, placing a sharp im-
and moroi. While the term vampire has become plement, often a sickle, in the coffin with the
widely accepted in Hungary, the older, more recently dead was a custom designed to keep
common terms still are preferred in Romania. the dead from rising at all. In some areas, the
In Transylvania, home of the historical Count sickle was placed on the abdomen of the de-
Dracula, the term is şişcoi. ceased; in others, the sickle was placed across
the neck so that if the vampire tried to rise
Vampires in Folklore from the grave it would cut off its own head.
The modern concept of vampires is that they In Morocco, knives were placed on the body
are created when a person is bitten by another for the same purpose.
vampire, but folkloric vampires were created Binding the deceased’s limbs was another
in a number of different ways. The following way to keep the dead from rising, though lo-
individuals might become vampires: cal variations determined whether the dead
could be bound inside the coffin. Sometimes,
A person born with a caul, a mem- the dead had their ankles or knees bound for
brane that covers the head. a time, but the knots were removed prior to
A person born with teeth. burial so that they would not bind the soul
to the body.
Someone who lived an immoral life or
People in other districts left the knots in
was an alcoholic.
the coffin, as the vampire would be forced to
Someone who committed suicide. untie them before it could escape. In some
A murder victim whose murder was practices, nets were placed in the coffin in the
not avenged. belief that the vampire would be forced to

486 Vampires
undo each knot in the net at the rate of one down, thrown into swiftly flowing water, or
per year. Poppy seeds could also be spread on buried at a crossroads.
the ground, as the vampire would be obsessed During plagues, stories of vampires were
with finding every single one before it could extremely common. Since the manner in which
move beyond its grave. the disease was transmitted was unknown, it
In Greek folklore, binding the corpse was not unusual to blame outbreaks on vam-
was thought to keep a vampire from return- pire activity. When a plague killed great num-
ing from the dead. This may be why, in bers of people, many remained unburied or
Greek mythology, the infant Oedipus had his were buried improperly. The misunderstood
ankles tied together when he was abandoned processes of decomposition were readily ob-
as an infant by his parents. This practice was servable. Those who were improperly buried
not to keep the newborn from crawling often were dug up by wolves or dogs, or sim-
away, but to keep the infant from returning ply “rose” out of the ground due to the bloat-
from the dead. ing of the body and the shallowness of the
Protecting oneself and one’s family from grave. This may be where beliefs that wolves
wandering vampires was a constant concern. and dogs were the enemies of vampires origi-
As it was believed a vampire could only re- nated, as well as the belief that the earth might
turn to its home the same way it had left, reject the unholy corpse.
corpses were sometimes removed from homes
feet first, via a window.
Turning the items in one’s home upside
Eastern Europe
down would prevent a vampire from asking Serbian vampires were active and out of
these items to open the door. People slept with their graves every day but Saturday. Roman-
their feet at the head of the bed to keep a vam- ian vampires were active at all times, but
pire from finding them if one did enter the most particularly on Saint Andrew’s Eve and
home. Saint George’s Eve. In Romania, a vampire
that remained undestroyed for seven years
could pass into another country, become a
Destroying a Vampire man again, marry, and have children. But he
Once someone was suspected of vampirism, and his children would become vampires
his or her corpse was exhumed and examined. upon death and ravage the wife’s family and
If the corpse was bloated and had bloody lips, her village.
it was presumed to be a vampire. The vampire Since it was widely believed in many parts
could be dispatched by piercing its abdomen of Eastern Europe that nearly anyone could
with a stake of ash or hawthorn, or a sickle, or become a vampire, identifying those who had
another sharp object such as a needle, de- become vampires was extremely important. If
pending on the particular beliefs of the village. a village had some bad luck, such as terrible
Sometimes, a hide was placed on the vampire weather, a plague, or a string of unusual deaths,
before staking it to control blood splatter, as it could be blamed on a vampire.
being touched by the vampire’s blood could The villagers looked for a vampire by
drive someone mad or even turn that person checking recent graves. They would check to
into a vampire. see if there were holes by which the vampire
In some traditions, staking was sufficient might have escaped. Or they might lead a
to destroy a vampire. In others, the corpse white (or, in some cases, a black) horse over
had to be beheaded and cremated. The heart fresh graves. The horse would refuse to walk
had to be burned entirely to ash or the vam- over the grave of a vampire. Many traditions
pire might return. Sometimes, corpses simply held that it would take either nine days or
were buried deeper than usual, buried face- forty days for a vampire to rise, so anyone

Vampires 487
who had not yet been dead for the specified Modern Vampires
time would not be suspect.
In Russia, a woman who made a pact with A new kind of vampire was created in the
the devil was believed to rise from her grave nineteenth century by authors such as J. Sheri-
as an eretica. These undead creatures would be dan Le Fanu and Bram Stoker. Le Fanu’s
most active in spring and autumn, when they Carmilla: A Vampyre Tale (1872) and Stoker’s
would spread death and disease via the evil Dracula (1897) combined the horror of the
eye. revenant with eroticism and spawned an in-
In Poland, a child born with teeth or a caul dustry that equated the vampire with seduc-
was destined to become a kind of vampire tion. Though Bram Stoker named his vampire
called an ohyn. The ohyn did not leave its grave, after a historical fifteenth-century Wallachian
but it did chew on its own flesh and thereby prince, the name of Dracula is not associated
magically brought death to its family. with vampires in Romania.
The liougat of Albania rose from its grave Since the publication of Stoker’s Dracula,
armed with huge fingernails. It killed and de- vampires have developed into something
voured anything it found. The liougat could completely separate from their folkloric an-
be thwarted by wolves, which tore off its legs. tecedents. Modern fictional vampires cannot
The maimed vampire then had to return to its see themselves in a mirror, are afraid of crosses,
grave, defeated, and remain there forever. and are friends with wolves. They create other
vampires by drinking victims’ blood, then forc-
ing the victims to drink their blood. The stake
Germany driven through the vampire must be through
In Germany, the Neuntöter, which means the heart rather than the abdomen. And the
“ninekiller,” would rise nine days after burial vampire cannot enter a private residence with-
to spread plague. But a lemon placed in its out an invitation.
mouth would keep it in its grave. These vampires often rise from the grave
The nachzehrer of northern Germany after three days, rather than the more tradi-
chewed on its burial shroud and its extremi- tional nine or forty days. They possess a hyp-
ties, so its appearance was often quite tattered. notic gaze, and their overall appearance and
In fact, it was supposed to make so much noise demeanor can be quite sensual. They bear no
while chewing on itself and its shroud that it resemblance to a bloated corpse. They can
could be located in its grave by sound alone. turn into mist or shape-shift into a bat. Often,
A person could become a nachzehrer if vampires cannot cross running water, and their
his or her name was not removed from his coffins must contain a quantity of their home
or her clothing before burial. If the nachzehrer earth. The modern vampire is difficult to find
rang the church bells, whoever heard them and harder to kill.
was doomed to die soon thereafter. A More than a century since Bram Stoker
nachzehrer could be destroyed through de- brought the sensual vampire to life, the charac-
capitation, as long as the head and body were ter of the vampire has been molded into many
reburied separately. different forms in film. He has been a thing of
horror (Nosferatu, 1922; Dracula, 1931), the sub-
ject of jokes (Love at First Bite, 1979), a misun-
China derstood antihero (Dracula, 1979; Bram Stoker’s
The Chinese xiang shi was often greenish in Dracula, 1992), a mentor (My Best Friend Is a
color and sometimes glowed. The xiang shi Vampire, 1988), and even a disaffected
was animated by the po, or inferior soul of a teenager (The Lost Boys, 1987). In China, the xi-
person, and was created by a sudden or vio- ang shi has been transformed into the hopping
lent death or an improper burial. vampire of Hong Kong kung fu films.

488 Vanishing Hitchhiker
Writers such as Anne Rice, P.N. Elrod, lift by a Good Samaritan. She asked to be
Fred Saberhagen, Chelsea Quinn Yarbro, Bar- driven near Mount Kilauea and then disap-
bara Hambly, and Laurell K. Hamilton each peared, leaving the Good Samaritan to realize
have their own take on the modern vampire. he had just given a ride to the volcano god-
The concept of the vampire has proved mal- dess, Madame Pele.
leable enough to be re-created again and again. Another version, from Appalachia, in-
volves a vanishing hitchhiker who turned out
Marella Sands to be John the Baptist. He told the Good
Samaritan that Jesus Christ would return and
See also: Bats; Liderc; Shape-Shifters. then disappeared.
Sources The vanishing hitchhiker also turns up in
Barber, Paul. Vampires, Burial and Death: Folklore and Re- movies, such as Orson Welles’s Return to Glen-
ality. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988. nascaul (1951), in which both a mother and
Dundes, Alan, ed. The Vampire: A Casebook. Madison: daughter are hitchhiking ghosts who vanish af-
University of Wisconsin Press, 1998. ter they are taken by a Good Samaritan back
Hoyt, Olga. Lust for Blood: The Consuming Story of Vam-
pires. New York: Stein and Day, 1984.
to their home.
Jackson, Nigel. Compleat Vampyre. Chieveley, UK: Capall
Bann, 1995. See also: Urban Legends.
Sources
Vanishing Hitchhiker Brunvand, Jan Harold. The Study of American Folklore.
———. The Vanishing Hitchhiker: American Urban Legends
T he tale of the vanishing hitchhiker may be

the most widespread and popular folktale
of all. It has been collected by folklorists in,
and Their Meanings. New York: W.W. Norton, 1981.
among other countries, the United States,

Canada, Great Britain, Malaysia, China, and
Vegetable Sheep/Lamb
the Philippines.
The vanishing hitchhiker is the ghost of a
(European)
victim, usually female, of an automobile acci-
dent. The ghost is trying to get home and is
picked up by a Good Samaritan. When the
P lant-animal hybrids, vegetable sheep and
vegetable lambs, were believed to produce
cotton as sheep produce wool and are depicted
Good Samaritan arrives at the ghost’s house, in the bestiaries, the medieval collections of fact
the ghost vanishes. The bewildered Good and folklore about real and imaginary animals.
Samaritan then learns from the still-grieving Also known as the lambs of Tartary, these crea-
family that yes, this was a ghost that had been tures were believed to live in the Asian land of
trying to get home for days, weeks, or years. Tartary, which is part of present-day Eastern
Some variants add the detail of the ghost be- Europe and Russia.
ing cold, and the Good Samaritan lending her The origins of this odd belief are almost cer-
a sweater. When the ghost vanishes, the tainly connected to the arrival of cotton bolls
sweater is left behind, or, in a neat twist, is from the East into Western Europe. Since no
found draped over her tombstone. one in Western Europe had ever seen cotton in
One of the earlier recorded versions of the its unspun, natural form, they assumed that the
story is in the New Testament. An Ethiopian bolls were a form of wool. So, the reasoning
driving a chariot picked up the Apostle Philip, went, these strange little fleeces probably came
who baptized him, and then disappeared. from a miniature plant-animal that produced
Other versions of the basic story include a tiny sheep-fruit that ate the grass under the main
tale from Hawaii. An old woman was given a plant until the bolls ripened and dropped off.

Vietnamese Stor ytelling 489
Further “proof” was found in the root—or Dodgson) in his famous fantasy, Alice’s Adven-
rhizome, to be accurate—of the fern species tures in Wonderland (1865).
Cibotium barometz, which does vaguely resem-
ble a lamb, complete with a body and four The Queen of Hearts,
legs, especially when all extraneous material is She made some tarts,
pared away. Seen together with a cotton boll All on a summer’s day;
by someone who had never before seen either The Knave of Hearts,
one, the leap could be made to the belief that He stole those tarts,
these items were the body and fleece of a veg- And took them clean away.
etable lamb. The King of Hearts
Surprisingly enough, belief in the veg- Called for the tarts,
etable lamb lasted well past the Middle Ages. And beat the knave full sore;
Sir Hans Sloan, member and secretary of The Knave of Hearts
Britain’s preeminent organization of scientists, Brought back the tarts,
the Royal Society of England, and the founder And vowed he’d steal no more.
of the English Natural History Museum, had
in his possession a “vegetable lamb of Tar- As this example shows, a verse story can
tary.” But Sloan lived in an age of scientific be relatively short, but verse stories also may
investigation—Sir Isaac Newton was president be long and quite complicated. Storytellers
of the Royal Society at the time—and so the may adjust the length, depending on what will
“lamb” was studied. It turned out to be a care- suit the audience.
fully pared example of the Cibotium barometz
rhizome. See also: Ballads.
See also: Bestiary. Sources

Carroll, Lewis. The Annotated Alice. New York: W.W. Nor-
Sources ton, 2000.
Barber, Richard. Bestiary: Being an English Version of the “The Hive: A Collection of Scraps.” European Magazine,
Bodleian Library. Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 1993. 1782.
Baxter, Ron. Bestiaries and Their Users in the Middle Ages. Lamb, Charles. The King and Queen of Hearts: With the
London: Courtauld Institute, 1998. Rogueries of the Knave Who Stole the Queen’s Pies. Lon-
White, T.H. The Book of Beasts: Being a Translation from don: M.J. Godwin, 1809.
a Latin Bestiary of the Twelfth Century. Mineola, NY:
Dover, 1984.
Vietnamese Storytelling
Verse Stories
V ietnam is made up of more than fifty eth-
nic groups, each one with its own oral tra-
V erse stories are short dramatic tales for

children that are told in verse. These sto-
ries are related to nursery rhymes and have an
ditions.
Folktales and storytelling are both still pop-
ular throughout Vietnam. But storytelling gen-
equally long history. Verse stories often are erally takes place on a smaller scale in the cities
longer than other types of rhymes, have sim- than it does in the more isolated mountain areas
ple plots and melodies, and usually lack magi- because large gatherings are still discouraged
cal or tragic elements. by the government. However, the Vietnamese
One example of a very popular verse story, government has worked with the Association of
the anonymous “The Queen of Hearts,” dates Vietnamese Folklorists to conserve as much as
back several centuries. It was used by Lewis possible of the country’s oral tradition. Many
Carroll (the pseudonym of Charles Lutwidge stories have been collected and are compiled in

490 Vodianoi
massive volumes of Vietnamese tales and

legends. Vodianoi
In addition to standard storytelling, each
ethnic group has its own type of epic songs (Slavic)
about mythical or legendary heroes. One type
of epic singing performance is called the
h’mon.
I n Slavic myth and folklore, the vodianoi is
the unpredictable, dangerous king or spirit
of water, particularly of freshwater.
The h’mon generally takes place at night,
As a water spirit, the vodianoi needed no
with the audience sitting outside, listening in
clothes. He generally was seen by humans as a
the darkness. The epic is recited in a mixture
being that was half fish and half human, or as
of spoken word and song and can take any-
an old man covered in scales and mud. His
where from three to twenty nights to com-
hair and beard were green, and his hands
plete. In addition to local epics, the Indian
were webbed. When he chose to have a tail,
Ramayana is also known and performed in
he looked something like a heavyset merman.
Vietnam.
When he decided to take a two-legged shape,
The thousand-year-old tradition of ca dao
his long toes helped him to propel himself un-
is still popular in rural Vietnam. These songs
derwater.
and ballads, which are sung without any
The vodianoi was not actively evil, but he
instrumental accompaniment, are a form of
lacked all concept of human morality. He
Vietnamese folk poetry that covers a wide
sometimes willfully drowned humans out of
range of subjects, from romance to children’s
sheer dislike, but more often he dragged
themes.
them underwater to provide entertainment
A unique form of Vietnamese storytelling
for himself and his wife, the vodianikha.
theater is mua roi nuoc, or water-puppet theater.
Those humans who were foolish enough to
Performances of mua roi nuoc take place at the
bathe at twilight were at greatest risk of being
edge of a river or pond, with the audience sit-
snatched.
ting along the shore facing a large screen that
When he became truly angry with hu-
stands up out of the water. The water’s surface
manity, the vodianoi was said to cause floods
forms the stage floor. Puppeteers stand in the
that destroyed dams and mills. Wise millers
water behind the screen and manipulate color-
and fishermen made him offerings to keep
fully painted wooden puppets using rods held
him docile. The vodianoi was considered to
underwater.
be wealthy due both to these offerings and
The mua roi nuoc puppet characters repre-
to the bounty he had taken from sunken
sent everything from humans and animals to
ships.
fairies and dragons, and there may be as many
In the Christian era, the vodianoi was of-
as fifteen different puppet characters in use at
ten confused with the Christian devil, as both
the same time. As the puppeteers perform, an
were believed to live underwater and to look
accompanying ensemble plays background
alike, except, of course, that the devil had
music.
horns.
Sources
Jamieson, Neil L. Understanding Vietnam. Berkeley: Uni- See also: Slavic Mythology.
versity of California Press, 1993.
Nguyên, Huy Hông. Water Puppetry of Vietnam. Hanoi,
Vietnam: Foreign Language Publishing House, Sources
1986. Afanaseyev, Alexandre. Russian Fairy Tales. New York:
Thang, Vo Van, and Jun Lawson. Vietnamese Folktales. Pantheon, 1980.
DaNang, Vietnam: DaNang Publishing House, Simonov, Pyotr. Essential Russian Mythology: Stories That
2001. Change the World. London: Thorsons, 1997.

Vol’k a 491
Vol’ka Vseslav is the fact that Prince Vseslav was

born with a caul, which is a traditional sign of
someone born to be a sorcerer.
(Slavic)
Vol’ka’s Birth and Childhood
P rince Vol’ka is portrayed in Slavic epic folk
poems, called bylini, as a heroic warrior.
He protects the residents of his isolated, forest-
Vol’ka’s family background differs from that of
the other bylini protagonists. While the other
bound principality by performing such tradi- bylini heroes are born into noble or common
tional deeds of heroism as defeating an enemy human families, Vol’ka does not have a human
in single combat. He is also the only hero of father. One story variant does not mention a
a bylina who is a magician and shape-shifter. father at all. In the more common version,
Vol’ka’s fictional world is based on regions Vol’ka’s mother, Princess Marfa, was strolling
of Russia and Ukraine in the twelfth century. in the garden when a snake suddenly coiled
These regions were divided into principalities, around her leg and slapped her thigh with its
the most important of which was ruled by tail. Soon after this incident, she discovered she
Prince Vladimir of Kiev. Much of the land was pregnant.
was heavily forested, and traveling between As one might expect after that strange
the principalities, or even between villages, engendering, the baby Vol’ka was hardly ordi-
was difficult. A local prince in the twelfth cen- nary. His birth was announced by an earth-
tury could technically be a vassal of Vladimir quake and a storm. Birds, fish, and wild beasts
yet, because of the forests and lack of decent flew, swam, and ran wildly in all directions.
roads, might never see him. Vol’ka quickly displayed the common traits
This is the setting for the Kievan cycle of of a culture hero: miraculous growth and the su-
tales. It is a domain of myth and folktale in pernaturally rapid gaining of wisdom. Able to
which historical figures, like Prince Vladimir, speak at birth, the one-day-old baby looked as
mingle with folkloric creatures, such as drag- large and well developed as a child of one year.
ons and magic-wielding princes. He told his mother “in a voice like thunder” to
Russian folklorists have collected Prince put away childish toys and instead prepare a
Vol’ka’s bylina in manuscript form at least sev- warrior’s proper gear and arms for him. In a re-
enteen times in the last 200 years. The epic is quest that separates Vol’ka from most culture
usually included in the Kievan cycle. How- heroes, he also asked for books of wisdom.
ever, it is not known whether Vol’ka was one Vol’ka became as sage as any man by the
of the knights, called bogatyri. Vol’ka is not a time that he was five. The bylina makes a clear
member of Prince Vladimir’s court. His char- distinction between true wisdom and sly wis-
acter is unique in that generally the bogatyri dom. The latter includes tricks such as the art
were featured in each other’s bylini, but Vol’ka of shape shifting. Vol’ka swiftly learns and
is mentioned in only one bylina besides his masters both types.
own. In this other bylina, he appears not as a In traditional Christian Slavic folklore, the
bogatyr but as a secondary character. It is pos- kolduni are sorcerers of human and demonic
sible that the bylina of Prince Vol’ka does not ancestry who are feared for their dark powers.
actually belong to the Kievan cycle. But Vol’ka is never characterized in any of the
Some scholars have tried to find a link be- folklore as a koldun, and his powers are never
tween Prince Vol’ka and various historical portrayed as dark. Vol’ka more closely resem-
characters, such as the tenth-century Prince bles the heroes found in world folktales and
Vseslav of Polovsk. But the only evidence to myths that are born of two worlds, the human
support the claim that Vol’ka is based on and the animal.

492 Völva
Vol’ka and the Animal World When Vol’ka’s army arrived at the royal
fortress, however, his men despaired. The walls
The hero’s ties to the animal world indicate were too tall and solid for any army to scale or
that his tale predates Christianity’s arrival in pierce. The men said only an ant could get un-
Slavic lands. Christianity and its antimagic der them. So Vol’ka turned himself and the en-
bias reached the area in the twelfth century. tire army into ants. They tunneled under the
Vol’ka’s name may derive from volkhv, an an- walls, were turned back into men, and pro-
cient Slavic word for “sorcerer.” However, ceeded with the attack.
some linguists think that the name may have At this point, Vol’ka proved he was an hon-
ties with the ancient Slavic word for wolf, volk. orable twelfth-century hero. Rather than blast-
The latter seems fitting, given Vol’ka’s shape- ing the enemy with magic, he fought the foe
shifting abilities. Apparently without needing in hand-to-hand combat. Vol’ka hurled the tsar
any special rituals or preparation, he can be- down with great force and killed him. The In-
come a falcon, fish, wolf, or bull. dian threat ended, and Vol’ka and his men
Vol’ka’s subjects calmly accepted their were married to the lovely Indian maidens.
prince’s magic. At one point, Vol’ka, in the form And so ends this tale, a curious combina-
of a hunted animal, teased his hunters, asking tion of medieval folk epic and ancient folk-
who among them was able to shape-shift to loric elements with the unique hero-warrior
hunt. They answered matter-of-factly that no Vol’ka at its center.
one could do this but their prince.
See also: Bylina/Bylini; Kievan Cycle; Slavic
Vol’ka the Warrior Mythology.
Vol’ka is also a great warrior. In the only com-
Sources
plete tale about this character, word reached
Magnus, L.A. The Heroic Ballads of Russia. Port Washing-
the prince that the tsar of India (or in some ver- ton, NY: Kennikat, 1967.
sions Turkey or Central Asia) was planning an Pronin, Alexander. Byliny: Heroic Tales of Old Russia.
attack. Vol’ka instantly mustered his druzhina, Frankfurt, Germany: Possev, 1971.
or war band, and led them to battle. The
druzhina was, as befitted a folk hero, far larger
than any in the real world. Rather than the
standard thirty men, Vol’ka’s band consisted of
Völva
7,000. When so large an army was unable to
find enough food during their march, their
(Norse)
magician-prince changed roles from warrior to
hunter. He shape-shifted into a wolf and then a
falcon to capture game for his men.
I n Norse and Teutonic mythology a völva was
a female prophet, a type of priest or shaman.
Generally, this figure was an older woman
The prince’s shape-shifting ability also al- who was not bound to a single family or clan
lowed him to gather information from behind and could wander freely.
enemy lines. As an aurochs, a type of bison, The völva might travel alone or have a ret-
he leapt toward India with magical swiftness. inue of apprentices. She performed a craft
Then, as a falcon, the princely spy perched on called seidr, which was either shamanistic ritual
the tsar’s window sill. While within enemy or true sorcery. Völvas were held in high re-
walls, the tireless Vol’ka turned himself into an gard. Men could be völvas as well but were not
ermine and destroyed as many of the royal ar- revered as the women were. True seidr was
maments as he could by chewing through considered a woman’s craft.
bowstrings, separating arrowheads from A völva is described in the Saga of Erik,
shafts, and, in one anachronistic variant, de- dressed in a blue-black gem-studded cloak, a
stroying flintlock muskets. necklace of glass beads, and a hat trimmed

Völva 493
with white catskin. A pouch containing her deities, consulted a völva about the future of
magical tools hung from a belt around her the gods.
waist. She wore calfskin shoes ornamented
with brass and catskin gloves, with the white See also: Norse Mythology.
fur on the inside. She carried a distaff deco-
rated with brass and gems, which was said to Sources
create a spell of forgetfulness on anyone she Byock, Jesse L., trans. The Saga of King Hrolf Kraki. Lon-
tapped with it three times on the cheek. don: Penguin, 1998.
The völva would sit on a small platform Rituals, and Beliefs. New York: Oxford University
and make her predictions after slipping into a Press, 2002.
trance. In the Saga of Hrolf Kraki, the völva lo- Magnusson, Magnus, and Hermann Palsson, trans. The
cated two missing boys this way, chanting out Vinland Sagas: The Norse Discovery of America. Balti-
more: Penguin, 1965.
the information. Sturluson, Snorri. The Prose Edda of Snorri Sturluson: Tales
It was said that the völva was so important from the Norse Mythology. Trans. Jean I. Young. Berke-
a figure that even Odin, one of the chief Norse ley: University of California Press, 1964.

W
Wayang
(Indonesian)
Shadow plays generally are extensive
events. In its entirety, a typical wayang kulit
may last from sundown until sunrise, about
eight or nine hours. Not only must the dalang
W
be a trained performer, but he has to be strong
ayang is an ancient Javanese word
and in excellent health as well. During the full
meaning “shadow” or “ghost.” It is also
nine hours, he must remain cross-legged,
the name for the traditional sacred dramas
moving only to control the puppets and the
of Java and Bali. There are seven main forms
kechrek, or rattle, which he constantly strikes
of wayang, but wayang kulit, or shadow-puppet
with his right foot.
theater, is the most common. In Java, shadow
The dalang speaks for all the puppets and
plays are performed to celebrate public holi-
has to be able to change his voice to portray
days, religious festivals, weddings, birth cele-
every type of character. A shadow play is al-
brations, and circumcisions. In Bali, they are
ways accompanied by a gamelan, a traditional
staged at all these events, as well as at
Indonesian orchestra, which is made up mostly
cremations.
of metal percussion instruments. The dalang
also acts as conductor, giving hidden cues to
Wayang Kulit the gamelan musicians.
The wayang kulit may have originated in Java
thousands of years ago. Wayang kulit stories
are told with flat puppets made of leather and
Two Forms of Wayang Kulit
cut out in profile. These shadow puppets are There are two subcategories of wayang kulit.
beautifully painted and intricately pierced so The older form is wayang purwa, in which sto-
that their shadows are amazingly detailed. The ries from the two great Indian epics, the Ma-
puppets’ arms are moved by manipulating habharata and the Ramayana, are told. Both of
small sticks. these epics arrived in Java with the influx of
The puppeteer is called the dalang. He Indian influence in the first century C.E. There
sits cross-legged behind the screen, which are about 200 different lakon, or stories, based
is usually a large white cloth stretched on a on what are now truly Javanese versions of the
wooden frame. An oil lamp hangs above tales within those two epics. In Java, the Pen-
the puppeteer so that as he moves the pup- dawa cycle was inspired by the Mahabharata,
pets the lamp casts their shadows onto the and the Rama cycle by the Ramayana. Perhaps
screen. the most popular stories in the Rama cycle are
494

Wele 495
This Indonesian cotton fabric, dyed in a technique known as batik, is decorated with a design that depicts wayang
puppets. (© Werner Forman/Art Resource, NY)
those concerning the marriage of Rama to Herbert, Mimi. Voices of the Puppet Masters: The Wayang
Sinta (Sita in the Ramayana) and Sinta’s abduc- Golek Theater of Indonesia. Honolulu: University of
Hawaii Press, 2002.
tion and rescue.
Keller, Ward. Javanese Shadow Plays, Javanese Selves.
The second form of wayang kulit is called Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,
wayang gedog. In this type, stories from the 1987.
later Hindu era of Java are retold. They fea- Zurbuchen, Mary Sabina. The Language of Balinese
ture tales of a mythological hero-prince, Panji. Shadow Theater. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University
Press, 1987.
Wayang gedog is rarely performed today.
Puppet shows on nonmythic themes are
less common. Those that are performed in-
clude wayang golek, which uses round puppets
Wele
carved of wood, and wayang wong, dance dra-
mas performed by live actors. (Kenyan)
See also: Puppetry and Storytelling. W ele is the supreme god of the Kavi-
rondo people of Kenya.
It was Wele who created everything. First,
Sources
Brandon, James R., ed. On Thrones of Gold: Three Javanese
he created the heavens, then the Sun, the
Shadow Plays. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, Moon, the other celestial bodies, and finally
1993. Earth and humanity.

496 Wenamun, Report of
Wele can appear to people in two ways. Wenamun lodged a complaint with the
He can appear as Omuwanga, the benign ruler of Dor, who had jurisdiction over inci-
white god, or as Gumali, the black god who dents at the port. Wenamun reminded the un-
brings misfortune. named ruler that the valuables that were stolen
belonged to the rulers of Egypt, the ruler of By-
See also: An/Anu; Odin/Odhinn; Sius; Zeus. blos, and Amun-Re. After nine days, the chief
of Dor was unable to find the thief and could
Sources
only offer Wenamun this advice: He should
Abrahams, Roger D., comp. African Folktales: Traditional
Stories of the Black World. New York: Pantheon, 1983. avoid Tyre on his way to Byblos.
Courlander, Harold. A Treasury of African Folklore. New Wenamun sailed safely to Byblos. Before
York: Marlowe, 1996. disembarking to meet with Zekerbaal, prince
Radin, Paul. African Folktales. New York: Alfred A. of Byblos, he searched the ship and confis-
Knopf, 1987.
cated thirty deben of silver, almost equal to
the amount of silver that had been stolen
Wenamun, Report of from him. Wenamun took lodging in a tav-
ern, where he set up a shrine to Amun-of-the-
Road.
(Egyptian) Upon learning of Wenamun’s arrival,
Zekerbaal ordered him out of the port. For
T he Report of Wenamun literary text re-
counts events that took place during the
reign of Pharaoh Ramses XI, who ruled from
twenty-nine days Wenamun defied Zeker-
baal’s daily order to leave, saying he would
depart only when there was a ship available
about 1104 until 1075 B.C.E. It is not known if
that was bound for Egypt.
this work was derived from a genuine report
or is entirely a work of fiction.
Written during the twenty-first dynasty Wenamun and Zekerbaal
(c. 1081–931 B.C.E.), the tale reflects the political
Zekerbaal’s attitude changed, however, when
reality of this period, during which Egypt was
one of his servants fell into an ecstatic fit. The
divided. The northern region was ruled by a
servant cried out that “the image” of Amun
king who resided in the city of Tanis. A high
and the Egyptian envoy (Wenamun) should be
priest of Amun ruled the southern region
brought to the palace, because Amun had sent
from Thebes. As a result, the government was
them. And so, just as Wenamun was about to
largely ineffective. This impotence is pre-
set sail, he was ordered to stay.
sented frankly in Wenamun’s story.
The next morning, Wenamun met with
Zekerbaal at the palace. The prince asked for
Wenamun Sails for Byblos his written orders, but Wenamun had already
The author of the report calls himself Wena- given them to King Smendes. They argued
mun, Elder of the Portal of the Temple of briefly about the nature of Wenamun’s ship
Amun. He relates leaving Thebes to fetch the before getting down to business: Wenamun
timber needed to build the sacred barque, or explained that he had come for the timber,
boat, of Amun, the supreme god of ancient which Zekerbaal’s predecessors had always
Egypt. given to Egypt. Zekerbaal agreed that they
After paying a call on King Smendes and had given timber to Egypt, but only in ex-
his wife, Tantemon, in Tanis, Wenamun de- change for six shiploads of Egyptian goods.
parted for Byblos (in Syria) on a Syrian ship. Wenamun had brought nothing. Zekerbaal ex-
Within a month, he arrived at the harbor of pressed sympathy that Wenamun had been
Dor, Israel (present-day Tell Dor), where a made to undertake this task with no support.
crewman ran off with his gold and silver. Formerly, it would not have been so.

Werewolves 497
This remark insulted Wenamun. He de- Lichtheim, Miriam. Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of
clared that he did have support—from Amun, Readings. Vol. 2. Berkeley: University of California
Press, 2006.
lord of all ships and of Lebanon. In the past,
those treasures were sent only because the
kings could not send life and health. Amun,
who was the lord of life and health, granted Werewolves
these instead of mere material goods. If Zeker-
baal were to provide the timber, the god
would assure his prosperity and that of his W erewolves are the unfortunate beings
that are believed to have the ability to
transform into wolves and then back into hu-
people. Nevertheless, Wenamun dispatched a
letter to Smendes, who replied with gold, sil- man beings. The English word werewolf is a
ver, and other valuables. descendant of the Old English wer (man) and
Satisfied at last, Zekerbaal ordered the tim- wulf (wolf).
ber to be cut. But he was still unhappy with
Wenamun’s conduct. He warned that if the Indo-European Origins
Egyptian attempted to transport the timber
The concept of the werewolf is common to
during the stormy season, he would face Zeker-
many Indo-European cultures that can be
baal’s wrath. Wenamun soothed his host by
traced back to Russia and the Ukraine in the
proposing the wording of an inscription that
fifth to the third millennium B.C.E.
would memorialize Zekerbaal’s generosity.
The Indo-European word for wolf has
Wenamun’s subsequent attempts to obtain
been reconstructed by scholars as wlkwos.
ships to return to Egypt were thwarted. Frus-
Many modern words for werewolf can be
trated, he watched helplessly as southbound
traced to this Indo-European word for wolf:
migratory birds passed by on their way to his
vulcolaca (Old Slavic), vukodlak (Slovenian),
homeland. Learning this, Zekerbaal sent wine,
wilkolak (Polish), vrykolokas (Greek), vurvolak
a sheep, and an Egyptian songstress to cheer
(Albanian), and varcolac (Romanian). These
Wenamun until the next day.
words also are used to mean “vampire” in
At last, Wenamun was able to leave. Once
some areas. As most of these terms are a com-
he was on his way, a storm took him to the
bination of the words wolf and pelt, they can
country of Alashiya (on the island of Cyprus),
be loosely translated as wolf-coat.
where the inhabitants attempted to kill him.
The Romanian varcolac is sometimes a
Wenamun fought his way to the home of
vampire, and sometimes a wolf that eats the
Princess Hatiba, who, by means of an inter-
Moon, causing eclipses. In other cases, the var-
preter who spoke Egyptian, offered Wenamun
colac is a person who periodically descends into
safety.
a deep sleep from which his or her soul wanders
Although we know that Wenamun sur-
forth in the shape of a wolf. This may be a dim
vived to file his report, any other troubles that
recollection of ancient shamanic traditions.
assailed him are unknown, as the papyrus is
broken at this point.
Noreen Doyle
Shamans
The earliest werewolves in Indo-European
See also: Fantasy. cultures were probably shamans, or spiritual
leaders. A shaman placed himself in a trance
Sources to travel to the realm of the dead, and he used
Egberts, Arno. “Wenamun.” In The Oxford Encyclopedia of his great power to return safely to the realm of
Ancient Egypt. Vol. 3. Ed. D.B. Redford. New York:
the living. He also might seek to be possessed
Goedicke, Hans. The Report of Wenamun. Baltimore: by a creature of great strength to help him in
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975. this journey.

498 Werewolves
That some shamans in Indo-European cul- for the death of much of Sigmund’s family.
tures had a special relationship with the wolf Eventually, Sigmund and Sinfjotli removed
is evident in many cultural traditions. The the coats and burned them. As there were no
Magyar shamans of Hungary were said to wolves in Iceland, this story may be a refer-
have been fathered by wolves. Slavic priests ence to earlier initiation rites of young men
were referred to as volkhvy, which derived into the wolf-warrior cults of Northern Eu-
from the word for wolf, velku. rope.
These shamans were not only magicians Another werewolf appears in this saga.
and holy men, but also often warriors. Many When Sigmund and his nine brothers were
warrior societies developed among Indo- captured by King Siggeir, they were bound in
European cultures. One of the best known is chains. Each night, a wolf came and devoured
the so-called berserkers. Though the group’s one of them. Sigmund, who had been left for
name literally meant “bear-shirt,” such war- last, killed the werewolf, which was believed
riors also were identified with wolves. to be King Siggeir’s mother wearing wolf skin.
In the poem Hrafnsmal, which was com- In 1187, Giraldus Cambrensis, a Welsh
posed in Iceland around 900 C.E., the writer and historian, related the following
Ulfedhnar, or wolf-warriors of Norway, are werewolf tale from Ireland:
described as those who carry swords and par- A priest traveling from Ulster to Meath
ticipate in slaughter. The only armor worn by was waylaid on the road at night by a wolf.
the Ulfedhnar was the vargstakkar, or wolf- The wolf spoke to him and pleaded with him
shirt. The warriors, who could become pos- not to be afraid. The wolf called upon the
sessed by the spirit of wolves due to their almighty God and invoked the Trinity and, in
shamanic magic, were outside the realm of or- time, convinced the priest that he meant no
dinary people. Often, they could kill without harm.
consequences when they were so possessed. When the priest was at last convinced to
put aside his fear, the wolf told him that he
and a companion had been placed under a
Other Early Traditions curse and that his companion was near death.
Those who did not belong to these societies The priest followed the wolf to where a she-
and broke the laws of the tribe also were iden- wolf lay and administered extreme unction.
tified with wolves. In Germanic areas, crimi- The male wolf then ripped open the she-
nals were referred to as vargr i veum, or the wolf’s coat and revealed an old woman who
“wolf in the temple.” These men’s lives were had been trapped inside. The wolf and
forfeited to anyone who caught them. woman thanked the priest for his kindness,
In the Middle Ages, condemned criminals and he went on his way.
who had taken to the forest to hide were re-
ferred to as wolfsheads. In Saxon, the gallows
was called the varg treo, or wolf tree. The asso-
Werewolf Trials
ciation with criminality and the wolf appears Most werewolf legal cases were recorded be-
even in Sanskrit, where vrka was the word for tween 1520 and 1630. In that time, it is esti-
a highwayman. mated that 30,000 people in France were
The ability to shape-shift into a wolf is a identified as werewolves. Many were tortured
common element among many folklore tra- into confessions, and many were executed. For
ditions. In Saga of the Volsungs, composed in those who survived, the stigma of being identi-
thirteenth-century Iceland, Sigmund and his fied as a werewolf became a lifelong curse.
son, Sinfjotli, became wolves. During their One of the most famous werewolf cases
time as werewolves, they killed many men in took place in 1603. Jean Grenier, who was
the land of King Siggeir, who was responsible only thirteen years old at the time, was accused

Werewolves 499
of changing into the form of a wolf and killing by Satan into believing he or she could change.
and eating other local children. Grenier appar- Anyone who saw the person change was
ently believed he could become a wolf, and at equally deluded by Satan. Boguet also allowed
least one witness claimed to have seen him that certain “natural maladies” could cause peo-
change form. However, the judge in this case ple to be so deluded, and that Satan might not
ruled that Grenier was not a werewolf, but a actively be involved in each and every case.
boy deluded into believing he could change The belief that a person can change into a
shape. It was determined that Grenier was wolf has not completely died out, though
mentally deficient and therefore could not be modern cases consist of individuals who are
executed for his crimes. He was sentenced to habitual drug users or who have been diag-
life imprisonment in a monastery, where he nosed with a psychiatric disorder, such as
died seven years later at age twenty. schizophrenia. Two cases were reported in the
Many werewolves were executed in Ger- Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal in 1975.
many. In 1589, Peter Stubbe was convicted of Another case was presented in the American
killing fifteen people when in werewolf form. Journal of Psychiatry in 1977. The medical term
His lover and his daughter were convicted as for this condition is lycanthrope, which is Greek
accomplices and were burned at the stake. for “wolf-man.”
Stubbe was strapped to a cartwheel and had By the twentieth century, werewolves had
his flesh pulled from his body with red-hot almost completely retreated into the realm of
pincers. After his arms and legs were broken, fiction. But as recently as 1993, the Associated
Stubbe was beheaded. Press reported that the Evenimentul Ziliei, a
In some stories, it is indeed a man-wolf daily newspaper in Romania, had urged its
rather than a true wolf that is encountered. In readers to use garlic to protect themselves on
one tale, a man who had persecuted those he Saint Andrew’s Day against ghosts and were-
believed to be evil was lost in the woods at wolves.
night. A werewolf approached him and led The concept of a “beast within” has re-
him to a house, where the werewolf per- mained popular with modern readers of fic-
formed human tasks, such as opening doors tion and the moviegoing public. From Robert
and pouring soup into a bowl. This werewolf Louis Stevenson’s novel The Strange Case of Dr.
walked upright and had hands, rather than Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1886) to tales of the In-
paws. In the morning, the man discovered credible Hulk, people remain fascinated with
that the wolfish visage of his benefactor had the idea that animal ferocity, uncivilized and
disappeared. He learned that this was one of untamable, lurks within us all.
the men whom he had persecuted and whose The first movie to feature a werewolf char-
family he had sent to the executioner. In this acter was The Werewolf, an eighteen-minute
case, it was the werewolf that showed compas- movie filmed in 1913. In this story, a Navajo
sion and mercy, and the man who was re- girl became a werewolf in order to exact re-
vealed to be the monster. venge for her father’s murder. Since then,
werewolves have been the focus of more than
fifty movies, including The Wolf Man (1941),
Real or Imaginary? The Werewolf (1956), I Was a Teenage Werewolf
The belief that werewolves do not truly exist, (1957), The Curse of the Werewolf (1960), and An
but are merely deluded people, is older than the American Werewolf in London (1981). And in the
modern practice of psychiatry. In 1590, Henri 1985 film Ladyhawke, a man was cursed to be-
Boguet, a French judge who presided over come a werewolf every night and change back
many cases involving witches and werewolves, into a man during the day.
declared that no one could truly change his or Werewolves in recent fiction obey differ-
her shape. A person could merely be deluded ent rules than those found in history. Usually,

500 West Afr ican Mythology
fictional werewolves are created through a Other deities include Age, patron of
gypsy’s curse or when a character is bitten by hunters. Age is in charge of the wilderness, the
a werewolf. Most of these werewolves trans- uninhabited bush, and the animals therein.
form only during the full moon and must be Legba is a trickster god of language and fate,
dispatched with silver bullets. Minona is a goddess diviner, and Sogbo is the
Marella Sands god of thunder, lightning, and fire.
Other interesting characters of Fon tradi-
See also: Shape-Shifters. tional beliefs are Honsi and Honsu, a pair of
mythical twins with magical powers, and
Sources
Yehwe Zogbanu, the thirty-horned forest-
Byock, Jesse L., trans. The Saga of the Volsungs: The Norse
Epic of Sigurd the Dragon Slayer. Berkeley: University dwelling giant.
of California Press, 1990.
Dundes, Alan, ed. The Vampire: A Casebook. Madison:
University of Wisconsin Press, 1998.
Cameroon
Jackson, Nigel. Compleat Vampyre. Chieveley, UK: Capall The Bamileke and the Bangwa people recog-
Bann, 1995. nize one supreme god called Si. But they are
Otten, Charlotte F., ed. A Lycanthropy Reader: Werewolves
in Western Culture. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse Univer- more likely to pray to ancestral spirits for help
sity Press, 1986. or guidance. Si remains a rather remote figure.
The Efik of Cameroon and Nigeria

West African Mythology Abassi, or Obassi, is the Efik creator god. His
wife, Atai, brought death to humankind. Atai
T he region of West Africa includes many

nations, some peaceful and some troubled
by civil war or corrupt politics. The list of na-
convinced her husband to allow their human
children, one man and one woman, to live on
Earth. The children were not allowed to re-
tions includes Benin, Cameroon, Gabon, produce or work so that they would not over-
Ghana, Guinea, the Ivory Coast, Mali, Nige- whelm Abassi in strength and wisdom.
ria, and Sierra Leone. Each of these countries When the first humans broke those rules,
is home to several ethnic groups, and each Atai killed them both and caused strife, death,
group has its own mythology. and war between their children. Abassi and
The myths of these people are a part of a Atai were so disgusted that they withdrew
living religion and should be treated with re- from the affairs of their descendants.
spect by storytellers.
Ghana
Benin Nyambe is the creator god of the Asante peo-
The supreme god of the Fon people of Benin ple. He planted the tree of life in his garden
is Nana Buluku. He is the father of the twins then moved it to heaven when humans failed
Lisa and Mawu, deities of the Sun and Moon. to appreciate it.
The creator god is Mawu. An aid to Mawu Perhaps the best-known being in the myth
was Aido-Hwedo, the great serpent power, a and folklore of West Africa is Ananse (also
primal force who assisted in the ordering of spelled Anansi). He is the trickster spider-
the cosmos. Above the earth, Aido-Hwedo being of the Asante and other West African
had 3,500 coils, and the same number below; peoples, and a figure in Caribbean folklore.
together, they supported Mawu’s creation. Fa Dubiaku is a culture hero of the Asante people
is the god of destiny, who provided the per- and the only mortal to outwit death. He is
sonal fate for each human. A son of Mawu and known to the Asante people living in Nigeria
Lisa is Gu, god of iron and war. as well.

West Afr ican Mythology 501
Wuni is the creator god of the Dagamba prefers to wander, causing sadness and disor-
people. One myth says that the people sent a der wherever she goes.
dog to Dagamba to tell him what a terribly Amma is the sky god and the creator of
hard life they led, but the dog got sidetracked the universe for the Dogon people. Nommo
by a juicy bone. So a goat was sent, but its was the first living being created by Amma.
bleating was so difficult to understand that Nommo multiplied himself into four sets of
Wuni misunderstood and decided that life twins. One twin rebelled against the others,
would be ended by death. causing unrest in the world. To restore stabil-
ity, Amma cut Nommo up and placed the
The Ivory Coast pieces evenly around the world to balance it.
Shrines to the ancestral spirits known as Binu
The supreme deity of the Akan is Nyame,
commemorate this event.
who created all things and from whom lesser
Lebe is the Dogon earth god, concerned
gods derive their power. Nyame is not wor-
with the agricultural cycle. Tradition claims
shiped directly but is approached through in-
that Lebe visits the hogons, or priests, every
termediaries. These lesser gods, called abosom,
night as a serpent who licks their skin to fill
may inhabit lakes, streams, rivers, or trees. Be-
them with renewed life force and purity.
low them in status are minor deities whose
Ogo is the trickster god, also known as the
power is invoked through amulets or charms
Pale Fox or Jackal. Ogo’s tricky children are
worn for protection. The samanfo, or ancestral
Andumbulu and Yeban, the underworld spir-
spirits, are very important to the Akan people,
its. Yasigi is the goddess of dancing, beer, and
since the ancestors are believed to protect
masks.
their descendants.
Now predominantly Muslim, the Mande
mix elements of Islam with their traditional be- Nigeria
liefs. The Mande creation myth, for example, Nigeria is the home of several different ethnic
describes the biblical account of creation, but it groups. The culture that is perhaps most famil-
also includes the creation of two sets of twins iar to the people of the United States is that of
from seeds. These twins were commanded to the Yoruba people. Many Yoruba were
populate the earth and teach their children brought to the New World as slaves, and they
how to grow crops. The twins created music brought their beliefs with them.
and prayed for rain. The Niger River is said to
have been formed from the resulting floods. The Bura and Pabir Peoples
Mali Hyel, or Hyel-Taku, is the supreme god of the
Bura and Pabir people. He is worshipped indi-
The majority of Mali’s population is Muslim, rectly, through the haptu, or personal gods.
but some people still practice indigenous reli- Some of these personal gods belong to partic-
gions. Yo is a primeval world spirit in the be- ular clans, and there is no single haptu for
lief system of the Bambara people. This a whole tribe.
trickster is made up of both male and female
elements. Yo allowed Pemba, the creator god,
and Pemba’s brother, Faro, god of sky and
The Ibo People
water, to visit Earth. The supreme Ibo deity is Chuku, or Chukwu,
Pemba is a vegetation deity, and Faro cre- from whom all good comes. Ala is his daugh-
ated humankind. Faro is a remote deity who ter, the earth goddess, mother of all things and
visits Earth only once every 400 years. Musso- spirit of fertility.
Koroni is the Bambara goddess of disorder. Igwe is the sky god. Interestingly, the Ibo
She is the wife of Pemba but dislikes him and do not pray to Igwe for rain, because rainmaking

502 White Horses of England
is the job of professional tribal rainmakers. Imo may be performed. He is the protector of trav-
Miri is the spirit of rivers. Larger rivers are so elers and a teacher who uses tricks to make his
holy that it is forbidden for humans to fish in point.
them. Olokun is the sea deity, seen in both male
Ekwu, goddess of the hearth, is the and female versions, who lives in an underwa-
women’s patron, and Aha Njoku is the god- ter palace and symbolizes deep wisdom.
dess of yams, an important crop for the Ibo Olokun is also the patron of those who were
people, and the patron of the women who carried off in the slave trade.
care for them. Lesser gods include Mbatuku, Aja is a forest goddess who teaches her fol-
spirit of wealth, Agwo, who is always envious lowers the use of medicinal herbs. Oya is the
of others’ wealth, and Ikoro, the spirit of the goddess of fire and wind, a warrior deity
drum. whose anger causes hurricanes. She is also the
patron of change and guardian of the gates of
death.
The Yoruba People In addition to the deities, there are other
Olorun is the ruler of the sky and father of the beings in Yoruban mythology. The orishas are
gods Obatala and Odudua (heaven and the guardian spirits and include Babalu-Aye,
Earth). He is the deity of peace, harmony, jus- the spirit of healing. Egbere always weeps and
tice, and purity. Obatala is one of the most im- carries a mat. Whoever steals his mat will be-
portant Yoruban gods. He created humankind come rich.
and is the patron of the handicapped. Odudua This sampling of the mythologies of West
created the earth. The world began as only Africa gives storytellers a hint of the riches to be
water, and Odudua threw soil onto the water. found by researching them more thoroughly.
He sent a rooster to scratch at it, which pushed
it around and created the dry land. See also: Yoruban Storytelling.
Yemaja, who is variously described as the
Sources
daughter of Olorun, Odudua, or Obatala, is
Courlander, Harold. Tales of Yoruba Gods and Heroes. New
the mother goddess of the living ocean. She is York: Crown, 1973.
the patron of birth and is worshipped prima- Murphy, Joseph M. Santeria: An African Religion in Amer-
rily by women. Her brother and husband is ica. Boston: Beacon, 1988.
Aganju. When Orungan, their son, raped Owomoyela, Oyekan. Yoruba Trickster Tales. Lincoln:
University of Nebraska Press, 1997.
Yemaja, her body burst open and fifteen gods Parrinder, Geoffrey. African Mythology. London: Hamlyn,
were born, including Shango. 1967.
Shango, the god of thunder and the ances- Shaub, Harold. A Dictionary of African Mythology. New
tor of the Yoruba people, has three wives. The York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
first is Oya, who stole Shango’s secrets of
magic; the second is Oshun, the river goddess,
who is Shango’s favorite; and the third is Oba, White Horses of England
who was cast away by Shango to become the
turbulent Oba River. Oshun, Shango’s fa-
vorite wife, is the goddess of love, pleasure,
beauty, and diplomacy. While she is generous
T he white horses of England are among a
number of figures, usually of animals, that
are cut into hillsides. The turf has been cut
and kind to humankind, Oshun has a fierce away, revealing the figures in the chalk under-
temper. neath. Several white horses appear in Wilt-
Shakpana is another of Yemaja’s sons, an shire, where there are nine large equine
angry god who afflicts humans with disease images. It is impossible to accurately date
and madness. Eshu is a trickster god to whom these figures, but they are estimated to have
offerings must be made before any magic ritual been carved anywhere from 4,000 to 2,000

White Magic 503
years ago. The reason for the carvings is un-

known. White Magic
The white horse with the greatest number
of folk beliefs attached to it is the Uffington
horse, the most stylized, least naturalistic, of
the horses. The Uffington horse is said to be
W hite magic is used solely for beneficial
purposes. It can be used toward the
personal well-being of the magician or with
able to grant the wish of anyone who stands the intention of helping or healing another.
on its eye and turns around three times clock- White magic traditionally is said to draw its
wise. This belief can no longer be tested, how- power from heavenly forces. White magic
ever. So many people walked on the horse spells are the essence of good, the very oppo-
that they began to damage it, and it is no site of those used in black magic.
longer accessible to the public. White magic spells are never used for per-
Once every hundred years, the Uffington sonal gain or to harm others. They are used to
horse is said to gallop across the sky to be protect, bless, and heal those in need. White
reshod by Wayland, the wonder-smith of magic also can hold off black magic and break
Anglo-Saxon mythology. Wayland’s smithy is ill wishes and curses.
said to have stood near where the Uffington White magic is found in folktales and fan-
horse was carved. It is also said that when tasy stories around the world. Merlin, the
King Arthur awakes from his magical sleep, as powerful magician of Arthurian lore, practices
some believe he will, the Uffington horse will white magic. Merlin is part demon (or part
rise up and dance on nearby Dragon Hill. fairy), yet he chooses to stay on the side of
In other local folk beliefs, the Uffington right. The magician Michael Scott of Scottish
white horse is said to be a mare with an invis- folklore kept his soul safe from the devil by
ible foal on the hill beside her. Every night, never straying from white magic.
the mare and foal come down the hill to Perhaps the most familiar practitioners of
graze at the slope known as the manger. They white magic are the fairy godmothers found
drink at nearby Woolstone Wells, which is in more than 700 versions of the “Cinderella”
believed to have been formed by the mare’s story. These benevolent fairies cast spells to
hoofprint. help the protagonists of their stories to live
White horse figures in other locations also happily ever after.
are said to come to life and go to drink. The Magicians are extremely popular in mod-
Tan Hill horse is supposed to come to life ern fantasy fiction, more so than in the fiction
when the church clock of All Cannings strikes of earlier eras. Gandalf, in J.R.R. Tolkien’s
midnight. It then goes down to a pond to Lord of the Rings series (1954–1955), is a power-
drink. The Westbury white horse is also a ful white wizard who refuses to use his magic
thirsty one. It wakes when the Bratton church for ill, even when tempted by the One Ring.
clock strikes midnight and goes down to Brid- And, in J.K. Rowling’s more recent fictional
dle Springs to drink. series about the adventures of Harry Potter
(1997–2007), Harry is a powerful wizard who
See also: Motifs. uses his powers for good.
It is important to note that Harry Potter is
Sources
Bergamar, Kate. Discovering Hill Figures. Bucking- a rare exception to the norm. Magicians gen-
hamshire, UK: Shire, 1968. erally are not the heroes of the stories in
Bord, Janet, and Colin Bord. The Secret Country: Interpre- which they appear. In works with a magic
tation of the Folklore of Ancient Sites in the British Isles. user as protagonist, the author must include
New York: Walker, 1977.
Plenderleath, William Charles. The White Horses of the
some check on the power of that character. It
West of England: With Notices of Some Other Ancient is for good reason that Gandalf disappears for
Turf-Monuments. London: Allen and Storr, 1892. a significant portion of the Lord of the Rings

504 Wicked Stepmothers
series—if he remained, there would be little the stepmother is consumed by jealousy of the
worry for the other characters, which would heroine.
make for a rather dull plot. There are several odd variants to the
wicked stepmother theme. In the English tale
See also: Black Magic. of “Kate Crackernuts,” the story’s heroine is
not the first daughter but the stepdaughter.
Sources The stepdaughter is a lively, active character,
Ahlquist, Diane. White Light: The Complete Guide to Spells
and the first daughter is more passive. In the
and Rituals for Psychic Protection. New York: Citadel,
2002. German tale “The Juniper Tree,” the step-
Bias, Clifford. A Manual of White Magic: Rituals, Spells, and mother murders and eats her stepson. She is
Incantations. Van Nuys, CA: Newcastle, 1985. then slain by the stepson in the form of a bird-
Zipes, Jack, ed. The Oxford Companion to Fairy Tales. New spirit, and he is restored to life.
In the Grimm Brothers’ version of
“Hansel and Gretel,” it is the stepmother who
cast the children away. In earlier versions, it
Wicked Stepmothers was their own mother.
See also: Motifs.

T he character of the wicked or evil step-
mother is common in the world’s folklore.
Scholars and storytellers have long debated
Sources
Jacoby, Mario, Verena Kast, and Ingrid Riedel. Witches,
the reason for the existence of this character Ogres, and the Devil’s Daughter: Encounters with Evil in
type. Fairy Tales. Trans. Michael H. Kohn. Boston: Sham-
Stepmothers were common in societies bala, 1992.
where women were likely to die in childbirth Leach, Maria, ed. Funk & Wagnalls Standard Dictionary of
Folklore, Mythology and Legend. San Francisco:
or shortly afterward. A man often would take Harper and Row, 1984.
a second wife to replace his children’s de- Tatar, Maria, ed. The Annotated Classic Fairy Tales. New
ceased biological mother. The motif continues York: W.W. Norton, 2002.
today as a result of modern-day patterns of di- Thompson, Stith. The Folktale. New York: Dryden,
1946.
vorce and remarriage.
Stepmothers in folklore are almost always
wicked. This is probably due to two issues: the
psychology of the child, who sees the step- William Tell
mother as an intruder who has done away
with the birth mother, and inheritance laws. A (Swiss)
second wife rarely felt that the first wife’s
child, rather than her own offspring, should
inherit everything, and a first child would not
F ew medieval heroes are as widely known
as William Tell. His exploits have been cel-
ebrated by poets, playwrights, and composers.
wish to share an inheritance with interlopers,
such as stepsisters.
Some of the most familiar wicked step-
The Story of William Tell
mothers appear in the many “Cinderella” A cruel Austrian official called Gessler was as-
variants, in which the wicked stepmother is of- signed to Switzerland. Gessler arranged to
ten accompanied by wicked stepsisters. In have a pole planted in the square of Altdorf
most of these stories, protection of the step- with a hat at the top in Austrian colors. All
mother’s own children is the most common those who passed had to bow to the hat in or-
motivation for her wickedness. This is, per- der to show their respect. William Tell and his
haps, more understandable than the truly evil son passed through the square and did not
nature of the “Snow White” stories, in which salute the hat.

William Tell 505
Tell was arrested and brought before chronicle of the younger Melchior Russ, writ-
Gessler. His punishment for this disrespect ten in 1482. As the shooting of the apple was
was to shoot an apple off his son’s head. Tell, a supposed to have taken place in 1296, this
famous marksman, accomplished this, but he leaves an interval of 186 years between the
had hidden a second arrow under his quiver. event and the written account. In the interim,
He told Gessler, “It was to pierce your heart if neither a Tell nor a William, nor the apple, nor
my first arrow killed my son.” the cruelty of Gessler received any mention in
In spite of his vast reputation, it is very historic records. Also, the charters of Kussnach
likely that William Tell never existed, and it is (the village where the events supposedly took
certain that the story of the apple is pure fic- place) have been examined and show that no
tion. Even so, the Swiss proudly recognize the man by the name of Gessler ever ruled there.
legend, and the marksman’s image is on the Contemporary chroniclers described in
back of the five-franc coin. detail the tyrannical acts of the Duke of Aus-
tria that goaded the Swiss to rebellion. Yet
they do not once mention Tell’s name or be-
Truth Versus Fiction tray the slightest acquaintance with his ex-
Details have been added to the story over time ploits or with his existence. These painstaking
in an attempt to make it seem true. medieval chroniclers would never have kept
The earliest work that makes any allu- silent about the adventures of this character if
sion to the adventures of William Tell is the they had known about them.
William Tell, the crossbow-wielding hero of Swiss folktales, prepares to shoot an apple off his son’s head. This
colored print, or acquantinta, was made around 1820. (Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz/Art Resource, NY)

506 Wise Man or Woman
The greatest proof that William Tell’s story step out into the world with only a vague idea
is not historical comes from an almost identi- of their goals and an even less distinct notion
cal earlier tale recorded by the medieval Dan- of how to attain them. A prince seeks the wa-
ish author Saxo Grammaticus. He tells of a ter of life for his dying father or a young wife
skilled archer named Palnatoki, one of King must travel to the ends of the earth to find her
Harold’s bodyguards, who was envied by the vanished husband. Sometimes, they are thrust
others. Once, when Palnatoki had drunk too out into the world with no goal other than sur-
much, he boasted about his skill, saying that vival.
he could hit the smallest apple placed a long These heroes are armed with courage, op-
way off at the first shot. timism, beauty (usually), and the strength of a
The envious warriors turned the mind of noble heart. Yet they cannot accomplish their
the king against Palnatoki. Harold declared goals without specific knowledge about their
that Palnatoki must prove the truth of his quests and the obstacles that must be over-
boast by shooting an apple off his son’s head. come.
Like Tell, Palnatoki did so, and like Tell, he
hid another arrow. He told the king the rea-
son: If he had accidentally killed his son, he
Help for the Hero
would then have killed Harold. The source of this crucial knowledge is often
Versions of the same story also appear in the archetypal wise man or woman. The wise
Central Asia, Finland, Norway, Persia, and man or woman appears to the hero early in
Russia. the quest, often just as the hero rides forth or
when his or her plight seems hopeless. The
See also: Culture Heroes. wise man or woman may be in the guise of an
animal, elderly beggar, dwarf, or crone.
Sources
The wise man or woman asks the hero
Buff, Mary, and Conrad Buff. The Apple and the Arrow.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1951. where he or she is headed or pleads for a bit of
Florian, Chevalier de ( Jean Pierre Claris). William Tell; food. How the questing hero responds to the
the Hero of Switzerland. A Posthumous Work. To Which wretched figure by the path often determines
Is Prefixed, the Life of the Author, by Jauffret. Philadel- whether the journey will succeed or end in
phia: Snider, 1830.
Newton, J.J. William Tell, the Hero of Switzerland. London:
disaster. The wise man or woman knows the
George Peirce, 1841. hero’s goal and can offer specific instructions
Schiller, Freidrich. William Tell. Chicago: University of on what to avoid, what signs to look for, what
Chicago Press, 1973. tasks will be required, and the one hidden
weakness of the demon, monster, or evil king
that stands in the hero’s way.
Wise Man or Woman The young prince in “The Water of Life”
shares his meager meal with a dwarf. In re-
T hey stand in the shadows of kings, point the

way to questing heroes, and shelter the dis-
possessed and help them regain their birthright.
turn, he is given detailed instructions on how
to find the precious water.
The abandoned wife who seeks her hus-
They teach valuable lessons to those willing to band in the Norwegian fairy tale “East of the
learn, and inflict punishment upon the stubborn Sun, West of the Moon” encounters three old
and steadfastly ignorant. Sometimes, they are women in succession; none of them helps her
gods or fairies in disguise. They are the wise directly, but each gives her a token that even-
man and wise woman, and the importance of tually proves useful and then sends her on to
their role in story cannot be overlooked. the next helper. Step by step the young woman
Every hero or heroine setting forth on a makes her way to the place where her hus-
quest needs guidance. Most traditional heroes band lies hidden.

Wise Man or Woman 507
In the tale “Eros and Psyche,” also When the stepmother discovers the girl’s
known in the Roman form as “Cupid and newfound treasure, she sends her own daugh-
Psyche,” a jealous Aphrodite gives the mortal ter to the well with strict instructions to be
girl Psyche the seemingly impossible task of nice to any old woman she might meet there.
descending to the underworld and bringing Unfortunately for the daughter, the fairy is
back a box of Persephone’s beauty. Psyche is disguised not as a hag but as an elegant lady.
about to give up in despair, when she is given She asks for a drink. The daughter, who had
instructions on how to safely pass through the only been instructed to be kind to old hags (the
underworld by, of all things, a sentient tower. girl being apparently as dim as she is rude
In some versions, the nature deity Pan in- and ugly), insolently tells her she can fetch
structs Psyche. her own drink. Displeased, the fairy curses
Heroes often receive help from com- the girl to spit out a toad or serpent with every
pletely unexpected sources. Many of the terri- word.
ble giants, ogres, and demons that menace In another Grimm Brothers fairy tale,
fairy tale heroes have mothers and wives who “Mother Holle,” the eponymous wise woman
are much more sympathetic. Explanation is is a powerful earth spirit who controls the
never given as to why the female companions weather. She is able to send snowstorms across
of these monsters are sympathetic to the he- the world with a shake of her featherbed. The
roes. virtuous girl who works for Mother Holle dili-
The wife of Grandfather Wisdom, in the gently and without complaint for an entire sea-
Czech tale “The Ogre with the Three Golden son is rewarded with a shower of gold. Her
Hairs,” not only hides the hero from her man- lazy stepsister is sent home covered in sticky
eating spouse, but actually plucks out the three black tar.
golden hairs the hero needs from her spouse’s
head or chin. She teases out of Grandfather Fairy Godmothers
Wisdom the answers to the three puzzles the
The figure of the fairy godmother has been
hero had promised to solve and sends the
made famous by the many versions of the
young man on his way while her husband is
Cinderella story. She is either the spirit of the
safely asleep. In other variants, Grandfather
heroine’s dead mother or a kindly fairy.
Wisdom is a giant, a man-eating ogre, or the
The fairy godmother is less a tester of
devil himself.
virtue than a supernatural matchmaker. She
magically erases the worst obstacles between
Testing the Hero the heroine and her prince. She even attempts
to act as a chaperone by setting up the spells
Sometimes there is no quest, and the role of
so that all the magical implements she has
the wise man or woman is simply to test the
provided will vanish at midnight.
protagonist and offer a reward or punishment.
One of the most familiar of these morality
tales is the Grimm Brothers’ “Toads and Dia-
Mythic Figures
monds.” A typically abused and overworked Some wise figures wield great power. The
stepdaughter is fetching water for her ungrate- myths of ancient Greece, Rome, and India are
ful family when an elderly woman asks her for filled with gods that wander in the guise of
a drink. Unhesitatingly, the girl fills the old helpless old mortals.
woman’s cup and gives it to her with a gra- Hera, the Greek queen of the gods, ap-
cious word. The old lady, who is a fairy in dis- proached the hero Jason in disguise as an old
guise, rewards the girl by causing a flower or crone who was unable to cross a river. Jason
gemstone to drop from her lips with every carried her over, losing one of his sandals in
word she speaks. the process. Hera blessed him in his quest to

508 Wise Men of Chelm
regain his kingdom and continued to watch age and wisdom. Nevertheless, wise elders still
over his journeys. are considered by many to be people of au-
In the great Hindu epic the Mahabharata, thority whose insight is sought in solving com-
the god Krishna offered Prince Arjuna spiritual munity problems. Native American tribal
advice along with his services as charioteer. elders; the shamans still found in a few tribal
cultures, particularly in South America and
Hags and Wizards parts of Russia; the patriarchs and matriarchs
of extended Asian and European families;
In British fairy tales, handsome young knights
and even, in a more humorous form, the im-
were often approached by hideous hags.
perious Jewish mothers and grandmothers
These repulsive creatures demanded a kiss,
of folklore are treated with deference and
lovemaking, or marriage. The rare knight of
respect.
quality who accepted this challenge received
It is also true that age and wisdom are not
an unexpected reward when the crone turned
always connected. Wisdom can also be found
into a beautiful maiden and, in some cases,
in the young, and the aged do not always pos-
conferred kingship upon him.
sess it.
This tale was told in the late fourteenth cen-
Shanti Fader
tury by Geoffrey Chaucer in “The Wife of
Bath,” one of the stories in The Canterbury Tales See also: Archetype.
(c. 1387–1400). The Arthurian story of Sir
Gawain and Dame Ragnell has a similar plot. Sources
In some of the oldest, pre-Christian versions, Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces.
joining with the hag symbolized the king’s mar- Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1968.
———. The Masks of God. New York: Arkana, 1991.
riage to his land, and the crone’s transforma-
Doniger, Wendy. The Implied Spider: Politics and Theology
tion into a maiden represented the rejuvenation in Myth. New York: Columbia University Press,
of the earth in the wake of this divine marriage. 1998.
Wizards, powerful magic users of folklore White, T.H. The Once and Future King. 1958. New York:
and fiction, sometimes appear in the role of Berkeley, 1979.
the wise old man. The most famous of these
helper wizards, at least in the West, is King
Arthur’s aide, Merlin. Another well-known Wise Men of Chelm
wizard is J.R.R. Tolkien’s Gandalf, who is both
a hero and a wise helper. (Polish)
A common theme in fiction that utilizes
wise characters such as wizards is the realiza-
tion that there is more to the universe than
T he townspeople of Chelm, Poland, have
been made famous for their bizarre wis-
dom through Jewish folktales.
what is obvious. This theme also encompasses
As the saying goes, “It’s not that the peo-
the idea that the desire for power is not
ple of Chelm are fools; it’s just that foolish
enough for an individual to become part of
things keep happening to them.” Of course,
this otherworld. Ambition must be tempered
another saying announces that when two an-
with wisdom. In the role-playing game
gels were delivering souls, the bag ripped
“Mage: The Ascension,” for example, the po-
open, and all the foolish souls landed in
tential for magic and a greater understanding
Chelm.
of the universe lies sleeping in every human.
Tracing the age of the tales about the wise
men of Chelm is difficult. A comprehensive
Wisdom in the Modern Age collection has never been compiled, and
In many ways, but not universally, modern there is no solid proof of their origin. Scholars
Western culture values youth and vitality over guess that some of the tales date from the late

Wise (or Foolish, or Mad) Men of Gotham 509
Middle Ages, while others are almost cer-

tainly more recent. And since new tales are Wise (or Foolish, or Mad)
constantly being added to the repertory, it has
become almost impossible to separate the old
Men of Gotham
tales from the new.
A few examples of the wise men of (English)
Chelm’s way of thinking follow:
The wise men of Chelm began to worry
about how much they were worrying. So they
G otham is a real city in Nottinghamshire,
England, but it has become known as the
site of the folktales about the wise men of
decided to each pay a man one ruble to do the Gotham. Also known as the foolish men of
worrying for them. But, they thought, if he Gotham or even the madmen of Gotham, they
had all that money, why would he worry? sometimes seem more wise than foolish.
One of the wise men of Chelm went to his According to a story from the late twelfth
doctor, worried because he talked to himself. century, the people of Gotham heard that King
The doctor told him it was no real problem. John was going to visit them. They did not
After all, he was only talking to himself. The want him there, as he and his retinue and re-
man complained, “But I’m such a bore!” tainers would be far too expensive a group of
When the wise men of Chelm appointed visitors for their town. So they deliberately
one among them as chief sage, they decided started acting in foolish or even wildly insane
he must have golden shoes to wear to show ways. They did stunts, such as trying to drown
how special he was. But the first time he wore a fish or cage a bird (fittingly enough, a cuckoo)
them, mud covered the gold. So the wise men by joining hands. King John heard of this be-
made leather shoes to cover the golden shoes. havior and decided to stay elsewhere. The vil-
But now the golden shoes could not be seen. lagers were said to have remarked, presumably
So the wise men cut holes in the leather shoes smirking as they did so, that more fools passed
to let the gold show through. But now mud through Gotham than remained in it. There is
seeped into the holes! So the wise men stuffed no historical evidence to prove this story.
straw into the holes. Now the gold could not In 1540, a collection of twenty tales of
be seen. At last they came up with a solution. Gotham was published. A number of towns
To show how special he was, the chief sage claim to be the village of origin. A town in
wore his golden shoes on his hands. Sussex, as well as almost fifty other villages in
A house caught fire in Chelm on a dark, England and Wales, maintain that the silly
moonless night. Everyone agreed that it was tales belong to them. Even Mother Goose
fortunate that the fire was burning so brightly, stepped into the fray:
or they would never have been able to see
to put it out. Fortunate, indeed: If nothing Three wise men of Gotham went to sea
else, the wise men of Chelm are eternally in a bowl.
optimistic. If the bowl had been stronger,
My song had been longer.
See also: Fools; Wise (or Foolish, or Mad) Men
of Gotham. In 1807, the American author Washington
Irving dubbed New York City “Gotham,” since
Sources he considered it a city of fools. The name
Sherman, Josepha. A Sampler of Jewish-American Folklore. stuck. For instance, the comic book character
Simon, Solomon. The Wise Men of Helm and Their Merry Batman, the caped crusader and avenger, lives
Tales. West Orange, NJ: Behrman House, 1996. in none other than Gotham City.
Tenenbaum, Samuel. The Wise Men of Chelm. New York:
Collier, 1975. See also: Fools; Wise Men of Chelm.

510 Wizards
Sources
Anonymous. The Merry Tales of the Wise Men of Gotham.
Portland, OR: Richard Abel, 1970.
Carrick, Malcolm. The Wise Men of Gotham. New York:
Viking, 1975.
Elias, Gillian. The Tales of the Wise Men of Gotham. West
Bridgford, UK: Nottinghamshire County Council
Leisure Services, 1991.
Wizards
I n world folklore, a wizard is a usually male,
often aged figure of immense magical
power. In Western folk tradition, wizards are
usually portrayed with flowing robes, a
pointed hat, and a long white beard. A wizard
can be on the side of either good or evil.
Wizards are found in many fantasy tales
as well, sometimes as heroic figures and some-
times as frauds.
Merlin
Merlin, the great wizard of Arthurian lore, counseled the
Merlin, the wizard of Arthurian legend, ap- young King Arthur. This illustration is from about 1350;
pears in numerous and varied forms. Authors it now resides in the British Library in London. (Art Re-
source, NY)
have portrayed him as a magician, a conjurer,
a student of alchemy, and a prophet.
T.H. White, in The Once and Future King for him to claim the throne. The Once and Fu-
(1958), described Merlin as living backward in ture King begins with Merlin overseeing the
time, which meant that he could remember the education of the young Arthur, whom he nick-
future. Marion Zimmer Bradley’s feminist names Wart.
retelling of Arthur’s story, The Mists of Avalon Long before Arthur’s time, Merlin had
(1982), makes Merlin a title that is held by helped the warlord Vortigern discover why
high-ranking Druid priests, rather than the the castle he was building was continually un-
name of a single man. Sometimes, Merlin di- built each night. Merlin directed Vortigern to
rects and influences the events of the dig underneath the foundation. When he did
Arthurian tales (including the birth of the so, a pair of dragons was discovered fighting
king). In other versions, he is swept along by in an underground cavern. Released, the drag-
events, helplessly able to foresee but not pre- ons streaked off into the sky, symbolizing
vent them. Often, Merlin is too wise to try, and Uther and Arthur, the great kings to come.
he merely passes along his visions, knowing Vortigern finally was able to complete his
that what will happen is what is meant to be. fortress.
Merlin arranged the tryst between Uther At the end of his life (or the beginning, in
Pendragon and Igraine of Cornwall (in some White’s version), Merlin was seduced by the
versions using magical means) that resulted in sorceress Nimue (sometimes called Viviane).
Arthur’s conception. After the child’s birth, She cajoled the wizard into teaching her the
Merlin hid him away in Sir Ector’s court to secrets of his magic, and then trapped him in-
grow up in anonymous safety until it was time side a tree, a cave, or a hollow hill. In some

Wizards 511
retellings, Merlin was killed and sealed inside of Oz (1900), the Wizard of Oz was the ruler
this tomb. In others, he lives on and will of the land of Oz. He lived in the Emerald
emerge upon King Arthur’s return. City.
It is difficult to understand why someone Dorothy Gale and her three friends went
as wise and powerful as Merlin could not pre- to ask the wizard for help; he responded that
vent such an untimely and undignified fate. they must first complete a dangerous mission,
The Nimue story could be interpreted as a bring him an evil witch’s broom, before he
warning against the treacherous wiles of would grant their requests.
women, but it seems unlikely that Merlin actu- Upon the friends’ successful completion of
ally would let himself be tricked and impris- the task, they returned to the Emerald City.
oned in this way. Far more probable is the idea There, they discovered that Oz was not a wiz-
that he foresaw Nimue’s intentions, and either ard at all. He was just an ordinary man who
he resigned himself to retirement (knowing had been using tricks to fool everyone into
what was coming and that he could not avert thinking he was “great and powerful.”
it) or he actually was looking forward to getting
some rest after centuries of advising the kings Modern Wizards
of Britain. Unfortunately for King Arthur,
Merlin’s wisdom was not available during the A number of contemporary authors have en-
darkest hours of Arthur’s reign. visioned entire worlds full of witches and wiz-
ards. In Diane Duane’s Young Wizard series
(1983–), wizards can be cats, whales, and even
Tolkien’s Wizards humans; J.K. Rowling’s popular Harry Potter
In The Lord of the Rings (1954–1955), British books (1997–2007) describe a huge and intri-
author J.R.R. Tolkien created a race of wiz- cate wizard world just out of sight of the mun-
ards, the Istari, for his world of Middle Earth. dane, with its own schools, government, and
The Istari were a subgroup of demigod-like sports. Terry Pratchett’s Discworld series
beings known as Maiar. The Maiar could take (1983–) features a university of wizards who
on human form and interact with living crea- are as arrogant, human, and bumbling as
tures. Their task was to defeat the evil Maia equivalent university professors.
Sauron. Today, the term wizard does not necessar-
The two most important Istari are Saru- ily imply magic. It is more often applied to
man the White, whose task was to gather someone particularly clever in a specific field,
knowledge and whose name derives from the such as a computer or gaming wizard, or, as in
Old English word for knowledge, and Gandalf Pete Townsend’s rock opera Tommy (1969), a
the Grey, whose task was the seeking of wis- pinball wizard. But, judging from the success
dom and whose name likewise derives from of Harry Potter and his kind, the magic-
the Old English word for wisdom. Aficiona- wielding wizard is likely to be with us for
dos of The Lord of the Rings know the fate that some time.
befalls each of the two wizards and which path
Tolkien clearly preferred. That Tolkien was in- See also: Vainamoinen; Wise Man or Woman;
fluenced, especially in the character of Gan- Retelling: A Story of Gwydion.
dalf, by the Finnish Kalevala can be seen
through comparisons between Gandalf and Sources
Hahn, Thomas, ed. Sir Gawain: Eleven Romances and
the Finnish wizard Vainamoinen.
Tales. Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publica-
tions, Western Michigan University, 1995.
The Wizard of Oz Tolkien, J.R.R. The Lord of the Rings. 1954–1955. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 2003.
Created by American author L. Frank Baum ———. The Silmarillion. Ed. Christopher Tolkien.
and first introduced in his Wonderful Wizard Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977.

512 Wonder Woman
Wonder Woman Loki also made appearances in the comic

books as villains.
In the 1970s, the American actress Lynda
Carter brought Wonder Woman to life on tele-
(American) vision. The character has also appeared in sev-
W onder Woman was the first strong, fe-

male, comic-book character. William
Moulton Marston created the Wonder Woman
eral animated cartoons. Wonder Woman still
remains an icon for young girls who are learn-
ing to combine strength with femininity.
character in 1941, under the pen name of
Charles Moulton. See also: Culture Heroes.
Wonder Woman provides storytellers with
an opportunity to tell about a powerful female Sources
protagonist and to make a connection to Daniels, Les. Wonder Woman: A Complete History. San
Francisco: Chronicle, 2004.
strong female characters of folklore and his- Robinson, Lillia. Wonder Women: Feminism and Super-
tory. Examples of other such characters are heroes. London: Routledge, 2004.
the Irish mythic figure Scathach, the woman Wilde, Lyn Webster. On the Trail of the Women Warriors:
warrior who trained the Irish heroes; the Irish- The Amazons in Myth and History. London: Thomas
Dunne, 2000.
woman Grace O’Malley of the sixteenth cen-
tury, the warrior pirate who battled and won
against the English forces of Queen Elizabeth
I; and the Amazons, the mythic warrior World Tree
women of ancient Greece.
Wonder Woman was an Amazon princess
whose real name was Diana. The goddess
Aphrodite had created the Amazon women,
T he World Tree is an unimaginably mighty
tree with branches and roots that connect
the many realms of existence. Its roots spread
who were women of superior strength, in her into the underworld, its trunk is in the mortal
fight against Mars, the god of war. Mars set world, and its branches reach up into the
Hercules upon the Amazonian women and heavens. The World Tree, also known as the
Aphrodite intervened to save them from en- Tree of Knowledge or the Tree of Life, is a
slavement. The women were banished from common theme in the world’s mythology.
Greece to reside on Paradise Island, where no A sampling of the many examples of the
man set foot. World Tree from around the world follow:
Eventually, a man, Steve Trevor, crashed
on the shores of Paradise Island. A contest was • In Babylonian mythology, the World
held among the Amazons to determine who Tree was known as Kuluppu, and it
would go with Trevor as ambassador to the stood on the bank of the Euphrates
world of men. Diana entered the contest and River. Its wood was said to be medici-
won. She was given special powers, an invisi- nal.
ble jet, bracelets that could deflect bullets, and • In Hindu mythology, as related in the
a magic lasso forged from the girdle of Gaea, Bhagavad Gita, the World Tree was a
which would cause people ensnared in it to great fig tree called Asvattha. Its roots
tell the truth. reached down into the underworld,
So armed, she went forth into the world of and its branches reached up into the
men, obtaining a position in the military. Go- heavens. On its leaves were inscribed
ing by the name of Diana Prince, she battled the holy words of the Vedas.
villains of all types. Wonder Woman fre- • In ancient Persian mythology, the
quently battled Mars and other foes that he World Tree was also the first tree, the
sent to harm her. Norse gods such as Odin and Saena Tree, which grew in the middle

Wurusemu 513
of the primal ocean, Vourukasha. From See also: Yggdrasil.

the Saena, also known as the Tree of
Life or the Tree of All Remedies, came Sources
all the world’s plants. Martin, Laura C. The Folklore of Trees and Shrubs. Chester,
CT: Globe Pequot, 1992.
• In the Hebrew Kabbalah, the Sephi- Philpot, J.H. The Sacred Tree in Religion and Myth. Mine-
rothal Tree of Life has been pictured as ola, NY: Dover, 2004.
a palm, its ten branches spreading out- Porteous, Alexander. The Forest in Folklore and Mythology.
ward from the lowest world up to the Mineola, NY: Dover, 2002.
heavens. Another image portrays tree
upon tree, reaching up to the heavens.
• For the Norse, the World Tree was Wurusemu
known as Yggdrasil, from which the
chief god, Odin, hung himself for nine (Hittite)
days to gain his knowledge of the runes.
• To the Buryat people of Siberia, the
World Tree is a great birch or willow. It W urusemu was a Hittite goddess, later
known as the goddess Hebat.
Wurusemu was the primary goddess in the
has no name, but it connects the under-
neath realm, the present, and the sky, region of Arrina, where she bore the titles of sun
and the point where the tree meets the goddess of Arrina, mistress of the Hatti lands,
earth is the center of the world and of the queen of heaven and Earth, and mistress of
all time and space. The Yakut people, the kings and queens of Hatti. It was believed
also of Siberia, have a similar concept, that she directed the government of Hatti.
although they see all trees as sacred. One of Wurusemu’s aspects was as a cre-
• The World Tree in Mayan mythology ator who had made the cedars and the land on
was the Yax Imix Che, the “first green which they grew. In another aspect, she was a
ceiba” tree, with its roots in the under- goddess of battle and was associated with Hit-
world and its branches in the heavens. tite military victories.
It is also the Wakah Chan, the “raised- In some myths, Wurusemu was said to be
up sky,” which is symbolized by the the mother of the storm god.
Milky Way.
Ira Spar
Because the World Tree concept relates See also: Mother Goddess/Earth Mother.
to the image of the family tree as well—the
linked “world” of a specific family and its gen- Sources
Beckman, Gary M., ed. Hittite Myths. Trans. Harry A.
erations is often depicted as the image of a Hoffner. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 1991.
tree—the World Tree is clearly a living mythic Gastner, Theodore H., trans. The Oldest Stories in the
concept. World. New York: Viking, 1952.

Y
Yeti
(Tibetan)
goatherd might encounter huge footprints in
the snow or lose a goat from his or her flock
under suspicious circumstances, but for the
most part the yeti avoids confrontation.
Y eti is the name for a large, apelike creature Part of the mystique of the yeti is that the
said to live in the Himalayan mountain local people believe them to be more than
range of Nepal and Tibet. While similar to the mere animals. According to the Sherpa, a lo-
Sasquatch, or Bigfoot, of North America, the cal people best known for guiding Western ex-
yeti is a hardier creature. It is able to live at plorers through the Himalayas, the yeti are
high altitudes and in cold, inhospitable condi- supernatural creatures, standing between
tions in which most humans could not sur- mankind and the demon-spirits who live on
vive. the mountain peaks.
The creature allegedly walks upright, like Buddhist religious figures called lamas
a hunched-over person. It is roughly the size claim to have relics that came from yeti, includ-
of a man, but much broader and with over- ing fingers, toes, and skulls, in their lamaseries,
sized feet. Pale brown or snow-white hair cov- or homes. These relics are used to remind Bud-
ers most of its body. dhists of their connection to the world around
The first legends of the yeti appeared in them.
Tibetan mythology long before Western ex-
plorers arrived in that country. The word yeti
may derive from the words yah and teh, which
Reported Sightings
mean “rock-animal,” or from similar-sounding The first reporting of a yeti by an outsider was
words that mean “magical creature.” Another in 1832, when British explorer B.H. Hodson re-
name given to the creature was metch-kangmi, ported an attack on his native guides by crea-
or “repugnant snowman.” It is from this tures he calls rakshas, or demons. In 1889, a
moniker that the term Abominable Snowman British soldier, Major L.A. Wadell, reported
was derived. finding large, bearlike footprints in the snow
Stories about the yeti all agree on the basic well above the elevation at which any bear
facts. It is large and hairy, with a particularly should be living. His guides told him it was a
pungent body odor. The yeti is solitary and yeh-tih.
shy, and it rarely comes into contact with hu- Over the next fifty years, such reports be-
man beings. The occasional traveler or come more common. But because of the
514

Yeti 515
combination of extreme weather conditions Current Theories

and awkward political situations in Tibet and
Nepal, no scientific expeditions were mounted In contrast to theories about other such crea-
to determine the truth. The stories grew and tures, perhaps because of its potential relation-
spread with every new sighting. ship to humans, theories about the yeti’s origin
With the development of cameras and are still popular topics. Some researchers
other equipment that could withstand the claim that the yeti and its kin around the
cold, and the easing of political restrictions be- world are wild men, perhaps direct descen-
tween Tibet and the West, the rumors proved dents of the first primates to come out of
irresistible. The first modern sighting of the Africa, which evolved to possess intelligence
yeti was made in 1951. Explorer Eric Shipton almost equal to that of humans. Others be-
tracked a yeti along the slopes of the Menlung lieve that the yeti is a modern but not yet iden-
glacier until it disappeared into an ice field. tified ape, a close relative to the gorilla.
The photographs taken on that trip of huge One theory traces the yeti back to the pri-
footprints, the clearest one measuring 12 mate Gigantopithecus. This giant ape lived dur-
inches (30 centimeters) long by 6 inches (15 ing the Pleistocene era, 1.8 million to 10,000
centimeters) wide, are often held up as the years ago, in the region that is now China and
best evidence of the existence of the yeti. Southeast Asia. Gigantopithecus became ex-
A year later, a British newspaper funded tinct, but a branch of its family still may sur-
the first scientific survey of the yeti, sending vive in the yeti. A related idea suggests that
trained scientists and cameramen into the the yeti is descended from our own ancestor,
mountains with some of the best guides avail- the Neanderthal. Both of these theories fail to
able. They found more tracks, a scalp of account for the fact that Gigantopithecus was
coarse hair, and droppings that they claimed last seen in the fossil record at 500,000 B.C.E.
came from a yeti. The team was allowed to and the last Neanderthal dates to 40,000 B.C.E.
take one hair from that scalp out of the coun- The most recent explanation, formulated
try, but testing proved inconclusive. Several in 1999, suggests that the human family tree is
other expeditions came back with similar evi- older and has more branches than previously
dence, which also was deemed questionable. thought. It has been theorized that the yeti is
In 1956, a Texas oilman and millionaire an unidentified branch, a distant cousin of
named Thomas Slick mounted a large, gov- modern Homo sapiens that has adapted to the
ernment-backed expedition to Tibet. He and colder climate.
his team had up-to-date scientific equipment, There have been no reputable reports of
weapons, and trained bloodhounds. They re- face-to-face encounters, and the few photos that
turned with photos, footprint castings, and two are believed to exist were taken from too great
fingers of a mummified hand they claimed a distance to provide positive identification. No
was that of a yeti. The fingers later disap- one has ever captured a live yeti or discovered
peared, and the Slick expedition was thrown a skeleton or other remnant that can be conclu-
into doubt by Sir Edmund Hillary (of Everest sively proven to have come from one. So all
fame) and Marlin Perkins (later known for the theories are pure conjecture.
television series Wild Kingdom), who did not Laura Anne Gilman
believe that the yeti existed. See also: Tibetan Storytelling.
For a short time, the debate raged fiercely
in scientific journals. By the 1970s, however, Sources
science moved on, and the search for the yeti, Coleman, Loren, and Patrick Huyghe. The Field Guide to
Bigfoot, Yeti, and Other Mystery Primates Worldwide.
like the pursuit of the Loch Ness monster and New York: Avon, 1999.
other unlikely creatures, became the province Gilman, Laura Anne. The Abominable Snowman. New
of fringe scientists and explorers. York: Rosen, 2002.

516 Yggdrasil
of the humans; and Hel, the underworld. An-

Yggdrasil other version of the myth describes the three
roots as passing through Asgard; Jotenheim,
(Norse) the world of the frost giants; and Niflheim, the
world of the dwarves.
Y ggdrasil is the Norse name of the World
Tree, the cosmic tree that links three
realms in Norse mythology. Said to be a gi-
Beneath one of the roots, usually men-
tioned in texts as the Asgard root, lies the sa-
cred Urdarbrunnr, the well of fate. It is here
gantic ash tree, its name literally means “Ygg’s
that the three Norns, or Nornor, live. These
horse.” Ygg, which means “terrible” or “dread-
are the three Fates of Norse mythology. The
ful,” is one of the names of the chief Norse
Norns hold the destinies of all that live, and
god, Odin, who hung from the tree for nine
not even the gods have power over them. The
days as a willing self-sacrifice to gain the wis-
Norns water the tree every day to keep its
dom of the runes.
bark white and its leaves green.
Three roots support Yggdrasil’s mighty
Beneath the two other roots lie Mimis-
trunk. Each root passes through a different
brunnr, the well of wisdom, guarded by the gi-
world so that Yggdrasil’s branches spread out
ant Mimir, and the Hvergelmir, or roaring
over all worlds.
kettle, which is said to be the source of many
In one version of the myth, the three worlds
of the Midgard rivers.
are Asgard, home of the gods; Midgard, home
Near the Hvergelmir, the great serpent
Nidhogg gnaws at one of Yggdrasil’s roots. An
eagle sits in Yggdrasil’s branches, and be-
tween its eyes a falcon perches. The beat of
the eagle’s powerful wings stirs the Midgard
winds. The goat Heidrun lives up there, too,
and eats Yggdrasil’s leaves, while four stags,
Dain, Duneyr, Durathror, and Dvalin, feed on
Yggdrasil’s bark.
A squirrel, Ratatosk, scurries up and down
Yggdrasil’s trunk. It carries messages back and
forth between the eagle and the serpent Nid-
hogg.
The myths state that someday, when the
final battle of Ragnarok arrives, Nidhogg will
finish its gnawing and bring down Yggdrasil.
Then Yggdrasil will then expire in flames set
by the giants.
See also: Norse Mythology; Odin/Odhinn;

World Tree.
Sources
Davidson, H.R. Ellis. Gods and Myths of Northern Europe.
Yggdrasil was the Norse version of the world tree, a New York: Penguin, 1964.
widespread motif representing the center of the world. Lindow, John. Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, He-
This intricate carving, which shows Yggdrasil being roes, Rituals and Beliefs. New York: Oxford Univer-
gnawed on by a deer, can be found on the side of a his- sity Press, 2002.
toric church in Umes, Norway. (© Werner Forman/Art Sturluson, Snorri. Edda. New York: Everyman’s Library,
Resource, NY) 1995.

Yoruban Stor ytelling 517
crawled in Ymir’s carcass became the race of

Ymir dwarves. Ymir’s skull became the overturned
bowl of the sky, which was forever held aloft
by four dwarves (the four directions).
(Norse) In astronomy, Ymir is the name of one of
I n Norse mythology, Ymir is the primordial

giant and the progenitor of the race of frost
giants.
the planet Saturn’s moons, a fitting name for
an icy moon.
Ymir was created when there was little See also: Giants; Norse Mythology.
else in the world. He was brought forth when
Sources
ice from Niflheim, realm of eternal cold, was
touched by hot air from Muspellheim, realm Pantheon, 1980.
of eternal fire. The ice began to melt, releasing Hollander, Lee M., trans. The Poetic Edda. Austin: Uni-
drops of eitr (ether, a substance once believed versity of Texas Press, 1928.
to be the essence of life). The drops slowly Lindow, John. Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes,
Rituals and Beliefs. New York: Oxford University
congealed and became the giant’s body. The Press, 2002.
fires of Muspellheim sparked him to life. Sturluson, Snorri. The Prose Edda: Tales from Norse Mythol-
But Ymir merely slept. From Ymir’s sleep- ogy. Trans. Jean I. Young. Berkeley: University of
ing body came the first giants, creeping out California Press, 2001.
from his legs and from under his arms.
The frost slowly melted. From the drops
that fell and congealed, the huge, primal cow,
Audhumla, came into being. From her vast
Yoruban Storytelling
udder flowed four rivers of milk, on which
Ymir fed whenever he woke. The cow, in
(West African)
turn, got her nourishment by licking hoarfrost
and salt from the eternal ice.
On the evening of the first day, as Aud-
T he Yoruba people of Nigeria and neigh-
boring Benin in West Africa are primarily
farmers who also have a fine tradition of
humla licked the ice, the hair of a man ap- woodcraft and metalworking.
peared. On the second day, the whole head Yoruban stories and histories are primarily
was freed. On the third day, a figure rose up. passed down orally from generation to gener-
This was Buri, the first god. From his line ation. Storytelling is still a favorite activity
came three grandsons, Odin, Ve, and Vili. among the Yoruba people, but in the twenty-
There was no world yet, nor a heaven. first century it competes with television and
There was only the ice, Ymir, and his ever- written works, including works by Yoruban
growing number of frost-giant offspring. Odin, authors.
Ve, and Vili disliked Ymir and hated the gi- Storytelling in the Yoruban style is a very
ants. They killed Ymir, and all but two of the active art. It involves taking on the voices and
giants drowned in the rivers of blood that personas of the various characters, as well as
flowed from Ymir’s body. From these two performing music and dancing. The audience
who remained, all other giants descended. also takes an active role in the story. Listeners
From Ymir’s body, the brother gods cre- are expected to get involved by beating drums
ated the world. Ymir’s flesh became the land, or singing along.
and his blood became the rivers, lakes, and Storytelling sessions generally occur after
oceans. His bones became the mountains, and the evening meal. Yoruban folktales always
his teeth the rocks and stones. His hair be- begin with a call-and-response chorus called
came the trees and all other plant life, and his the alo chorus (alo means riddle). One of the
brain became the clouds. The maggots that young men will begin by asking the other

518 Yoshitsune
young men two or three riddles to determine The factual battles, of course, were less ro-
whether everyone in the group is awake and mantic and more complicated, although
alert. Then, the tale begins. Yoshitsune did avenge his father and become
The types of stories are similar to those a famous samurai. The stories of Yoshitsune,
found in other cultures, such as myths, leg- which are part history and part legend, are
ends, fables, poetry, family or society histories, good examples of the folklore that can be
and folktales. Hero tales, how-and-why tales spun from true stories of historical figures.
(also known as pourquoi tales), and trickster
tales are also popular. Tortoise and Ananse the See also: Culture Heroes.
Spider are the major trickster figures in West
Sources
African folktales.
Yoruban stories often center on the theme NY: Dover, 1992.
of fertility to a greater degree than is usually Hyoe, Murakami, and Thomas J. Harper, eds. Great His-
found in world folktales. This is due, in part, to torical Figures of Japan. Tokyo: Japan Culture Insti-
a high infant mortality rate in the region. tute, 1978.
Kamachi, Noriko. Culture and Customs of Japan. Westport,
CT: Greenwood, 1999.
See also: West African Mythology.
Sources
Courlander, Harold. Tales of Yoruba Gods and Heroes. New Ys/Ker-Ys
York: Crown, 1973.
Drewal, Margaret T. Yoruba Ritual: Performers, Play,
Agency. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, (Breton/French)
1992.
Walker, Barbara, and Warren S. Walker. Nigerian Folk
Tales, As Told by Olawale Idewu and Omotayo Adu. New I n French and Breton folklore, Ys, also
known as Ker-Ys, was said to be a great and
powerful city. It lay below sea level on the
Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1961.
Breton coast and was guarded by a series of
seawalls. Ys was ruled by King Gradlon and
Yoshitsune was eventually submerged in a flood.
The folklore tells that the king was a
mighty sea warrior before the city was cre-
(Japanese) ated. King Gradlon and Malgven, queen of
T he historical samurai Yoshitsune

(1159–1189 C.E.) was a son of Minamoto
Yoshitomo (1123–1160). When Minamoto was
the North, slew Malgven’s husband and es-
caped on a magical horse that could gallop
over the waves. From the union of Gradlon
assassinated by a rival samurai, Taira Kiy- and Malgven came a daughter, Dahut. Mal-
omori, Minamoto’s wife and their children gven died during childbirth.
were found and brought to Kiyomori, who Dahut asked her father to build Ys near the
spared them. Yoritomo, the second eldest, was water. Gradlon agreed, and the city was built.
sent off to Izu, while Yoshitsune was sent to a Since it was below sea level, Ys was surrounded
temple on Kuramayama, north of Kyoto. by a high wall and powerful sluice gates. Only
Little is know about Yoshitsune’s boy- King Gradlon held the key to these gates.
hood, but Japanese storytellers have assigned Ys soon became a prosperous city. This
a series of fantastic adventures to him. He was may have been because Dahut, who had
said to have escaped into the woods to be in- grown into a beautiful woman, sang to the sea.
structed in all the martial arts by the king of She called herself its betrothed and promised
the Tengu demons. When Yoshitsune returned herself to the sea if it brought ships and hand-
to the world of men, he single-handedly exter- some fishermen to Ys. The city was rich and
minated the entire Taira clan. lively, but its inhabitants had many vices.

Ys/Ker-Ys 519
Dahut was among the sinners. She stole is engulfed by the sea, then from the sea Ys re-
the keys to the sluice gates and gave them to turned will be.”
her treacherous lover. He opened the gates It is unlikely, however, that Ys will ever
and destroyed the glittering city of Ys. Ac- rise again, even if Paris were to be engulfed by
cording to folk belief, if the weather is very the sea.
still, the bells of Ys can be heard ringing far
under the waves. See also: Sunken Cities.
Another folk belief claims that the name
Paris actually means “Par Ys” in Breton, or Source
“Like Ys.” Two proverbs speak of the two cities. McNeill, James. The Sunken City and Other Tales from
Round the World. Oxford, UK: Oxford University
The first proverb says, “Since the city of Ys was Press, 1966.
drowned, no equal in Paris has been found.” Spence, Lewis. Legends and Romances of Brittany. Mineola,
The second proverb predicts that “When Paris NY: Dover, 1997.

Z
Zeus
(Greek)
Once Zeus had control, he and his siblings
divided the universe among them: Zeus took
the heavens, Poseidon took the sea, and
Hades claimed the underworld. Demeter took
fertility, Hera took marriage, and Hestia
I n Greek mythology, Zeus was the supreme
ruler of Mount Olympus and of the pan-
theon of gods who resided there. He upheld
claimed the home and hearth.
Not long after he took the throne of the
heavens, Zeus had to defend it. Three sepa-
law, justice, and morals.
rate attacks were mounted from among the
The Titans, an ancient race of giants, were
offspring of Gaia, the living earth. First were
ruled by Cronos. It was foretold that one of
the Gigantes, which were giants, as their
Cronos’s sons would dethrone him. In an at-
name implies; then came the monstrous Ty-
tempt to prevent this, Cronos swallowed his
phon; and finally the giant twin brothers
children at birth.
called the Aloadae attacked. As he had done
Before Cronos could swallow his last child,
with the Titans, Zeus banished them all to
his wife, Rhea, fled to a cave on the Isle of
Tartarus.
Crete. She secretly gave birth to Zeus and left
him to be raised by nymphs. When Rhea re-
turned to Cronos, she gave him a disguised The Unfaithful Zeus
stone to swallow in place of the last child.
Zeus’s first marriage, or in some versions, his
first love affair, was with Metis. The prophecy
Zeus Gains Control that a son would eventually overthrow Zeus
When Zeus was grown, he asked the goddess led him to swallow both Metis and her unborn
Metis for help against his father. She gave child. The child, Athena, was released from
Cronos a drug that made him disgorge all the Zeus’s head.
children he had swallowed. Zeus’s next wife was his sister Hera. Their
Zeus was able to overthrow Cronos and children were Ares, Eileithyia, Hebe, and
the rest of the Titans with the help of his Hephaestus. But Zeus was rarely faithful to his
brothers and sisters—Demeter, Hades, Hera, wife. He had many affairs, with both gods and
Hestia, and Poseidon. Zeus became the ruler mortals.
of heaven and banished the Titans to Tartarus, By Leto, Zeus fathered the divine twins
the lowest level of existence, below the under- Apollo and Artemis. Zeus took the shape of a
world. swan to seduce the Spartan queen Leda. From
520

Ziusudra 521
unusual deity. In many ways, Zeus seems

more human than divine.
Shanti Fader
See also: An/Anu; Hera; Odin/Odhinn; Sius;

Wele.
Sources
Evlin, Bernard. The Greek Gods. New York: Scholastic,
1995.
Greek Mythology. New York: Meridian, 1958.
Ziusudra
(Sumerian)
Z iusudra, whose name means “life of distant

days,” is the epic hero in the Sumerian
version of the flood myth.
In a later Akkadian poem about the cre-
A Hellenic Greek statue of Zeus from the first century ation of humankind, he is called Atra-hasis
B.C.E. The chief god is portrayed as a wise, noble figure, (exceedingly wise). In the Epic of Gilgamesh,
a characterization he did not always live up to in myths. Ziusudra is known as Uta-napishti, which
(Scala/Art Resource, NY)
means “I found life.” The story of Noah in the
biblical version of the flood myth contains
the egg that Leda produced came two sets of many similarities to stories about Ziusudra.
twins, Castor and Polydeuces and Clytemnes- In a Sumerian composition called The In-
tra and Helen of Troy. structions of Shuruppak, a wise mythological fa-
Disguised as a bull, Zeus carried off the ther named Shuruppak, son of Ubar-Tutu,
Phoenician princess Europa to the island of described a Sumerian view of proper conduct
Crete, where she bore three sons: Minos, to his son, Ziusudra. According to another
Rhadamanthys, and Sarpedon. He visited composition, known as the Sumerian king list,
Princess Danae as a shower of gold, and from Ubar-Tutu was ruler of the city of Shuruppak,
this union came the hero Perseus. which was the scene of the great flood.
Zeus also took as a lover the young Tro- The story of Ziusudra and his father is set
jan prince Ganymede. The prince was car- in days long past. Shuruppak gave Ziusudra
ried up to Mount Olympus by an eagle, instructions that defined the ideals of proper
where he became Zeus’s cupbearer. duty and conduct for a respected landowning
When Zeus wanted to seduce the mortal citizen of Sumer. Shuruppak’s precepts con-
Semele, she insisted on seeing Zeus in all his tained proverbs regarding daily life and rules
glory. He agreed. Their union produced that were presented in an absolute, imperative
Dionysus, but the sight of Zeus in all of his manner—“do not steal,” “do not break into a
splendor, too much for any mortal, destroyed house,” and “do not murder” were some of his
Semele. directives.
The two sides of Zeus—heroic leader of The text described a society in which the
the gods and philanderer—make him a most canny individual maintained a low profile.

522 Zmeys and Zmeyitsas
Self-restraint and levelheadedness were right, body, legs, wings, a tail, and a human face, the
and hotheadedness, arrogance, impulsive ac- zmey lived in caves, lakes, or mountain
tion, and laziness were wrong. Shuruppak palaces and glowed as it flew.
warned, “My son, do not sit [alone] in a cham- Each village had its own guardian zmey,
ber with someone’s wife.” On the subject of which fought against the evil forces that
violence, he said, “Do not throw down a caused drought and hail. The ferocity of these
man,” and “Do not commit rape upon a man’s battles gave rise to thunderstorms and light-
daughter.” ning, a belief that was linked with the mythol-
Shuruppak also explained to Ziusudra that ogy of the Slavic thunder god, Perun, and his
one should strive to make rational decisions, Christian successor, Saint Ilya.
pay attention to the words of one’s king, abide Zmeys were able to summon whirlwinds
by the law, and listen to one’s parents. A wise or become invisible at will. They were shape-
individual also should not be fooled by ap- shifters that could take on different forms, from
pearances. A man should not choose a wife at alluring humans to dogs, flower garlands, or
a festival, but should seek lasting values rather even necklaces. Zmeyitsas, the females of the
than superficial qualities that a woman might species, could shape-shift into bears. Con-
affect in public. Finally, one should always versely, humans could become zmeys, either
worship the gods, for “words of prayer bring through magic or by taking certain herbs.
abundance.” Zmeys often fell in love with humans, who
Much of the story of Ziusudra as hero has might then grow pale and sicken. The only
been lost. This text of advice that was given to way to repulse an unwanted dragon suitor was
him by his father may be the advice that made to take a potion brewed with special herbs
Ziusudra a hero. such as gentian, tansy, or wormwood.
Ira Spar Zmeys were attracted by music and some-
times seduced maidens with the beauty of
See also: Culture Heroes; Flood, The. their playing on the kaval, a kind of flute. They
might trick a vain or arrogant maiden and
Sources carry her off.
Alster, Brendt. The Instructions of Suruppak. Copenhagen, If humans married zmeys, their offspring
Denmark: Copenhagen Studies in Assyriology 2,
looked human except for wings growing under
1974.
Black, J.A., G. Cunningham, J. Ebeling, E. Flückiger- their arms. When such a child was born, twelve
Hawker, E. Robson, J. Taylor, and G. Zólyomi. The maidens were called, and under oaths of si-
Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature. http:// lence and secrecy, they wove a shirt for the
www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/. child to hide its wings. The dragon-child could
then safely enter the human world, and no
one except for the pure of heart would know
Zmeys and Zmeyitsas the child’s true nature.
Zmeys should not be confused with their
evil relatives, the lamias, although zmeyitsas
(Bulgarian) sometimes bear this name.
T he Bulgarian zmey, or dragon, is part

snake, part bird, and part human. Usually
portrayed as a benign creature, it guarded the
See also: Dragons.
fertility of the land and had the ability to Sources

Georgieva, Ivanichka. Bulgarian Mythology. Sofia, Bul-
change into human form. As a human the garia: Svyat, 1985.
zmey could walk among people unrecognized, MacDermott, Mercia. Bulgarian Folk Customs. Philadel-
except by the pure in heart. With serpentine phia: Jessica Kingsley, 1998.

Zwarte Madam 523
creature that will strangle any human who

Zulu Mythology sleeps on the ground. Another mythical,
malevolent dwarf is Uhlakanyana.
I n the Zulu religion, the world of the gods

can be contacted only by first invoking the
ancestors through a diviner, an important per-
Finally, there is Unwaba. This mythical
chameleon was sent to tell the people that
they had eternal life. Because the creature was
son in daily affairs. All bad things are believed so slow, humans and other species became
to be the result of offended spirit beings or mortal after all.
sorcery.
Cleanliness is paramount in Zulu belief. See also: Abatwa.
All people are expected to bathe at least once
Sources
a day and sometimes two or three times.
Du Toit, Brian M. Content and Context of Zulu Folk-
The rules about cleanliness apply to meals as Narratives. Gainesville: University Press of Florida,
well, as separate dishes are used for separate 1976.
foods. Lawson, E. Thomas. Religions of Africa: Traditions in
Ukqili, “the wise one,” is the chief god of Transformation. San Francisco: Harper and Row,
1984.
the Zulu pantheon. He controls the lightning. Mutwa, Vusamazulu Credo. Indaba, My Children. New
When lightning strikes a cow, it is assumed York: Grove, 1999.
that Ukqili is hungry, and the dead animal
becomes a sacrifice. Umvelinqangi is the all-
present Zulu creator god, who manifests him-
self as thunder and earthquakes. He created the
Zwarte Madam
primeval reeds from which the supreme god
Unkulunkulu emerged. Unkulunkulu, which
(Flemish)
means “ancestor,” is the primary creator god.
He grew on a reed in the mythical swamp of
Uthlanga.
T he Zwarte Madam is a supernatural and
presumably immortal witch being from
Flemish folktales.
Three other major deities are Inkosazana, The word zwarte means “black,” and
a goddess who makes the crops grow and is madam is a courtesy title, so in strict English
venerated in springtime; Mamlambo, who is translation, the Zwarte Madam is the Black
the mother goddess and goddess of rivers; Lady. Black refers to her deeds and alle-
and Mbaba Mwana Waresa, the goddess of giance, not her appearance. No matter how
rain and the rainbow, agriculture, and the she is described in the various Flemish folk-
harvest. It is she who gave humans the gift of tales, she is always an evil being who works in
beer. the service of the devil to help collect mortal
The Amadlozi are the ancestors of the Zu- souls. But she does not always work actively
lus. Humans can invoke the help of the spirit to corrupt mortals. The Zwarte Madam some-
world by calling upon them. Other ancestral times appears beside those who are already
spirits are the imilozi, or whistlers, who whistle doomed to hell, presumably as a sort of ad-
as they speak. vance warning.
There are also dangerous supernatural be- Fortunately the Zwarte Madam can be
ings that are hostile to humans. Tikdoshe is a warded off with prayer, the utterance of sa-
malevolent dwarf with only one arm, one leg, cred names, or the sign of the cross.
and one side. He takes delight in fighting hu- Since good and evil generally balance
mans. Those whom Tikdoshe defeats die, but each other out in folklore, some folk tradi-
those who defeat him are rewarded with tions say that there is a direct opposite to
magic. The Tokelosh is a small but deadly the Zwarte Madam, a good figure known

524 Zwarte Madam
as de Witte Madam or the White Lady. The Sources

latter character plays only a small role in Lindhal, Carl. Medieval Folklore: A Guide to Myths, Legends,
folktales and does not seem to be an active Tales, Beliefs, and Customs. New York: Oxford Uni-
participant in the saving or protecting of souls. Maekelberghe, August, comp. Flemish Folktales. Grosse
Pointe Farms, MI: Detroit Publication Consultants,
See also: Black Magic. 1977.

Retellings

The Ramayana
A Great Mythic Epic from India
The Ramayana, loosely translated as “the travels of Rama,” is the story of King
Rama, avatar of the god Vishnu, and his wife, Sita, who is an avatar of the goddess
Lakshmi. Originally written in Sanskrit, and dated somewhere between 500 b.c.e.
and 100 b.c.e., it is one of the two great epics of India (the other is the Mahab-
harata). The Ramayana can be read as a tale of loyalty, fidelity, and high adventure,
but it is also a sacred story to the Hindu people.
One theme that should be familiar to readers of Homer’s Odyssey is the bow
that no one but the hero can draw. In the Ramayana, the hero is Rama, while in the
Odyssey, the hero is Odysseus.
The Ramayana was loved and praised by all. It is said, “Men who listen to the
Ramayana will live a long life. They will be free of sins and will have many sons.
Women who listen to the Ramayana will be blessed with children like Rama and his
brothers. May all who recite it or listen to it regularly find increased love, wisdom,
and strength.”
I n long-past days, the lovely city of Ayod-

hya, capital of Kosala, stood on the banks of
the Sarayu River. The city was filled with won-
granted a boon by the gods. Thanks to it, he
could not be harmed by gods or demons.
The god Vishnu, protector of the universe,
drous palaces gleaming with gems, and tem- thought, “Arrogant Ravana protected himself
ple spires rose into the sky. Around the city only from those beings who he thought could
stood a great moat, and within the city, the hurt him. He failed to protect himself from hu-
people of Ayodhya were happy and peaceful. mans.”
Only King Dasaratha was not happy. An So Vishnu made the decision to be born as
old man, he had no son to inherit his throne. a human, someone who could kill Ravana. He
He told his priest Vasistha, “I long for a son.” sent a messenger to King Dasaratha with a spe-
The priest knew as well as his king that cial drink.
there must be an heir. “King Dasaratha, you The messenger told the king, “Give each
will have sons. I shall perform a sacred rite to of your three wives this drink. It will bring
please the gods.” sons.” Then, the messenger disappeared.
Excited by this wonderful news, the king The king gave the drink to each of his
ran to his three wives, Sumitra, Kaikeyi, and wives. Soon the city was filled with great re-
Kausalya. “I will have sons!” joicing when the king announced the birth of
Meanwhile, the gods were growing more four sons. They were named Rama, Laksh-
and more angry with Ravana, king of the rak- mana, Bharata, and Satrughna. Almost from
shasas, the demons. Ten-headed, twenty-armed birth, it became clear that Rama and Laksh-
Ravana had great power. But he used that mana were inseparable friends. People said
power to keep gods and holy men alike from that it was as if the two were one life in two
their sacred rituals. Yet Ravana had been bodies.
527

528 Retellings
All four sons grew to be wise, kind men. Then, just as they stepped into a clearing,
King Dasaratha was finally happy, watching a huge rock suddenly came hurtling down out
his sons grow. Though he never said it, his fa- of the sky, straight at Rama. He fit an arrow to
vorite son was Rama. his bow and fired, splitting the rock in half.
One day, the sage Vishwamitra, whom The pieces crashed harmlessly into the trees.
Dasaratha greatly respected, came to Ayod- But then the huge and hideous demon
hya to see the king. “Greetings, oh, wise one,” Tataka sprang into sight. Her eyes were fire
King Dasaratha said. “What brings you to my and her hands were claws. Before Tataka could
kingdom?” attack, Lakshmana loosed an arrow from his
“I must ask you for a favor. I have been bow. He missed a killing shot. But Rama did
trying to perform an important sacred rite— not. His arrow pierced Tataka’s heart, and she
yet again and again it has been interrupted by fell dead. Lotus blossoms rained down upon
Ravana’s demons. My vows prevent me from Rama, blessings from the gods.
fighting them.” The three men continued through the for-
“How can I help?” the king asked. “Noth- est, killing the rest of the forest demons. The
ing is too great to ask.” land was cleansed.
“Let me take Rama with me to protect my But the sage knew that it was one thing to
sacred site.” kill forest demons, and another to kill the de-
“But he is only a child, barely sixteen! Let mon king Ravana himself.
me send you my armies instead. I will lead He led Rama and Lakshmana to Mithila
them into battle myself! Only, do not take my to visit King Janaka. The king told them the
son!” The king began to weep. story of his daughter.
Vishwamitra understood the king’s pain. “Years back, I found a child in a plowed
But he had no choice. He knew, as the king furrow. I named her Sita, and raised her as my
could not, that Rama was an avatar of Vishnu. own daughter. Now, she is a beautiful young
Only Vishnu in human form could kill woman with many royal suitors. But he who
Ravana. wishes to wed Sita must lift and string the an-
So it was that Rama went with Vishwami- cient bow of Shiva. So far, no man has been
tra, and Lakshmana went as well. The two able just to lift the bow.”
young men followed the sage along the bank “I will do it,” Rama said.
of the Sarayu River. Whenever they stopped He easily took the bow from its case and
to rest, the sage taught them how to use their started to string it. As he did so, the bow
weapons. snapped in half. The king exclaimed, “Sita has
They came to a dark and terrible forest, found her husband! Let a messenger be sent to
twisted and full of thorns. The sage said, “This Ayodhya: Rama is to wed my daughter, Sita.”
was once a beautiful and prosperous land. King Janaka led Sita to Rama. He placed
Now, the terrible she-demon, Tataka, lives her hand in his and said to Rama, “Sita, my
here. She attacks and kills anyone who daughter, is from today your partner in life.”
enters.” Rama and Sita looked at each other and
“We are not afraid,” Rama said. were overjoyed. Following the wedding, they
“Excellent. You and your brother must rid returned to Ayodhya, and everyone in the city
the forest of this demon and her underlings. If cheered their arrival. In the days that fol-
you can do so, you also will restore the land to lowed, Rama and Sita were the perfect hus-
peace and beauty.” band and wife, utterly devoted to each other.
Rama and Lakshmana followed Vish- As the years passed, Rama grew into an
wamitra into the forest. Each step took them excellent young man, learned and kind, fol-
farther into the darkness. They heard eerie lowing the will of the gods. But his father,
howls and weird groans but saw no one. King Dasaratha, grew older, and knew that his

T he Ramayana 529
end was near. “I must be sure that my throne for the loss of our noble father. Shame for be-
goes to my worthiest son, Rama. I shall step ing given the throne that should be yours.
down to have the blessing of seeing him as Come back to Ayodhya and be our king.”
king before I die.” “I gave my word,” Rama said. “I must stay
But the youngest of the king’s three in exile for fourteen years. Only after that time
wives, Kaikeyi, went to him and said, “Do will I return.”
you remember the day I saved your life? Do “As long as you are in exile,” Bharata
you remember how I stopped your runaway stated, “there shall be no king. Give me your
chariot?” sandals and I shall place them on the throne.
“Yes,” replied the king. For the next fourteen years, I will rule in your
“And do you remember what you said that name. And if you do not return after those
day? You promised me two boons. Hear them fourteen years, I shall die.”
now, I pray you. First, I wish to have my son, Rama, Lakshmana, and Sita traveled on
Bharata, placed upon the throne of Ayodhya. until they finally reached a clearing in a lush
Second, I wish to see Rama banished from the forest, sweet with the perfume of flowers and
kingdom for no less than fourteen years.” with fruit on every vine. All around them,
The king cried out in horror and fell to his birds sang joyfully.
knees. “I beg you not to hold me to these “Let us build our home here,” Rama said.
things.” The ancient vulture king Jatayu lived
But Kaikeyi showed no mercy. She told nearby. They and he became friends, and
Rama that he must go into exile. Rama did Jatayu guarded Sita while the brothers hunted.
not argue, but said to the king, “Father, your Just beyond the clearing lived Shur-
word is law. I shall do whatever you bid.” panakha the she-demon, Ravana’s sister. She
Lakshmana exclaimed, “I shall stop any had a potbelly, huge ears, clawed fingers and
who oppose your right to the throne!” toes, narrow eyes, and long tangles of dirty
“No,” Rama said. “You know it is my hair. One day, she saw Rama in the forest.
dharma, my sacred duty, to obey.” Putting down the bone she was gnawing, she
“Then I shall follow you!” said, “I want him for my husband.”
Sita, sobbing, added, “And it is my dharma Turning herself into a beautiful maiden, she
to be at your side, my husband. How could I went to see Rama. “Why does such a strong,
live without you?” handsome man like you live in this forest?”
So the three left together, wearing the But when she saw Sita, Shurpanakha
clothes not of royalty but of hermits. The peo- frowned. “That woman is not good enough for
ple wept as they left, and Dasaratha cried, you. I can make you happy.”
“Rama! Rama! Do not leave me!” When Rama refused her, the demon lost
The king’s heart failed within him, and her temper. Returning to demon form, she
soon after, he died. lunged at Sita. Lakshmana grabbed Shur-
Meanwhile, Rama, Lakshmana, and Sita panakha and cut off her nose and ears.
hunted for a land where they could live alone Shurpanakha fled, howling in pain, straight
and safe. They built a small hut near a stream. to her demon brothers, Khar and Dushan.
But then Lakshmana, hunting in the for- When they learned that a human had dared to
est, heard hoofbeats and climbed a tree to see wound her, they cried, “Take us to him. We
who was approaching. To his shock, it was an will kill him!”
army from Ayodhya. Bharata had found his “Look!” Lakshmana cried. “The sky is
brothers. Lakshmana was sure that his brother growing dark—with flying demons!”
had come to kill them. Rama and Lakshmana fought side by side,
But Bharata embraced his brothers, crying, firing arrow after arrow skyward. With every
“My heart is filled with grief and shame. Grief arrow, a demon fell dead.

530 Retellings
Shurpanakha watched in horror as her The old vulture king Jatayu saw this and
brothers and their army were destroyed. She flew after them. He tore off a railing from the
hurried to see Ravana. “Oh, Ravana. Khar, chariot, caught Sita, and set her safely on the
Dushan, and all their warriors have been killed ground, then turned to fight Ravana, tearing
by the two banished princes from Ayodhya!” off arms and heads—but they at once grew
Ravana sprang to his feet, staring at his back. Jatayu fell back, weary, and Ravana
disfigured sister with the eyes of all ten heads. cut off both his wings. Sita had just time
“Those two!” enough to bless the dying bird before Ravana
“Wait, brother. There is one more thing. dragged her back into his chariot and sped
Rama’s wife, Sita, is the most beautiful woman away.
I have ever seen. She would make you a lovely Once he had Sita safely in his palace, Ra-
queen.” vana did his best to woo her, begging her to be
“So be it!” Ravana cried. “I shall avenge his queen. But Sita refused to listen, telling the
you and our brothers in a way that Rama shall demon king that she loved only Rama.
never expect.” Ravana set Sita in a palace garden guarded
The next day, a beautiful deer stepped out by a hundred demons.
of the forest. Sita was enchanted by it. Back at the hut, Rama and Lakshmana
“Please capture it for me,” Sita asked were horrified to realize how they had been
Rama. tricked. Rama cried, “I will slay Ravana and
Lakshmana said, “No natural deer can be all his kin!”
so perfect. Brother, be wary.” In their search for Sita, Rama and Laksh-
“Stay with Sita,” Rama said, and set out af- mana entered Kiskindha, the kingdom of the
ter the deer. It led him deep into the forest, monkeys. They met the monkey king Sugriva
and then turned into a magician and vanished. and told him their story.
“Lakshmana was right,” Rama cried, and he Sugriva said, “I, too, am in exile. My
ran back toward the hut. brother seized my kingdom. Help me regain
Meanwhile, Sita and Lakshmana heard my throne, and I will help you find your
Rama’s voice calling for help. “Lakshmana,” wife.” He added, “One of my people saw Sita
Sita gasped, “you must help him!” being carried off. As she passed overhead, she
Lakshmana drew a magic circle around dropped this.”
the hut. “Stay inside, and you will be safe,” he It was one of Sita’s ornaments. Rama took
said; then he grabbed his bow and quiver and it, and tears filled his eyes.
ran after the sound of Rama’s voice. Rama and Lakshmana defeated Sugriva’s
Hidden behind a tree, Ravana stood brother and won back the monkey king’s
watching. As soon as Lakshmana was gone, throne. The monkey warrior Hanuman ar-
the demon king turned into a sannyasi, an old rived, together with a great monkey army.
wise man, and approached the hut, clutching Hanuman divided his troops into four divi-
a begging bowl. Sita kindly offered the poor sions, with the plan that each division would go
man some food. “Please, take this offering,” she in search of Sita for one month.
said. At the end of the month, three of the four
But Ravana could not cross the magic cir- divisions returned with no word of Sita’s
cle. “As a sannyasi, I cannot enter your house. whereabouts. Only Hanuman’s division had
I cannot accept your offering, I fear.” yet to return.
Sita took a step forward. One foot crossed As Hanuman and his men searched for
over the magic circle. Ravana changed back Sita, they came to a mighty ocean. Hanuman
to his demon form and snatched Sita. She prayed for help, and grew miraculously large.
screamed, but Ravana’s magic chariot soared Crying “Victory to Rama,” he leaped up and
up into the sky and off to his kingdom. flew across the ocean to Ravana’s palace.

T he Ramayana 531
As he landed, Hanuman returned to his Meanwhile, back at Ravana’s palace, his

normal size. He searched all through the decent brother, Vibhishana, tried his best to
palace. Then he saw a grove of trees. Beneath get Ravana to let Sita go, to save both her life
one tree, surrounded by she-demon guards, and Ravana’s kingdom. But Ravana would
sat the loveliest of women, sobbing, “Rama, not listen. At last, Vibhishana flew away to
Rama.” Rama.
“I have found Sita!” Hanuman cried. “I am Vibhishana, brother to Ravana. No
But before he could speak to her, Hanu- matter what I say to him, he still refuses to re-
man saw Ravana coming, and hid. Ravana lease Sita. Now, I wish to join you and fight at
pleaded with Sita, “Come with me. Be my your side.”
queen. You will have everything you wish.” Rama replied, “Welcome, Vibhishana.
“You have kidnapped me!” Sita replied. You have rejected evil for good. For your hon-
“Rama will come to rescue me—and he will esty, you shall become the new king in Ra-
kill you!” vana’s place.”
Ravana stormed away. Hanuman waited Rama stood on the shoreline of the great
until the she-demon guards fell asleep, then ocean. “Hear me!” he called to the ocean god.
crept to Sita’s side and knelt before her. “Do “I am Rama. My weapons are beyond imagi-
not be afraid. I am Hanuman, Rama’s messen- nation. In an instant, I can dry your ocean. If
ger. He has sent me to find you, and weeps for you wish to avoid this fate, show me how to
your return.” To show that he was not a demon reach Lanka.”
in disguise, Hanuman gave Sita a ring from The ocean said, “Rama, here is Nala, son
Rama. “This will prove that Rama sent me.” of the great builder. He will build you a
Sita cried, “Go tell Rama where I am. bridge across these waters. I shall support that
Give this jewel to my lord as proof of my bridge.”
love.” With the help of the monkey army, Nala
The demon guards awoke, but Hanuman put up a bridge made of wood, rocks, and
slew them with ease. More guards rushed in, stones. Rama, Hanuman, and the monkey
and at last Hanuman was taken before Ra- army crossed the bridge by nightfall, and sur-
vana. “Set his tail on fire,” Ravana ordered. rounded Ravana’s city.
“Let him return home that way.” Ravana ordered one of his demons, “Make
As the king’s men wrapped Hanuman’s me an exact copy of Rama’s head. Soak it in
tail in cloth to set it on fire, he grew it longer blood. Then bring it to me.” He took the head
and longer. The more they wrapped, the to Sita. “O, Sita, Rama has failed in his attempt
longer Hanuman grew his tail. Finally, Ra- to rescue you. His army has been destroyed.
vana grew impatient. “Set it on fire!” Here is the end of your hope.”
Hanuman leaped up into the air with his Sita collapsed in tears. “Alas, O Rama, you
long tail on fire. He flew low over the city, trail- have followed your dharma. But I am left
ing that fiery tail, and set each building, tem- alone. You came to save me, but you gave your
ple, palace, and garden on fire. As he flew over own life.
the garden, he made sure that Sita was safe. “O Rama, you are happy now. You have
Then, before he headed home, he dunked his rejoined your beloved father in heaven. But
tail in the ocean to put out the fire. what shall I do?
Hanuman and his troops rushed back to “O Rama, I am she who brought all this
tell Rama the good news. By now, Rama had upon you. Take me too. Take me with you, my
given up all hope of ever seeing Sita alive love.”
again. Without saying a word, Hanuman Angered by Sita’s devotion, Ravana
gave Rama Sita’s jewel. Rama cried, “You stormed from the garden and ordered all his
have given me reason to live again.” troops to march toward the city gates.

532 Retellings
The great battle began, and soon bodies Following the funeral rites for Ravana,
littered the city and the land outside the walls. Rama made Vibhishana the new king.
Indrajit, Ravana’s son, rained poison arrows Vibhishana’s wife and maidens took Sita
upon Rama and Lakshmana. So overwhelm- from the garden. She wore a beautiful sari
ing was this attack that the two brothers fell to sparkling with jewels. Rama and Sita were re-
the ground, unconscious. united and returned to Ayodhya.
Meanwhile, Ravana’s demons made them- But once they were back in Ayodhya,
selves invisible and attacked the monkey army. Rama grew troubled. Many people in the
But Hanuman charged forward, smashing city were expressing their doubts about Sita’s
the skull of every enemy he could still see. faithfulness while she had been in Ravana’s
The monkey army rallied behind him and hands. Even his lowest subjects whispered,
fought more fiercely than before. “How can Rama forget that Sita was with an-
Rama and Lakshmana struggled back to other man?”
consciousness and returned to the battle. Ra- Sorrowing, Rama knew that a king must
vana, high over the battle in his magic chariot, be above reproach. He ordered that Sita be
shot an arrow that hit Lakshmana. Hanuman sent back to the forest.
rushed to his side and carried him to safety. Sita stood alone on a riverbank. She heard
By now, things were looking bad for Rama the whisper of the river’s goddess saying, “Let
and his forces. Most of the monkeys were dead life go, Sita. Come home. Dive into me.”
or wounded. But Hanuman raced off to Kailasa But an old man said, “Do not enter the
Mountain, where a healing herb grew, and re- river.”
turned in giant form, balancing the mountain in “Who are you?” Sita asked.
his arms. All the wounded warriors, including “I am Valmiki, a poet and a hermit. I live
Lakshmana, were healed as soon as they in- in this forest. You are welcome to make my
haled the aroma of the magical herbs. home yours.”
Rama, Lakshmana, Vibhishana, and Hanu- It was there that Sita gave birth to Rama’s
man overpowered Indrajit, Ravana’s son, and twins sons, Kusa and Lava. For the next
killed him. But Ravana could not be taken. The twelve years, she and her sons lived peacefully
battle raged for two days, and at last Rama felt with Valmiki. During that time, Valmiki com-
his strength leaving him. posed a poem he named the Ramayana, and
But one of the sages with his army said, taught it to the boys.
“Pray to the Sun, O Rama. It is the heart of the In Ayodhya, King Rama held a great pub-
Sun that will bring you victory.” lic festival. Kusa and Lava came to Ayodhya
Rama knelt to pray to the Sun, and felt his to perform. Rama heard the boys and asked,
strength return. “What is this beautiful poem called?”
Ravana attacked again, charging forward. The boys said, “The Ramayana.”
Rama stood quietly, and reached for his most Rama stared at the twins. “These are my
powerful weapon, the Brahma-missile, to be sons!” he exclaimed.
used only when all else had failed. As he did He hastily sent a messenger to find Sita
so, the earth shook. All the warriors covered and convince her to return to Ayodhya.
their eyes and fell to the ground. The next day, Sita returned. Quietly she
Rama fired. The missile struck Ravana’s said, “I will prove my innocence before you
chest, and Ravana fell dead. once and for all.”
“Victory to Rama!” Rama’s men shouted. Then Sita took a step back and said,
Vibhishana knelt at the body of his dead “Mother Earth, if I have been faithful to my
brother and burst into tears. “Why didn’t you husband, take me home.”
listen to me? Why were you so overcome with With a roar, the ground opened and took
Sita and power?” Sita back, then closed once more.

T he Ramayana 533
Rama lived on, ruling Ayodhya alone, for There, Brahma, the creator of all, appeared to
a thousand years. One day, he thought, “I was him. “Come, O Vishnu, return to Vishnu. Re-
born of the god Vishnu, and it is time for me turn to heaven.”
to return to him.” Hearing Brahma’s words, Rama smiled
He left the palace and the crowded streets. and stepped into the river and returned to
He walked to the banks of the Sarayu River. heaven. Rama was home.

Shah-nameh
Iran’s Greatest Epic
Known as the greatest epic of Iran, formerly Persia, the Shah-nameh was written by
the poet Ferdowsi in the eleventh century. It is full of adventure, magic, and heroic
deeds, beginning with the world of myth and continuing into folklore, that make it
an ideal work for storytellers to read and learn.
K aiumers was the first king of Persia, and,

against him, Ahriman the evil, jealous of
his greatness, sent forth a mighty daeva (a dev-
serpents. But when the children of the black-
smith Kawah were demanded as food for the
serpents, the blacksmith defied Zohak. He raised
il or evil djinn) to conquer him. By this daeva, his leathern apron as a standard—a banner
Saiamuk, the son of Kaiumers, was slain, and ever since honored in Persia—and called the
the king himself died of grief at the loss of people to him to set off in search of Feridoun,
his son. an heir of Jemschid. Under the young leader,
Husheng, his grandson, succeeded the oppressed people defeated the tyrant, and
Kaiumers and was a great and wise king who they placed Feridoun on the throne.
gave fire to his people, taught them irrigation, Feridoun had three sons, Irij, Tur, and
instructed them how to till and sow, and gave Silim. Having tested their bravery, he divided
names to the beasts. Husheng’s son and suc- the kingdom among them, giving to Irij the
cessor, Tahumers, taught his people the arts of kingdom of Iran. Although the other brothers
spinning, weaving, and writing, and when he received equal shares of the kingdom, they
died he left his throne to his son, Jemschid. were enraged, because Iran was not their por-
Jemschid was a mighty monarch who dition. When their complaints to their father
vided men into classes, and the years into pe- were not heeded, they slew their brother.
riods, and he built mighty walls and cities. But Irij left a son, a babe named Minuchihr,
his heart grew proud at the thought of his who was reared carefully by Feridoun. In time,
power, and he was driven away from his land Minuchihr avenged his father by defeating the
by his people, who called Zohak to the throne armies of his uncles and slaying them both.
of Iran. Soon after this, Feridoun died, entrusting his
Zohak, who came from the deserts of Ara- grandson to Saum, his favorite pehliva, or vas-
bia, was a good and wise young man who had sal, who ruled over Seistan.
fallen into the power of a daeva. This daeva, Saum was a childless monarch. When at
in the guise of a skillful servant, asked permis- last a son was born to him, he was very happy,
sion one day to kiss his monarch between the until he learned that while the child was per-
shoulders as a reward for an unusually fine bit fect in every other way, he had the silver hair
of cookery. From the spot he kissed sprang of an old man. Fearing the talk of his enemies,
two black serpents, whose only nourishment Saum exposed the child, Zal, on a mountain-
was the brains of the king’s subjects. top to die. There, the child was found by the
The serpent king, as Zohak was now called, simurgh, a remarkable animal, part bird, part
was much feared by his subjects, who saw their human, that was touched by the cries of the
numbers lessen daily by the demands of the helpless infant. She carried him to her great
534

Shah-nameh 535
nest of aloe and sandalwood, and reared him When Garshasp was threatened by the
with her little ones. Turanians, his people went for aid to Zal, who,
Saum, who had lived to regret his foolish because he was growing old, referred them to
and wicked act, was told in a dream that his Rustam, yet of tender age. Rustam responded
son still lived and was being cared for by the gladly, and his father commanded that all the
simurgh. He accordingly sought the nest, and horses from Zaboulistan to Kabul be brought
carried his son away with great thanksgiving. forth that his son might select a steed therefrom.
The simurgh parted tenderly with the little Every horse bent beneath his grasp until he
Zal, and presented him with a feather from her came to the colt Rakush, which responded to
wing, telling him that whenever he was in dan- Rustam’s voice and suffered Rustam to mount
ger, he had only to throw it on the fire, and she him. From that day to his death, this steed was
would instantly come to his aid. Rustam’s faithful companion and preserver.
Saum first presented his son at the court Garshasp was too weak to rule over the
of Minuchihr, and then took him home to kingdom, and Zal dispatched Rustam to
Zaboulistan, where he was carefully instructed Mount Alberz, where he had been told in a
in every art and science. dream that a youth dwelt called Kai-Kobad,
At one time, while his father was invading descended from Feridoun. Kai-Kobad wel-
a neighboring province, Zal traveled over the comed Rustam, and the two, with the noblest
kingdom and stopped at the court of Mihrab, a of the kingdom, defeated the power of Turan.
tributary of Saum, who ruled at Kabul. Though After a reign of a hundred years, the wise
a descendant of the serpent king, Mihrab was Kai-Kobad died, and was succeeded by his
good, just, and wise, and he received the young son, the foolish Kai-Kaus, who, not satisfied
warrior with hospitality. with the wealth and extent of his kingdom,
Zal had not been long in Kabul before he determined to conquer the kingdom of Mazin-
heard of the beauty of Rudabeh, the daughter deran, ruled by the daevas. Zal’s remon-
of Mihrab, and she, in turn, of the great exploits strances were to no avail: The headstrong
of Zal. By an artifice of the princess, they met Kai-Kaus marched into Mazinderan, and, to-
and vowed to love each other forever, though gether with his whole army, was conquered,
they knew their love would meet with opposi- imprisoned, and blinded by the power of the
tion. Saum and Zal both pleaded Zal’s case be- White Daeva.
fore Minuchihr, who relented when he heard When the news of the monarch’s misfor-
from the astrologers that a good and mighty tune came to Iran, Rustam immediately sad-
warrior would come of the union. Rudabeh’s dled Rakush, and, choosing the shortest and
mother won the consent of Mihrab, so that most peril-beset route, set forth, unaccompa-
the young people were soon married with great nied, for Mazinderan. If he survived the dan-
pomp. gers that lurked by the way, he would reach
To Zal and Rudabeh, a son was born Mazinderan in seven days.
named Rustam, who, when one day old, was While sleeping in a forest after his first
as large as a year-old child. When three years day’s journey, Rustam was saved from a fierce
old, he could ride a horse, and, at eight years, lion by Rakush, who stood at Rustam’s head.
he was as powerful as any hero of the time. On the second day, just as he believed himself
Nauder succeeded the good Minuchihr. to be perishing of thirst, he was saved by a
Under him Persia was defeated by the Turani- sheep that he followed to a fountain of water.
ans, and Afrasiyab occupied the Persian throne. On the third night, Rakush, whom he had
But Zal, whose father, Saum, had died, over- angrily forbidden to attack any animal without
threw Afrasiyab and placed Zew upon the waking him, twice warned him of the approach
throne. Zew’s reign was short, and Garshasp, of a dragon. The first time, the dragon disap-
his son, succeeded him. peared when Rustam awoke, and he spoke

536 Retellings
severely to his faithful horse. The second time room accompanied by a maid. She proved to
Rustam slew the dragon. Morning having be the princess, who had fallen in love with
dawned, Rustam proceeded through a desert Rustam. She pleaded with him to return her
where he was offered food and wine by a sor- love, promising, if he did so, to restore his
ceress. Not recognizing her, and grateful for cherished horse. Rustam longed for his steed;
the food, he offered her a cup of wine in the moreover, the maiden was irresistibly beauti-
name of God, and she was immediately con- ful. He accordingly yielded to her proposals,
verted into a black fiend, whom he slew. and the two were wedded the next day, the
He was next opposed by Aulad, whom he king having given his consent.
defeated and promised to make ruler of Mazin- After tarrying some time in Samengan,
deran if he would guide him to the caves of the Rustam was forced to return to Iran. Bidding
White Daeva. A stony desert and a wide stream his bride an affectionate farewell, he presented
lay between him and the demon. But the un- her with a bracelet.
daunted Rustam passed over them, and choos- “If thou art given a daughter, place this
ing the middle of the day, at which time Aulad amulet in her hair to guard her from harm. If a
told him the daevas slept, he slew the guards, son, bind it on his arm, that he may possess
entered the cavern, and after a terrible struggle the valor of Nariman.”
overcame and slew the great daeva. In the course of time, the princess bore a
He then released Kai-Kaus and his army boy, christened Sohrab, who was like his fa-
and restored their sight by touching their eyes ther in beauty and boldness. But for fear that
with the blood from the daeva’s heart. she would be deprived of him, she wrote to
Kai-Kaus, not satisfied with this adventure, Rustam that a daughter had been born to her.
committed many other follies, from which it To her son, she declared the secret of his birth,
taxed his warriors sorely to rescue him. and urged him to be like his father in all
Once, Kai-Kaus was imprisoned by the things. But she warned him not to disclose the
king of Hamaveran after he had espoused his secret, for she feared that if it came to the ears
daughter. Again, he followed the advice of a of Afrasiyab, he would destroy Sohrab be-
wicked daeva and tried to search the heavens cause of his hatred of Rustam.
in a flying machine that descended and left Sohrab, who already cherished dreams of
him in a desert wasteland. It was only after conquest, was elated at the knowledge of his
this last humiliation that he humbled himself, parentage. “Mother,” exclaimed he, “I shall
lay in the dust many days, and at last became gather an army of Turks, conquer Iran, de-
worthy of the throne of his fathers. throne Kai-Kaus, and place my father on the
At one time, Rustam was hunting near the throne; then both of us will conquer Afrasiyab,
borders of Turan, and fell asleep, leaving and I will mount the throne of Turan.”
Rakush to graze in the forest, where he was es- The mother, pleased with her son’s valor,
pied by the men of Turan, who captured him. gave him for a horse a foal sprung from
When Rustam awoke, he followed his steed Rakush—and fondly watched his preparations
by the traces of Rakush’s hoofs, until he came for war.
to the city of Samengan. The king received The wicked Afrasiyab well knew that
Rustam kindly, and promised to restore the Sohrab was the son of Rustam. He was also
horse if he could be found. While his messen- aware that it was very dangerous to have two
gers went in search of the horse, the king such mighty warriors alive, since if they be-
feasted his guest and led him for the night to a came known to each other they would form
perfumed couch. an alliance. He planned, therefore, to aid
In the middle of the night, Rustam awoke Sohrab in the war, keeping him in ignorance
to see a beautiful young woman enter the of his father’s identity, and to manage in some

Shah-nameh 537
way to have the two meet in battle, so that one was beautiful, noble, and virtuous. But his
or both might be slain. foolish father allowed himself to be prejudiced
The armies met and the great battle be- against the youth by slanderous tongues, so
gan. Sohrab asked to have Rustam pointed out that Saiawush fled from the court and sought
to him, but the soldiers on his side were all in- shelter with Afrasiyab in Turan. There, he
structed to keep him in ignorance. By some speedily became popular, and took unto him-
strange mischance, the two men whom his self for a wife the daughter of Afrasiyab. But
mother had sent to enlighten him were both when he and his wife, Ferandis, built a beauti-
slain. Rustam was moved at the sight of the ful city, the hatred and jealousy of Gersiwaz
brave young warrior, but remembering that was aroused, so that he lied to Afrasiyab and
Tahmineh’s offspring was a daughter, thought said that Saiawush was puffed up with pride,
nothing more of the thrill he felt at sight of and at last induced Afrasiyab to slay his son-
him. in-law.
At last, Sohrab and Rustam met in single Saiawush had a son, Kai-Khosrau, who
combat. Sohrab was moved with tenderness was saved by Piran, a kindhearted nobleman,
for his unknown opponent, and besought him and given into the care of a goatherd. When
to tell him if he was Rustam, but Rustam de- Afrasiyab learned of his existence, he sum-
clared that he was only a servant of that chief. moned him to his presence, but the youth, in-
For three days, they fought bitterly, and on the structed by Piran, assumed the manners of
fourth day, Rustam overthrew his son. When an imbecile, and was accordingly freed by
Sohrab felt that the end had come, he threat- Afrasiyab, who feared no harm from him.
ened his unknown opponent. “Whoever thou When the news of the death of Saiawush
art, know that I came out not for empty glory was conveyed to Iran, there was great mourn-
but to find my father, and that though I have ing, and war was immediately declared
found him not, when he hears that thou hast against Turan. For seven years, the contest was
slain his son, he will search thee out and carried on, always without success, and at the
avenge me, no matter where thou hidest thy- end of that time, Gudarz dreamed that a son
self. For my father is the great Rustam.” of Saiawush was living called Kai-Khosrau,
Rustam fell down in agony when he heard and that until he was sought out and placed at
his son’s words and realized that his guile had the head of the army, deliverance could not
prevented him from being made known the come to Iran. Kai-Khosrau was discovered,
day before. He examined the onyx bracelet on and led the armies on to victory. When Kai-
Sohrab’s arm; it was the same one that he had Kaus found that his grandson not only was a
given Tahmineh. Bethinking himself of a magic great warrior, skilled in magic, but also pos-
ointment possessed by Kai-Kaus, he sent for it sessed wisdom beyond his years, he resigned
that he might heal his dying son, but the foolish the throne and made Kai-Khosrau ruler over
king, jealous of his prowess, refused to send it, Iran.
and Sohrab expired in the arms of his father. Kai-Khosrau ruled many long years, in
Rustam’s heart was broken. He heaped up which time he brought peace and happiness to
his armor, his tent, his trappings, and his trea- his kingdom, avenged the murder of his fa-
sures, and flung them into a great fire. The ther, and compassed the death of the wicked
house of Zal was filled with mourning, and Afrasiyab. Then, fearing that he might be-
when the news was conveyed to Samengan, he come puffed up with pride like Jemschid, he
tore his garments, and his daughter grieved longed to depart from this world, and prayed
herself to death before a year had passed away. to Ormuzd to take him to his bosom.
To Kai-Kaus and a wife of the race of Feri- The king, after many prayers to Ormuzd,
doun was born a son called Saiawush, who dreamed that his wish would be granted if he

538 Retellings
set the affairs of his kingdom in order and ap- Isfendiyar against him, commanding him to
pointed his successor. Rejoiced, he called his bring home the mighty warrior in chains. Is-
nobles together, divided his treasure among fendiyar pleaded in vain with his father. Then
them, and appointed his successor, Lohurasp, he explained the situation to Rustam, and
whom he commanded to be the woof and begged that he would accompany him home
warp of justice. Accompanied by a few of his in peace to gratify his father. Rustam refused
faithful friends, Kai-Khosrau set out on the long to go in chains, so the two heroes reluctantly
journey to the crest of the mountains. At his en- began the hardest battle of their lives.
treaties, some of his friends turned back; those At the end of the first day, Rustam and
who stayed overnight in spite of his warnings Rakush were severely wounded, and on his
found upon waking that they were covered by return home, Rustam happened to think of the
a heavy fall of snow, and were soon frozen. Af- simurgh. Called by the burning of the feather,
terward, their bodies were found and received the kind bird healed the wounds of the hero
a royal burial. and of Rakush, and she instructed Rustam how
Lohurasp had a son, Gushtasp, who greatly to slay his foe. “Seek thou the tamarisk tree,
desired to rule, and was a just monarch when and make thereof an arrow. Aim at his eye,
he succeeded to the throne. Gushtasp, how- and there thou canst blind and slay him.”
ever, was jealous of his son, Isfendiyar, who Rustam followed the directions and laid
was a great warrior. When Gushtasp was low the gallant youth. Isfendiyar died exclaim-
about to be overcome by the forces of Turan, ing, “My father has slain me, not thou, Rustam.
he promised Isfendiyar the throne if he would I die, the victim of my father’s hate. Do thou
destroy the enemy. But when the hosts were keep for me and rear my son!”
scattered, and Isfendiyar reminded his father Rustam, who had lived so long and accom-
of his promise, he was cast into a dungeon, plished such great deeds, died at last by the
there to remain until his services were again hand of his half brother. This brother, Shug-
needed. When he had again gained a victory, dad, stirred up the king of Kabul, in whose
he was told that the throne would be his when court he was reared, to slay Rustam because he
he had rescued his sisters from the brazen exacted tribute from Kabul.
fortress of Arjasp, where they had been car- Rustam was called into Kabul by Shug-
ried and imprisoned. dad, who claimed that the king mistreated
On his way to this tower, Isfendiyar met him. When he arrived, the matter was settled
with as many terrible foes as Rustam had en- amicably, and the brothers set out for a hunt
countered on his way to the White Daeva, and with the king. The hunters were led to a spot
as successfully overcame them. Wolves, lions, where the false king had caused pits to be
enchantresses, and dragons barred the way dug and lined with sharp weapons. Rustam,
to the impregnable fortress, which rose three pleased with his kind reception and suspecting
farsakhs high and forty wide, and was con- no harm, beat Rakush severely when he
structed entirely of brass and iron. But Isfendi- paused and would go no farther. Stung by the
yar, assuming the guise of a merchant and blows, the gallant horse sprang forward and
concealing his warriors in chests, won his way fell into the pit. As he rose from this, he fell
into the castle, gained the favor of its inmates, into another, until, clambering from the sev-
and made them drunk with wine. This done, enth pit, he and Rustam fell swooning with
he freed his sisters, slew the guards, and struck pain.
down Arjasp. “False brother!” cried Rustam. “What hast
Instead of keeping his promise, Gushtasp thou done? Was it for thee to slay thy father’s
hastened to set his son another task. Rustam son? Exult now, but thou wilt yet suffer for this
was his pehliva, but it pleased him to send forth crime!” Then, altering his tone, he said gently,

Shah-nameh 539
“But give me, I pray thee, my bow and ar- grasping the bow with something of his for-
rows, that I may have them by my side to slay mer strength, sent the arrow through tree and
any wild beast that may try to devour me.” man, transfixing both. Then, thanking his
Shugdad gave him the bow, and when he Creator that he had been given the opportu-
saw the gleam in Rustam’s eyes, he concealed nity to slay his murderer, Rustam breathed
himself behind a tree. But the angry Rustam, his last.

Destiny
An American Civil War Tale
During the American Civil War, a variant of the Jewish folktale “Appointment in
Samarra” surfaced. The basic tale type features a man, or group of men, fleeing
what appears to be imminent death, only to die, ironically, in another place. “Des-
tiny” is a story of a young man establishing his courage, but the irony of his death
places it in the category of the “Appointment in Samarra” tale type.
I n the summer of 1862, a young man belong-

ing to a Vermont regiment was found sleep-
ing at his post. He was tried and sentenced to
papers could not fix his mind, nor could he
banish the condemned soldier boy from his
thoughts.
be shot. The day was fixed for the execution, At last, feeling that he must know whether
and the young soldier calmly prepared to meet the lad was safe, Lincoln ordered a carriage and
his fate. rode rapidly for 10 miles over a dusty road be-
Friends who knew of the case brought neath a scorching sun. When he reached the
the matter to President Lincoln’s attention. It camp, he found that the pardon had been re-
seemed that the boy had been on duty one ceived and the execution stayed.
night, and, on the following night, he had The sentinel was released, and his heart
taken the place of a comrade too ill to stand was filled with lasting gratitude. When the
guard. The third night, he had been again campaign opened in the spring, the young
called out and, being utterly exhausted, had man was with his regiment near Yorktown,
fallen asleep at his post. Virginia. They were ordered to attack a fort,
As soon as the president understood the and he fell at the first volley of the enemy.
case, he signed a pardon and sent it to the The young man’s comrades caught him up.
camp. The morning before the execution They carried him bleeding and dying from the
arrived, but the president had not heard field.
whether the pardon had reached the officers “Bear witness,” he said, “that I have proved
in charge of the matter. He began to feel un- myself not a coward, and I am not afraid to
easy. Lincoln ordered a telegram to be sent to die.” Then, making a last effort, with his dying
the camp, but he received no answer. State breath he prayed for Abraham Lincoln.
540

Greatest Liar of Them All
An Apache Folktale
Coyote is an important trickster figure of the American Southwest, specifically the

Apache people. Tales about him can be found in almost every tribal group west of
the Mississippi River, as far north as Oregon and Idaho, and down into Mexico.
Traditionally, tales about him begin, “Coyote was going along . . .”
That sounded like a good bet to the men.

C oyote was going along one day when he
came to a camp of men just sitting around,
waiting for him.
After all, a buffalo horse is trained to be nice
and mannerly.
“Coyote,” they said, “we hear that you are Coyote got up on the horse’s back, but he
the greatest liar of them all.” dug in with his claws. Naturally, the horse
Coyote only shrugged. “How would you began to buck, and Coyote leaped off.
know such a thing?” “He needs a blanket between him and me,”
“Oh, everyone knows it. But how do you Coyote said. “That is surely the problem.”
tell such great lies? Why does everyone al- So the men put a thick saddle blanket on
ways believe you? Come, show us how to lie.” the horse. Coyote mounted again, but his claws
Coyote shrugged again. “It was no easy were sharp enough to prick right through the
thing to learn how to do. I had to pay a great blanket. And, of course, the horse began to
price to learn how to lie so well.” buck again.
“What price did you pay?” Coyote leaped off. “He still wants some-
“One horse, my finest buffalo horse.” By thing more on his back. A good saddle, I
that, he meant a horse well trained to run in guess.”
close among the buffalo so his rider could make So the men saddled the horse with their
many kills. best saddle. They gave Coyote a fine riding
“What, like this?” asked one man, and led crop, too.
forth a fine horse, his best buffalo horse. “I shall try the horse one more time,” Coy-
Coyote studied the horse, which sidled ner- ote said. “If he still bucks, I won’t be able to
vously at the strange wolfish scent of the trick- tell you the secret of my power.”
ster. “Yes, this is exactly the sort of horse I He rode the horse a little distance away,
mean. It was with one like him that I paid for just out of reach of the men, and then stopped.
my power to lie.” “This is the secret of my power,” Coyote
“But will you teach us to lie?” the men said. “I trick people into giving me things.
asked impatiently. Like a blanket. Like a good saddle. Like a rid-
Coyote pretended to think it over. “Let me ing crop and a fine buffalo horse.”
try to ride this fine buffalo horse. If he doesn’t And with that, Coyote rode away, and the
buck, I will explain my power to lie.” men could do nothing to stop him.
541

Why Ananse Owns Every Story
An Ashante Folktale from Ghana
This retelling of “Why Ananse Owns Every Story,” an Ashante folktale from Ghana,
features Ananse, who is the primary trickster figure of both West Africa and the
Caribbean. He is a spider, though he is sometimes portrayed as a man, or as a cross
between a spider and a man, or as a spider with a man’s clever eyes.
K waku Ananse, the Spider, wanted own-

ership of all the stories there were. Nyame,
the sky god, owned them, so off Ananse went
big to fit in this nice, dry gourd, but you are
not. Come inside and stay dry!”
The hornets flew into the hole in the gourd.
to Nyame. Ananse hastily plugged up the hole with a
“I wish to buy all the stories,” the Spider wad of grass. “You really are fools,” he laughed,
said. and scuttled to Nyame.
“They are, indeed, for sale,” Nyame told “I have brought you Mmoboro.”
him. “But the price is very high. Many people The sky god nodded. “That is one-third of
have tried to buy the stories, but they were un- the price. But now you must bring me danger-
able to pay the price. Do you really think you ous Onini the python.”
can do what they could not?” Ananse went home, cut himself a sturdy
“Of course,” Ananse said boldly. “What is bamboo pole and a strong vine, and went
the price?” looking for Onini the python.
“You must bring me three things. First, As he went, Ananse pretended to be talk-
bring me fierce Mmoboro.” ing to himself. “My wife is foolish,” he mut-
“The hornets? Done.” tered. “I say he’s longer. She says he’s shorter.
“Second, bring me dangerous Onini.” I say he’s stronger. She says he’s weaker. I am
“The python? Done.” right. I know I am right.”
“And last, bring me perilous Osebo.” Onini was overcome by curiosity. “Who is
“The leopard?” Ananse laughed. “The sto- stronger? Who is longer?”
ries are as good as mine!” Ananse pretended to be startled. “Oh, it’s
Ananse scuttled home, cut a gourd from nothing, mighty Onini.”
its vine, and drilled a small hole in it. Then he “Tell me.”
found a nice, large calabash, a bigger gourd, “Why, I have argued with my wife. She says
and filled it with water. you, mighty Onini, are shorter and weaker than
Off Ananse went to the tree where the this bamboo pole. Isn’t that a foolish thing?”
hornets lived. Quickly, the Spider poured wa- “Foolish, indeed. Come, put the pole down,
ter from the calabash all over himself till he and I’ll show you how much longer I am.”
was dripping wet. He tossed water from the Ananse put the pole down and Onini
calabash all over the tree until the hornets stretched out beside it. “No,” the Spider said,
were dripping wet as well. “not quite. That’s better . . . no. You keep slip-
“What are you doing out here in the ping, Onini. I can’t really tell if you are longer
rain?” Ananse cried. “Foolish people, I am too or shorter than the pole. Let me tie you at one
542

Why Ananse Owns Ever y Stor y 543
end so you can stretch out all the way without “I will not.”
slipping.” “Then you will eat my wife.”
Ananse used the vine to tie Onini’s head “I will not.”
firmly to the pole. He scuttled to the other end “I don’t know. . . .”
of the pole and tied Onini’s tail to the pole, then “I swear,” shouted the leopard, “that I will
wrapped the vine about every bit of the snake. not eat you or your wife or any spider any-
“Look at this,” the Spider said. “My wife where! Now, help me out of here.”
was right after all. You are shorter and weaker “Well . . . since you did make a pro-
than the pole. I was foolish. But you are the mise . . . ,” Ananse said. “Very well.”
bigger fool, since you are now my prisoner!” He pulled the top of a springy sapling
Off Ananse staggered with Onini and the down over the pit and tied it there with a
pole. “Here is the python.” vine. Then Ananse tied one end of a second
Was Nyame surprised? The sky god only vine to the top of that young tree and
nodded. “That is two-thirds of the price. Now, dropped the other end of the vine into the pit.
though, you must bring me the perilous Os- “Tie the vine to your tail,” Ananse called.
ebo the leopard.” “Be sure to tie it tightly!”
Ananse went into the forest where Osebo Osebo tied the vine tightly to his tail.
lived and dug a deep pit, covering it over with Ananse laughed and cut the first vine, the one
branches and dust until it was invisible. that tied down the top of the springy sapling.
“Hey, Osebo!” he called. “Here is some- It shot upright, snatching Osebo out of the pit.
one for you to eat!” But now, the leopard hung upside down by
Osebo came running. With a snarl and a his tail! Ananse quickly killed Osebo, then
crash, he fell right into the pit. Ananse waited carried the leopard to Nyame.
a bit, then strolled up to the edge of the pit. “Here is Osebo,” he said. “The third part
“Why, what is this?” he asked as though of the price has been paid.”
surprised. “Is that you, great Osebo? What are This time, the sky god was truly surprised.
you doing in that hole?” “From now on, all stories belong to you. From
“I fell,” Osebo snarled. “Help me out of now on, whenever a story is told, the teller
here.” must say that it belongs to Ananse.”
“Oh, no; oh, no. I would love to help you; And so, from that day to this, all stories
I would. But if I pull you out, you will surely told by the Ashante are called Anansesem, the
eat me.” stories of Ananse the Spider.

Brewery of Eggshells
A Changeling Folktale from Wales
Until the twentieth century, the fear of losing a baby to death or disease was a
very real one in many countries, including Great Britain. In areas such as Wales,
people held a strong belief in fairy folk. This led to an equally strong folk belief
that a human baby might be exchanged by the fairies for one of their own, a
changeling. There were even some tragic nineteenth-century accounts of parents
so sure that their sickly baby was a changeling that they tried to kill it, sure the
fairies would come to save the changeling and return their true child. Ways of
revealing a changeling were said to be trickery to make it speak out or cruelty,
such as holding it over a fire.
I n Treneglwys (Wales), there was a certain

shepherd’s cot, or cottage, known by the
name of Twt y Cymrws because of the
And so arose the great strife that the neigh-
bors named the cottage after. It made the
woman very sad, so one evening she made up
strange strife that occurred there. A man and her mind to go and see the Wise Man of
his wife lived there and had twins, whom the Llanidloes, for he knew everything and would
woman nursed tenderly. One day, while her tell her what to do.
husband was away in the fields, she was So she went to Llanidloes and told the
called away to the house of a neighbor who case to the wise man. Now, there was soon
lived some distance away. She did not much to be a harvest of rye and oats, so the wise
like going and leaving her little ones all man said to her, “When you are getting din-
alone in a solitary house, especially as she ner for the reapers, clear out the shell of a
had heard tell of the good folk (the fairy hen’s egg and boil some potage in it, and
folk) haunting the neighborhood. then take it to the door as if you meant it as
Well, she went and came back as soon as a dinner for the reapers. Then listen if the
she could, but on her way back she was twins say anything. If you hear them speak-
frightened to see some old elves of the blue ing of things beyond the understanding of
petticoat crossing her path, even though it was children, go back and take them up and throw
midday. She rushed home, but she found her them into the waters of Lake Elvyn. But if
two little ones in the cradle, and everything you don’t hear anything remarkable, do
seemed as it had been before. them no injury.”
After a time, the good people began to sus- So when the day of the reaping came, the
pect that something was wrong, for the twins woman did all that the wise man had ordered.
did not grow at all. She put the eggshell on the fire and took it off
The man said, “They’re not ours.” and carried it to the door, and there she stood
The woman said, “Whose else should they and listened. Then she heard one of the chil-
be?” dren say to the other:
544

Brewer y of Eggshells 545
Acorn before oak I knew, So she went back into the house, seized the
An egg before a hen, children, and threw them into the lake. The
But I never heard of an goblins in their blue trousers came and saved
eggshell brew their little ones, and the mother had her own
A dinner for harvest men. children back. And so the great strife ended.

Tam Lin
A British Folktale
The romantic fantasy ballad “Tam Lin” from Great Britain has been the subject of
various novels and makes a good story for storytellers with fantasy-loving teenage
or adult audiences. Although its original age is unknown, it was first collected by Sir
Francis J. Child and is listed by him as Ballad 39 in his English and Scottish Popular
Ballads (1882–1898). Sir Walter Scott also included it in his Minstrelsy of the Scottish
Border (1802). It also can be found in prose form in A Collection of Ballads (1910) by
Andrew Lang.
Briefly summarized, it is the story of Janet, a young noblewoman, who saves her
lover, Tam Lin, from the Queen of Faerie.
O I forbid you, maidens a’, Or why comes thou to Carterhaugh

That wear gowd on your hair, Withoutten my command?
To come or gae by Carterhaugh, “Carterhaugh, it is my own,
For young Tam Lin is there. My daddy gave it me,
I’ll come and gang by Carterhaugh,
There’s nane that gaes by Carterhaugh And ask nae leave at thee.”
But they leave him a wad,
Either their rings, or green mantles, Janet has kilted her green kirtle
Or else their maidenhead. A little aboon her knee,
Janet has kilted her green kirtle And she has broded her yellow hair
A little aboon her knee, A little aboon her bree,
And she has broded her yellow hair And she is to her father’s ha,
A little aboon her bree, As fast as she can hie.
And she’s away to Carterhaugh
As fast as she can hie. Four and twenty ladies fair
Were playing at the ba,
When she came to Carterhaugh And out then came the fair Janet,
Tam Lin was at the well, The flower among them a’.
And there she fand his steed standing,
But away was himsel. Four and twenty ladies fair
Were playing at the chess,
She had na pu’d a double rose, And out then came the fair Janet,
A rose but only twa, As green as onie glass.
Till upon then started young Tam Lin,
Says, Lady, thou’s pu nae mae. Out then spake an auld gray knight,
Lay oer the castle wa,
Why pu’s thou the rose, Janet, And says, Alas, fair Janet, for thee,
And why breaks thou the wand? But we’ll be blamed a’.
546

Tam Lin 547
“Haud your tongue, ye auld fac’d If eer ye was in holy chapel,

knight, Or christendom did see?”
Some ill death may ye die!
Father my bairn on whom I will, “Roxbrugh he was my grandfather,
I’ll father none on thee.” Took me with him to bide
And ance it fell upon a day
Out then spak her father dear, That wae did me betide.
And he spak meek and mild,
“And ever alas, sweet Janet,” he says, “And ance it fell upon a day
“I think thou gaest wi child.” A cauld day and a snell,
When we were frae the hunting
“If that I gae wi child, father, come,
Mysel maun bear the blame, That frae my horse I fell,
There’s neer a laird about your ha, The Queen o’ Fairies she caught me,
Shall get the bairn’s name. In yon green hill do dwell.
“If my love were an earthly knight, “And pleasant is the fairy land,
As he’s an elfin gray, But, an eerie tale to tell,
I wad na gie my ain true-love Ay at the end of seven years,
For nae lord that ye hae. We pay a tiend to hell,
“The steed that my true love rides on I am sae fair and fu o flesh,
Is lighter than the wind, I’m feard it be mysel.
Wi siller he is shod before,
Wi burning gowd behind.” “But the night is Halloween, lady,
The morn is Hallowday,
Janet has kilted her green kirtle Then win me, win me, an ye will,
A little aboon her knee, For weel I wat ye may.
And she has broded her yellow hair
A little aboon her bree, “Just at the mirk and midnight hour
And she’s away to Carterhaugh The fairy folk will ride,
As fast as she can hie. And they that wad their true-love
win,
When she came to Carterhaugh, At Miles Cross they maun bide.”
Tam Lin was at the well,
And there she fand his steed standing, “But how shall I thee ken, Tam Lin,
But away was himsel. Or how my true-love know,
Amang sa mony unco knights,
She had na pu’d a double rose, The like I never saw?”
A rose but only twa,
Till up then started young Tam Lin, “O first let pass the black, lady,
Says, Lady, thou pu’s nae mae. And syne let pass the brown,
“Why pu’s thou the rose, Janet, But quickly run to the milk-white steed,
Amang the groves sae green, Pu ye his rider down.
And a’ to kill the bonny babe
That we gat us between?” “For I’ll ride on the milk-white steed,
And ay nearest the town,
“O tell me, tell me, Tam Lin,” she says, Because I was an earthly knight
“For’s sake that died on tree, They gie me that renown.

548 Retellings
“My right hand will be gloved, lady, As fair Jenny in her green mantle
My left hand will be bare, To Miles Cross she did gae.
Cockt up shall my bonnet be,
And kaimed down shall my hair, At the mirk and midnight hour
And thae’s the takens I gie thee, She heard the bridles sing,
Nae doubt I will be there. She was as glad at that
As any earthly thing.
“They’ll turn me in your arms, lady,
Into an esk and adder, First she let the black pass by,
But hold me fast, and fear me not, And syne she let the brown,
I am your bairn’s father. But quickly she ran to the milk-white
steed,
“They’ll turn me to a bear sae grim, And pu’d the rider down.
And then a lion bold,
But hold me fast, and fear me not, Sae weel she minded what he did say,
And ye shall love your child. And young Tam Lin did win,
Syne covered him wi her green mantle,
“Again they’ll turn me in your arms As blythe’s a bird in spring
To a red het gand of airn,
But hold me fast, and fear me not, Out then spak the Queen o Fairies,
I’ll do you nae harm. Out of a bush o broom,
“Them that has gotten young Tam Lin
“And last they’ll turn me in your Has gotten a stately-groom.”
arms
Into the burning gleed, Out then spak the Queen o Fairies,
Then throw me into well water, And an angry woman was she,
O throw me in with speed. “Shame betide her ill-far’d face,
And an ill death may she die,
“And then I’ll be your ain true-love, For she’s taen away the bonniest knight
I’ll turn a naked knight, In a’ my companie.
Then cover me wi your green mantle,
And hide me out o sight.” “But had I kend, Tam Lin,” said she,
“What now this night I see,
Gloomy, gloomy was the night, I wad hae taen out thy twa grey een,
And eerie was the way, And put in twa een o tree.”

The Smart Man and the Fool
A Fjort (Congolese) Folktale
In the late nineteenth century, English folklorist Richard Edward Dennett collected
folktales from the Fjort people of what is now the Republic of the Congo. Dennett
recorded both the style of the storytelling and the stories. The style, which incorpo-
rates audience participation, is practiced today. The following is an adaptation of
Dennett’s telling. Note that although the storyteller here is male, Dennett stated
that both Fjort men and women told stories.
I magine, then, a village in a grove of graceful

palm trees. The full moon is shining brightly
upon a small crowd . . . seated round a fire in
fish that went your way, so that the fish
you think you killed is mine. Here,
give it to me.”
an open space in the center of the village. One The fool gave Smart Man the fish.
of them has just told a story, and his delighted Then, they went to their town, and
audience demands another. Smart Man, addressing his father, said,
Thus he begins: “Let us tell another story; “Father, here is a fish that your son
let us be off!” shot, but Fool got nothing.”
All then shout: “Pull away!”
“Let us be off!” he repeats. Here the crowd joins in and sings over the
And they answer again: “Pull away!” last sentence two or three times. Then the nar-
Then the storyteller commences: rator continues:
There were two brothers, the Smart The mother prepared and cooked the
Man and the Fool. And it was their fish, and the father and Smart Man ate
habit to go out shooting to keep their it, giving none to Fool.
parents supplied with food. Thus, Then they went again. And Fool
one day, they went together into the fired, and with his first shot killed a big
mangrove swamp, just as the tide fish.
was going down, to watch for the fish “Did you hear me fire?” said Smart
as they nibbled at the roots of the Man.
trees. Fool saw a fish, fired at it, and “No,” answered Fool.
killed it. Smart Man fired also, but “No?” returned Smart Man. “See,
at nothing, and then ran up to Fool then, the fish I killed.”
and said, “Fool, have you killed “All right,” said Fool, “take the
anything?” fish.”
“Yes, Smart Man, I am a fool, but I When they reached home, they
killed a fish.” gave the fish to their mother, and after
“Indeed, you are a fool,” answered she had cooked it, Smart Man and his
Smart Man, “for when I fired I hit the father ate it, but gave none to Fool. As
549

550 Retellings
they were enjoying the fish, a bone The crowd goes on singing this until they
stuck in the father’s throat. Then Smart are tired; and the storyteller continues:
Man called to Fool and bade him go
for a doctor. While Fool was still singing, the father
“No,” said Fool, “I cannot. I felt died. Then, the neighbors came and
that something would happen.” And joined the family circle, and asked Fool
he sang: how it was that he could go on singing
“Every day you eat my fish, now that his father was dead. And Fool
You call me Fool, answered them, saying: “Our father
And would let me starve.” made us both, one a smart man, the
other a fool. The Fool killed the food,
The crowd here joins in, and sings Fool’s and they ate it, giving none to the Fool.
song over and over again. They must not blame him, therefore, if
he sings while they suffer. He suffered
“How can you sing?” said Smart Man, hunger while they had plenty.”
“when you see that our father is And when the people had consid-
suffering?” ered the matter, they gave judgment in
But Fool went on singing: favor of the Fool, and departed.
“You eat and eat unto repletion; The father died, and so had been
A bone sticks in your throat; justly punished for not having given
And now your life is near completion, food to the Fool.
The bone is still within your throat. He who eats fish with much oil
must suffer from indigestion.
So you, smart brother, killed the fish, And now I have finished my story.
And gave the fool to eat?
Nay! But now he’s dead perhaps you All answer, “Just so!”
wish “To-morrow may you chop palm kernels,”
You’d given the fool to eat.” says the narrator as he gets up and walks away.

The Cauld Lad of Hilton
An English Folktale
In English folklore, a brownie generally is a helpful little spirit, usually male, that
will straighten up the house in which he lives with “his” humans—as long as they
never thank him or offer him clothes. The brownie in the following tale clearly
is fed up with his job and is trying to find a way to convince the humans to get rid
of him.
A t Hilton Hall, long years ago, there

lived a brownie that was the contrariest
brownie you ever knew. At night, after the
they saw the brownie swinging to and fro on
the jack chain, and saying:
servants had gone to bed, it would turn every- Woe’s me! woe’s me!
thing topsy-turvy, put sugar in the salt cellars The acorn’s not yet
and pepper into the beer, and was up to all Fallen from the tree,
kinds of pranks. It would throw the chairs That’s to grow the wood,
down, put tables on their backs, rake out fires, That’s to make the cradle,
and do as much mischief as could be. But That’s to rock the bairn,
sometimes, it would be in a good temper, and That’s to grow to the man,
then! That’s to lay me.
“What’s a brownie?” you say. Oh, it’s a Woe’s me! Woe’s me!
kind of a sort of a bogle, but it isn’t so cruel as
a redcap! What! You don’t know what’s a So they took pity on the poor brownie, and
bogle or a redcap! Ah, me! What’s the world asked the nearest henwife what they should do
a-coming to? Of course, a brownie is a funny to send it away. “That’s easy enough,” said the
little thing, half man, half goblin, with pointed henwife, and told them that a brownie that’s
ears and a hairy hide. When you bury a trea- paid for its service, in aught that’s not perish-
sure, you scatter over it blood drops of a able, goes away at once. So they made a cloak
newly slain kid or lamb, or, better still, bury of Lincoln green, with a hood to it, and put it
the animal with the treasure, and a brownie by the hearth and watched. They saw the
will watch over it for you and frighten every- brownie come up, and seeing the hood and
body else away. cloak, put them on, and frisk about, dancing
Where was I? Well, as I was a-saying, the on one leg and saying:
brownie at Hilton Hall would play at mischief,
but if the servants laid out for it a bowl of cream, I’ve taken your cloak, I’ve taken your hood;
or a knuckle cake spread with honey, it would The Cauld Lad of Hilton will do no
clear away things for them, and make every- more good.
thing tidy in the kitchen. One night, however,
when the servants had stopped up late, they And with that, the brownie vanished, and
heard a noise in the kitchen, and, peeping in, it was never seen or heard of afterward.
551

The Cuckoo
A “Fool” Folktale of Gotham, England
A “fool” folktale is about a foolish but generally endearing person or a town of such
people. One such town is Chelm, Poland. Another is Gotham, England, a real town,
and one of the mysteries of the folk process is how it became known as a place of
foolish people.
O nce, in the long-ago days, spring came to

the pretty little town of Gotham, England.
All the people strolled about the streets,
bricks and pieces of wood and set about build-
ing a wall all around the tree in which the
cuckoo sat.
smelling the sweet flowers, feeling the warm air, All the while that they worked, the cuckoo
and listening to the happy songs of the birds. kept singing, now and then cocking her head to
“Listen to the cuckoo,” they said. “How look down in curiosity at what the humans did.
sweetly she sings.” Higher and higher grew the wall, while the
“What a pity she doesn’t sing like this all the cuckoo watched and sang, sang and watched.
year round!” they added. “How nice it would Higher and higher—
be if we could always hear her. It would be like But all at once, the cuckoo grew bored with
having spring with us all the year round.” sitting still. She spread her wings, and of course,
Then one of the good folks had an idea. she flew lightly right over the top of the wall.
“What if we kept the cuckoo with us always? “Oh no!” the people cried. “Alas, alack! We
If we kept the cuckoo with us always, then almost had her. It was the wall that was at fault.”
spring would stay with us all the time, too!” “Of course it was the wall,” everyone
Spring all the time! How wonderful that agreed. “It wasn’t tall enough! If only we’d built
sounded to everyone! the wall just a little bit higher, the cuckoo would
But how were they to keep the cuckoo never have been able to fly over it!”
with them? This was a problem, a true prob- Being the good people of Gotham, not
lem. The people of Gotham sat and thought once did one of them ever realize that without a
about it a long, long time. Then all at once, the roof, not even the highest wall could hold in a
wisest of the wise men sprang to his feet. bird!
“I know what we’ll do,” he cried. “We’ll “If only we had built the wall just a little
build a wall around the cuckoo. That way she bit higher,” they said again, and sighed. But it
will have to stay with us forever!” was springtime, and the day was so bright and
This seemed like a wonderful idea to every- sunny that before long all the good folk of
one, a splendid idea indeed! They grabbed Gotham were smiling again.
552

Dick Whittington and His Cat
A Medieval Folktale from England
The historic Richard Whittington (c. 1350–1423) was a merchant and the mayor of
London during the reign of King Edward III. Although the tale of Whittington and
his cat is pure fiction, the story is better known in Great Britain and the United
States than is the actual man.
I n the reign of the famous King Edward III,

there was a little boy called Dick Whitting-
ton, whose father and mother died when he
morning, on All Hallow’s Day, which is the
first of November. The boy walked as far as
Holloway, and there sat down on a stone,
was very young. The boy remembered noth- which to this day is called Whittington’s stone,
ing at all about his parents and was left a and began to think to himself which road he
ragged little fellow running about a country should take as he proceeded onward.
village. While he was thinking what he should do,
For all this, Dick Whittington was a very the bells of Bow Church in London began to
sharp boy and was always listening to what ring, and he fancied their sound seemed to say
everybody talked about. In this manner, Dick to him:
heard a great many very strange things about
the great city called London, and he finally set Turn again, Whittington
out for it. Lord Mayor of London.
There, he nearly starved, but he finally
found work in the house of a merchant, where He listened, and returned to London.
he did whatever dirty work he was able for Meanwhile, the ship, with the cat on board,
the cook. His bed stood in a garret, where was a long time at sea. It was at last driven by
there were so many holes in the floor and the the winds on a part of the coast of Barbary.
walls that every night he was tormented by The people treated the sailors very civilly and
rats and mice. A gentleman gave Dick a were very eager to buy the fine things that the
penny for cleaning his shoes, so the boy ship had on board.
bought a cat and, in a short time, had no more The captain was invited to the royal
trouble with the rats and mice. palace. But there he saw rats and mice every-
Soon after this, the master had a ship where, and the king and queen were quite un-
ready to sail, and as he thought it right that all happy about it. This land had no cats! So the
his servants should have some chance for captain hastily told the king he had a creature
good fortune as well as for himself, he asked on board the ship that would dispatch all these
them all what they would send out. Poor Dick vermin immediately. The king promised to
had nothing but his cat, which he sent on to load the ship with gold and jewels in exchange
find its fortune. for the wonder.
Now, Dick was more miserable than be- Sure enough, the cat took care of the rats
fore. He decided to run away. So he packed up and mice, and the captain sailed with a fair
his few things and started very early in the wind for England. The ship arrived safely in
553

554 Retellings
London with the load of gold and jewels. The was knighted by King Henry V. The carved
honest merchant promptly sent for Dick, who figure of Sir Richard Whittington with his
was overwhelmed by his sudden good fortune. cat in his arms was to be seen until the year
In time, history tells, Dick Whittington 1780 over the archway of the old prison of
did, indeed, become mayor of London and Newgate.

Fire! Fire! Burn Stick!
A Cumulative Folktale from England
“Fire! Fire! Burn Stick!” is a classic example of a cumulative tale from England. Ele-
ments are added as the story progresses. Then, the elements are removed until
nothing but the happy ending is left.
A n old woman was sweeping her house,

and she found a little crooked sixpence.
“What,” said she, “shall I do with this little six-
fire, fire won’t burn stick, stick won’t beat dog,
dog won’t bite pig, piggy won’t get over the
stile, and I shan’t get home tonight.” But the
pence? I will go to market and buy a little butcher would not.
pig.” As she was coming home, she came to She went a little farther, and she met a
a stile; the piggy would not go over the stile. rope. So she said, “Rope! Rope! Hang butcher;
She went a little farther, and she met a dog. butcher won’t kill ox, ox won’t drink water,
So she said to the dog, “Dog! Dog! Bite pig; water won’t quench fire, fire won’t burn stick,
piggy won’t get over the stile, and I shan’t get stick won’t beat dog, dog won’t bite pig, piggy
home tonight.” But the dog would not. won’t get over the stile, and I shan’t get home
She went a little farther, and she met a tonight.” But the rope would not.
stick. So she said, “Stick! Stick! Beat dog; dog So she went a little farther, and she met a
won’t bite pig, piggy won’t get over the stile, rat. So she said, “Rat! Rat! Gnaw rope; rope
and I shan’t get home tonight.” But the stick won’t hang butcher, butcher won’t kill ox, ox
would not. won’t drink water, water won’t quench fire,
She went a little farther, and she met a fire. fire won’t burn stick, stick won’t beat dog, dog
So she said, “Fire! Fire! Burn stick; stick won’t won’t bite pig, piggy won’t get over the stile,
beat dog, dog won’t bite pig, piggy won’t get and I shan’t get home tonight.” But the rat
over the stile, and I shan’t get home tonight.” would not.
But the fire would not. So she went a little farther, and she met a
She went a little farther, and she met some cat. So she said, “Cat! Cat! Kill rat; rat won’t
water. So she said, “Water! Water! Quench gnaw rope, rope won’t hang butcher, butcher
fire; fire won’t burn stick, stick won’t beat dog, won’t kill ox, ox won’t drink water, water won’t
dog won’t bite pig, piggy won’t get over the quench fire, fire won’t burn stick, stick won’t
stile, and I shan’t get home tonight.” But the beat dog, dog won’t bite pig, piggy won’t get
water would not. over the stile, and I shan’t get home tonight.”
She went a little farther, and she met an ox. But the cat said to her, “If you will go to yonder
So she said, “Ox! Ox! Drink water; water cow and fetch me a saucer of milk, I will kill
won’t quench fire, fire won’t burn stick, stick the rat.”
won’t beat dog, dog won’t bite pig, piggy won’t So away went the old woman to the cow.
get over the stile, and I shan’t get home to- But the cow said to her, “If you will go to yon-
night.” But the ox would not. der haystack and fetch me a handful of hay,
She went a little farther, and she met a I’ll give you the milk.”
butcher. So she said, “Butcher! Butcher! Kill So away went the old woman to the
ox; ox won’t drink water, water won’t quench haystack, and she brought the hay to the cow.
555

556 Retellings
As soon as the cow had eaten the hay, butcher, the butcher began to kill the ox, the
she gave the old woman the milk, and away ox began to drink the water, the water began
the old woman went with it in a saucer to to quench the fire, the fire began to burn the
the cat. stick, the stick began to beat the dog, the dog
As soon as the cat had lapped up the milk, began to bite the pig, the little pig in a fright
the cat began to kill the rat, the rat began to jumped over the stile, and so the old woman
gnaw the rope, the rope began to hang the got home that night.

The Gingerbread Boy
An English Folktale
While this particular version of “The Gingerbread Boy” is from England, the story of
the runaway gingerbread boy—or man, or animated pancake—also can be found in
other countries, including India. In all versions, the tale ends badly for the animated
food, which gets eaten.
T here was once a little old man and a little

old woman who lived in a little old house
at the edge of a wood. They would have been
Then, the mowers began to run after him,
but they couldn’t catch him. And he ran on,
till he came to a cow. He called out to her:
a very happy old couple but for one thing—
they had no little child, and they wished for I’ve run away from a little old
one very much. One day, when the little old woman,
woman was baking gingerbread, she cut a cake A little old man,
in the shape of a little boy and put it into the A barn full of threshers,
oven. A field full of mowers,
Presently, she went to the oven to see if And I can run away from you, I can!
the cake was baked. As soon as the oven
door was opened, the little gingerbread boy But though the cow started at once, she
jumped out and began to run away as fast as couldn’t catch him. And soon, he came to a
he could go. pig. He called out to the pig:
The little old woman called her husband,
and they both ran after him. But they could I’ve run away from a little old
not catch him. And soon, the gingerbread boy woman,
came to a barn full of threshers. He called out A little old man,
to them as he went by, saying: A barn full of threshers,
A field full of mowers,
I’ve run away from a little old woman, A cow,
A little old man, And I can run away from you, I can!
And I can run away from you, I can!
But the pig ran and couldn’t catch him.
Then, the barn full of threshers set out to And he ran on, till he came across a fox, and
run after him. But though they ran fast, they to him he called out:
could not catch him. And he ran on, till he came
to a field full of mowers. He called out to them: I’ve run away from a little old woman,
A little old man,
I’ve run away from a little old woman, A barn full of threshers,
A little old man, A field full of mowers,
A barn full of threshers, A cow and a pig,
And I can run away from you, I can! And I can run away from you, I can!
557

558 Retellings
Then, the fox set out to run. Now, foxes half gone!” And soon, “I’m three-quarters
can run very fast, and so the fox soon caught gone!”
the gingerbread boy and began to eat him up. And, at the very last, with the fox’s final
Presently, the gingerbread boy said, “Oh bite, the gingerbread boy said, “I’m all gone!”
dear! I’m quarter gone!” And then, “Oh, I’m and he never spoke again.

A Grain of Corn
A Cumulative Folktale from England
“A Grain of Corn” is a cumulative tale and rhyme from the English countryside. Like
many of these types of tales and rhymes, it shows the standard threats of violence
but manages at the end to skirt any actual killings.
O nce upon a time, a farmer’s wife was win-

nowing corn, when a crow, flying past,
swooped off with a grain from the winnowing
I can’t get the grain of corn
To save my life from the farmer’s wife!
basket and perched on a tree close by to eat it. But the queen refused to coax the king; so the
The farmer’s wife, greatly enraged, flung a clod crow flew on till he met a snake, and said:
of dirt at the bird with such good aim that the
crow fell to the ground and dropped the grain of Snake! Snake! Bite queen;
corn, which rolled into a crack in the tree. Queen won’t coax king;
The farmer’s wife, seeing the crow fall, ran King won’t kill man;
up to it and seized it by the tail, crying, “Give Man won’t cut tree;
me back my grain of corn, or I will kill you!” I can’t get the grain of corn
The wretched bird, in fear of death, prom- To save my life from the farmer’s wife!
ised to do so, but when he searched for the
grain, it had rolled so far into the crack that by But the snake refused to bite the queen; so the
neither beak nor claw could he reach it. crow flew on till he met a stick, and said:
So he flew off to a woodman, and said:
Stick! Stick! Beat snake;
Man! Man! Cut tree; Snake won’t bite queen;
I can’t get the grain of corn Queen won’t coax king;
To save my life from the farmer’s wife! King won’t kill man:
Man won’t cut tree;
But the woodman refused to cut the tree; so I can’t get the grain of corn
the crow flew on to the king’s palace, and said: To save my life from the farmer’s wife!
King! King! Kill man; But the stick refused to beat the snake; so the
Man won’t cut tree; crow flew on till he saw a fire, and said:
To save my life from the farmer’s wife! Fire! Fire! Burn stick;
Stick won’t beat snake;
But the king refused to kill the man; so the Snake won’t bite queen;
crow flew on to the queen, and said: Queen won’t coax king;
King won’t kill man;
Queen! Queen! Coax king; Man won’t cut tree;
King won’t kill man; I can’t get the grain of corn
Man won’t cut tree. To save my life from the farmer’s wife!
559

560 Retellings
But the fire refused to burn the stick; so the Ox won’t drink water;
crow flew on till he met some water, and said: Water won’t quench fire;
Fire won’t burn stick;
Water! Water! Quench fire; Stick won’t beat snake;
Fire won’t burn stick; Snake won’t bite queen;
Stick won’t beat snake; Queen won’t coax king;
Snake won’t bite queen; King won’t kill man;
Queen won’t coax king; Man won’t cut tree;
King won’t kill man; I can’t get the grain of corn
Man won’t cut tree; To save my life from the farmer’s wife!
To save my life from the farmer’s wife! But the mouse wouldn’t gnaw the rope;
so the crow flew on until he met a cat, and
But the water refused to quench the fire; so the said:
crow flew on till he met an ox, and said:
Cat! Cat! Catch mouse;
Ox! Ox! Drink water; Mouse won’t gnaw rope;
Water won’t quench fire; Rope won’t bind ox;
Fire won’t burn stick; Ox won’t drink water;
Stick won’t beat snake; Water won’t quench fire;
Snake won’t bite queen; Fire won’t burn stick;
Queen won’t coax king; Stick won’t beat snake;
King won’t kill man; Snake won’t bite queen;
Man won’t cut tree; Queen won’t coax king;
I can’t get the grain of corn King won’t kill man;
To save my life from the farmer’s wife! Man won’t cut tree;
And I can’t get the grain of corn
But the ox refused to drink the water; so the To save my life from the farmer’s wife!
crow flew on till he met a rope, and said:
The moment the cat heard the name of
Rope! Rope! Bind ox; mouse, she was after it; for the world will come
Ox won’t drink water; to an end, before a cat will leave a mouse alone.
Water won’t quench fire;
Fire won’t burn stick; So the cat began to catch the mouse,
Stick won’t beat snake; The mouse began to gnaw the rope,
Snake won’t bite queen; The rope began to bind the ox,
Queen won’t coax king; The ox began to drink the water,
King won’t kill man; The water began to quench the fire,
Man won’t cut tree; The fire began to burn the stick,
I can’t get the grain of corn The stick began to beat the snake,
To save my life from the farmer’s wife! The snake began to bite the queen,
The queen began to coax the king,
But the rope wouldn’t bind the ox; so the crow The king began to kill the man,
flew on till he met a mouse, and said: The man began to cut the tree;
So the crow got the grain of corn,
Mouse! Mouse! Gnaw rope; And saved his life from the farmer’s
Rope won’t bind ox; wife!

The Sorcerer’s Apprentice
An English Version of a World Folktale
“The Sorcerer’s Apprentice,” a world folktale, may be most familiar to modern story-
tellers from Walt Disney’s Fantasia (1940). However, the tale turns up in various ver-
sions from Egypt, most of Europe, and much of Asia. Sometimes, the conjuration is
of an inanimate object, such as a broom; other times, the apprentice conjures a
more dangerous being, such as a devil.
The following is an English version, as collected at the turn of the twentieth cen-
tury by English folklorist Joseph Jacobs. It shows that a little learning can, indeed,
be a dangerous thing.
T here was once a very learned man in the

north country who knew all the languages
under the Sun, and who was acquainted with
silver, and where he kept his mirror in which
he could see all that was passing in the world,
and where he stored the shell which when
all the mysteries of creation. He had one big held to the ear whispered all the words that
book bound in black calfskin and clasped with were being spoken by anyone the master de-
iron, and with iron corners, and chained to a sired to know about.
table that was made fast to the floor. When he The lad tried in vain with the crucibles to
read out of this book, he unlocked it with an turn copper and lead into gold and silver. He
iron key, and none but he read from it, for it looked long and vainly into the mirror; smoke
contained all the secrets of the spiritual world. and clouds passed over it, but he saw nothing
The book told how many angels there plain. And the shell to his ear produced only
were in heaven, and how they marched in indistinct murmurings, like the breaking of dis-
their ranks, and sang in their choirs, and what tant seas on an unknown shore. “I can do noth-
were their several functions, and what was the ing,” he said, “as I don’t know the right words
name of each great angel of might. And it told to utter, and they are locked up in yon book.”
of the demons, how many of them there were, He looked round, and, see! The book was
and what were their several powers, and their unfastened; the master had forgotten to lock it
labors, and their names, and how they might before he went out. The boy rushed to it and
be summoned, and how tasks might be im- opened the volume. It was written with red
posed on them, and how they might be chained and black ink, and much of it he could not un-
to be as slaves to man. derstand; but he put his finger on a line and
Now, the master had a pupil who was but a spelled it out.
foolish lad. He acted as servant to the great mas- At once, the room was darkened, and the
ter, but never was he suffered to look into the house trembled; a clap of thunder rolled
black book, hardly to enter the private room. through the passage and the old room, and
One day, the master was out. Then, the lad, there stood before him a horrible, horrible
as curious as could be, hurried to the chamber form, breathing fire, and with eyes like burn-
where his master kept his wondrous apparatus ing lamps. It was the demon Beelzebub,
for changing copper into gold, and lead into whom he had called up to serve him.
561

562 Retellings
“Set me a task!” said he, with a voice like the words by which to send him away, and
the roaring of an iron furnace. still the demon fetched water.
The boy only trembled, and his hair It rose to the boy’s knees, and still more
stood up. water was poured. It mounted to his waist, and
“Set me a task, or I shall strangle thee!” Beelzebub still kept on bringing barrels full. It
But the lad could not speak. Then the evil rose to his armpits, and he scrambled to the
spirit stepped toward him, and putting forth tabletop. And now, the water in the room stood
his hands touched his throat. The fingers up to the window and washed against the
burned his flesh. “Set me a task!” glass, and swirled around his feet on the table.
“Water yon flower,” cried the boy in de- It still rose; it reached his breast.
spair, pointing to a geranium that stood in a In vain, the boy cried; the evil spirit would
pot on the floor. Instantly, the spirit left the not be dismissed, and, to this day, he would
room, but in another instant, he returned have been pouring water, and would have
with a barrel on his back, and poured its con- drowned all Yorkshire. But the master remem-
tents over the flower. Again and again, he bered on his journey that he had not locked
went and came, and poured more and more his book, and therefore returned. At the mo-
water, till the water on the floor of the room ment when the water was bubbling about the
was ankle deep. pupil’s chin, the master rushed into the room
“Enough; enough!” gasped the lad, but the and spoke the words that cast Beelzebub back
demon heeded him not; the lad didn’t know into his fiery home.

Tom Thumb’s Adventures
A Medieval English Folktale
The folktale of Tom Thumb first appeared in print in the seventeenth century in both
England and in a French version by the writer Charles Perrault. But the original
story goes back in less complete form to at least the sixteenth century.
I t is said that in the days of the famed Prince

Arthur, who was king of Britain in the year
516, there lived a great magician, called Mer-
fairy queen, too, and she promised Merlin that
the wish would be granted. A short time after-
ward, the plowman’s wife had a son, who, won-
lin, the most learned and skillful enchanter in derful to relate, was no bigger than his father’s
the world at that time. thumb.
This great magician, who could assume The fairy queen, wishing to see the little
any form he pleased, was traveling in the dis- fellow thus born into the world, came in at the
guise of a poor beggar. Being very much fa- window while the mother was sitting up in
tigued, he stopped at the cottage of an honest bed admiring him. The queen kissed the child,
plowman to rest himself, and asked for some and, giving him the name of Tom Thumb, sent
refreshment. for some of the fairies, who dressed her little
The countryman gave the magician a hearty favorite as she bade them.
welcome. His wife, who was a very good-
hearted, hospitable woman, soon brought him An oak-leaf hat he had for his crown;
some milk in a wooden bowl and some coarse His shirt of web by spiders spun;
brown bread on a platter. With jacket wove of thistle’s down;
Merlin was much pleased with this homely His trousers were of feathers done.
repast and the kindness of the plowman and his His stockings, of apple-rind they tie
wife, but he could not help seeing that though With eyelash from his mother’s eye:
everything was neat and comfortable in the His shoes were made of mouse’s skin
cottage, they seemed to be sad and much cast Tann’d with the downy hair within.
down. He therefore questioned them on the
cause of their sadness and learned they were It is remarkable that Tom never grew any
miserable because they had no children. larger than his father’s thumb, which was only
The poor woman declared, with tears in of an ordinary size; but as he got older, he be-
her eyes, that she should be the happiest crea- came very cunning and full of tricks. When he
ture in the world if she had a son. Even if he was old enough to play with the boys, and had
was no bigger than her husband’s thumb, she lost all his own cherrystones, he used to creep
would be satisfied. into the bags of his playfellows, fill his pockets,
Merlin was so much amused with the idea and, getting out unseen, again join in the
of a boy no bigger than a man’s thumb that he game.
made up his mind to pay a visit to the queen One day, however, as he was coming out
of the fairies and ask her to grant the poor of a bag of cherrystones, where he had been
woman’s wish. The droll fancy of such a little pilfering as usual, the boy to whom it belonged
person among the human race pleased the chanced to see him. “Aha, my little Tommy,”
563

564 Retellings
said the boy. “So I have caught you stealing “Where are you, Tommy, my dear
my cherrystones at last, and you shall be re- Tommy?” cried his mother.
warded for your thievish tricks.” On saying “Here, mother,” replied he, “in the red
this, he drew the string tight around Tom’s cow’s mouth.”
neck and gave the bag such a hearty shake His mother began to cry and wring her
that poor little Tom’s legs, thighs, and body hands; but the cow, surprised at the odd noise
were sadly bruised. Tom roared out in pain in her throat, opened her mouth and let Tom
and begged to be let out, promising never to drop out. Fortunately, Tom’s mother caught
be guilty of such bad practices again. him in her apron as he was falling to the
A short time afterward, his mother was ground, or he would have been dreadfully
making a batter pudding, and Tom, being very hurt. She then put Tom in her bosom and ran
anxious to see how it was made, climbed up to home with him.
the edge of the bowl. Unfortunately, his foot Tom’s father made him a whip of barley
slipped, and he plumped over, unseen by his straw to drive the cattle with. One day, Tom
mother, head and ears into the batter. His went into the fields, but his foot slipped, and
mother stirred him into the pudding bag and he rolled into a furrow. A raven that was flying
put him in the pot to boil. overhead picked him up, flew with him to the
The batter had filled Tom’s mouth and pre- top of a giant’s castle that was near the seaside,
vented him from crying out; but, on feeling the and left him there.
hot water, he kicked and struggled so much in Tom was in a dreadful state and did not
the pot that his mother thought that the pud- know what to do; but he was soon even more
ding was bewitched. Instantly, she pulled it out dreadfully frightened, for old Grumbo, the gi-
of the pot and threw it to the door. A poor tin- ant, came up to walk on the terrace, and see-
ker was passing by, spied the pudding, lifted it ing Tom, he took him up and swallowed him
up, put it into his budget (bag), and walked off. like a pill. The giant had no sooner swallowed
As Tom had now got his mouth cleared of the Tom, than he began to repent what he had
batter, he began to cry aloud, which so fright- done, for Tom began to kick and jump about
ened the tinker that he flung down the pudding so much that Grumbo felt very uncomfort-
and ran away. able, and at last threw him up into the sea.
The pudding having broken to pieces by A large fish swallowed Tom the moment
the fall, Tom crept out covered over with the he fell into the sea, but the fish was caught
batter, and with difficulty he walked home. soon after and was bought for the table of
His mother, who was very sorry to see her King Arthur. When the fish was opened to be
darling in such a woeful state, put him into a cooked, everyone was astonished to find such
teacup, and soon washed off the batter, after a little boy, and Tom was quite delighted to be
which, she kissed him and laid him in bed. out again. They carried him to the king, who
Soon after the adventure of the pudding, made Tom his dwarf.
Tom’s mother went to milk her cow in the Tom soon became a great favorite at court,
meadow, and she took Tom along with her. As for by his tricks and gambols he amused not
the wind was very high, fearing lest he should only the king and queen, but also all the
be blown away, she tied him to a thistle with a Knights of the Round Table. It is said that
piece of fine thread. The cow soon saw the when the king rode out on horseback, he often
oak-leaf hat, and, liking the look of it, took took Tom along with him, and if a shower
poor Tom and the thistle at one mouthful. came on, Tom used to creep into His Majesty’s
While the cow was chewing the thistle, Tom waistcoat pocket, where he slept till the rain
was afraid of her great teeth, which threatened shower was over.
to crush him to pieces, and he roared out as One day, King Arthur asked Tom about
loud as he could, “Mother! Mother!” his parents, wishing to know if they were as

Tom T humb’s Adventures 565
small as he was, and whether they were rich which was a dish His Majesty was very fond
or poor. Tom told the king that his father and of. Unfortunately, the poor little fellow fell
mother were as tall as any of the persons plump into the middle of it, and splashed the
about the court, but rather poor. On hearing hot furmenty about the cook’s face.
this, the king carried Tom to the treasure, the The cook, who was an ill-natured fellow,
place where he kept all his money, and told being in a terrible rage at Tom for frightening
him to take as much money as he could carry and scalding him with the furmenty, went
home to his parents, which made the poor lit- straight to the king and said that Tom had
tle fellow caper with joy. Tom went immedi- jumped into the royal furmenty and thrown it
ately to fetch a purse, which was made of a down out of mere mischief. The king was so
water bubble, and then returned to the trea- enraged when he heard this that he ordered
sury, where he got a silver threepenny piece to Tom to be seized and tried for high treason.
put into it. There being no person who dared to plead for
Our little hero had some trouble in lifting Tom, he was condemned to be beheaded im-
the burden upon his back, but he at last suc- mediately.
ceeded in getting it placed to his satisfaction, On hearing this dreadful sentence pro-
and set forward on his journey. Without meet- nounced, poor Tom fell a-trembling with fear,
ing with any accidents, and after resting him- but, seeing no means of escape, and observing
self more than a hundred times by the way, in a miller close to him gaping with his great
two days and two nights, he reached his fa- mouth, as country boobies do at a fair, he took
ther’s house in safety. Tom had traveled forty- a leap, and fairly jumped down the miller’s
eight hours with a huge silver piece on his throat. This exploit was done with such agility
back, and was almost tired to death when his that not one person present saw it, and even the
mother ran out to meet him and carried him miller did not know the trick that Tom had
into the house. played upon him. Now, as Tom had disap-
Tom’s parents were both happy to see peared, the court broke up, and the miller went
him, and the more so as he had brought such home to his mill.
an amazing sum of money with him, but the When Tom heard the mill at work, he
poor little fellow was excessively wearied, knew he was clear of the court, and therefore
having traveled a half mile in forty-eight he began to tumble and roll about, so that
hours, with a huge silver threepenny piece the poor miller could get no rest, thinking he
on his back. His mother, in order to revive was bewitched, so he sent for a doctor. When
him, placed him in a walnut shell by the fire- the doctor came, Tom began to dance and
side, and feasted him for three days on a hazel- sing, and the doctor, being as much frightened
nut, which made him very sick, for a whole nut as the miller, sent in haste for five other doc-
used to serve him for a month. tors and twenty learned men.
Tom was soon well again, but as there had While they were debating this extraordi-
been a fall of rain, and the ground was very nary case, the miller happened to yawn. Tom,
wet, he could not travel back to King Arthur’s seizing the chance, made another jump and
court; therefore, his mother, one day when the alighted safely upon his feet in the middle of
wind was blowing in that direction, made a lit- the table.
tle parasol of cambric paper and tied Tom to The miller, who was very much provoked
it. She gave him a puff into the air with her at being tormented by such a little pygmy
mouth, and he was soon carried on the wind creature, fell into a terrible rage, and, laying
to the king’s palace. hold of Tom, ran to the king with him; but His
Just at the time when Tom came flying Majesty, being engaged with state affairs, or-
across the courtyard, the cook happened to be dered him to be taken away and kept in cus-
passing with the king’s great bowl of furmenty, tody till he sent for him.

566 Retellings
The cook was determined that Tom should in the days of King Thunstone, Arthur’s suc-
not slip out of his hands this time, so he put cessor. Everyone flocked around to see him,
him into a mousetrap and left him to peep and being carried to the king, he was asked
through the wires. Tom had remained in the who he was, whence he came, and where he
trap a whole week when he was sent for by lived. Tom answered:
King Arthur, who pardoned him for throwing
down the furmenty, and took him again into My name is Tom Thumb,
favor. From the fairies I’ve come.
On account of his wonderful feats of activ- When King Arthur shone,
ity, Tom was knighted by the king, and went His court was my home.
under the name of the renowned Sir Thomas In me he delighted,
Thumb. As Tom’s clothes had suffered much By him I was knighted;
in the batter pudding, the furmenty, and the Did you never hear of Sir Thomas
insides of the giant, fish, and miller, his majesty Thumb?
ordered him a new suit of clothes, and de-
creed that he be made a knight. The king was so charmed with this address
that he ordered a little chair to be made, in or-
Of Butterfly’s wings his shirt was made, der that Tom might sit upon his table, and also
His boots of chicken’s hide; a palace of gold that was to be a span high
And by a nimble fairy blade, with a door an inch wide for Sir Tom to live in.
Well learned in the tailoring trade, He also gave him a coach, drawn by six small
His clothing was supplied. mice.
A needle dangled by his side; The queen was so enraged at the honor
A dapper mouse he used to ride, paid to Sir Thomas that she resolved to ruin
Thus strutted Tom in stately pride! him, so she told the king that the little knight
had been saucy to her.
It was certainly very diverting to see Tom The king sent for Tom in great haste. Tom
in this dress, and mounted on the mouse, as he was fully aware of the danger of royal anger,
rode out a-hunting with the king and nobility, so he crept into an empty snail shell and lay
who were all ready to expire with laughter at for a long time, until he was almost starved
Tom and his fine prancing charger. with hunger. When at last he ventured to peep
One day, as they were riding by a farm- out, he saw a fine large butterfly on the ground,
house, a large cat, which was lurking about the near his hiding place. Tom approached very
door, made a spring, and seized both Tom and cautiously and climbed astride it, and he was
his mouse. She then ran up a tree with them immediately carried up into the air. The but-
and was beginning to devour the mouse. Tom terfly flew with him from tree to tree and from
boldly drew his sword and attacked the cat so field to field, and at last returned to the court,
fiercely that she let them both fall. One of the where the king and nobility all strove to catch
nobles caught him in his hat and laid him on him. At last, poor Tom fell from his seat into
a bed of down in a little ivory cabinet. a watering pot, in which he was almost
The queen of fairies came soon after to drowned.
pay Tom a visit, and carried him back to Fairy- When the queen saw him, she was in a
land, where he lived for several years. During rage and said he should be beheaded; and he
his residence there, King Arthur and all the was again put into a mousetrap until the time
persons who knew Tom had died, and as he of his execution.
was desirous of being again at court, the fairy However, a cat, observing something alive
queen, after dressing him in a suit of clothes, in the trap, patted it about till the wires broke,
sent him flying through the air to the palace, which set Tom free.

Tom T humb’s Adventures 567
The king again received Tom into favor, Here lies Tom Thumb, King Arthur’s
but Tom did not live to enjoy it. For a large spi- knight,
der one day attacked him, and although Tom Who died by a spider’s cruel bite.
drew his sword and fought well, the spider’s He was well-known in Arthur’s court,
poisonous breath at last overcame him: “He fell Where he afforded gallant sport;
dead on the ground where he stood, and the He rode at tilt and tournament,
spider suck’d every drop of his blood.” And on a mouse a-hunting went.
King Thunstone and his whole court were Alive he filled the court with mirth;
so sorry at the loss of their little favorite that His death to sorrow soon gave birth.
they went into mourning and raised a fine Wipe, wipe your eyes, and shake your
white marble monument over his grave with head,
the following epitaph: And cry,—Alas! Tom Thumb is dead!

Virgil the Magician
A Medieval English Folktale
Virgil the magician is actually the first-century c.e. Roman poet Virgil, author of the
epic Aeneid. Why folk belief gradually turned a poet into a master magician is not
known, but by the time of the Middle Ages, a series of folktales had evolved that
feature him.
S ome say that Virgil was the son of a noble-

man; others say nothing about his rank at
all. But all the tales agree that Virgil started
was involved. “Not so quickly,” he said. “First
give me the books. Then I will free you.”
The spirit ranted for a bit, but what choice
his life as an ordinary boy, without a trace of was there? “The books are hidden behind rocks
magic but with a quick, inquiring mind. to your left and right,” the cold voice whispered.
One day, bored with his schoolwork since Sure enough, they were. A glance through
he had already outpaced all his teachers, he them sent excitement racing through Virgil,
went walking in the wild hills, where he dis- for they were full of marvels.
covered a dark, mysterious cave and plunged But now he must free the spirit. Virgil
inside to explore. pulled the bolt and stone aside, revealing a
Virgil had gone quite a way into the cave, small opening. A great dark shape swirled up
and was beginning to wonder if he shouldn’t out of it, filling the cave in a moment, and the
turn around while he could still find his way boy fell back against a rock. No doubt about
out, when he heard a cold voice whispering what he had just released! He could feel evil
his name. whirling around that shape like a cold, cold
“Virgil . . . Virgil . . .” mist.
“Who is it? Who calls?” But Virgil was ready. “You lied!” he said in
“Look, Virgil,” the voice whispered. “Do seeming contempt. “You are no mighty spirit
you see the round stone set in the floor?” at all!”
By now, the boy’s eyes had grown accus- “What’s this? What’s this? I am mighty, boy!
tomed to the dim light filtering in from outside I will show you just how great my powers are!”
through cracks in the rock. “I see it,” he said Virgil only yawned. “Nonsense. No mighty
warily, “and the bolt holding it in place.” spirit could ever have fit through such a tiny
“I am trapped beneath that stone. Free opening.”
me, Virgil.” “I did! I did!”
“Not so quickly. First, who and what are “Bah. I don’t believe you. You are nothing
you?” but a fraud.”
“I am a mighty spirit,” the cold voice whis- “Why, you foolish little worm of a boy!
pered, “trapped under here till doomsday. Free Watch this!”
me, Virgil, and I will give you books to make The evil spirit swirled back down into the
you the mightiest of all magicians.” opening. Virgil quickly replaced the stone,
That sounded intriguing to Virgil. But bolting it back in place. “You are the fool,
the boy wasn’t about to act so trustingly, not spirit, not me. Stay there, you evil thing, as it
when what was almost certainly an evil spirit was meant to be. Stay there till doomsday!”
568

Virgil the Magician 569
He took the magic books and left. Alone Virgil cast a mighty spell that froze the soldiers
in the hills, Virgil hungrily began his magical in their tracks like so many statues. He left
studies. The days turned to months, and the them there all day in warning. When he let
months to years—ten years in all. At the end of them go again, the soldiers fled without a word.
those years, even though he was still a young “You cowards!” the emperor raged at
man, Virgil had become a true magician. them. “Are you afraid of one man?”
But then he received a desperate message Yes, after spending that time as statues,
from his widowed mother. While he had they certainly were! But one didn’t admit such
been lost in the study of wonders, she had things to the emperor.
been slowly cheated by the rich relatives of The emperor sent a whole army after Vir-
her deceased husband. Now, she was at the gil. But Virgil cast a mighty spell that created
edge of poverty. the illusion of an icy, raging river before them
Virgil hurried home, abashed that with all and a river behind them, trapping the army
his magic, he had never realized his mother’s on a narrow strip of land. There, they stayed
peril. “But now I shall set things to rights,” he all day and night with no food or drink,
assured her. smelling the delicious scents of roasting meat
At first, he decided against using magic. coming from the castle and hearing the sound
Surely, such arts were not needed here! But of happy laughter.
the rich relatives merely shook their heads at One soldier, however, had been lagging
his protests, claiming that they had taken no behind and hadn’t been caught by either river.
more than their just due. And when Virgil ap- He rode at full tilt for Rome and cried out to
pealed to the emperor of Rome, he received the emperor, “Your army is trapped and starv-
not a word of satisfaction. ing because of Virgil’s magic!”
“We shall,” the emperor’s message read, The emperor set out with every court ma-
“take the matter under advisement. It shall gician he could find. Together, they all cast a
take years to check every record.” sleep spell—and it caught Virgil off guard. His
“The emperor,” Virgil translated drily, servants fell instantly asleep, and he managed
“has been getting a percentage of the stolen to stay awake only by fighting the spell with all
profits from our relatives. Well, now, I can play his will. Mind foggy and hands feeling heavier
games, too.” than stone, Virgil struggled to open his magic
When the emperor’s tax collectors came books, slowly turning page after page to find
to claim the royal share of profits due from the the spell he wanted.
corn harvest, Virgil shrugged. “Do you see Yes! Here it was, “Battling the Sleep Spell.”
any corn?” Virgil shouted out a fierce word of power. In-
He had, of course, hidden it all by magic. stantly, the sleep spell recoiled on the court ma-
“Then we shall tax the profits from your wine gicians, and they fell fast asleep, while all of
harvest,” the tax collectors decided. Virgil’s men awoke.
Virgil shrugged. “Do you see any grapes?” The illusion of the two rivers was broken
He’d hidden all the grapes away by magic, and vanished—but the emperor’s soldiers and
too. No matter what the tax collectors tried to even the emperor himself were turned into
tax, Virgil had hidden it away. At last, mutter- living statues. There they were and there they
ing angrily, they returned to court. stayed for a full two days.
“You shouldn’t have made an enemy of On the morning of the third day, Virgil
the emperor,” Virgil’s mother warned. canceled his spell. The emperor and his sol-
“He shouldn’t have made an enemy of diers became living folk once more. The em-
me!” the magician replied. peror wisely sued for peace. He repaid Virgil’s
Sure enough, the emperor declared Virgil a mother all the money owed to her and pun-
rebel, and sent soldiers to besiege his castle. But ished the rich relatives who had cheated her.

570 Retellings
“Will you be my court magician?” he “I will,” Virgil promised, “though all your
asked Virgil. father’s guards should block my path.”
Virgil knew that the emperor feared him. Alas, a servant heard and raced off to the
Fearful men never trust those who frighten sultan. “Your daughter has allowed a—a sor-
them. But at least as court magician, he would cerer to visit her!”
know more easily if another attack on him or The sultan slipped a powerful sleeping po-
his people was planned. “I will,” he agreed. tion into some wine and left it where his
“But I will not live in your palace. That would daughter was sure to find it and give it to her
be too dangerous for your people when I work mysterious guest. So she did, and Virgil fell
my magical experiments.” into a deep, drugged sleep.
This was perfectly true. The emperor gave He woke to find himself in prison, and the
Virgil permission to build a fine castle for him- princess chained in there as well. “You have
self. Virgil’s Castle of Eggs was, of course, magi- betrayed me!” the sultan shouted at them.
cal. It was called this because its foundation rested “You have both brought dishonor to my
on eggs, and nothing more solid than that. Virgil name!”
also built a tower for the emperor from which he “I have done nothing dishonorable,” Vir-
could overhear any words of treason. And if gil protested, “and neither has your daughter.
there wasn’t exactly peace between Virgil and This I swear on my magic.”
the emperor, neither was there war. “The oath of a sorcerer is worthless!
There was another matter in which Virgil And the fate of a sorcerer is the stake and
was not so successful. Magician or no, he was the flame! You shall die this very day at sun-
still human, young, and romantic. Alas, his rise.”
magic frightened away the young women at “Then I shall die as well!” the princess
court, and some of them mocked him. His cried.
anger at that mockery only made matters “So you shall,” the sultan said coldly. “He
worse. Lonely because of all his powers, Virgil has corrupted you with his darkness.”
thought he would never find true love. The dawn came. Virgil and the princess
But then, traveling the world by magic, he were led to the stake, which was piled high
landed in a beautiful garden by moonlight and with dry wood. But Virgil showed not the
came face-to-face with a young woman wan- slightest sign of fear. He was waiting for the
dering alone. Virgil fell in love with her on the moment when the guards would release his
spot. And, more wonderful than any magic, so chains so that they could bind him to the
did she fall instantly in love with him. stake. For that instant, he would be free!
“But you must not stay here!” she cried. When the moment arrived, Virgil flung up
“My father is the sultan of Babylon, and if he his arms and shouted out a word of power.
finds you here, he will slay you!” Suddenly, everyone there, all save Virgil and
“I’m not afraid, Princess. I am Virgil the the princess, thought that a great flood had
magician. Let me show you the wonders of my roared down upon them. They all began fran-
castle.” tically trying to swim.
To his delight, she had no fear of his magic. “Hurry,” Virgil whispered to the princess,
She gladly flew with him and wandered with “before they realize this is only illusion. Will
him through his castle’s halls and gardens, and you come with me? Will you wed me?”
they were joyous in each other’s company. But “Yes and yes,” the princess told him.
at sunrise, Virgil returned her to her father’s The two of them flew magically away
palace. from Babylon to Virgil’s castle. There, they
“Will you come to me tomorrow?” the were wed, and there, they lived in joy and
princess asked. magic for the rest of their lives.

The Laplander Wizard
An Estonian Folktale of a Magician
Laplanders—or more properly, Saami, as they prefer to be called—are fair-haired,

fair-skinned people, an ancient race of nomadic reindeer-herders who live in the
northern reaches of Scandinavia, Finland, and Russia. There was a long-standing
belief in Teutonic and Slavic countries that the Saami, particularly those who lived
among the darker Finns (who have no genetic or cultural links with the Saami but
with whom they are often confused in folklore), were, like the Finns, skilled in
magic, possibly because both peoples had a tradition of shamanism. Laplander or
Finnish wizards often make appearances in Scandinavian tales, usually as evil sor-
cerers.
While this may seem to be a very localized tale, it has its parallels in both
Finnish and Swiss stories, while the motif of the wizard, sorcerer, or witch traveling
in a whirlwind and being wounded or even slain by knife or sword is even more wide-
spread, appearing in Finnish, Swiss, Bohemian, Italian, and even Appalachian Amer-
ican tales. As for the element of the black ox, it turns up in over a hundred variants
collected in Finland, as well as in some from Switzerland and northern Italy.
N ow, here is another wizard, a shaman, re-

ally, whose name we know not; perhaps
it was lost in too many tellings of the tale, or
out his good, sturdy knife and threw it at
the whirlwind with all his might—and sure
enough, he heard a cry of pain. The whirlwind
perhaps he wished to keep such a powerful sped out of sight, and the farmer nodded in
thing as a name secret. satisfaction. He’d chased away that whatever-
At any rate, there he was in the land of it-had-been, that uncanny thief!
the Laplanders, among whom, it was believed, The next day, the farmer fell ill. No one
were many powerful magicians. But magicians could quite puzzle out what ailed him: He suf-
grow restless. And so one day, the Laplander fered no fever, no chill, nothing but a strange
wizard went traveling in the form of a whirl- lack of strength.
wind. Such traveling covers much ground but “It is a spell,” a doctor whispered at last,
takes much strength. It was hard work even embarrassed at having to admit such a strange
for a wizard, and he snatched up food as he thing. “Go to Lapland. There are many pow-
went to keep the whirlwind from collapsing erful magicians there and surely you’ll find
and himself with it. one to heal you.”
Unfortunately, some of that food was It was a long, weary journey for the farmer,
wheat from a farm in Estonia, a farm owned but at last he reached the land of the Laplan-
by a good man but a rash one. The farmer was ders. Now where should he go? Where could he
too furious at seeing his wheat disappearing to find the magician he needed? The farmer felt
think about what he was doing. He snatched drawn to one house, and to that house he went.
571

572 Retellings
The first thing he saw as he entered was “You have served me honestly, without a
his own knife, stabbed into the wall. “My word of complaint. But we agreed on seven
knife!” he gasped. years of servitude. Seven is no ordinary num-
“So it was you who threw it,” a voice said ber, and if I let you go now, the loss of its
from the shadows. A stern-faced man in the magic can only be balanced by a gift.”
brightly embroidered woolen robe of a Laplan- “I—I’ll give you an ox, a fine, fat ox. The
der stepped forward, limping slightly. “Yes,” he black ox, if he’s still living.”
told the farmer, who was wide-eyed with fright, “He is,” the Laplander wizard said, his
“I was that whirlwind. It was me you wounded, eyes strange and vague for a moment; he was
and wounded quite badly.” using, the farmer knew, far-sight. “So be it. You
“Y-you shouldn’t have been stealing my shall be home before morning.”
wheat.” “But how—”
“Did that give you any right to try to kill “My son will see you there. Go.”
me? You hit my leg; you might have pierced Hardly daring to hope, the farmer went
my heart.” outside. There sat the wizard’s son in what
The farmer winced. True, he realized only looked very much like a great feed trough.
now, he could have shouted a warning instead “Come, get in!” the boy cried.
of blindly throwing the knife. He would have No sooner had the farmer seated himself,
done just that if the thief had been an ordinary than the trough soared up in the sky, riding
man. the winds as lightly as a bird. The farmer
“I’m sorry,” he murmured. “I was afraid gasped at the speed and height. “My cap!” he
and angry both; I wasn’t thinking. What can I cried as the wind tore it from his head.
do to repay you?” “Too late!” the wizard-boy laughed. “We
“You must serve me for seven years.” are already far from there. Look, here is your
“B-but I’m ill.” farm. Hold fast!”
“You are not ill,” the Laplander wizard They spiraled down to a landing, soft as a
said. fallen leaf. The farmer scrambled out and
And just as suddenly as that, it was true. raced into his house. Oh, what a wonderful,
So, for seven years, the farmer served the wonderful reunion he had with his wife!
Laplander wizard, doing the ordinary jobs lit- “The boy!” he remembered suddenly,
tle different from those he’d done on his own “The wizard’s son! I promised the wizard our
farm. He learned almost nothing about magic black ox, if the ox still lives.”
in those years, but if the Laplander wizard “It does,” his wife assured him.
wasn’t overly kind to him, he wasn’t cruel ei- The farmer went outside, looking for the
ther. The wizard’s son, his father’s apprentice, wizard’s son, but he failed to find him. “Has
was a little more friendly, enough to keep the he already gone home? And left my debt with
farmer from truly despairing. his father unpaid?”
But seven years is a long time to live away He hurried into the barn. Sure enough,
from home. One Christmas Eve, the loneli- the black ox was gone. The wizard’s son had
ness grew too great, and the farmer wept. “My taken the payment and left without a word.
poor wife! Will I ever see her again?” The Laplander wizard never came to the
The Laplander wizard overheard him and farmer’s lands again. And as for the farmer,
sighed ever so softly. “You truly long for her.” well, he never acted rashly again. In fact, in
“Wizard, nothing could give me greater joy the years that followed, he gained a fine name
than to be at home at her side for Christmas.” for himself as a happy, prudent man.

The Brave Little Tailor
A German Folktale
“The Brave Little Tailor” is a classic tale, most familiar in the West as the version
printed by the Brothers Grimm in their Household Tales. The basic theme is of
the “little” man overcoming all obstacles—including his original boast—by his
basic cleverness, or downright trickery. All cultures enjoy seeing the ordinary
person triumphing over the mighty, which may explain the story’s popularity.
The earliest written evidence of this German version dates to 1557, but there
are also oral versions from Armenia, Cambodia, Italy, Russia, and many more
places. While the hero’s tests vary, the basic story remains the same.
A little tailor sat sewing by the window. He

was in good spirits, finishing off a jacket
before taking a bite of his bread and jam, en-
branch, and the giant never saw that he was
carrying the whole tree by himself.
The trickery continued, until the giant and
joying the sweet aroma rising from the jam. But his colleagues tried to murder the tailor while he
when he was ready to eat, he found a flock of slept. The tailor hid and watched the giants
flies attacking his food. The little tailor grabbed smash the bed on which they thought he was ly-
a piece of cloth and smote seven of them. He ing. In the morning, the tailor cheerfully walked
was so satisfied that he made a belt embroi- up to them, and they fled in terror.
dered with the words “Seven at one blow!” The tailor went on to the royal court, and
Inspired by his own bravado, the little the king, sure this was a mighty warrior, took
tailor set out into the world, in his pocket a him into the royal service. The soldiers were
cheese from his pantry and a bird he had angry that this nobody was with them, one who
caught. might slay seven of them at a blow if he was
At the top of a mountain, he found a giant. angered. But the king did not know how to get
The giant was not at all impressed with this rid of the tailor. So he set him on a task to kill
small human until he saw that “Seven at one two murderous giants. If he did this, the king
blow!” and was sure it meant that the tailor said he would give him the hand of his daugh-
had killed seven men with one blow. ter and half the kingdom.
Now, the giant decided to test the tailor. Refusing to let any of the guards go with
Taking up a stone, he squeezed it till water him, the little tailor entered the forest and found
dropped from it. The tailor took out the cheese the two giants asleep under a tree. He took up
and squeezed it till the liquid dropped from it. two pocketfuls of stones, climbed a tree, and
The giant picked up a stone and threw it so started a fight between the giants by dropping
high, it couldn’t be seen. The tailor said that stones first on one, then on the other, until they
he could throw something that would never were so angry about having rocks thrown at
come back to Earth and launched the bird, them—they thought by each other—that they
which of course flew off. Now the giant chal- killed each other.
lenged the tailor to help carry a mighty tree The little tailor wanted the promised
out of the forest. The tailor perched on a reward. The king, however, had second
573

574 Retellings
thoughts. He ordered the tailor to catch a and wanted her father to get rid of this mere
dangerous unicorn. The tailor took a rope nobody. The king told her to leave the door
and an axe with him into the forest, and open that night so his servants could enter,
when the unicorn charged him, he dodged. carry off the tailor as he slept, and toss him on
The unicorn’s horn went into the trunk of a board a ship, which would carry him into the
tree, the tailor roped the animal, cut the horn wide world.
free, and brought the unicorn back to the But the tailor, who had made friends with
king. many at the court by this time, was warned in
Now, the king demanded that the tailor time. And so, when the servants came for him,
catch a fierce wild boar. The tailor lured the he shouted out while pretending to be asleep,
boar into chasing him, ran into a chapel with “I smote seven at one blow. I killed two giants.
the boar following, then leaped out the one I brought away one unicorn and caught a wild
small window—too small for the boar—and boar. Am I to fear those who are standing out-
locked the door. side the room?”
Now, the king had no choice. He gave the The servants were terrified and ran away.
tailor the hand of his daughter and half the After that, no one raised a hand to the tailor,
kingdom. The princess, though, soon realized and he became a king and stayed king to the
that her warrior husband was actually a tailor end of his life.

Rumpelstiltskin
A German Folktale
“Rumpelstiltskin” is a popular world folktale that centers on the power of the name
as magic, a common folk belief. Versions of this tale have been collected in France,
Great Britain, Iceland, Italy, and Scandinavia. The best-known version of this story is
surely that from the Brothers Grimm.
A poor miller with a beautiful daughter told

the king that she could spin straw into
gold. The king took him up on the promise
When the king came in the morning and
saw the gold, he made the miller’s daughter
his queen. A year later, she had a beautiful
and had the girl brought to a room full of son. That day, the tiny man appeared and de-
straw. Giving her a spinning wheel and spin- manded the child. The queen frantically bar-
dle, he told her that she had one night to spin gained with him and wept. At last, he agreed:
all the straw into gold—or die. She had three days to guess his name—or lose
The poor girl, all alone, burst into tears. her child.
Suddenly, there appeared a tiny man who For two days and nights, the queen tried to
asked why she wept. She told him that she had guess his name—and failed. But on the third
to spin the straw into gold and had no idea day, a messenger said that he’d come to an
how to do it. The little man asked what she odd house in front of which danced an odd lit-
would give if he did the job, and she gave him tle man, who cried:
her necklace. Sure enough, he spun the straw
into gold. Tomorrow I brew, today I bake,
That morning, the king saw the gold but And then the child away I’ll take;
wanted even more straw spun into gold. Again, For little deems my royal dame
the poor girl was left alone in a room filled with That Rumpelstiltskin is my name!
straw. And again, the tiny man appeared. This
time, he demanded the ring from her finger. When the tiny man appeared before
Getting that, he spun all the straw into gold. the queen, she twice pretended not to know
Now, the king said that he would marry his name, but on the third try, she asked
the miller’s daughter—but only if she could him, “Is your name, perhaps, Rumpelstilt-
spin straw into gold a third time. skin?”
This time, when the tiny man appeared, The tiny man was so furious that in his
he made her promise to give him her first rage he drove his right foot so far into the
child when she became queen. The girl, think- ground that it sank in up to his waist. Then, in
ing that would never happen, agreed, and he a passion, he seized his left foot with both
spun the straw into gold. hands and tore himself in two.
575

The Six Swans
A Shape-Shifting Folktale from Germany
The widely told folktale “The Six Swans,” probably best known in the version col-
lected by the Brothers Grimm, features shape-shifting and the courage of a sister
determined to save her brothers. Versions of this tale have been found in the Arab
Near East, England, France, Greece, Italy, Russia, and Scandinavia. Perhaps the
reason the folktale has remained so popular is that it is both magical and a firm
story of familiar love.
O nce upon a time, a king went hunting

and got so lost that he agreed to marry
a strange old woman’s beautiful daughter in
to neither speak nor laugh for six years, and
during that time to sew six shirts of starwort
(or, in some translations, stinging nettles). If
exchange for a rescue. After he had taken she said so much as a word, all would be lost.
the beautiful but inexplicably frightening The brothers flew away. Their sister was
maiden up on his horse, the old woman determined to rescue them, even if it meant
showed him the way, and the king reached her life. She began to work right away on the
his royal palace again, where the wedding was starwort shirts.
celebrated. Time passed, and the king of that country
The king had already been married once, came to hunt in the forest. His men found the
and he had by his first wife seven children, six girl and wondered who she was. But she said
boys and a girl, whom he loved better than nothing. They brought her before the king,
anything else in the world. But the new queen who instantly fell in love with her, even though
hated them, so for the boys she made little she said nothing, not even when he took her
shirts of white silk with charms sewn inside back to his castle and declared his love to her
them. She threw one of the little shirts over and his court. Even though she still said noth-
each of the boys, and, as soon as the shirts ing, they soon were wed.
touched their bodies, they were changed into The king’s mother, though, hated the
swans and flew away over the forest. idea of her son being married to a woman
But the girl escaped. She told her father who never spoke and continued to sew those
what had happened, and even gave him some odd shirts. After a year, the young queen had
shed feathers as proof. But he refused to be- a son, but the evil mother stole it away and
lieve that his wife was responsible. The girl made it seem like the young queen had mur-
knew she wasn’t safe at home and went to dered it. Since she would not speak, she
seek her brothers. could not defend herself. The king, however,
Eventually, she caught up with the six would not believe she was guilty. But when
swans just as they transformed back into her this happened three times over the years, the
brothers. They told her that they could shed king at last had to sentence her to death by
their swan skins and be human for only one- fire.
quarter of an hour every night. The only way When the day came for the sentence to be
they could be rescued was if their sister agreed executed, it was the last day of the six years
576

T he Six Swans 577
during which she was not to speak or laugh. his left arm, and had in the place of it a swan’s
The six shirts were ready, with only the left wing on his shoulder.
sleeve of the sixth still missing. Even as she Now, the young queen could defend her-
was led to the stake, she frantically tried to fin- self. She told the king all that had happened,
ish it, and clung to all six shirts. and how his mother had hidden away their
Just as the fire was about to be lit, six three children.
swans came flying through the air toward her Then, to the great joy of the king, the miss-
and sank down so that she could throw the ing children were found. The king’s evil mother
shirts over them. As each was touched by a was executed, and the king and queen, their
shirt, the swan’s skin fell away, and he became children, and her six brothers lived many years
human once again. The youngest lacked only in happiness and peace.

The Twelve Dancing Princesses
A German Folktale
“The Twelve Dancing Princesses,” a rather odd folktale, is a familiar one in Europe
and the United States. While it is known in various forms throughout Europe, it is
perhaps best known in the version published by the Brothers Grimm. Versions of
this story have been collected in the Cape Verde Islands, as well as in France, Por-
tugal, and Russia.
That the princesses seem so heartless may offend some modern storytellers
and listeners. Indeed, Victorian tellers and writers often left out the detail about the
young men who failed to discover the princesses’ secret being put to death. There is
also no clear explanation of who the mysterious princesses might be, or whether
the underground world is or is not Faerie. It is up to each storyteller to decide
whether or not to alter details, since there is no such thing as a right or wrong ver-
sion of a world tale.
T here was a king who had twelve beautiful

daughters. They slept in twelve beds all in
one room, and when they went to bed, the
tend to sleep. She also gave him a cloak of
invisibility.
That night, the soldier was welcomed at
doors were shut and locked up. However, every court and was shown to an outer chamber
morning, their shoes were found to be quite where the princesses slept. The eldest of the
worn through, as if they had been danced in all princesses brought him a cup of wine, but
night. Nobody could find out how it happened, he only pretended to drink and to fall asleep.
or where the princesses had been. He watched the princesses dress in fine clothes
So the king made it known to all the land and seem delighted about going dancing. Only
that if any man could discover the secret and the youngest was uneasy, sure something bad
find out where it was that the princesses was going to happen.
danced in the night, he could take the one he Then, the eldest princess clapped her
liked best as his wife, and would be king after hands, and a trapdoor flew open where her bed
the death of the princesses’ father. But those had been. The twelve princesses started down
who tried and did not succeed, after three into the opening, and the soldier wrapped his
days and nights, would be put to death. cloak of invisibility about himself and followed.
Everyone who tried to discover the secret On the way down the stairway, he accidentally
failed, falling asleep and seeing nothing. stepped on the hem of the youngest princess’s
Then an old soldier, back from the wars, gown, and she cried out, but the others told her
happened to meet an old woman in the it had been nothing but a nail snagging the
woods. She asked him where he was going, cloth.
and he answered that he was going to find out At the bottom of the stairway was a grove of
where the princesses went each night. The old glittering silver-leaved trees. The soldier broke
woman warned him not to drink anything the off a twig as evidence. They came to another
princesses gave him at night, and to only pre- grove, this one of golden trees, then a third
578

T he Twelve Dancing Pr incesses 579
made all of diamonds, and in these groves, too, shore, they took leave of each other, the
the soldier broke off a twig. Each time he did princesses promising to come again the next
this, the youngest princess jumped at the noise, night.
but the others only scoffed at her nervousness. The soldier was brought before the king,
They came to a great lake on which lay who asked him where his daughters danced at
twelve little boats with twelve handsome night. The soldier told the king all that had
princes in them. One princess went into each happened, and showed him the evidence that
boat; the soldier slipped into the same boat as he had brought with him.
the youngest. The twelve princesses confessed every-
On the other side of the lake stood a castle thing. The king asked the soldier which princess
from which came merry music. There, each he would take as his wife.
prince danced with his princess. They danced Since he was no longer young, the sol-
on till all their shoes were worn out. dier chose the eldest princess. They were
Then, the princes rowed the princesses wed, and the soldier became the heir to the
back again over the lake. On the opposite throne.

Cuchulain and the Green Man
An Ancient Irish Folktale
Cuchulain is a hero out of Irish myth and folklore, a culture hero whose mother is a
mortal princess but whose father is said to be the god Lugh. Cuchulain’s most
famous exploits appear in the Tain, or Táin Bó Cúailnge (Cattle Raid of Cooley), the
epic of Ulster, Ireland, from the eleventh or twelfth century c.e. The tale “Cuchulain
and the Green Man” was later absorbed into the Arthurian cycle as an exploit not
of Cuchulain but of the knightly hero Gawain.
N ow, no one ever denied that Cuchulain

was the nephew of King Conor of Ulster,
since he was the son of the king’s sister
So successful was Bricriu in playing to
their pride and to the secret insecurity of
young men, that there was nearly a fight there
Dechtire. But it was said, and for all anyone and then. King Conor, furious at this breaking
knew said truly, since Dechtire was dead and of the laws of hospitality, ordered the three
had never spoken of the boy’s sire, that his fa- hotbloods to take their argument elsewhere.
ther was no mortal man, but the great god So to avoid a bloody fight, the three heroes
Lugh of the Sun’s splendor. went off to submit their claims to the champi-
Whether or not he was half divine, Cuchu- onship of Ireland to King Ailill of Connaught.
lain was raised by his uncle, and, even as a Ailill put the heroes to a strange test. Their
young boy, he showed signs that he would dinner was served them in a separate room.
grow into a true hero. Indeed, by the time Suddenly, three monstrous cats, as black as
Cuchulain was seventeen, he had no equal night and blazing red of eyes, burst into the
among the warriors of Ulster. And since he was room. The startled Laegire and Conall leaped
a handsome youngster, Conor’s men were glad up among the rafters, but Cuchulain stood his
that he was a modest sort who never looked for ground. He waited until a cat attacked, then
trouble with other men’s wives. Still, they were struck it a sharp blow with his sword. With
also glad when he won the hand of Emer, that, the three monstrous cats disappeared.
daughter of Forgall the Wily. Cuchulain claimed that he had won
But not everyone appreciates peace and the championship. But Laegire and Conall
tranquility. One of King Conor’s men was protested fiercely that they had been too star-
known as Bricriu of the Bitter Tongue, since tled to have a chance to properly react, and
he forever liked making barbed remarks and that this test had been an unfair one.
delighted in making mischief. Inviting the King Ailill must have sighed with frustra-
members of King Conor’s court to dinner, tion, or perhaps shaken his head wryly, re-
Bricriu arranged that a contest should arise membering his own youth. But without any
over who should have the “champion’s por- argument, he sent the three rivals off to Curoi
tion,” knowing that there were three hot- of Kerry, who was a just and wise man—and
blooded young men who could claim that one who was wise in the ways of magic. Curoi
honor. They were Laegaire, Conall Cearnach, ordered that the three, in turn, stand watch
and Cuchulain. outside his castle that night.
580

Cuchulain and the Green Man 581
First it was Laegire’s turn. He was con- The stranger replied in a voice that boomed
fronted by a huge giant, a great boulder of a like thunder, “Behold my axe! Whoever grasps
being who hurled spears that were the trunks it today may behead me—if I may, in the same
of trees at Laegaire. The young man dodged way, cut off his head tomorrow. Come, who
and tried to attack, but the giant reached down, will take up the challenge? If there is none who
caught him up like an unwanted kitten, and dare face me, I will state that Ulster has lost her
hurled him over the castle wall. Laegire landed courage and her honor!”
with a thump, too winded and bruised to go Laegire sprang to his feet, shouting, “Ul-
back outside. ster has not lost her courage! I accept your
“You are no champion!” Conall sneered, challenge.”
and went to take his turn on guard. But he, too, With a shrug, the giant laid his head on a
was confronted by the huge giant, who hurled block. Laegire swung the axe with all his force
those terrible spears at him. Conall, too, dodged and, with one blow, severed the giant’s head
and tried to attack. But he met with the same fate from his body. But to the horror of everyone
as Laegire, being caught up and hurled over the in the hall, the giant got to his feet, took his
castle wall. He, too, landed too winded and axe in one and his head in the other, and
bruised to go back outside. strode from the hall.
Cuchulain did not sneer or boast. He The following night, the giant returned,
simply went outside to stand watch. The giant head on his shoulders and as sound as ever.
loomed out of the darkness and began hurling But Laegire’s courage failed him, and he snuck
his terrible tree-trunk spears. Cuchulain off into the night.
dodged, but waited to attack, biding his time. “So this is the courage of Ulster!” the giant
Only when the giant moved in to seize him sneered.
did Cuchulain cast his own spear. He pierced Conall Cearnach sprang to his feet. “I will
the giant to the heart—and the giant vanished. not fail you!” he shouted.
But that was not the end of Cuchulain’s tri- Once again, the giant knelt, and once
als. The young man was beset by monsters on again, he was beheaded. Once again, he
every side, and he fought fiercely with sword stalked off, head in hand—but when he re-
and spear to survive. Then a great winged crea- turned, there was no Conall Cearnach to be
ture came lunging down at him. Cuchulain found.
sprang up with a great hero-leap, thrust his “Is there no true warrior in all Ulster?” the
hand down the thing’s throat, and tore out its giant jeered.
heart. As the monsters disappeared as the giant “There is,” Cuchulain said quietly.
had done, Cuchulain made another great hero- As the other two had done, he cut off the
leap over the castle wall in triumph. giant’s head at one stroke. As before, the giant
“Not fair!” was the cry of his rivals. “He strode away with head in hand.
used magic to win, where we had none.” The next night, Conor and his men waited
“So be it,” Curoi said. “Return to King to see what Cuchulain would do. He did
Conor’s court at Armagh and await my nothing, save sit quietly. To Conor, he mur-
judgment.” mured, “This night will surely see my death.
Off the three went, and soon they joined all But I would rather die than break my sworn
the Ulster heroes in King Conor’s great hall. word.”
Suddenly, a stranger entered, hideous and gi- The giant strode into the hall, swinging his
gantic, with eyes of blazing yellow. In one axe. “Where is Cuchulain?” he cried.
mighty hand, he clasped a great, gleaming axe. Cuchulain got to his feet. “Here I am.”
“What business have you here?” King “Ah, poor boy!” the giant said. “The fear
Conor asked as calmly as though this were just of death lies heavy on you. At least, you have
an ordinary man. kept your word and have not failed me.”

582 Retellings
As the giant stood with the great axe The giant was no longer the giant. Smiling
ready, Cuchulain knelt to receive the blow and leaning on his axe was none other than
and laid his head on the block. Curoi of Kerry.
But the giant wasn’t satisfied. “Don’t cringe. “Rise,” he told Cuchulain. “I proclaim
Stretch out your neck.” that the Championship of the Heroes of Ire-
“Slay me quickly,” Cuchulain retorted. “I land is yours from this day forth, and the
did not keep you waiting last night.” Champion’s Portion at all feasts; and to your
The giant raised his axe till it crashed up- wife I adjudge the first place among all the
ward through the rafters of the hall, then swept women of Ulster. Woe to any who dares dis-
it down with a crash like thunder. The men of pute this decision!”
Ulster closed their eyes in horror. But when With that, Curoi vanished. The warriors
they looked for Cuchulain, they cried out in with one voice proclaimed Cuchulain as the
surprise. The axe hadn’t so much as scratched Champion of the Heroes of all Ireland. And,
him. It had struck the ground instead, and the as promised by Curoi of Kerry, Cuchulain
young man knelt where he was, unharmed. kept that title for all his days.

A Leprechaun’s Gold
An Irish Folktale
Leprechauns usually stand well under 2 feet tall. While the other fairy folk find them
less than handsome, leprechauns often dress in what they consider good fashion: per-
haps a green jacket with silver buttons, bright blue hose, a three-cornered hat, and
nicely buckled shoes. They often wear a leather apron over the lot, since leprechauns
are the shoemakers for all the fairy folk of Ireland. They owe no one allegiance,
though, save their own king, and prefer to live by themselves. Leprechauns are also
often keepers of fairy treasure, but any human who thinks such small beings make
poor guardians will soon learn otherwise.
O ne day a young farmer, Thomas—or

Tom, as his neighbors most often called
him—was walking through the fields when he
“Out of heather!” Tom said with a laugh.
“There’s no such thing possible!”
“Is there not? I tell you, the way of brew-
heard an odd tapping sound coming from being such fine beer’s been a family secret for
hind a hedge. Warily, Tom tiptoed forward, longer than you could ever guess.”
and his eyes grew wide with astonishment. Could it be that maybe there was such a
For there, tapping away on a tiny shoe (and thing as heather beer after all? “Might I be
stopping now and then to take a drink from having a taste?” Tom asked.
the jug at his side), was a small being who could “I tell you, young man,” the leprechaun said
be nothing else but a leprechaun. Now, Tom, sternly, “you’d be better off watching your cows
being a local lad, knew all the stories about than begging after drink. Look, now, they’re
these creatures—particularly the one that said out. And they’ve gotten into the oats!”
they guarded wondrous treasures. Tom started to turn almost before he’d re-
But a leprechaun is almost impossible for alized it—but then he remembered more
a big, clumsy human to surprise. As Tom tried about the old tales and the way leprechauns
his best to be as stealthy as a cat, the little be- tricked unwary humans: The moment they
ing looked up at him. “God bless your work,” looked away, the leprechaun would be off and
Tom said politely, trying to pretend he hadn’t away. Instead, Tom whirled, pounced like a
been about to grab the leprechaun. cat on a mouse, and caught the small shoe-
“Thank you, and good day to you,” the lit- maker in his hand.
tle man replied, going back to his cobbling. The leprechaun squirmed something fierce,
Tom, trying to keep the conversation go- but he couldn’t get free. “Hey, man, let me go!”
ing so he might work the subject of treasure “Not till you show me where your trea-
into it, asked, “May I know what’s in that jug sure’s hidden.”
at your side?” “What would you want with treasure? It’s
“Beer,” the leprechaun answered. “And more trouble than it’s worth to your kind.”
good beer it is. Made it myself out of the “It will be trouble to you if you don’t show
heather.” me, and now!”
583

584 Retellings
“Ah, well,” the leprechaun said, pathetic as “Not yet. Swear to me you won’t remove
a child, “there’s no softening your heart of the gold this day or night.”
stone, is there?” “Och, and is he not the cleverest of men? I
“There’ll be no softening of my heart till swear I shall not remove the gold this day or
you show me that treasure.” night. I shall not touch the scarf or the thistle.
“So be it. Come along, young man. We Now, may I kindly have my freedom?”
have some walking to do.” “You may. And good luck to you.”
Held firm in Tom’s hand, the leprechaun “Good luck to you, too, man. And much
directed him to this field and that, and finally good may the gold do you when you get it.”
told him, “Stop here.” The leprechaun vanished into the fields.
“Here? But this is just a field of thistles!” Tom ran home as though devils were after
“Nevertheless, a nice fat pot of gold is him. He hunted wildly through his farming
buried right here. Start digging under this this- tools till he’d found a shovel and raced just as
tle, and you’ll have your pockets full of trea- swiftly back to the field of thistles.
sure. Well, man, why are you waiting?” There Tom stopped dead, staring. Och,
How could Tom dig without a shovel? yes, the leprechaun had kept his word. He’d
And how could he dig and not lose hold of the kept the very letter of his word. The thistle
leprechaun? Suddenly, an idea came to him. with the red scarf about it had not been
He removed his scarf, and a nice, bright red touched at all. But each and every thistle in
one it was, too, and he tied it about the thick that entire field bore a red scarf as well. There
stem of the thistle. was no telling which scarf belonged to Tom.
“Now,” he said, “swear to me you’ll not so There was no telling which was the thistle un-
much as touch that thistle or that scarf.” der which the gold lay!
“How could I not agree to swear it when What could Tom do? The only thing he
so clever a lad holds me hostage? There; I could. He stood and laughed at the fool he’d
have sworn. Now, will you not release me? I been to think that he could ever out-trick a
have shoes that need mending and—” leprechaun.

The Storyteller at Fault
An Irish Folktale
“The Storyteller at Fault” is an old Irish folktale, dating to at least the fourteenth
century and possibly much earlier, that all storytellers can take to heart. It is about
a storyteller and the problem he had in finding stories to tell.
I n the ancient days of Ireland, there reigned in

Leinster a king who was remarkably fond of
hearing stories. Like the other princes and
Just at this moment, the lady looked out
the window. There was a strange object lying
in the fields. When the storyteller and his wife
chieftains of the island, he had a favorite story- went to investigate, they found a miserable-
teller, who held a large estate from the king— looking old man lying on the ground with a
which he kept only on the condition of telling wooden leg placed beside him.
the king a new story every night of his life. “Who are you?” asked the storyteller.
Many indeed were the stories this teller “I’m but a poor, old, lame, decrepit, miser-
knew, so that he had already reached a good able creature, sitting down here to rest awhile
old age without failing even for a single night and wait for someone to play a game of dice
in his task. And such was the skill he displayed with me. I have one hundred pieces of gold in
that whatever cares of state or other annoy- this leathern purse.”
ances might prey upon the monarch’s mind, “You may as well play with him,” said the
his storyteller was sure to send him to sleep. storyteller’s wife, “and perhaps you’ll have
One morning, the storyteller strolled out something to tell the king in the evening.”
into his garden, turning over in his mind inci- A smooth stone was placed between them,
dents that he might weave into a story for and, upon it, they cast their throws. Soon,
the king at night. But this morning, he found though, the storyteller had lost every penny.
himself quite at fault; after pacing his whole “Will you play again?” asked the old man.
estate, he returned to his house without being “Don’t be talking, man; you have all my
able to think of anything new or strange. He money.”
found no difficulty in “there was once a king “Haven’t you chariot and horses and
who had three sons” or “one day, the king hounds? I’ll stake all the money I have against
of all Ireland,” but further than that he could them.”
not get. “Nonsense, man! Do you think for all the
At length, he went in to breakfast, and told money in Ireland, I’d run the risk of seeing my
his wife, “I have no mind to eat anything. For lady tramp home on foot?”
as long as I have been in the service of the “Maybe you’d win.”
king of Leinster, I never sat down to breakfast “Maybe I wouldn’t,” said the storyteller.
without having a new story ready for the eve- “Play with him, husband,” said his wife. “I
ning, but this morning, my mind is quite shut don’t mind walking if you don’t, love.”
up, and I don’t know what to do. I might as “I never refused you before,” said the story-
well lie down and die at once. I’ll be disgraced teller, “and I won’t do so now.” Down he sat
forever this evening, when the king calls for again, and, in one throw, lost horses, hounds,
his storyteller.” and chariot.
585

586 Retellings
“Will you play again?” asked the beggar. With that, he drew out of his wallet a well-
“Are you making game of me, man? What looking middle-aged man, to whom he said,
else have I to stake?” “By all you heard and saw since I put you into
“I’ll stake all my winnings against your my wallet, take charge of this lady and of the
wife,” said the old man. carriage and horses, and have them ready for
The storyteller turned away in silence, but me whenever I want them.”
his wife stopped him. Suddenly, the storyteller found himself at
“Accept his offer,” said she. “This is the the Foxes’ Ford, near the castle of Red Hugh
third time, and who knows what luck you may O’Donnell. He could see all, but none could
have? You’ll surely win now.” see him.
They played again, and the storyteller lost. O’Donnell was in his hall, weariness of
No sooner had he done so than to his sorrow spirit upon him. “Save you, O’Donnell,” said
and surprise, his wife went and sat down near the beggar. “For five pieces of silver you shall
the beggar. see a trick of mine.”
“I’ll stake the whole now, wife and all, “You shall have them,” said O’Donnell.
against your own self,” said the beggar. The beggar placed three small straws in
Again they played, and again the story- his hand. “The middle one,” said he, “I’ll blow
teller lost. The beggar took from his pocket a away; the other two, I’ll leave.”
long cord and a wand. “What kind of animal “You cannot do it,” said one and all.
would you rather be, a deer, a fox, or a hare?” But the beggar put a finger on either out-
The storyteller chose a hare. The beggar side straw and blew away the middle one.
threw the cord round him, struck him with “A good trick,” said O’Donnell, and paid
the wand, and, suddenly, a long-eared, frisk- him his five pieces of silver.
ing hare was skipping and jumping on the “Six more pieces, O’Donnell, and I’ll do
green. But it wasn’t for long, because his wife another trick,” said the beggar.
set the hounds on him. “Six you shall have.”
The hare fled; the dogs followed. Round “Do you see my two ears? One, I’ll move
the field ran a high wall, so that run as he but not the other.”
might, the hare couldn’t get out, and mightily “You can never move one ear and not the
diverted were beggar and lady to see him twist two together.”
and double. In vain, did he take refuge with The beggar put his hand to one ear and
his wife; she kicked him back again to the gave it a pull. O’Donnell laughed and paid
hounds, until, at last, the beggar stopped the him the six pieces.
hounds, and with a stroke of the wand, the sto- “Well, O’Donnell,” said the beggar,
ryteller, panting and breathless, stood before “strange are the tricks I’ve shown you, but I’ll
them again. show you a stranger one yet for the same
“And how did you like the sport?” asked money.”
the beggar. “My word on it,” said O’Donnell.
“It might be sport to others,” replied the With that, the beggar took a bag from un-
storyteller, looking at his wife. “For my part, I der his armpit, and from out of the bag a ball of
could well put up without. Would it be asking silk. He unwound the ball and flung it up into
too much,” he went on to the beggar, “to the clear blue heavens, and it became a ladder.
know who you are, or where you come from, Then, he took a hare and placed it upon the
or why you take pleasure in plaguing me?” thread, and up it ran. He took out a red-eared
“Oh!” replied the stranger. “I’m an odd hound, and it swiftly ran up after the hare.
kind of good-for-little fellow, one day poor, “Now,” said the beggar, “has anyone a
another day rich, but if you wish to know mind to run after the dog?”
more about me or my habits, come with me.” “I will,” said a lad of O’Donnell’s.

T he Stor yteller at Fault 587
“Up with you, then,” said the juggler. “But Up came the guards, who seized the beg-
I warn you, if you let my hare be killed, I’ll cut gar, marched him to the gallows, and hanged
off your head when you come down.” him high. Back they marched to the hall, and
The lad ran up the thread, and all three who should they see but the beggar seated on
soon disappeared. After looking up for a long a bench with a flagon of ale. Three times, they
time, the beggar said, “I’m afraid the hound is tried to hang him, and, three times, they found
eating the hare, and that our friend has fallen him sitting there in the hall.
asleep.” “Are you wishing to hang me again?” he
Saying this, he began to wind the thread, asked.
and down came the lad fast asleep, and down “Go where you will,” said the captain,
came the red-eared hound, and in his mouth “and as fast as you please, if you’ll only go far
was the last morsel of the hare. The beggar enough. It’s trouble enough you’ve given us
struck off the heads of lad and hound. already.”
O’Donnell was sorely angered at the death As he said these words, the captain van-
of lad and hound. ished, and the storyteller found himself on the
“Five pieces of silver twice over for each spot where he had first met the beggar, and
of them,” said the beggar, “and their heads where his wife still was with the carriage and
shall be on them as before.” horses.
Five pieces, and again five were paid him, “Now,” said the beggar, “I’ll torment you
and, suddenly, the lad had his head and the no longer. There’s your carriage and your
hound his. In that instant, the gray beggar horses, and your money and your wife. And
vanished. as for your wife, don’t think ill of her for what
Now, all this while, the king of Leinster’s she did, for she couldn’t help it.”
spirit was heavy. It was the time when he was “Not help it! Not help kicking me into
used to hearing a story, but there was not a the mouth of my own hounds! Not help
word about his storyteller. casting me off for the sake of a beggarly
The beggar entered, and in his hand was old—”
a three-stringed harp. “I’m not as beggarly or as old as ye
“I already have the best harpers in the five- think. I am Angus of the Bruff. Many a good
fifths of Ireland,” the king said, and he signed turn you’ve done me with the king of Lein-
them to play. ster. This morning, my magic told me the
“Did you ever hear the like?” he asked the difficulty you were in, and I made up my
beggar. mind to get you out of it. As for your wife
“Did you ever, O King, hear a cat purring there, the power that changed your body
over a bowl of broth, or the buzzing of beetles changed her mind. Forget and forgive as
in the twilight, or a shrill-tongued old woman man and wife should do, and now you have
scolding your head off? More melodious to a story for the king of Leinster when he calls
me were the worst of these sounds than the for one.”
sweetest harping of thy harpers.” With that, the beggar disappeared.
When the harpers heard this, they drew It’s true enough that the storyteller now
their swords and rushed at him, but instead had a story fit for a king. After he’d finished
of striking him, their blows fell on one an- telling it, the king who heard it laughed so
other. When the king saw this, he thought the long and hard that he couldn’t go to sleep at
harpers weren’t content with murdering their all. And from that day on, the storyteller
music, but must needs murder one another. never had to trouble to find new stories, since
“Hang the fellow who began it all,” he or- every night from then on, the king listened
dered, “and if I can’t have a story, let me have to and laughed anew at the tale of the gray
peace.” beggar.

The Crystal Casket
An Italian Snow White Folktale
“The Crystal Casket” is a tale from Italy, first recorded in English in 1885. There is a
rather disturbing necrophilic touch to it, as the king is willing to marry a corpse, but
we know what the king does not—that the heroine is still alive.
T here was once a widower who had a

daughter between ten and twelve years
old. Her father sent her to school and, as she
of crystal. The eagle knocked at the door
and said, “Open, my ladies, open! For I have
brought you a pretty girl.” When the people in
was all alone in the world, commended her the palace opened the door and saw that
always to her teacher. lovely girl, they were amazed, and they kissed
Now, the teacher, seeing that the child had and caressed her.
no mother, fell in love with the father and kept One day, the eagle flew away to the ter-
saying to the girl, “Ask your father if he would race where the stepmother was watering the
like me for a wife.” basil. “Where is your daughter?” asked the
This the teacher said to the girl every eagle.
day, and at last the girl said, “Papa, the “Eh!” she replied. “Perhaps she fell from
schoolmistress is always asking me if you will this terrace and went into the river; I have not
marry her.” heard from her in ten days.”
The father said, “Eh! My daughter, if I take The eagle answered, “What a fool you are!
another wife, you will have great troubles.” I carried her away; seeing that you treated her
But the girl persisted, and finally the father so harshly, I carried her away to my fairies,
was persuaded to go one evening to the and she is very well.” Then, the eagle flew
schoolmistress’s house. When she saw him, she away.
was well pleased, and they settled the marriage The stepmother, filled with rage and jeal-
in a few days. ousy, called a witch from the city and said
Poor child! How bitterly she had to repent to her, “You see my daughter is alive, and she
having found a stepmother so ungrateful and is in the house of some fairies of an eagle
cruel to her! Every day, the schoolmistress which often comes upon my terrace. Now,
sent her stepdaughter out on a terrace to water you must do me the favor to find some way to
a pot of basil, and it was so dangerous that if kill this stepdaughter of mine, for I am afraid
she fell, she would plunge into a deep river. that some day or other she will return, and my
One day, there came a large eagle, who husband, discovering this matter, will cer-
said to her, “What are you doing here?” The tainly kill me.”
girl was weeping because she saw how great The witch answered, “Oh, you need not
the danger was of falling into the river. The ea- be afraid of that; leave it to me.”
gle said to her, “Get on my back, and I will What did the witch do? She made a little
carry you away, and you will be happier than basketful of sweetmeats, in which she put poi-
with your new mama.” son; then she wrote a letter to the girl, pre-
After a long journey, they reached a great tending that it was her father who had learned
plain, where they found a beautiful palace all where she was and wished to make her this
588

T he Cr ystal Casket 589
present. The letter said that her father was When the fairies returned, they knocked
glad to hear that she was with the fairies. at the door, but no one opened it for them;
Let us leave the witch who is arranging all then, they perceived that there had been some
this deception, and return to Ermellina, for so treachery and began to weep. The chief of the
the young girl was named. The fairies said to fairies said, “We must break open the door,”
her, “See, Ermellina, we are going away, and and so they did, and saw Ermellina dead on
shall be absent four days. Now, in this time the stairs.
take good care not to open the door to any- Her other friends who loved her so dearly
one, for some treachery is being prepared for begged the chief of the fairies to bring her to
you by your stepmother.” life, but she would not, “for,” she said, “she has
She promised to open the door to no one. disobeyed me.” But one and the other asked
“Do not be anxious,” she said. “I am well off, her until she consented. She opened Ermel-
and my stepmother has nothing to do with lina’s mouth, took out a piece of the sweetmeat
me.” that the girl had not yet swallowed, and raised
But it was not so. The fairies went away, her up, and Ermellina came to life again.
and, the next day when Ermellina was alone, We can imagine what a pleasure it was for
she heard a knocking at the door. She said to her friends; but the chief of the fairies reproved
herself, “Knock away! I don’t open to anyone.” her for her disobedience. Ermellina promised
But meanwhile, the blows redoubled, and not to disobey the fairies again.
curiosity forced her to look out the window. Once more, the fairies were obliged to de-
What did she see? She saw one of the servant part. Their chief said, “Remember, Ermellina:
girls of her own home (for the witch had dis- The first time I cured you, but the second I
guised herself as one of her father’s servants). will have nothing to do with you.”
“O my dear Ermellina,” the servant said, Ermellina said they need not worry, that
“your father is shedding tears of sorrow for you, she would not open the door to anyone. But it
because he really believed you were dead, but was not so; for the eagle, thinking to increase
the eagle that carried you off came and told her stepmother’s anger, told her again that Er-
him the good news that you were here with the mellina was alive. The stepmother denied it
fairies. Meanwhile, your father, not knowing all to the eagle, but she summoned anew the
what civility to show you, for he understands witch and told her that her stepdaughter was
very well that you are in need of nothing, still alive, saying, “Either you will really kill
has thought to send you this little basket of her, or I will be avenged on you.”
sweetmeats.” The old witch, finding herself caught, told
At first, Ermellina did not open the door; her to buy a very handsome dress, one of the
the servant begged her to come down and handsomest she could find. The witch trans-
take the basket and the letter, but she said, formed herself into a tailor belonging to the
“No, I wish nothing!” Finally, though, since family, took the dress, departed, and went to
women, and especially young girls, are fond of poor Ermellina. The witch knocked at the
sweetmeats, Ermellina descended and opened door and said, “Open, open, for I am your tai-
the door. lor. Come down; I must fit a dress on you.”
When the witch, disguised as the servant, Ermellina replied, “No, no, for I have been
had given Ermellina the basket, she said, “Eat deceived once.”
this,” and broke off for her a piece of the sweet- “But I am not the old woman,” replied the
meats, which she had poisoned. When Ermel- tailor. “You know me, for I have always made
lina took the first mouthful, the old woman, in your dresses.”
the form of the servant girl, disappeared. Er- Poor Ermellina was persuaded and de-
mellina had scarcely time to close the door be- scended the stairs; the tailor took to flight and
fore she fell down on the stairs. disappeared while Ermellina was yet buttoning

590 Retellings
up the dress. Ermellina closed the door and with this loaded horse, she did not know what
was mounting the stairs, but she was not per- to think. The son had no father, wherefore he
mitted to go up, for she fell down dead. was all-powerful.
Let us return to the fairies, who came The king reached the palace and had the
home and knocked at the door. But what good horse unloaded and the casket carried to his
did it do to knock? There was no longer any- chamber; then, he called his mother and said,
one there. They began to weep. The chief of “Mother, I went hunting, but I have found a
the fairies said, “I told you that she would be- wife.”
tray me again; but now, I will have nothing “But what is it? A doll? A dead woman?”
more to do with her.” “Mother,” replied her son, “don’t trouble
So they broke open the door and saw the yourself about what it is; it is my wife.”
poor girl with the beautiful dress on, but she His mother began to laugh, and withdrew
was dead. They all wept, because they really to her own room. (What could she do, poor
loved her. But there was nothing to do. mother?)
The chief of the fairies struck her enchanted Now, this poor king no longer went hunt-
wand and commanded a beautiful rich casket ing, took no diversion, did not even go to the
all covered with diamonds and other precious table, but ate in his own room. By a fatality, it
stones to appear; then the others made a beau- happened that war was declared against him,
tiful garland of flowers and gold, put it on the and he was obliged to depart.
young girl, and then laid her in the casket, He called his mother, and said, “Mother, I
which was so rich and beautiful that it was mar- wish two careful chambermaids, whose busi-
velous to behold. Then the old fairy struck her ness it shall be to guard this casket, for if on my
wand as usual and commanded a handsome return I find that anything has happened to my
horse, the likes of which not even the king pos- casket, I shall have the chambermaids killed.”
sessed. Then they took the casket, put it on the His mother, who loved him, said, “Go, my
horse’s back, and led him into the public square son; fear nothing, for I myself will watch over
of the city, and the chief of the fairies said, “Go, your casket.”
and do not stop until you find someone who He wept several days at being obliged to
says to you, ‘Stop, for pity’s sake, for I have lost abandon this treasure of his, but there was no
my horse for you.’ ” help for it; he had to go. After his departure,
Now let us leave the afflicted fairies and he did nothing but commend his wife (so he
turn our attention to the horse, which ran called her) to his mother in his letters.
away at full speed. Who happened to pass at Let us return to the mother, who no
that moment? None other than a king saw this longer thought about the matter, not even to
horse with that wonder on its back. Then, the have the casket dusted. But all at once, there
king began to spur his horse, and he rode him came a letter that informed her that the king
so hard that he killed him and had to leave had been victorious and would return to his
him dead in the road; but the king kept run- palace in a few days. The mother called the
ning after the other horse. The poor king chambermaids and said to them, “Girls, we
could endure it no longer; he saw himself lost, are ruined.”
and exclaimed, “Stop, for pity’s sake, for I have They replied, “Why, Highness?”
lost my horse for you!” “Because my son will be back in a few
Then the horse stopped (for those were days, and how have we taken care of the doll?”
the words). When the king saw that beautiful They answered, “True, true; now let us go
girl dead in the casket, he thought no more and wash the doll’s face.”
about his own horse, but took the other to the They went to the king’s room and saw that
city. The king’s mother knew that her son had the doll’s face and hands were covered with
gone hunting; when she saw him returning dust and fly specks, so they took a sponge and

T he Cr ystal Casket 591
washed her face, but some drops of water fell Then came her son. They shut the doll up
on her dress and spotted it. The poor cham- in a small room so that she could not be seen.
bermaids began to weep, and went to the The king came with great joy, with trumpets
queen for advice. blowing and banners flying for the victory. But
The queen said, “Do you know what to he took no interest in all this, and ran at once
do? Call a tailor, and have a dress precisely to his room to see the doll; the chambermaids
like this brought, and take off this one before fell on their knees before him, saying that the
my son comes.” doll smelled so badly that they could not stay
They did so, and the chambermaids went in the palace, and they were obliged to bury
to the room and began to unbutton the dress. her.
The moment that they took off the first sleeve, The king would not listen to this excuse,
Ermellina opened her eyes. The poor cham- but at once called two of the palace servants to
bermaids sprang up in terror, but one of the erect the gallows. His mother comforted him
most courageous said, “I am a woman, and so in vain: “My son, it was a dead woman.”
is this one; she will not eat me.” “No, no; I will not listen to any reasons.
To cut the matter short, the chamber- Dead or alive, you should have left it for me.”
maid took off the dress; when it was re- Finally, when his mother saw that he was
moved, Ermellina began to get out of the in earnest about the gallows, she rang a little
casket to walk about and see where she was. bell, and there came forth no longer the doll,
The chambermaids fell on their knees before but a very beautiful girl, whose like was never
her and begged her to tell them who she was. seen. The king was amazed, and said, “What
She, poor girl, told them the whole story. is this?”
Then she said, “I wish to know where I am.” Then his mother, the chambermaids, and
Then, the chambermaids called the king’s Ermellina were obliged to tell him all that had
mother to explain it to her. The mother did happened.
not fail to tell her everything, and she, poor He said, “Mother, since I adored her when
girl, did nothing but weep penitently, thinking dead and called her my wife, now I mean her
of what the fairies had done for her. to be my wife in truth.”
The king was on the point of arriving, and “Yes, my son,” replied his mother. “Do so,
his mother said to the girl-doll, “Come here; for I am willing.”
put on one of my best dresses.” In short, she They arranged the wedding, and, in a few
arrayed her like a queen. days, the two were man and wife.

Appointment in Samarra
A Folktale from the Talmud, the Jewish Book of Religious Wisdom
“Appointment in Samarra” refers to a type of Jewish folktale in which a man or

group of men flee death only to die in the new location. This, it turns out, is the place
in which they were destined to die.
T here were two Cushites, called Eli-

choreph and Achiyah, who attended King
Solomon. They were sons of Shisha, the scribes
Solomon had demons take Elichoreph and
Achiyah to the city of Luz, which was a leg-
endary city where no one ever died. However, as
of Solomon. soon as they reached the gates of Luz, they died.
One day, Solomon noticed that the Angel The next day, Solomon noticed that the
of Death looked sad. Solomon asked him, Angel of Death was happy. He asked him,
“Why are you sad?” “Why are you so happy?”
The angel replied. “Because they have The angel replied, “Because you sent
demanded from me the two Cushites that them to the very place where they were sup-
dwell here.” posed to die.”
592

The Golem of Prague
A Jewish Folktale
Although Jewish folk stories of artificial life date back as far as the Talmud, about
600 c.e., the tales of golems began to be told in Jewish communities during the
time of Christian persecution of Jews in the Middle Ages. This was particularly so
in Prague, when anti-Semitic sentiment grew so powerful that Jews finally fled the
city.
O nce, long ago in the city of Prague, there

were people who hated the Jews who
lived in that city. Why? Jews and Christians
The golem, being only a thing of clay,
could not speak, but he nodded obediently.
The Maharal added firmly, “Your purpose
both worship the same God, but they worship in being is to protect the Jews of Prague from
in different ways. Those wicked people hated harm.”
the Jews just because they weren’t Christians. Again, the golem nodded obediently.
And so they began to spread terrible rumors The Maharal brought the golem to his
that the Jews of Prague were murdering Chris- home, where everyone took Joseph to be no
tian children. Of course, this wasn’t true, but more than a poor, weak-witted servant. Even
when people are afraid, they believe even the the Maharal’s own wife, Perele, believed it.
strangest rumors. One day, Perele asked Joseph to fill the
The chief rabbi of Prague, a wise and won- water barrels—but she forgot to tell him to
derworking man known as the Maharal, was stop! The golem kept on bringing bucket after
worried for his congregation. Surely, it was bucket of water, till the Maharal’s house was
just a matter of time before fear turned to vio- nearly flooded.
lence. Surely, the Jews needed a guardian! “Why do you keep such a foolish ser-
So the holy Maharal went down to the vant?” Perele angrily asked her husband.
river with two apprentices. Out of the clay of “He will prove his worth,” the Maharal
the river’s bank, they formed the figure of a gi- assured her.
gantic man. The Maharal spoke words from And, of course, the Maharal was right.
the Holy Scriptures over it, and the clay fig- When evil men threatened the Jews, Joseph
ure, the golem, opened his eyes. patrolled the streets like a huge, silent soldier.
“Stand,” the Maharal told him. Again and again, he saved the Jews from any-
The golem stood. The three men dressed one who tried to hurt them.
him and took him back with them to Prague. The people who hated the Jews were furi-
“But—but we can’t tell anyone what he re- ous. They would not let any huge, silent sol-
ally is!” one apprentice said. “People would dier stop them! So they decided on a terribly
think he was a monster.” cruel plot. They went to the Christian ceme-
“No one shall know,” the Maharal agreed. tery and dug up the body of a boy.
He told the golem, “You are Joseph. And you “We’ll hide it in the home of the Maharal
will serve me, even if I tell you to jump into himself,” they decided. “Then, we will call in
fire.” the guards. Everyone will believe the Jews
593

594 Retellings
have been murdering Christian children, and that these cruel people were stopped in
that will be the end of the Jews of Prague!” time!”
But even as they plotted, not one of those And he issued a royal decree on the spot:
hate-filled people realized that Joseph was fol- On pain of banishment, none of his people
lowing them like a giant silent shadow. Just be- should ever again spread rumors about the
fore they were about to throw the boy’s body Jews.
into the Maharal’s house, the golem caught Life grew peaceful for the Jews of Prague
them. He scooped them all up in his mighty after that. When a whole year had passed
arms, carried them to the house of the city’s without trouble, the Maharal knew the golem
watchman, and dropped them all right in the was no longer needed. He led Joseph to the at-
courtyard. tic, where the Maharal and his apprentice
The noise woke the watchman and his spoke holy and magical words over him.
neighbors. They came running and found When they were finished, the golem was
the grave robbers and the boy’s body. Once no more than lifeless clay. The Maharal hid
the watchman learned of the plot, he hur- the clay under a pile of papers and books.
ried to the palace to tell Prague’s ruler, King “Sleep well, Joseph,” he murmured.
Rudolf. And who knows? For all anyone can
“What a horrible thing!” the king ex- tell, the golem is sleeping there still, waiting for
claimed. “But how fortunate we all are the time when he will be needed once more.

King Solomon and the Demon
A Jewish Folktale
The historical King Solomon lived in and ruled the biblical land of Israel around
900 b.c.e. He was known for his wisdom, and this trait became part of folk belief.
Later folktales claimed that Solomon could control all manner of magic beings,
including demons.
K ing Solomon, ruler of the land of Israel,

was, as is well known, the wisest of men,
ruler of humankind, and master of spirits and
servant; I do not wish to disobey. But I don’t
have an answer for you. Only our own king,
Ashmodai, has the knowledge you seek.”
demons. He was also a pious man and had “And where,” the king asked sternly, “is
determined to build a temple to the glory of Ashmodai, king of demons, to be found?”
God. “Far from here, mighty king; far from the
But the king remembered the holy homes of men. His palace stands on the very
words that said that no altar may be built of top of a towering mountain. In that mountain
hewn stone. For stone is hewn by iron, sym- is a wonderful well, guarded jealously by
bolic of the sword, and the touch of a metal Ashmodai. When he is not at home, he keeps
of war on a building of peace would be sure the opening to that well carefully closed with
desecration. a great rock sealed with the touch of his
Then how could a temple be built? signet ring. Whenever Ashmodai returns, he
Solomon the Wise pondered this problem, and, first examines the seal on the rock to be sure
at last, he found a solution: the shamir. This no one has tampered with it, then he drinks
creature, the diamond insect, was tiny but in- deeply of the pure water and seals the well
credibly strong, and it could surely hew stones anew.”
and split mighty trees for the temple’s walls and Not a word of this did Solomon the Wise
roof beams. forget. He dismissed the demon, then sum-
Ah, but where was the shamir to be found? moned Benaiah, son of Jebodiah, the captain
That was an even greater problem, and one of the royal guard. “I wish you to capture Ash-
that even Solomon the Wise could not solve. modai, king of demons, and bring him to me.”
So the king, alone in his chambers, held out his The king gave Benaiah a golden chain in-
hand that bore a signet ring engraved with the scribed with the holy name and a sack of the
holy name. No sooner had he proclaimed that strongest wine, and he lent him his royal
name than a demon appeared, kneeling before signet ring as well. Off the brave warrior went,
the king and trembling. traveling through the desert waste, climbing
“What is your will, oh wisest of kings?” the harsh, terrifying height of Ashmodai’s
King Solomon gestured to the demon to mountain, fearing nothing, since he bore King
stand. “I command you to tell me where the Solomon’s signet ring with the holy name
shamir may be found.” upon it.
But the demon only trembled the more. Benaiah grinned with relief. Ashmodai
“Mighty king, don’t be angry. I am your was not at home. Now, he had a chance to
595

596 Retellings
perform the king’s plan. There was the well, “With all your majesty, mighty king, after
blocked with the rock and sealed with your death you will own no more space in the
Ashmodai’s seal. Benaiah didn’t try to move earth than is measured by that staff. Yet you
the massive rock, but he bore a small hole would rule not just your own kind but spirits
through it. And through that hole, Benaiah and demons as well!”
poured the whole sackful of that strongest “Control your anger,” Solomon said
wine. mildly. “I seek only the smallest of services
Sure enough, when Ashmodai returned, from you. I wish to build a temple to the glory
tall and terrible, with great, blazing eyes, he of God—ah, yes, demon; tremble at that—and
went straight for the well. Never noticing the I need to find the shamir.”
tiny hole in the rock, he opened the well and “I have it not!”
drank deeply. Demons are unfamiliar with “Gently, Ashmodai. Who does?”
wine—and this was, after all, the strongest “Mighty king, it was the shamir that was
wine—and very soon Ashmodai was sound used to carve the two tablets borne by Moses.
asleep. Benaiah crept forward and bound the But since that day, the shamir has been in the
demon in the golden chain, then waited. care of the prince of the sea, who has placed it
At last, Ashmodai yawned and woke. Find- under the guardianship of the woodcock. The
ing himself bound, he fought to free himself, woodcock lives in its nest on a mountain peak
but no demon could break a chain marked with and keeps the shamir ever with it, tucked un-
the holy name. der one wing.”
“Come,” Benaiah said, “we are going to “So be it,” the king said. “You shall bide
King Solomon, he who is your master.” here, Ashmodai, till the temple is built.”
Ashmodai gave no argument. But strange He summoned Benaiah. “I have a second
incidents happened along the way. Once, he task for you, brave captain. You must find the
saw a happy bridal party and began to weep. shamir in the nest of the woodcock of the
“Monster!” Benaiah cried. “Why do you mountain peak and bring it back with you.
weep at the happiness of others?” Take this with you.”
“I weep because I see the future; the He gave Benaiah a sturdy lead-lined box
groom will be dead within three days.” and a thick pane of glass and told him how to
They went on, and they overheard a man use them. Off Benaiah went to the mountain,
insisting that the boot maker make him shoes hunting till he found the woodcock’s nest. The
to last at least seven years. Ashmodai burst woodcock was away, but there in the nest, as
into laughter. Solomon had known there would be, were sev-
“Why do you laugh?” Benaiah asked. eral of the bird’s fledglings. Benaiah quickly
“That foolish man will not live seven days covered the nest with the thick pane of glass,
longer, yet he wishes shoes that will outlive then hid and waited for the woodcock to
him by seven years!” return.
Benaiah, sharply reminded that his com- Here the bird came. It saw the glass and
panion was, after all, a demon who could not its fledglings trapped underneath and began
see things as did humans, said nothing. to shriek, flapping its wings, clawing at the
Many other strange events befell them, glass, and beating at it with its beak. But the
but, at last, Ashmodai stood before King glass would not break. The fledglings re-
Solomon. The demon shivered at the sight of mained trapped. At last, the woodcock took
the ruler of all spirits and demons, then threw the shamir, the diamond insect, from under
down a long staff before the king. its wing. The moment that the shamir
Solomon never flinched. “What does this touched the glass, the glass fell apart into two
mean?” pieces.

King Solomon and the Demon 597
“Oh, wonderful!” cried Benaiah, and he temple was built. And Solomon the Wise re-
leaped out of hiding. He quickly slipped the leased Ashmodai as he had promised.
shamir into the lead-lined box and returned As for the shamir—the moment that
all that long way to King Solomon. Solomon’s temple to the glory of God was fin-
And so it was that with the help of the ished, the shamir vanished. And, to this day,
magical shamir, the diamond insect, the holy no one has seen the shamir again.

No Escape from Fate
A Persian Folktale
“No Escape from Fate” is a familiar folktale about the inevitability of destiny, a vari-
ant on the “Appointment in Samarra” theme, possibly dating from ninth-century
Persia. It still has quite an ironic impact, particularly since the city of Samarra was
the scene of some fighting during the Iraq War, begun in 2003, and so many for-
eign soldiers traveled to Iraq to fight and met their deaths there.
M any years ago, there was a man in

Bathsheba who asked his servant to go
to the market. The servant went to the market,
So the servant rode away to Samarra, and
his master was sorely troubled. He went to
the market, and he sought out Death. And
and among the throng he saw Death. Death the master said to Death, “Why did you
made a gesture, and the servant grew fright- make a threatening gesture at my servant?
ened and ran home to his master. He has done me good service and is old in
The servant said, “Master, today I saw years.”
Death in the market amid the throng. And he And Death replied, “I made no threaten-
made a threatening gesture to me. Master, I ing gesture at your servant. That was a start
shall make haste, and I shall ride like the wind of surprise. For I saw him this morning in
to Samarra, for Samarra is many miles from Bathsheba, but this night I was to meet him
here, and Death will not find me there.” many miles away in Samarra.”
598

Koschei the Deathless
A Russian Folktale
Koschei is a powerful figure in Russian folklore, immortal because he has hidden his
life force outside of his body. There is scant evidence about his origins, whether or
not he was originally a dark deity, but he always is portrayed in stories or paintings
as a sinister figure, either as an old, gaunt man or as a skeletal figure.
O nce there was a king with but one child, a

son named Ivan. As Ivan grew, his nurse
sang magical songs to him. Among them was
Nowhere. Koschei the Deathless was away at
the hunt, and Ivan stole inside. Princess Vasil-
isa was there, but there was no way to steal her
one that she sang over and over till he knew it away again.
would be his destiny: “And Koschei cannot be slain like mortal
“Prince Ivan, when you are grown, you shall men!” she warned Ivan. “You must hide, and
seek a bride. Beyond three times nine kingdoms I will try to trick the truth from him.”
she lives, and Princess Vasilisa is she called.” So Ivan hid. Koschei came swooping in,
So it was that Prince Ivan, when he had now seeming to be a skeleton, now an ancient
grown into a fine young man, rode off to find man, and now like nothing but darkness. “A
his promised bride. But as he traveled be- mortal man has been here!” he shouted. “I
yond three times nine kingdoms, he came to smell him!”
a city where a man was being flogged. This “You were hunting mortal men,” Princess
was a poor man who could not repay a small Vasilisa answered. “Their smell is still in your
loan. But when Prince Ivan tried to repay it nostrils.”
for him, the prince was warned, “He who set- Koschei threw himself down to rest. Vasil-
tles this loan will have his wife stolen by isa petted his head and stroked it, as though
Koschei the Deathless.” she were pleased he had returned. “I was so
“I have no wife,” Prince Ivan said truth- worried,” she said. “I feared you would never
fully, and he settled the loan. return. I feared a wild beast had slain you.”
Then the prince went on his way. And, at Koschei laughed. “Foolish woman! Do you
last, weary but full of hope, he reached the last think mere beasts could devour me? My life
of the kingdoms. There was Princess Vasilisa and death lie in that broom by the door.”
in her castle tower. She, too, had heard songs, When he left, Ivan raced to the broom.
but hers had been about her promised groom. Bah, no, it was nothing but a broom, with no
He looked at her, she looked at him, and they magic about it.
swore their vows there and then. When Koschei returned, he found that
But as soon as they had, Koschei the Death- Vasilisa had gilded the broom and placed it on
less came swooping down like a great black the table. “What is this?”
cloud. Before Prince Ivan could even draw his “Oh, I could not leave your life and death
sword, Koschei had carried the princess away. to lie on the floor!”
Prince Ivan rode in search of Koschei’s Koschei laughed. “Foolish woman! Do you
lands. He rode high, he rode low, and, at last, think my death is here? My life and death lie in
he came to Koschei’s castle, there at the end of that goat at the window.”
599

600 Retellings
As soon as he left, Ivan raced to the goat. opened it carefully—but the hare sprang out
Bah, no, it was nothing but an animal, with no and raced away.
magic about it. “Dog I saved!” Prince Ivan cried. “Catch
When Koschei returned, he found that that hare!”
Vasilisa had combed the goat’s hair and The dog appeared and caught the hare.
woven golden ribbons in its horns. “What is Ivan carefully cut open the hare—but the
this?” duck leaped out and flapped away.
“Oh, I could not let your life and death sit “Eagle I saved!” Prince Ivan cried. “Catch
in a plain old goat!” that duck!”
Koschei laughed. “Foolish woman! My The eagle appeared and caught the duck.
death is far away. In the sea, there sits an is- Ivan carefully cut open the duck—but the
land, and, on that island, there stands an oak. egg rolled out and fell into the sea.
Under the oak is a chest. In the chest is a hare. “Lobster I saved!” Prince Ivan cried.
In the hare is a duck. In the duck is an egg. “Catch that egg!”
And in the egg lies my heart.” The lobster caught the egg in a claw and
Prince Ivan rode off to find Koschei’s brought it to Ivan.
heart. On the way, he saved a dog from “Thank you, my friends,” Ivan cried, and
drowning. “Thank you!” the dog said. “I will he rode back to Koschei’s castle.
come when you need aid.” Koschei the Deathless stormed outside,
Prince Ivan rode on. He saved an eagle dragging Vasilisa with him. “I smell a mortal
from a net. “Thank you!” the eagle said. “I will man!” he roared. “You shall die!”
come when you need aid.” “Not today!” Prince Ivan cried.
Prince Ivan rode on. He saved a lobster He sprang at Koschei and struck him on
that was stranded on the shore. “Thank you!” the head with the egg. The egg shattered, and
the lobster said. “I will come when you need with it, Koschei’s heart shattered as well. With-
aid.” out a word, the monster fell down dead.
At last, Prince Ivan reached the island. And Prince Ivan and Princess Vasilisa
There stood the oak. Prince Ivan dug and dug rode off together to their wedding. We were
at its roots. Here was the buried chest! He there, we ate, we drank, and we were joyous.

Gold-Tree and Silver-Tree
A Scottish Snow White Folktale
Storytellers and others may be surprised to learn that Snow White has a good
many “sisters,” the central characters in folk stories from around the world that tell
the same basic tale. “Gold-Tree and Silver-Tree,” a version from Scotland, was pub-
lished by Joseph Jacobs in his Celtic Tales (1892).
Notice that this version depicts a clear mother–daughter rivalry, rather than a
conflict between stepmother and stepdaughter. Also note the odd addition of the
two wives. Folklorists have debated whether that element dates back to a time of
polygamy, or whether the nameless storyteller who added that detail simply forgot
that there already was a wife in the story and could not figure out how to eliminate
the second one.
O nce upon a time there was a king who

had a wife, called Silver-Tree, and a
daughter, whose name was Gold-Tree. On a
Now, it happened that about this time
the son of a great king had come from abroad
to ask Gold-Tree for marrying. The king
certain day of the days, Gold-Tree and Silver- now agreed to this, and the couple went
Tree went to a glen where there was a well, abroad.
and in it there was a trout. The king then went and sent his lads to the
Said Silver-Tree, “Troutie, bonny little fel- hunting hill for a he-goat; he gave its heart and
low, am not I the most beautiful queen in the its liver to his wife to eat, and she rose well
world?” and healthy.
“Oh! Indeed you are not.” A year after this, Silver-Tree went to the
“Who, then?” glen where there was the well in which there
“Why, Gold-Tree, your daughter.” was the trout.
Silver-Tree went home blind with rage. She “Troutie, bonny little fellow,” said she, “am
lay down on the bed and vowed she would not I the most beautiful queen in the world?”
never be well until she could get the heart and “Oh! Indeed you are not.”
the liver of her daughter to eat. “Who, then?”
At nightfall, the king came home, and he “Why, Gold-Tree, your daughter.”
was told that Silver-Tree was very ill. He went “Oh! Well, it is long since she was living. It
where she was and asked her what was wrong is a year since I ate her heart and liver.”
with her. “Oh! Indeed she is not dead. She is mar-
“Oh! Only a thing which you may heal if ried to a great prince abroad.”
you like.” Silver-Tree went home and begged the
“Oh! Indeed there is nothing at all that I king to put the long ship in order. She said, “I
could do for you that I would not do.” am going to see my dear Gold-Tree, for it is so
“If I get the heart and the liver of Gold- long since I have seen her.” The long ship was
Tree, my daughter, to eat, I shall be well.” put in order, and they went away.
601

602 Retellings
Silver-Tree herself was at the helm, and When the prince saw Gold-Tree alive, he
she steered the ship so well that they were not made great rejoicings, and he began to kiss
long at all before they arrived. her, and kiss her, and kiss her.
The prince was out hunting on the hills. Said the second wife, “Since she is the first
Gold-Tree recognized the long ship of her fa- one you had, it is better for you to stick to her,
ther approaching. and I will go away.”
“Oh!” said she to the servants, “my mother “Oh! Indeed you shall not go away, but I
is coming, and she will kill me.” shall have both of you.”
“She shall not kill you at all; we will lock At the end of the year, Silver-Tree went to
you in a room where she cannot get near you.” the glen where there was the well in which
This is how it was done, and when Silver- there was the trout.
Tree came ashore, she began to cry out, “Troutie, bonny little fellow,” said she, “am
“Come to meet your own mother when she not I the most beautiful queen in the world?”
comes to see you.” “Oh! Indeed you are not.”
Gold-Tree said that she could not, that she “Who, then?”
was locked in the room, and that she could not “Why, Gold-Tree, your daughter.”
get out of it. “Oh! Well, she is not alive. It is a year
“Will you not put out your little finger since I put the poisoned stab into her finger.”
through the keyhole, so that your own mother “Oh! Indeed, she is not dead at all, at all.”
may give a kiss to it?” asked Silver-Tree. Silver-Tree went home and begged the
Gold-Tree put out her little finger, Silver- king to put the long ship in order, because she
Tree stuck it with a poisoned stab, and Gold- was going to see her dear Gold-Tree, as it was
Tree fell dead. so long since she had seen her. The long ship
When the prince came home and found was put in order, and they went away.
Gold-Tree dead, he was in great sorrow, and Again, it was Silver-Tree herself who was at
when he saw how beautiful she was, he did not the helm, and she steered the ship so well that
bury her at all, but he locked her in a room they were not long at all before they arrived.
where nobody would get near her. The prince was out hunting on the hills.
In the course of time he married again, Gold-Tree recognized her father’s ship
and the whole house was under the hand of approaching.
his wife but one room, and he himself always “Oh!” said she, “my mother is coming,
kept the key to that room. On a certain day of and she will kill me.”
the days, he forgot to take the key with him, “Not at all,” said the second wife; “we will
and the second wife got into the room. What go down to meet her.”
did she see there but the most beautiful woman Silver-Tree came ashore. “Come down,
that she had ever seen. She began to turn Gold-Tree, love,” said she, “for your own mother
and try to wake her, and she noticed the poi- has come to you with a precious drink.”
soned stab in her finger. She took the stab out, “It is a custom in this country,” said the sec-
and Gold-Tree rose alive, as beautiful as she ond wife, “that the person who offers a drink
had ever been. takes a draught out of it first.”
At the fall of night, the prince came home Silver-Tree put her mouth to it, and the
from the hunting hill looking very downcast. second wife went and struck it so that some of
“What gift,” said his wife, “would you give it went down her throat, and she fell dead.
me if I could make you laugh?” They had only to carry her home a dead
“Oh! Indeed, nothing could make me laugh, corpse and bury her.
except were Gold-Tree to come alive again.” The prince and his two wives were long
“Well, you’ll find her alive down there in alive after this, pleased and peaceful.
the room.” I left them there.

Geser
A Folktale of the Culture Hero of Tibet
Geser is the culture hero of Tibet, with so many tales in his collective epic that they
would fill several volumes. Even in modern times, the tales of Geser remain popu-
lar, as much in defiance of Chinese occupation as a way to keep Tibet’s culture
alive.
I n the very earliest times, in the upper world

there were the fifty-five tenger, the divine spir-
its of the western direction, and the forty-four
Soon after the baby was born, he lifted his
right hand as though about to strike someone,
bent his left leg, then looked at his parents
tenger of the eastern direction. with his right eye wide open and his left eye
The leader of the western tenger was Han squinted. To his parents’ amazement, the baby
Hormasta, and the leader of the eastern tenger spoke.
was Atai Ulaan. There was such anger between “I hold up my right hand to show that
them that at last they fought. Han Hormasta I will always strike my enemies. I bend my
won, tearing Atai Ulaan to bits. But when the left leg to show that I will always kick my
pieces drifted down to Earth, they turned into enemies. My open right eye shows that I
evil spirits and disease. will always see the right path. My squinted
Soon, the people were in despair. There left eye shows that I will always see through
was a powerful female shaman, Sharnaihan deceit.”
Shara, who threw her drumstick to the sky Thus was Bukhe Beligte reborn as a hu-
with such magical force that it landed on the man being.
table of Manzan Gurme Toodei, mother of all Meanwhile, the evil spirits had discovered
the sky spirits. Manzan Gurme Toodei took this fact. Meeting in their barren, sunless
out her shaman mirror and saw the perils from home, they plotted to kill the newborn child.
evil and disease that faced humanity. She They sent a giant rat with a bronze muzzle to
called a meeting of the tenger to decide how kill him. But the baby struck the rat so hard
to save the people. that it shattered into ninety mice.
Han Hormasta had three sons. He de- Then, the evil spirits sent a raven with an
cided to send the middle one, Bukhe Beligte, iron beak and claws to kill the baby. The baby
down to Earth. Reborn as a human, he would smashed the raven into bits and threw the bits
become the protector of the people. all the way back to where the evil spirits were
Meanwhile, on Earth, there lived a poor meeting.
husband and wife named Sengelen Noyon Last, the evil spirits sent a mosquito as
and Naran Goohon. They had no dog, no live- large as a horse to kill the baby. The baby
stock, and practically no possessions, and they cried, “Be forever hungry and fly among the
survived by gathering wild onions and garlic, grass!” and struck it so hard that the giant mos-
netting small fish, and catching rabbits with quito shattered into a cloud of gnats.
snares. But despite their poverty, they were The evil spirits were stunned. Their en-
overjoyed when Naran Goohon found that emy had destroyed three monsters—and he
she would have a child. was still just a baby!
603

604 Retellings
So they went to their foul leader and cried, were older than the boy, and were forever try-
“Oh most powerful evil one, a magical boy ing his strength and the quickness of his mind.
has been born. We need to kill him, smash But Nuhata Nurgai never failed. He grew and
him, crush him!” thrived.
“I shall do this,” their leader snapped. Now, the ruler of the northwestern lands,
He took on the guise of a human shaman Temeen Ulaan, had a beautiful daughter, Tu-
and appeared before Sengelen Noyon and his men Jargalan. He announced that he would
wife. “I am a shaman who has come to help give his daughter in marriage to any man who
and protect your new son.” was able to win three contests of strength.
But as soon as the baby saw who had en- Warriors came from far and wide for the con-
tered, he started screaming. test. Nuhata Nurgai also was there, wearing
The shaman said, “Why is the boy making old clothes and riding a mouse brown colt.
so much noise? Is he ill?” Then the contests began. For the first,
He approached the cradle, ready to snatch Nuhata Nurgai picked up a boulder and threw
up the baby. But as soon as he grew near, his it so hard that it shattered into flints. For the
disguise vanished. The hideous creature second, he uprooted a pine tree and threw it
gnashed his iron fangs and roared, “I shall cut so hard that it shattered into splinters. For the
off your life and eat your soul!” third, he pulled up an ephedra bush and threw
The baby simply grabbed the iron muzzle it so far that no one could see it land.
of the monster and kicked out so hard that the No one else could match him, and so
evil thing’s head flew off. Nuhata Nurgai took Tumen Jargalan home as
The evil spirits left the baby alone after his wife. But he left behind a jealous rival, his
that. uncle Hara Zutan, who hated him from that
The young hero grew rapidly—as much in moment on.
a day as ordinary children grew in a year. He Soon after returning home, Nuhata Nurgai
was never ill and never tired, and he played set out again, riding his mouse brown colt. He
happily every day. reached a country where the ruler, Shaazgai
One day, Sengelen Noyon’s older brother Bayan, was promising to give his daughter in
came to visit. When he saw that they had a marriage to any man who could defeat a giant
child, he was very happy. “But the boy needs warrior.
playmates,” he said. “Let me take this child The giant had a powerful body, with a
with me so that he can grow up and play with chest as wide as the sea. His armor was of
my own two sons.” black forged iron, his bow was the trunk of a
The boy’s parents agreed. tree, and his quiver was made of planks. But
When Sargal Noyon got home, he held a Nuhata Nurgai dodged his arrows, caught him
feast to celebrate the boy’s arrival. He told his up, and threw him out of sight. He took Shaaz-
guests, “Up to this time this boy has had no gai Bayan’s daughter, Urmai Goohon, back to
name. To whomever gives him a name, I will his home, and as the custom was for their peo-
give meat and fat in exchange.” ple, she became his second wife.
An old man leaning on a walking stick Tumen Jargalan and Urmai Goohon got
said, “The boy is sweaty and muddy. Why not along well together. But they could not under-
call him Nuhata Nurgai, Slimy Face?” stand why Nuhata Nurgai seemed to want the
Everybody laughed. It was a silly name, a three of them to have a very dull life together.
perfect name for a boy who had not yet earned They didn’t know that their husband was only
an adult name. And so it was that the newly waiting for the right time.
named Nuhata Nurgai watched Sargal Noyon’s And then, one night Nuhata Nurgai
animals and played with Sargal Noyon’s own climbed to the summit of Mount Sumber and
sons, Altan Shagai and Mungun Shagai. They performed a ritual to honor the tengers. Then

Geser 605
and there, he changed into his true form as beautiful? Is the golden Sun beautiful, or is
Bukhe Beligte, with a warrior’s strong face and Alma Mergen beautiful?”
body, blazing eyes, and long black hair. But life could not stay so peaceful for long.
Looking down from the upper world, Han The head of Atai Ulaan, the tenger who had
Hormasta saw his son and nodded. He was been slain and dismembered by Han Hor-
ready. So Han Hormasta sent down a warrior’s masta, had turned into the monster Arhan
horse and equipment. The horse was a bay, Chotgor. Now, the monster was near Geser’s
with hooves like iron and legs that would never home, lying in wait.
tire. Lightning glittered in its eyes, and its name Arhan Chotgor grabbed the first man who
was Beligen, which means “gift.” came by—but it wasn’t Geser. It was Geser’s
The warrior, who was now known as Geser, uncle Hara Zutan, who still hated Geser. Terri-
grabbed the red reins of the horse, put his feet fied, Hara Zutan told the monster, “I will help
into the silver stirrups, sat upon the silver sad- you hurt him. I will break Geser’s bow and ar-
dle, and rode down into the world. rows. I will steal his wife Urmai Goohon, and
Sengelen Noyon and Naran Goohon re- you can have Tumen Jargalan.”
joiced to know they had borne such a heroic The monster agreed. Late that night, Hara
son, and Tumen Jargalan and Urmai Goohon Zutan stole into Geser’s house, broke the
rejoiced to realize they were married to such antler arrowheads off Geser’s arrows, cut his
a handsome warrior. bowstring, broke his sword, and smashed the
One day, Geser went hunting in the Altai tip of his spear.
Mountains. After three days of hunting, he When Geser came home and found that he
had not found a single deer. On the fourth was weaponless, he dared not wait, not with the
day, he saw a spotted deer running in the for- lives of his wives at stake. He caught up with
est and followed it. Just as he was about to Arhan Chotgor and, without weapons, fought
shoot, a young man on a chestnut horse dashed with all his skill. At last, he managed to break
out of the forest, shot the deer, swung it up on the monster’s neck and slay him.
his horse, and galloped away. Then, he went after Hara Zutan, who fell
Geser rode after him, angry at losing the to his knees before Geser, promising, “I won’t
deer. They came to the shores of Lake Baikal, do anything like this again!”
but the young man never stopped. He rode his Since this was Geser’s uncle, the hero reluc-
horse right into the water and disappeared. tantly forgave Hara Zutan and sent him home.
Geser left his horse and warily followed, But his trouble with Atai Ulaan had not
down into the land of Uha Loson, chief of the ended just yet. Another demonic creature, Gal
water spirits. The rider of the chestnut horse Nurman Khan, had sprung from the first ver-
was none other than the chief’s daughter, Alma tebra of Atai Ulaan’s severed neck. This mon-
Mergen, who had disguised herself as a young ster sprang up from the dry, desolate home of
man while hunting. Uha Loson was delighted the evil spirits and attacked the human world,
to see Geser, because he had known Geser’s setting things on fire wherever he went.
father, Han Hormasta, quite well. The two men Geser tracked Gal Nurman Khan to his
had once agreed that their children would be wilderness home, and they fought. The fiery
married. According to this custom, Alma Mer- demon was stronger than Geser, and, this
gen became Geser’s third wife. time, things looked bleak for the hero. But the
Geser and Alma Mergen rode to his home, force of their fight sent a large chunk of rock
where he built three houses for his three wives. crashing down from a cliff onto the evil being,
All was happiness for a time. Geser would say crushing him.
to his family, “Is the Sun in the sky beautiful, Geser knew that Gal Nurman Khan did
or is Tumen Jargalan beautiful? Is the Sun in not live alone. He went on to fight and slay the
the heavens beautiful, or is Urmai Goohon evil demon-wife and demon-child as well.

606 Retellings
As time passed, Geser’s fame grew. He enough, that simple little stick was the one
tracked down the monster deer Orgoli, which thing that could slay Sherem Minaata Khan.
had swallowed forty people whole. Orgoli tried One blow over the monster’s head, and he lay
to swallow Geser as well, but as Orgoli tried to dead.
suck him in, Geser wedged his spear crosswise Returning home, Geser said to his wives,
in the deer’s mouth and held on. Drawing his “Now that it is a good time, I will fill my
sword, he chopped off Orgoli’s head. Out from quiver with arrows; now that it is a peaceful
the deer’s vast body, saved by Geser, crawled time I will collect my arrows.”
the forty people Orgoli had swallowed. But there can never be rest for a hero.
Many other adventures followed in the en- Geser’s life was forever full of adventures, far
suing years. Geser was not too proud to seek too many to be recounted here. He defeated
help when it was needed. Once, when he knew monsters, demons, and enemies of the realm,
he could not defeat a monster, the powerful and, with his efforts, continually kept peace
Sherem Minaata Khan, Geser listened to the and happiness for the people.
advice of his wives and went to the upper Geser and his wives lived happily for
world. There, he asked his immortal grand- three days and three years—which was to be
mother for aid. She gave him a stick that she the only respite from the hero’s never-ending
used to beat fleece for felt making. Sure adventures.

A Bagful of Tricks
A Uighur Folktale from China
The Uighurs, powerful in Mongolia between the eighth and twelfth centuries, are
Turkic-speaking people who live in northwestern China. The Uighur folktale “A Bag-
ful of Tricks” tells of the trickster figure Effendi Nasreddin. The written record of this
character’s exploits first started appearing in about the thirteenth century c.e., and
there may have been earlier oral tales.
The many tales of Effendi Nasreddin, a fellow who tends to get the better of the
high and mighty, are popular from China to Turkey, where he is called Nasreddin
Hodja, and the Middle East, where he may be called Mullah Nasreddin. All the
honorifics—effendi means “master” in Turkish, a hodja is a scholar, and a mullah is a
religious teacher or leader—attached to his name do not change the fact that
Nasreddin is a gadfly, a satiric wise man who never hesitates to play the fool to
make his point.
O nce there was and once there was not a

padishah, a great ruler, who heard of the
tricks played on the high and mighty by the
true. Can his fame for trickery possibly be
justified?”
“I believe that it can,” said the effendi, get-
Effendi Nasreddin. ting to his feet, “for Nasreddin I am. What can
“I have heard this fellow is able even to I do for you?”
trick a padishah. Can such a thing be?” he “I have heard much about you,” said the
asked. padishah. “I have heard that you can trick
“It is true, your majesty,” his ministers war- anyone and everyone. But I am here to warn
ily assured him. “This Nasreddin may be of you that today you shall not win your little
common blood, but he is truly clever enough game. For no one born has ever been able to
to trick anyone, even a padishah.” fool me.”
“That’s impossible!” raged the padishah. “So, now!” the effendi exclaimed as he
“What, a—a nobody more clever than a ruler? scratched his head. “You are a difficult oppo-
It cannot be so!” nent; I can see that. For you no common trick
To prove his point, the padishah disguised will do. No, I must first go home and get my
himself as a common man and rode off to the special bag full of tricks. Unless, of course, you
village of the effendi. There, he greeted Nasred- are afraid of that bag!”
din, who was sitting peacefully in front of his “Nonsense! Get whatever bag you wish—
house. The padishah said to him, “It is said that but be quick about it!”
here there lives a most clever man, the Effendi “Well, now, my home is a good distance
Nasreddin.” from here. If you would lend me your horse, I
“So it is said.” could be there and back again in almost no
“I have heard amazing tales of his clever- time. Otherwise, I would have to walk and
ness, so amazing that I doubt they can be walk and—”
607

608 Retellings
“Never mind! Here is my horse. Now, go And waiting.

get your bag of tricks. And hurry back here as And waiting.
quickly as you can ride. I am eager to test your Night fell. At last, the truth struck the
cleverness!” padishah: Nasreddin was not coming back.
Effendi Nasreddin bowed low, then leaped “He tricked me!” the padishah admitted.
into the saddle and rode off as swiftly as an ar- “He did just what he set out to do. The Effendi
row from a bow. The padishah stood impa- Nasreddin has tricked the padishah!”
tiently waiting.

The Story of Gelert
A Welsh Local Folktale
The story of the faithful dog Gelert is an example of a local legend—the Welsh
town of Beddgelert (also called Beth-Gelert), or “Gelert’s Grave,” was named for
it—and of a world tale, since similar stories of similarly faithful dogs and mistrust-
ful masters can be found around the world. This particular version dates from the
nineteenth century.
S omewhere around the year 1200, Prince

Llewellyn had a castle at Aber. Indeed,
parts of the towers remain to this day. His con-
“Where’s Gelert? I don’t see him.”
“Well, indeed, master, I’ve missed him this
half hour.”
sort was Princess Joan, the daughter of King And Llewellyn blew his horn, but no Gel-
John. Llewellyn was a great hunter of wolves ert came at the sound.
and foxes, for the hills of Carnarvonshire were Indeed, Gelert had gotten on to a wolves’
infested with wolves in those days, after the track that led to the house.
young lambs. The prince sounded the return, and they
Now, the prince had several hunting went home, the prince lamenting Gelert. “He’s
houses, and one of them was at the place now sure to have been slain—he’s sure to have
called Beth-Gelert, where the wolves were been slain since he did not answer the horn.
very thick at this time. The prince used to Oh, my Gelert!”
travel from farmhouse to farmhouse with his And they approached the house, and the
family and friends when going on these hunt- prince went into the house, and saw Gelert ly-
ing parties. ing by the overturned cradle, and blood all
One season, they went hunting from Aber, about the room.
and they stopped at the house where Beth- “What! Hast thou slain my child?” asked
Gelert is now—which was about 14 miles away. the prince, and ran his sword through the dog.
The prince had all his hounds with him, but his After that, he lifted up the cradle to look
favorite was Gelert, a hound who had never let for his child and found underneath it the body
off a wolf for six years. of a big wolf that Gelert had slain. His child
The prince loved the dog like a child, and, was safe. Gelert had capsized the cradle in the
at the sound of his horn, Gelert was always the scuffle.
first to come bounding up. There was com- “Oh, Gelert! Oh, Gelert!” said the prince.
pany at the house, and, one day, they went “My favorite hound! My favorite hound!
hunting, leaving Llewellyn’s wife behind at Thou hast been slain by thy master’s hand,
the farmhouse with their child in a big wooden and in death thou hast licked thy master’s
cradle. hand!” He patted the dog, but it was too late,
The hunting party killed three or four and poor Gelert died licking his master’s
wolves. About two hours before the word hand.
passed for returning home, Llewellyn missed The next day, they made a coffin and had
Gelert, and he asked his huntsmen: a regular funeral, the same as if Gelert were
609

610 Retellings
a human being, all the servants and every- Grave). The prince planted a tree and laid a
body else in deep mourning. gravestone of slate, though it was before the
They made Gelert a grave, and the village days of quarries. And they are to be seen there
was called after the dog, Beth-Gelert (Gelert’s to this day.

Vainamoinen
A Finnish Hero Tale
Vainamoinen is one of the heroes of the Finnish epic the Kalevala, which was com-
piled from epic ballads by Elias Lönnrot in the late nineteenth century. Although
Vainamoinen looks like an old man, he has the magical strength of a true wizard
and the spirit of a warrior.
V ainamoinen was the son not of a mortal

woman but of an air spirit, Ilmatar. Il-
matar, impregnated by the wind, came to rest
“I will sing the best singer into the worst!”
Joukahaimen replied, and he set out, heedless
of his parents’ pain.
on the earth ocean for long years while the It was Vainamoinen whom Joukahaimen
world formed around her, and her son grew in truly wished to meet and defeat. It was
her womb. For sixty years, Vainamoinen lived Vainamoinen he did meet, quite by accident.
and grew in that warm, safe prison, but, at last, The winter snow was heavy, leaving only a
he could stand this strange captivity no longer narrow road down which he drove his sleigh,
and burst free into the world. just as Vainamoinen was driving the other
His long time in the womb had marked way. Vainamoinen had the right of way, but
him. Vainamoinen was no babe, no young Joukahaimen refused to give it. Shaft tangled
boy. He was a gray-bearded man, old yet not with shaft, trace with trace, and the two sleighs
old, wise with more than human knowledge, came to a sudden rough stop.
a skilled singer of magic songs. “Who are you?” Vainamoinen shouted.
But the world into which he’d arrived was “What clan, rude one?”
still barren and bleak. Vainamoinen set about “I am Joukahaimen. Now name your own
sowing the world for humankind, fruit and lowly clan!”
field and forest, and he sang the world’s first “I am Vainamoinen. Move aside, young-
magic sowing song as he did, ensuring fertile ster. I have no quarrel with a boy.”
crops forever after. Now, the world was done, “My youth is a small matter!” Jouka-
and humans flourished like the forest trees. haimen retorted. “It’s our knowledge that’s
Word of Vainamoinen’s primal deeds and the point, our magic skill. It’s he who is the
magic songs spread. And whenever there is master there who should have the right of
one well known for a skill, along will come way.”
a younger one to challenge him. “What do I know?” Vainamoinen said with
Joukahaimen was a young magician, a great sarcasm. “I have always lived my life as a
spell singer who fancied himself quite a master farmer, sowing crops. And what, young man,
of the craft. He was full of pride and the arro- do you know?”
gance of the untried, and he meant to pick Joukahaimen never heard the sarcasm,
fights with other wizards, singing them into never saw how he was being baited. He
defeat. boasted of the wondrous things he’d seen and
His father forbade it, and his mother heard, expecting this old graybeard to cringe
pleaded, “They will bewitch you; they will de- in fright. He told of knowing the trees in every
stroy you, sing you into helpless snow!” forest, the fish in every stream. He told of
611

612 Retellings
knowing how the North plowed with a rein- arrows into hawks, sang Joukahaimen’s cap
deer, the South with a mare. into a cloud, his gloves into lilies in the pond,
But all Vainamoinen said was, “Childish his coat into a patch of sky.
knowledge. Easy things. What else do you And still Vainamoinen sang, his fury yet un-
know?” abated, sang against Joukahaimen himself, sang
Stung, Joukahaimen boasted of more and the young man into the ground to his ankles, his
wondrous things he’d learned. He told of knees, his armpits. All the while, Joukahaimen
knowing the origin of birds, the language of tried his best to fight back, to sing a spell song in
snakes, the heart of water from a mountain, the self-defense, but not a word would come. He
heart of fire from the lightning, the heart of rust could not pull so much as a foot free from
in iron. the earth, and, all the while, Vainamoinen was
Vainamoinen heard him out, all these singing him deeper, ever deeper!
young man’s boastings, then asked mildly, “Is “Wait! Good, kind, wise Vainamoinen,
this all? Has your ranting come at last to its wait. Reverse your spells; release me. I will
end?” give you any payment you desire, any ransom
Still not seeing how the old man baited you may name.”
him, Joukahaimen boasted wildly, claiming That pierced the cloud of Vainamoinen’s
that he had plowed the sea, set the land in wrath, though it did not dissolve it utterly.
place, sowed it with seed—even that he’d “What payment would you make?”
guided the Sun and Moon and set the stars in “I have two fine bows—”
the sky. “I have no need of your bows.” And he
“Now I know you lie,” Vainamoinen said. sang Joukahaimen deeper into the earth.
“No one saw you plow the sea; nor were you “I have two swift boats—”
there when the world was made. Small wit, “I have no need of your boats.” And he
yours, if you claim such things.” sang Joukahaimen deeper into the earth.
“If I have small wit,” Joukahaimen “Horses, then! I have fine stallions, mighty
snapped, “then I’ll let my sword speak for me!” steeds—”
Vainamoinen only looked at him with “I have no need of horses.” And he sang
scorn. “I’m not afraid of you, youngster, nor of Joukahaimen deeper yet into the earth.
your sword or wit. Enough of this game. Be off On and on Joukahaimen ranted, offering
with you.” anything that was his to give and many things
Joukahaimen nearly roared with rage. that were not. But Vainamoinen was not
“Whoever fears to fight a duel, him will I sing moved.
into the shape of a pig! A dead pig in a At last, despairing, buried to his chin and
dunghill!” spitting out mud, the young man pleaded, “Re-
Vainamoinen hissed in sudden fury. That verse your spells. Sing them backward and re-
this mere child should dare insult him thus! He lease me, oh, wondrous wizard. In my mother’s
began to sing—began to sing the magic songs. house there lives my sister, fairest Aino. Sing
No children’s rhymes were these, no boyish me free, Vainamoinen, and she shall be your
things. Pure magic were they, so mighty that wife.”
the land around him shook and mountains Vainamoinen paused. A wife. He had been
trembled. lonely, alone of his kind. A wife would warm his
And he sang magic over young Jouka- days and nights. Vainamoinen sang the young
haimen, sang green sprouts onto his bow, wil- man free, restoring clothes and weapons, sleigh
lows onto his sleigh’s shafts, sang the sleigh and horse.
itself into a pond and the horse into a rock, Joukahaimen stammered out nervous
sang Joukahaimen’s sword into lightning, his thanks, no longer the arrogant young wizard.

Vainamoinen 613
He hurried home in such haste that he crashed Vainamoinen wept for her, grieved for
the sleigh against the side of his parents’ house. her, and, in the grieving, maybe wept a bit
And so ended the duel. But alas, when she for himself, so old, so wise, yet so lonely.
heard she was to wed the ancient, mighty wiz- Aino stayed in the ocean, transformed into a
ard, Aino heard nothing of “mighty” or “wiz- fish. And there Vainamoinen was forced to
ard.” She listened to no word about how kind leave her.
Vainamoinen would be to her, how easy and Aino’s tale ends in the sea. Vainamoinen,
happy her life would be. No, Aino heard only though, the mighty wizard, Vainamoinen went
“ancient.” Crying that she would not be married on to more adventures.
off to an old, old man, and one who was not But never did he, greatest of spell singers,
even truly human, Aino cast herself into the sea. wisest of heroes, win a wife for himself.

Guigemar
A Medieval French Hero Tale
“Guigemar,” one of Marie de France’s twelfth-century heroic romances, shows some

of the roots of the modern romance as well as many of the traditions of medieval
folktales and chansons de geste. The tale contains familiar folk themes, such as the
hero who does not know love and the knot that cannot be untied by any but the
lover.
In the case of the hero who does not know love, examples can be found in
mythology and folklore, such as in the Teutonic story of Siegfried, in which the hero
does not know love until he sees Brynhild and is smitten, and in European folktales
such as “The Boy Who Never Shuddered.” The knot that cannot be untied is an
echo of the bow that can be drawn only by Odysseus or Rama, or the sword that
can be drawn only by the rightful king. There is also the twelfth-century image of
courtly love, in which a young man and woman are ideally to love each other truly,
without the burden of marriage. As an educated woman, Marie de France would
have been well aware of these themes.
G uigemar was a handsome, brave young

man with only one flaw: He had never
known love and had no real interest in the
a deliriously happy time together, but of
course the old man found out.
The young woman tied a knot in Guige-
subject. Then, in a hunting accident, he was mar’s shirt, telling him that only the woman
wounded by an arrow and told by the hind he loved would be able to untie it. He fastened
that he had wounded that nothing could cure his belt (symbolizing a chastity belt) about her
him but the woman he loved. waist, saying that only the one who loved her
Since Guigemar wanted to be healed, he would be able to remove it.
went questing for a woman to love. But when Then, Guigemar was captured by the old
he took shelter for the night in an abandoned man’s guards and thrown into his ship, which
ship, he awoke to find himself helplessly adrift. was cast adrift. Everyone was sure that the
Since he had no idea how to sail a ship, he young man would die.
prayed to God for help. But the old man made a mistake; one day,
The ship sailed straight into a castle’s har- he neglected to lock the door. His wife stole
bor. The ruler of that castle was an old man away, found a small boat, and cast off, hoping
who kept his young wife a prisoner locked in to join Guigemar in death. Instead, the boat
her chambers. But her attendants were sympa- took her to another castle.
thetic to her plight, and when they found the This castle was ruled over by Meriaduc, a
handsome young Guigemar, they spirited him strong lord who instantly fell in love with the
to her. She healed his wound, and the two beautiful young woman. He wanted to take
young people fell utterly in love. They spent her to bed but could not unfasten Guigemar’s
614

Guigemar 615
belt. Frustrated, he told her that there was an- a joyous but brief reunion between him and
other like her, a young man with a knotted his love.
shirt that no woman could remove. Learning As soon as the knot was untied and the
that Guigemar was still alive, the young belt removed, Meriaduc stated that he would
woman nearly fainted with joy. not give the young woman up.
Now that Meriaduc knew that she loved Guigemar left and later returned with
Guigemar, he planned a tournament, knowing an army. He captured the castle and killed
that it would lure Guigemar to the castle. Sure Meriaduc. Guigemar and his love went off to-
enough, the young man arrived, and there was gether with much rejoicing.

A Story of Gwydion
A Medieval Welsh Mythic Tale
Gwydion is a powerful but good-hearted magician-prince who is a major charac-

ter in the Welsh medieval collection of tales called the Mabinogion. Gwydion orig-
inally may have been a deity, like his uncle Math, but this point is still being
debated by scholars.
This is only part of the long and complex tale of Gwydion, whose adventures are
included in the Mabinogion. The first four stories of this work, which predate the
written Mabinogion, are referred to as the “four branches.” There is much debate
about just how old the “four branches” are, but elements in the four tales make a
good case for roots in the pre-Christian era. This assessment could place the stories
as far back as the first millennium b.c.e.
G wydion came from a magical family. His

uncle Math was the son of Mathonwy,
ruler of the land of Gwynedd in present-day
had little enough to do with each other, she
like chill winter, he like bright summer), to
claim the title. Gwydion wondered at that,
northern Wales. Math was a powerful magician, since he knew his sister was hardly pure in ei-
the strongest in all the realm. And Gwydion was ther sense. But come forward she did—to her
no weak conjurer. shame.
Ah no, Gwydion could transform sticks to Any candidate for foot-holder must first
boars, weeds to shoes, whatever he wished step over a magic wand, and the moment
into whatever he wished, himself included, Aranhrod did so, she cried out and gave birth
without any difficulty at all. Since he was a on the spot to two children. One, a finely
good man at heart, this great talent was gener- formed boy, was named Dylan, son of the wave
ally no problem to Gwydion or to others. (for, as it turned out later, he was a child of the
Generally, that is. fair folk of the sea). The second was barely
Gwydion had gotten himself into trouble formed at all, a baby too soon torn from the
by sympathizing with his lovesick brother. womb.
Gwydion had used his magic to win a young Aranhrod fled without a backward glance,
woman for his brother. She had been the ritual but Gwydion, his heart aching with pity for
foot-holder for Math, whose power was such his too-new nephew, swept the poor thing up
that his feet must never touch the bare earth. in his cloak and rushed off for his quarters.
The young magician had spent time in animal There, he magicked a chest into a warming
shape after helping his brother, thanks to his container, as close to a womb as his magic
angry uncle’s greater magic. could make it, and placed the baby safely
So now another foot-holder had to be within.
found. No easy matter that, since the young “Live, little one,” he whispered. “Grow
woman chosen must be pure of heart and strong and healthy.”
body. Aranhrod came forward, she who was And so the baby did. Taken at last from
Gwydion’s sister (though, truth to tell, they the chest, he was as healthy and lusty lunged
616

A Stor y of Gwydion 617
as any baby normally born. Gwydion found a “A shoemaker has come here, lady, and he
nurse for him, a cheerful woman with milk for has the finest leather that ever I’ve seen.”
more than her own baby. The only thing Aranhrod had her feet outlined on a bit of
Gwydion could not do for his nephew was cowhide. “Give this to the shoemaker. Have
name him. That task, by law and magic, must him make me a pair of shoes.”
be done by the boy’s mother. But Gwydion cleverly made them far too
“In time,” Gwydion said. “In time.” big. The next pair he made too small. Then he
And time passed. The baby grew to a fine, grumbled, as a real shoemaker might, “I can-
handsome boy, as fair as Gwydion and warm not work from charts alone! I must work from
of heart. the lady’s living foot.”
“Now, what woman would not be joyous Aranhrod was not about to let a stranger
to see so fine a son?” Gwydion thought, watch- into her fortress. She went down to him. And
ing the boy laughing and running at play. while Gwydion was pretending to measure
“Even Aranhrod surely will feel some soften- her foot, the boy, her son, played at hunting.
ing of her cold heart at the sight of him.” A wren landed on the boat’s mast, and the boy
But Aranhrod had no desire to be re- shot it down with a stone from his sling so
minded of her humiliation back at Math’s neatly that Aranhrod cried out, “What a sure
court. “That is not my son. In fact, I place this hand that fair-haired child has shown!”
curse on him: He shall have no name save from “And what a fine name you have given
my lips, and my lips shall never utter a name him!” Gwydion cried, dropping his magical
for him.” disguise. “Lleu Llaw Gyffes, Fair-haired Sure
The magic in this curse was strong, for of Hand, shall he be!”
Aranhrod had inherited some of the family Raging, Aranhrod shouted, “I put this
powers as well. Gwydion drew back in horror, curse on him, then: He shall never take arms
for how could a man without a name ever win till I arm him—and that, I shall never do!”
honor for himself? “You are a wicked woman For a man in that warrior world not to be
to harm one who never harmed you! But I able to use weapons was a harsh curse, in-
vow that name him you shall.” deed. “A wicked woman you were; a wicked
Back Gwydion went to Caer Dathl, his woman you are,” Gwydion told her. “But I
fortress, and he thought long and long again swear this: He shall take arms!”
on what he must do. He walked along the Gwydion sailed back to his fortress with
beach below the fortress, now and again star- his newly named nephew, soothing the boy’s
ing across the water at Aranhrod’s fortress, fear. “You have a name. I will win you arms;
Caer Aranhrod, on its island, and the gathered never fear. Have I not given my word?”
dulse and seaweed. From this, he conjured a But first some time had to pass, time
ship and a great mass of the finest cordovan in which Lleu Llaw Gyffes grew into a fine
leather. No one had ever seen more supple, youngster just on the edge of manhood. But
beautiful leather! Gwydion saw the pain in his eyes when the
“Of course not,” Gwydion said with a other boys Lleu’s age practiced with sword or
laugh. “For it comes not from some poor cow spear.
but from my own will.” “Come,” he said to his nephew. “Time for
He cast magic over himself and his nephew you to be armed.”
as well, making them look like nothing more He cast a spell over them both, making
than a common shoemaker and his apprentice, them look like a world-weary bard and his ap-
then set sail for Caer Aranhrod. A messenger prentice, then traveled back to Caer Aranhrod.
came scurrying down from the fortress to see Bards were always welcome in those days, so it
who had come, then went scurrying back up to was with no difficulty at all that Gwydion and
his mistress. Lleu won entry. Gwydion happened to be a

618 Retellings
fine teller of tales, so Aranhrod listened to him yet,” Math said after a while. “Come, nephew.
without the slightest doubt that he was, indeed, We must gather flowers.”
a bard. And, as a bard, he and his “apprentice” “Flowers?”
were given a fine sleeping chamber that night. “If we cannot find a bride for Lleu, then
Long before dawn, Gwydion arose and we shall make one.”
called his magic powers to him. As the sun Math and Gwydion worked long hours
rose, the air filled with the sounds of war: over the flowers they had gathered. What
trumpets blared; men shouted; weapons spells they said, what charms they wove, none
clashed. It was not long before Aranhrod her- can guess. But at the end of it all, there were
self came to the chamber and said, “Bards, I two very weary magicians—and one woman,
will not deny that we’re in a sorry fix. There is as new as the springtime, as lovely as the flow-
no way out for you—for any of us—but to ers. Blodeuedd, they named her, and gave her
fight. And we need every able-bodied man. to Lleu as his bride. Math gave them both
Will you fight?” Cantref Dinoding to rule over, and, for a time,
“Gladly,” Gwydion said, and began don- all went well with Lleu and his strange lady.
ning the armor Aranhrod’s men had brought. But Blodeuedd was, after all, made of
“Och, but my lad there is still new to weaponry. flowers. She lacked the deep soul of a true hu-
Won’t you help him with his armor, lady?” man woman. One day, Gronw Pebyr, Lord of
Now Aranhrod was in such a frantic state, Penllyn, stopped by Lleu’s fortress when he
she thought nothing of it. But as she finished was not at home. Blodeuedd gave Gronw hos-
helping the “apprentice” don armor, the clamor pitality. And after the two of them had spent
of battle stopped as suddenly as though cut off some time in staring hotly at each other, she
by a wall. The disguise fell from Gwydion and gave him a great deal more.
Lleu. “Thank you, Sister!” the magician cried “But I have a husband,” she murmured to
ironically. “For now Lleu is armed, and by your Gronw.
own hands.” “Such can be removed.”
“May you suffer for what you’ve done!” “Not he. He is the nephew and great-
“I? I’ve done nothing but help your son.” nephew of magicians, and not vulnerable as
“Many a boy could have come to grief are ordinary men.”
during your magical tricks!” “He still breathes like ordinary men. There
“Nary a one. And it’s you who should suf- must be a way to slay him. Find it, Blodeuedd.”
fer, Sister, for the harm you wished on Lleu. That night, Lleu returned home, and
But now—” Blodeuedd pretended to be joyous. But later,
“But now my curse on him! May he never she pretended just as easily to be sorrowful.
find a wife of any race known in this world!” “Why, now, wife, what’s wrong?”
“He has a name, no thanks to you, he “If you must know, husband, I am worry-
bears arms, no thanks to you, and he shall yet ing about your death. If someone should kill
find a wife, no thanks to you!” you—”
But Gwydion left that fortress saddened. “Och, foolish! It is not easy to kill me.”
This time no simple trick of illusion would “Why not? Are you not a man? Love,
help. Where would Lleu find a wife if not please, please, don’t jest with me!”
among the races of the world? Lleu saw the worry in her eyes and
“If I cannot help Lleu,” Gwydion thought, thought—how not?—that it was all for him.
“then perhaps Math can. He is, after all, the “Love, hear me: It would not be easy to kill
most powerful magician in the realm.” me even with a cast of a spear. For that spear
So off Gwydion went to his uncle, to tell could only be made by someone working on it
him all that had befallen. “All is not lost, not a year, and only on each holy day at that.”

A Stor y of Gwydion 619
“But then you could be slain!” sharply up, and there in that tree, on the up-
“Not easily. For I cannot be killed in a house permost branch, was a sickly eagle, weak and
nor outside, neither on horse nor on foot.” all but dead, and it was from this bird that the
“Then—then, how could you be slain?” rotten flesh fell.
He still thought the worry in her eyes was “Lleu,” Gwydion breathed. “You don’t
for him, all for him, and Lleu smiled at his even remember being human, poor wounded
wife and told her, “One must make a bath for lad, do you?”
me on the river bank, and construct a roof He began, very softly and carefully, to
over the tub, as though to make it a good shel- sing the eagle out of the tree, his magic tender.
ter. Then, that one must find a goat and bring At the first verse, the eagle slid down from the
it beside the tub. I must stand with one foot on upper branch to a lower. At the second verse,
the goat’s back, the other on the edge of the the eagle slipped down to the lowest branch.
tub. Only then can I be slain.” And at the third verse, he landed weakly on
Of course, Blodeuedd pretended to be Gwydion’s knee. Gwydion touched him with
greatly relieved—and, of course, she sent word magic, and the eagle was Lleu again, but Lleu
to Gronw, who set about making the spear. A was so gravely thin and sick that Gwydion
year passed, and then, when Blodeuedd heard feared he would die. Hastily, the magician
that the spear was done, she said to Lleu, “This brought him home, and all the doctors
is foolish of me, my lord, I know it. But . . . och, in Gwynedd tended him.
I cannot picture how one could possibly stand And at the end of the year, Lleu was
with one foot on a goat’s back and the other on healthy again.
the edge of a tub! Surely that’s impossible!” “Now,” Gwydion murmured to Math, “is
In that year, she had given Lleu nothing the time for justice.”
but assurances of her love. And he, young “Indeed,” Math agreed, and mustered his
man that he was, never thought once of how men.
foolish he was being. “Come, love, I’ll show Off they rode for Cantref Dinoding, which
you how it can be done.” had all this while been in the hands of Gronw
So he stood with one foot on the edge of Pebyr and the treacherous Blodeuedd. When
the tub placed at the riverbank and all roofed Blodeuedd saw the army, she cried out in ter-
over, and the other foot on the goat. ror, “Gwydion has come for me!”
And Gronw cast the fatal spear. Lleu She fled out across the wilderness, but no
screamed as it pierced him. But Lleu had just matter how she ran, Gwydion was right be-
enough magic in his blood to change to an ea- hind her. At last, she could go no farther.
gle’s form and fly away. “Don’t kill me!”
Gwydion, far from there at the court of “I won’t,” Gwydion agreed grimly. “But
Math, felt his nephew’s cry in every nerve and for the shame and harm you brought upon
sinew. “Uncle—” Lleu, you shall never see the light of day again.
“I felt it, too.” You shall fly only by night, and all the other
“I will find him,” Gwydion swore. “I will birds shall hate you. Yes, birds, Blodeuedd. No
know no rest till I find him.” longer flowers, but owl, no longer Blodeuedd
He wandered here and there and here but Blodeuwedd.” And Blodeuwedd, “flower
again, and rested one night in the hut of a face,” she became, for that is the look of an
swineherd. Gwydion, waking early, saw one owl’s face, and she flew despairingly away.
sow set off from the pen at a good clip and fol- As for Gronw Pebyr, it was Lleu who cor-
lowed, wondering. She came to a tree, where nered that villain. “What fine will you ac-
she fed on that which fell from it. And that was cept?” Gronw cried. “Copper? Silver? Gold?
a terrible thing: rotten flesh. Gwydion looked Name your blood price, and I will pay it!”

620 Retellings
“No blood price save this,” Lleu replied right through the stone—and through Gronw,
coldly. “A cast of a spear as you gave to too.
me.” Lleu Llaw Gyffes took possession of his
Gronw snatched up a great stone to land once more, and ruled it well. And as for
shield himself, but so powerful was the fury Gwydion and his adventures after—that tale is
of Lleu Llaw Gyffes that his spear stabbed not known.

Raven Steals the Sun
An American Myth from the Pacific Northwest
Raven is a major trickster figure and religious personage in the mythic traditions of
most of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest. This particular tale is told
with only minor variations by all the cultural groups of the region.
I n the days before the rules of things were set

down, the world and sky alike were forever
dark, so dark that nothing could be seen—so
But his daughter wept and swore that she
had never met another man nor given anyone
her love.
dark, in fact, that Raven could not see to hunt. So time passed with no solving of the mys-
He quickly grew weary of flying into rocks tery. At last, she gave birth to a plump, hand-
and tripping over roots. some baby boy. The old man was so delighted
“This will never do,” he said. with his new grandson that he forgot to be an-
So Raven listened. He heard, from gry with his daughter. He was so delighted
where no one knows, that there was one that he wanted to fulfill his grandson’s every
source of light, one bright golden ball kept wish.
by a greedy old man who would not share it He was so delighted that he never noticed
with anyone. that the baby had clever black eyes—the eyes
“This will never do,” Raven repeated, and of Raven reborn.
went in search of the old man. One day, Raven began to wail. He began
At last, he came to the old man’s lodge, to whine. He began to shout and beat his
and waited in hiding to see what he would arms and legs on the ground. “Gimmee!” he
learn. shrieked. “Gimmee!”
So, now! The old man had a young daugh- The sound was horrible. Hands over his
ter. Quick-witted Raven swiftly designed a ears, the old man asked, “Give you what?
plan. What do you want, Grandson?”
“May I be a pine needle floating upon the “Gimmee! Gimmee!”
water,” he said. The old man gave Raven toy after toy, but
And instantly, he became a pine needle Raven batted them all away.
floating upon the water. “Gimmee! Gimmee!”
“May the old man’s daughter have a great The old man was at his wits’ end. “What
thirst,” Raven whispered, “and may she drink do you want?” he shouted.
me right down.” “Ball! Want golden ball!”
Instantly, the old man’s daughter was “No!”
seized by a great thirst. Grabbing up a cedar- “Want! Want! Want!”
wood drinking cup, she gulped down water— With each shriek, Raven’s voice grew
and drank down Raven with the water. shriller. At last, the old man could stand no
Soon after that, the belly of the old man’s more of it. Warily, he opened the cedar chest
daughter began to swell with child. in which he kept the golden ball. Instantly, a
“Who is the father?” the old man shouted. beautiful golden glow spread throughout the
“Name him!” darkness.
621

622 Retellings
“Here,” the old man said. “But be careful But Eagle still pursued Raven, and his
with it!” mighty wings were gaining with every stroke.
“Oh, I will!” Raven cried. Raven was still burdened by the weight of the
Suddenly, he was bird-Raven again. The golden ball.
golden ball firmly clutched in his talons, he “No!” he shouted.
flapped up and away. Angrily, he broke off another piece of the
“Come back!” the old man cried. golden ball and hurled it into the sky.
“Sorry, but no!” Raven called back. And that was the birth of the Moon.
Now, Raven had a rival, Eagle. In the But Eagle still pursued Raven, and his
days before light, Eagle couldn’t find Raven mighty wings were gaining with every stroke.
easily. But all at once he could see Raven Raven was still burdened by the weight of
clearly! He flew after his rival, his mighty what was left of the golden ball.
wings gaining with every stroke. And Raven, “So be it!” he shouted.
oh, Raven was burdened by the weight of the Crumbling up what was left of the golden
golden ball. Eagle would catch him! ball, he threw the gleaming, glittering pieces
“No!” Raven shouted. into the sky. Lighter now, he quickly outflew
Angrily, he broke off a piece of the golden Eagle.
ball and hurled it into the sky. And in the sky . . . well, now, that was the
And that was the birth of the Sun. birth of the stars

Orpheus and Eurydice
An Ancient Greek Myth
Orpheus was an Argonaut, one of Jason’s crew aboard the ship Argo in the heroic
quest for the Golden Fleece, but he is best known for this tragic tale of his love for
Eurydice. It is a tale type found throughout the world: the quest to the underworld
to save a loved one from death. The tale type can be found in the Sumerian myth
of Inanna’s descent to the underworld. It also can be found in folktales from
around the world, including one from the American Southwest in which a man
tries to rescue his wife from the afterlife, only to learn that she does not want
to leave.
O rpheus was the son of Apollo, god of mu-

sic, and the muse Calliope. With so noble
a heritage, he was born with amazing talent.
his sorrow, and even Hades bowed his proud
head.
“You may take Eurydice away with you.
Orpheus’s father presented him with a lyre But there is one condition. You must lead her,
and taught the boy to play it. Soon Orpheus but you must not so much as glance back at
was such a wondrous musician that men and her until you both have reached the upper air
women wept to hear him, and even the and the land of the living.”
wildest beasts grew tame hearing him play. “I shall do it,” Orpheus swore.
Lovely young Eurydice and he met, and He led Eurydice up the dark, rocky, steep
loved, and became joyous husband and wife. passages. Utter silence surrounded them, wear-
But not long after their marriage, a shepherd ing on Orpheus’s nerves. What if Eurydice
made advances to Eurydice. She ran from wasn’t following him? What if Hades had
him—and, in her haste, she stepped on a tricked him?
snake lying hidden in the grass. It bit her, and No! He would not look back.
poor Eurydice died. They climbed farther up in the darkness
Orpheus released his grief in song, ex- and heavy silence. What if it wasn’t Eurydice
pressing bitter sorrow in music to gods and following him? What if it was some demon of
men alike. But no one could aid him. At last, the underworld?
his grief unchecked, Orpheus vowed to snatch No! He would not look back!
Eurydice back from the realm of the dead. They were almost at the entrance to the
So Orpheus traveled down to the under- upper world, the world of the living. Was Eu-
world. His song moved all who heard it, and rydice still following? Was it Eurydice? Was
even Cerberus, the terrible three-headed dog- she—
guardian, whined and crouched down to let Orpheus glanced behind him. Instantly,
Orpheus pass. At last, Orpheus sang before Eurydice was swept away from him, back to
Hades, the king of the underworld, and Perse- the underworld. Orpheus was left alone once
phone, Hades’s wife. Persephone wept to hear more.
623

Perseus
A Greek Myth of a Culture Hero
Perseus is a culture hero of ancient Greece. His story includes several folk motifs.
First is the princess locked away in a tower where no one but a hero (or, in this case,
a god) can reach her. Then there is the prophecy that a king will be killed by his son
or grandson, which the king tries in vain to overturn. In another familiar motif,
Perseus performs a classic hero quest, slaying Medusa and then rescuing a princess
from a dragon. All these elements make him of particular interest to folklorists and
storytellers alike.
T here once lived a king named Acrisius

whose daughter was named Danae. But
an oracle warned Acrisius that a son of Danae
What could the furious Polydectes do?
He couldn’t simply have Perseus slain. That
would not be a kingly act. Instead, he se-
would be the one to kill him. Loving life more cretly plotted to be rid of the inconvenient
than his daughter, Acrisius locked Danae in young man.
a bronze tower with no door and only one The king announced that he would be mar-
small window. Now, the king thought, his rying another royal woman, and that everyone
daughter would never marry or have children. who was loyal to him must bring a suitably no-
He would be safe from the prophecy. ble present. Perseus alone could bring nothing
Acrisius had reckoned without consider- because, as Polydectes knew very well, Perseus
ing the gods. A bright shower of gold blazed owned nothing. But this was the king’s chance.
in through the window in Danae’s tower and He pretended to be offended, claiming that the
turned into the splendid Zeus, chief of the young man to whom he’d given hospitality was
gods. God and mortal woman loved each other, useless and disloyal—knowing perfectly well
and, in time, Danae bore a son, whom she what would happen.
named Perseus. Sure enough, the insulted Perseus cried that
When Acrisius found Danae with her son, he could bring Polydectes anything the king
he was terrified and furious. He would not let might wish.
the prophecy come true! So he had Danae and “Then bring me the head of the Gorgon
Perseus shut in a large chest and cast out to sea. Medusa!” King Polydectes stated.
But the chest did not sink. It floated safely “Done!” Perseus retorted.
over the waves to the island of Seriphos, Only as he set out on his quest for the
where mother and son were rescued by King Gorgon did Perseus discover what he was
Polydectes. hunting. There were three Gorgons, Eryale,
Perseus grew up to become a fine, clever Stheno, and Medusa. They had once been hu-
young man. But King Polydectes grew ob- man sisters, but they had offended the gods,
sessed with Danae’s beauty. He asked for her and now they laired together, three monsters.
hand, but she refused him. Polydectes would Medusa was the most terrible of the three, but
have wed her by force, but Perseus stood be- also the only one who was still mortal. She
tween them. had writhing serpents for hair, and her stare
624

Perseus 625
could turn a man instantly to stone. Perseus Perseus raised his shield, using it as a mir-
secretly despaired, wondering how he could ror, and saw Medusa and her sisters asleep.
ever take her head. Hastily, he put on the Cap of Darkness and
Fortunately for Perseus, the goddess Athene flew down. Still watching only in the shield-
hated Medusa. She appeared before the startled mirror, he swung the sickle and felt it cut
Perseus, a tall, handsome, cool-eyed woman. through Medusa’s neck. Not daring to look
Beside her stood a golden-haired young man away from the image in the shield, he forced
wearing winged sandals. This was Hermes, the Medusa’s head into the magic wallet. As
messenger of the gods. Medusa’s sisters woke to attack, Perseus quickly
“We have decided to help you slay flew away.
Medusa,” Perseus was told. Perseus performed one act of kindness on
Hermes gave Perseus the winged sandals the flight back to Seriphos. He met Atlas, the
and the deadly metal sickle that Cronos had huge Titan who had been sentenced by Zeus
once used to overpower his father, Uranus. to hold up the sky. At the Titan’s weary re-
Athene gave him a highly polished shield, as quest, he showed Atlas Medusa’s head, turn-
shiny as a mirror. Perseus would be able to ing him to stone so that he could no longer
slay Medusa by looking only at her reflection, feel the weight of his burden.
and would not be turned to stone. Perseus flew on, skimming the seacoast.
“Now you must find the Graeae,” Hermes Suddenly, he saw what looked like a lovely
said. “You must win from them the way to the statue chained to a rock. But as Perseus flew
Stygian Nymphs.” lower, he realized that it wasn’t a statue, but
With that, the two gods vanished. a beautiful young woman.
Perseus set out to find the Graeae. When “Who are you?” he cried. “Why are you
he reached their cave, he hid, watching them. chained here?”
What strange beings they were! They seemed She turned a tearful face up to him. “I am
almost like ancient women, but they had only Andromeda, and I am here because my mother
one eye among the three of them, and took boasted about me. She claimed that I was
turns using it—when they weren’t busy fight- more beautiful than the Nereids, the nymphs
ing over whose turn it was. of the sea. That angered Poseidon, who pro-
As soon as one took out the eye to give to claimed that I must be sacrificed to a sea
another, Perseus sprang from his hiding place monster.”
and snatched the eye from them. “Tell me how Even as she finished, a hideous creature
to find the Stygian Nymphs, or I won’t give rose from the sea, tentacles waving and beak
you back your eye,” he said. clashing. Andromeda screamed, but Perseus
Grumbling, the Graeae gave him direc- simply pulled Medusa’s head out of the wal-
tions. Giving them back their eye, Perseus flew let, and the sea monster turned to stone. The
off on the winged sandals. monster crumbled to pieces and fell back into
The Stygian Nymphs were friendlier than the sea.
the Graeae. They gave Perseus the Cap of “It, not you, was the sacrifice,” Perseus
Darkness to make him invisible and a magic said.
wallet in which he could safely place Medusa’s Cutting Andromeda’s chains, Perseus flew
head, then told him how to reach the Gor- with her to her father, King Cepheus of Phoeni-
gons’ lair. cia. By this time, the young people were cling-
Perseus flew on, following their directions, ing to each other happily. And when Perseus
until he came to a mountainous island. To his asked for Andromeda’s hand in marriage,
horror, what he had taken to be rocks were Cepheus gladly agreed.
stone figures that used to be men. He’d reached So Perseus took Andromeda in his arms
the Gorgons’ lair. once more and set off for Seriphos. But he

626 Retellings
wasn’t Hermes, who could fly around the world When Perseus and Andromeda arrived at
without getting weary. On the way, Perseus and Seriphos, Perseus learned that King Poly-
Andromeda stopped to rest at Larisa. There, dectes had never married but had forced
Perseus tried his hand in some athletic games. Danae to serve as his handmaiden.
But when he threw the discus, the wind caught Furious, Perseus strode into the palace and
it. The discus hit an old man in the head and shouted, “Let all who are my friends shield
slew him. their eyes!”
It was none other than King Acrisius, he With that, he raised Medusa’s head. In an
who had tried to prevent Danae from hav- instant, Polydectes and his courtiers were
ing a child. The prophecy had come true, de- changed to statues. Danae happily rushed into
spite what the king had done to prevent it. her son’s arms.
Perseus mourned for the proper length of Perseus and Andromeda lived happily for
time, though it might have been difficult many years, and their descendants became
to mourn for a grandfather who had cast great kings. Perhaps the greatest of these was
his daughter and grandson into the sea to the famous Heracles, the strongest man in the
die. world.

Spider Woman
Creation Myth of the Hopi People
Spider Woman is a supernatural being, a creator figure for the Hopi people. She
is also an important figure to the Diné (Navajo) people. Many of the stories about
Spider Woman portray her as very powerful and generally as a very commonsen-
sical being.
S pider Woman was not born of mortal par-

ents. Indeed, no one knows the details of
her birth; she was simply there at the beginning
But here sat Spider Woman with the Pinon
Maidens. “Where are you going in such a rush,
Puukonhoya?”
of things, a grown woman or (if the fancy took “Kwataka has stolen away my wife!”
her) a spider, full of magic. She liked to wander “That is bad,” Spider Woman agreed gen-
among the people, helping this person, teach- tly. “But it can be made better. I will help you.
ing that one. Spider Woman was, in fact, help- You, Pinon Maidens, gather pine resin. Make
ing the Pinon Maidens, along with Mole, when me an exact copy of Kwataka’s flint-arrowhead
Kwataka, the Man-Eagle, first appeared. shirt. Be quick about it!”
Kwataka was a terrible monster, a merg- Sure enough, the Pinon Maidens quickly
ing, as his name implies, of bird and a human, gathered the resin and quickly made an exact
with all the worst aspects of both. He killed for copy of the flint-arrowhead shirt. “Excellent!”
the joy of it. Kwataka stole women away, and Spider Woman said. “Mole, make ready. We
then, when he grew bored with them, slew and will need your help as well.”
ate them. Whenever Kwataka left his moun- Mole agreed.
tain lair he wore a magical shirt, a flint- Spider Woman sprinkled sacred corn
arrowhead shirt that no weapon could pierce, pollen over the shirt, chanting an invocation;
so he had no fear of humans. then she changed into her other true shape, be-
Now, Kwataka soared over the Hopi, just coming a tiny spider sitting on Puukonhoya’s
high enough over one particular village so that ear. “I’m here,” she said in her now piping little
no one saw him, just low enough so he could voice. “Now, let us be off. Kwataka’s lair is at
watch one young woman who took his fancy. the top of that mountain.”
She was Lakone Mana, new wife of the young They reached the mountain, but Puukon-
hero Puukonhoya, and husband and wife hoya frowned with worry. “How can I get up
were very much in love. there? I don’t see any way to climb.”
Kwataka knew nothing of love. What he “No need,” Spider Woman said in his ear.
wanted, he took. He swooped down, snatched “Mole, dig us a tunnel, please.”
up Lakone Mana, and soared back up into the Mole dug a tunnel into the mountain,
sky before anyone on the ground realized sloping up and up. Puukonhoya, with Spider
what had happened. Puukonhoya cried out Woman on his ear, climbed up after Mole and
his wife’s name in anguish. Sighting Kwataka’s found himself coming out of the mountain onto
path in the sky, the warrior ran after him as a ledge far above the ground. “But Kwataka’s
best he could. But what earthbound man lair is higher still,” Spider Woman said. “Now I
could chase Kwataka? shall call some good birds to help.”
627

628 Retellings
Several came. An eagle carried Spider “I am Puukonhoya, and I’ve come to res-
Woman, Puukonhoya, and Mole part of the cue my wife!”
way up. When the eagle wearied, a gray hawk “Maybe you have and maybe you
took them higher still. When the gray hawk haven’t,” Kwataka snapped. “First, you must
wearied, a red hawk took them higher still, win her from me. You must win a smoking
right to the white house on the mountain peak contest with me. Do you see this tobacco
that was Kwataka’s lair. Spider Woman thanked pouch? We will both smoke, and the first to
the red hawk, as she had thanked the gray faint loses. If I lose, you may take back your
hawk and the eagle. wife. If I win, you die!”
“Wait,” she said to Puukonhoya, who was “That tobacco is poisonous to humans,”
about to climb the ladder into the white Spider Woman whispered in Puukonhoya’s
house. “You can’t climb that yet! The rungs ear, “and Kwataka knows it. Mole, dig us a
are lined with sharp obsidian, like row after hole, if you would.”
row of terrible knives.” Mole dug a hole right where Puukonhoya
“Then, what am I to do?” stood, an airhole to the outside world so that
“Wait for Horned Toad. Ah, here he is. when the young man took his turn at the
Puukonhoya, pick some berries, please, and smoking pipe, fresh air kept his head clear.
feed them to Horned Toad.” Kwataka had no such airhole, and so it was he
The young man did as Spider Woman in- who nearly fainted. Hastily, the Man-Eagle
structed him. Horned Toad chewed the berries hurried outside to clear his head. How had
into a sticky paste. “Good,” Spider Woman the human managed that? How had the hu-
said. “Now, Puukonhoya, smear that paste on man won?
the ladder rungs. Be careful!” “So, you won the first contest,” Kwataka
He smeared the berry paste over the rungs, snarled. “But that was only the first. There
and the sharp edges were blunted. Puukonhoya must be three.”
rushed up the ladder, with Spider Woman on Puukonhoya sighed. “If there must, there
his ear and Mole hiding in his hair, and entered must. What is the second contest?”
Kwataka’s lair. “There’s his flint-arrowhead “A simple thing,” Kwataka said. “We shall
shirt!” each take up one of these great elk antlers. He
“Softly!” Spider Woman warned. “Kwataka who can break his antler with one snap wins.”
is home, asleep in another room. I will cast a “This is a trick,” Spider Woman said to
spell to keep him from hearing you, but you herself, and scuttled down to study the antlers.
must still be careful!” Sure enough, the one intended for Kwataka
Puukonhoya quickly switched the real was half rotten, ready to fall apart at a touch,
flint-arrowhead shirt with the counterfeit, slip- while the one meant for Puukonhoya was as
ping on the real shirt. He stole into the next hard as stone. Spider Woman switched the two,
room, and there was Lakone Mana, her hands so quickly and magically that Kwataka never
and feet bound. Her eyes flashed with joy and suspected it. He snatched up what he thought
alarm, and she whispered, “You mustn’t stay! was his antler and nearly tore his arms from
He kills anyone who enters!” their sockets trying to break it. Puukonhoya
“I’m not leaving without you,” Puukon- snapped the half-rotten antler with one slight
hoya said, and he cut her bonds. twist of his hands.
But even though they were trying to be Kwataka stared. How had the human done
quiet, even though Spider Woman had cast that? “Very well,” the Man-Eagle muttered,
that spell to keep Kwataka from hearing them, “you have won the second contest. But the
the Man-Eagle woke—and found himself fac- third remains!”
ing Puukonhoya. “Who are you?” Kwataka “What is the third contest?” Puukonhoya
asked sharply. “What are you doing here?” asked.

Spider Woman 629
“Do you see those two trees? Well, we both eh? Which of us can stand in a fire un-
shall try to uproot them, leaves, branches, scathed?”
trunks, and all. The one who can lift his tree He gathered two great piles of wood.
free wins. The tree on the left is mine,” he Kwataka sat on one, Puukonhoya on the other.
added, picking the one that had the shallowest “Now your wife can light them,” the Man-
roots. Eagle said, “and we shall see who survives this!”
Spider Woman whispered to Mole, Nervously, Lakone Mana lit the fires. But,
“Loosen the roots of the tree on the right. of course, Puukonhoya was wearing the magi-
Hurry!” cal flint-arrowhead shirt, while Kwataka had
Mole hurried. He did such a fine job that only the counterfeit. The magical shirt pro-
when Puukonhoya pulled, the tree came up al- duced ice to keep Puukonhoya nicely cool,
most easily. Kwataka, meanwhile, could but the resin shirt burned up in a flash, and
hardly budge his tree at all. Kwataka burned with it.
“I win,” Puukonhoya panted. “Now, let “Quickly,” Spider Woman said to Puukon-
my wife go.” hoya, “take this magical cornmeal in your
“Not so fast; not so fast!” Kwataka cried. “I mouth and blow it all over Kwataka’s ashes.”
am hungry after all this work, and so, I guess, Puukonhoya obeyed. And a handsome
are you. That shall be the final contest. Yes, man rose from the ashes. Spider Woman
the fourth contest will be it! We shall both eat, turned back into her woman form and scolded
and whoever eats the most, wins!” him. “Have you learned your lesson? Have
“Hurry,” Spider Woman whispered to you?”
Mole; “dig a hole next to Puukonhoya!” “I have,” he who had been Kwataka mur-
Puukonhoya did eat some of the food, since mured, like a little boy being scolded by his
he really was hungry, but the rest of it he let fall grandmother.
into the hole, bit by bit, till his plate was clean. “Will you swear to stop killing people?
Kwataka never guessed a thing. At last, too full Will you swear to stop carrying them off and
to eat another bite, Kwataka said, “Enough!” eating them? Well? Will you swear that?”
“Can’t eat any more?” Puukonhoya asked. “I swear it. I will never do evil deeds
“Now I’ll take my wife and—” again.”
“Not so fast!” Kwataka cried. “One last “Then, that’s that,” Spider Woman said
test; one last test! Which of us is invulnerable, with satisfaction. “Now we can all go home.”

A Creation
An Iroquois Myth
Every culture has its creation myth, its myth of how things came to be. This myth, “A
Creation,” is from the Iroquois Confederacy (also known as the Five Nations), a
group of five indigenous North American groups: the Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida,
Cayuga, and Seneca. After the original confederacy was created, a sixth group, the
Tuscarora, was added.
A n unlimited expanse of water once filled

the space inhabited by the world today.
There was total darkness, and the human fam-
falling and cried out that the council should
meet to prepare for her coming. They knew
that she was a human being and must have
ily dwelt in a country in the upper regions of Earth to stand upon. First, they decided to find
the air, abounding in every comfort and conve- someone who could support her weight. The
nience. The forests were full of game, the rivers sea bear tried first and the other animals
full of fish, and fowl and vegetables grew abun- climbed on his back, but he sank beneath their
dantly. The Sun shone without fail, and storms weight. Several other animals tried and failed.
were unknown. The people were happy, and At last, the turtle volunteered, and the animals
death, pain, and disease were unknown to them. were unable to sink him.
The people were without a care, until one day Next, the animals decided they must ob-
when anxiety was introduced to them. tain Earth, which might be found at the bot-
A youth had become withdrawn. He be- tom of the sea. The mink volunteered to seek
came solitary and avoided his social circle as Earth, and dove down below the water. After
his body wasted away. By his face and counte- a long absence, he floated to the surface, dead.
nance, it was certain something troubled him, The animals, after inspecting him closely,
but he would reveal nothing though his found that clutched in his tiny paw was a small
friends questioned him. At last, he agreed to amount of dirt. They placed it on the turtle’s
tell. He would speak, however, only if they back, and it began to grow as the woman from
dug up the roots of a certain white pine tree the sky continued to fall. By the time she
and lay him on a blanket by the hole with his landed, there was enough dirt for her to stand
wife seated by his side. with one foot over the other, but soon there
Everyone eagerly complied with the strange was room enough to stand on both feet, and
request, and soon the great tree was uprooted, soon after that, there was enough dirt for her
and the man and his wife placed by the hole, to be seated. Earth continued to grow and
which opened into the great abyss below. Sud- grow, and soon there were plants, and plains,
denly, to everyone’s amazement and horror, he and rivers headed toward the sea.
seized his pregnant wife, threw her through the The woman traveled toward the water and
hole, and told the people that he had long sus- built a small dwelling. In a short while, she
pected his wife’s chastity, but now that she was gave birth to a baby girl, and the two of them
gone, he would soon recover. lived on the products of the earth until the girl
Down the woman fell toward the watery became a woman. Then, animals changed
world below. The loon first observed her themselves into the form of men and came as
630

A Creation 631
suitors to ask for the young woman’s hand in found himself by a cottage at the bottom of
marriage. First came the loon, in the form of a the sea. An old man greeted him in front of the
tall, well-dressed, attractive man, but after the cottage and said, “Welcome, my son, to the
woman consulted with her mother, this suitor home of your father.” The old man offered
was rejected. Others came, and they, too, were Tan-lon-ghy-au-wan-goon an ear of corn, and
rejected. At last, the turtle came with his short told him he had witnessed his brother’s be-
neck, humped back, and bandy legs to offer havior. While the older brother lived, he said,
himself as a suitor, and he was accepted. the world could never be peopled. Tan-lon-
After the young woman had gone to sleep, ghy-au-wan-goon must kill him.
the turtle came and placed two arrows on her His father instructed him to collect all the
abdomen in the shape of a cross. One arrow flint he could find into heaps, and hang up all
was tipped with flint, and the other with the the buck horns, as they were the only things
rough bark of a tree. Then the turtle left. Time that could affect his brother’s body, which was
passed, and the young woman became preg- made of flint. Tan-lon-ghy-au-wan-goon did
nant with twins. The twins spoke to each other so, and on a hunting excursion, he falsely told
about the best way to be born. The younger his brother that nothing affected him more
twin decided to exit the usual way, but the than bulrushes and beech boughs, and asked
older wished instead to be born through his him what he was most afraid of. Flint an-
mother’s side, thus taking her life. swered that only flint stones and buck horns
The grandmother was enraged at her could affect him.
daughter’s death and determined that she The brothers had a meal, and Flint retired
would destroy the twins in revenge. She to his hut to rest. While he slept, his brother
grabbed the two of them and tossed them into built a fire at the entrance. Soon, Flint found
the sea, but when she returned to her home, himself expanding with the heat. In his dis-
they had arrived before her at her own door. comfort, he ran from the hut. Seeking revenge,
She threw them into the sea several more he grabbed a beech bough to beat his brother,
times, and finally decided that the two would but to no effect. Tan-lon-ghy-au-wan-goon
live. Then, the grandmother divided her pelted Flint with flint stones and beat him with
daughter’s corpse into two sections and threw buck horns. Flint rushed at him armed with
them into the sky. One part of her body be- bulrushes, but these were unable to injure his
came the Sun, and the other half became the younger brother. At last, Flint fled.
Moon, and so day and night began. The land was at that time a vast green
The boys soon became men and excelled plain, but as Flint fled across it, deep valleys
at archery. The older twin was called Than- and high mountains were formed. Peaceful
wisk-a law (Flint) and had a malignant nature streams formed violent cataracts and foamed
and the turtle’s arrow pointed with flint. This through rocky channels. Tan-lon-ghy-au-wan-
son was a favorite with his grandmother. The goon followed Flint, beating him with buck
younger twin was called Tan-lon-ghy-au-wan- horns until his brother breathed his last breath
goon and had a benevolent nature and the and fell to Earth, forming what are now the
turtle’s arrow headed with bark. The older Rocky Mountains.
son, with his flint-tipped arrow, lived in abun- With the enemy of the turtles destroyed,
dance with his grandmother but would share the turtles came out of the earth in human
nothing with his younger brother, who could form and multiplied over the years, living in
kill little with his bark-point arrow. peace and prosperity.
One day, Tan-lon-ghy-au-wan-goon was The grandmother was furious that her fa-
hunting, and his bark-tipped arrow flew wide vorite had been destroyed and caused tor-
of the mark and sank into the ocean. He fol- rents of rain to descend upon Earth until even
lowed it, hoping to recover the arrow, and the highest mountains were below water. The

632 Retellings
inhabitants fled in their canoes to avoid de- At last, the grandmother gave up hope of
struction. At last, the grandmother caused the destroying the entire race at one time and in-
rain to cease and the waters to subside, and stead inflicted upon humankind all the evils
the inhabitants returned to their former homes. that are suffered in the present world.
Then the angry grandmother covered Earth Tan-lon-ghy-au-wan-goon displays infinite
with snow. The inhabitants took to their snow- benevolence by bestowing upon humankind
shoes and avoided her vengeance. an abundance of blessings.

Balder
A Norse Myth
Balder was the most glorious of the Norse gods. He was fair of skin and hair, and
so handsome and pure in spirit that none could equal him. The Norse god Balder
may, in fact, be a later incarnation of a minor deity. The main myth about him, as
retold here, reveals a Christian influence in its portrayal of Balder as more of
a figure from a Christian story than a pagan Norse character. The myth also
portrays Loki, the Norse trickster deity, as closer to a demonic figure than is usual
for him.
B alder was the much-loved son of Odin and

Frigga. Indeed, it seemed as though every
creature that lived loved him. Yet Odin knew
slipped a sprig of mistletoe into Hoder’s hand
and offered to guide him. Blind Hoder threw
the sprig—and it pierced Balder to the heart,
a sad prophesy. His son was fated to die an slaying him on the spot.
early death. To protect him and try to ward off Odin and Frigga mourned the death of
the prophesy, Frigga traveled far and wide, their glorious son. They sent an envoy to Hel,
speaking with all, whether they be living or goddess of the underworld and the dead, to
mere objects, exacting promises from each ask whether Balder could be ransomed from
and all not to harm Balder. Only the mistletoe her. Hel at last agreed, but only if all creation
was missed, and only the mistletoe never wept for the slain god. The gods sent out mes-
swore the vow. sengers throughout all creation, and all things
But there was one who did not love Balder. wept for Balder—all but one old woman. It
Loki grew more and more jealous of the hand- was Loki in disguise who refused to weep, so
some young man who was so very pure and Balder was lost to death.
good. At last, Loki came to hate Balder, and he The gods took their revenge upon Loki.
swore to destroy him. Loki searched, and at last They bound him to a rock in a deep cave and
found that one thing that could harm Balder, set a poisonous serpent to drop venom on his
that one plant—that mistletoe. face. Loki’s faithful wife sat at his side, catch-
Meanwhile, the Norse gods rejoiced to ing as much of the venom as she could in a
know that Balder was safe from all harm. He cup. But whenever she had to empty the cup,
challenged them to throw whatever they the venom struck Loki, and his anguish caused
would at him, knowing he would not be hurt. earthquakes.
While all the gods hurled things at Balder, From then on, Loki allied himself against
Balder’s blind brother, Hoder, sat by himself, the gods, and he would fight against them
unable to join in what he could not see. Loki when Ragnarok, the final battle, came.
633

Thor Catches the Midgard Serpent
A Norse Myth
Thor was the Norse god of thunder, usually portrayed as a tall, muscular man,
somewhat of a brawler compared to the more dignified deities. As a result, he was
the chosen god of the common man. Thor was married, happily, to the golden-
haired goddess Sif.
O ne day, Thor, god of thunder, took it into

his head to go fishing. He disguised him-
self as a young man, left the gods’ palace of
The Midgard Serpent was the enormous
snake that encircled the globe underwater,
and little did Hymir suspect that catching the
Asgard, and wandered until night, when he serpent was Thor’s goal.
met up with a giant named Hymir. Thor spent “No, we’re not,” Thor replied, and once
that night in Hymir’s home. again began rowing.
When the day came, Hymir made ready Hymir wasn’t at all pleased with this. He
to go fishing in the sea. Thor said, “Let me go went right on complaining, until, at last, Thor
rowing with you.” said, “This is far enough.”
Hymir laughed. “What, such a scrap of a Thor shipped his oars and prepared a
youngster go out on the open ocean? The cold strong fishing line and a stronger hook. Bait-
and wet will make you catch cold if we row ing the hook with the ox head, he cast the line
out as far as I usually do.” and waited.
Thor promptly forgot all about his dis- Sure enough, it wasn’t long at all before
guise, and let Hymir know his true identity. the Midgard Serpent snapped at the ox-head
“I am well able to row a long way out, and it bait—and got caught by the hook. It gave so
won’t be me who first demands to be rowed powerful a jerk, trying to get free, that it nearly
back! Now, what are we going to use for dragged Thor overboard. Thor dug in his heels
bait?” so hard that his legs went right through the
“Get your own,” Hymir muttered. boat and his feet were braced on the bottom of
So Thor went to a herd of oxen owned by the ocean. Hand over hand, he drew up the
Hymir, selected the largest ox, and struck off serpent till he was staring right at it. The
its head with his powerful hammer, Mjollnir. Midgard Serpent stared right back, spitting
Taking the ox head with him, Thor climbed poison.
into Hymir’s boat and rowed them both out “Have you gone mad?” Hymir cried in
with amazing speed. terror.
“This is far enough,” Hymir said. Thor merely raised his hammer, readying
“Not yet,” Thor replied, and began rowing to strike the serpent over the head and finish it
again. off. But Hymir was too frightened to think. Be-
“This is far enough!” Hymir repeated when fore Thor could strike, Hymir grabbed his bait
Thor stopped. “We’re so far out that we are in knife and sliced the fishing line.
danger. The Midgard Serpent might surface The Midgard Serpent dove back into the
under us! We’re too far out!” sea. Thor flung his hammer after it but missed.
634

T hor Catches the Midgard Serpent 635
The Midgard Serpent is still down there, en- him a blow that hurled him overboard. By the
circling the earth. time Hymir had floundered back aboard,
“I had to do it!” Hymir began. Thor, god of thunder and frustrated fisher-
He got no further. The furious Thor struck man, had waded ashore.

Maui Snares the Sun
A Polynesian Myth
The Polynesian culture hero Maui is both hero and trickster. Half human, half god,
he wanders much of the Pacific Ocean, particularly the islands of Hawaii—including
Maui, the island that bears his name—setting matters right and enjoying himself
hugely in the process.
M aui was special right from birth. He was

not even created in the usual way. Maui’s
mother, Hina, began to fall asleep on the nice,
teen strong ropes of coconut fiber and sent
him on his way.
Maui had listened well to everything his
warm sands of the island that would someday mother had said. At last, as she had told him,
bear her son’s name. Half asleep as she was, he came to a huge wiliwili tree. In this tree,
Hina didn’t realize that the loincloth she’d Maui knew, one of his ancestors lived, the
pulled over herself wasn’t hers, but belonged old blind woman Wiliwilipuha, which means
to a god. “hollow wiliwili.” He sat at the foot of the
And from the magic in that simple cloth, tree and waited. The night came, and the
from that simple coming together of the hu- night went, and a rooster began to crow.
man and the divine, Maui was begun. Once it crowed; twice it crowed; three times
Maui was more clever and daring than it crowed.
any child ever seen, and he began almost right On the third crow, Maui tensed, watching
away to make sure that the world ran the way to see what would happen next. An old woman
it should. In those long-ago days, the Sun sped came out of the wiliwili tree to cook bananas
across the sky so quickly that Hina, Maui’s for the Sun’s meal. This woman was Wili-
mother, grew angry. She was a skillful maker wilipuha. As she lit her cooking fire, Maui
of tapa, the cloth that is pounded out of mul- snatched away the bananas.
berry bark—but the tapa needed to fully dry if “Humph!” Wiliwilipuha snorted in annoy-
it was to be of any use as cloth. ance. “Where did the bananas go?”
“I beat out my tapa,” she told Maui, “but She went to fetch more. But Maui stole
before it has even the slightest chance to dry, these, too. A third time, Wiliwilipuha brought
the Sun is gone from the sky, and the Sun’s bananas to be cooked; a third time, Maui stole
warmth with it.” them.
Maui was still a child in those days, but he “This must be the work of a trouble-
said as bravely as any man, “I will go and cut maker,” Wiliwilipuha said, and sniffed the air
off the Sun’s legs.” until she found Maui. “Whose mischievous
Hina glanced warily at him. She already one are you?” the old woman asked.
knew that her son could do amazing deeds. “Yours,” Maui answered.
“But are you strong enough?” Hina asked. “Mine? By whom?”
“Oh, I am,” Maui answered boldly. “And “By Hina,” Maui answered. “I am your
I am clever enough, as well.” grandson, Grandmother.”
Hina believed him. Carefully, she told Wiliwilipuha’s old, strong face showed no
him what he must do; then she gave him fif- emotion. “What brings you here?”
636

Maui Snares the Sun 637
“I’ve come to keep the Sun from racing who need your light and warmth.” Maui
across the sky. It runs so quickly that my picked up the sharp stone again. “No, I shall
mother’s tapa cloth cannot dry.” cut off your legs.”
“That would be a feat, indeed.” “No!” the Sun screamed. “Maybe we can
Wiliwilipuha gave Maui a sharp stone and strike a bargain.”
one more rope. She told Maui that the Sun “Maybe we can.” Maui pretended to be
came there every morning for a breakfast of thinking things over. But his clever mind had
fried bananas. already worked out what he wanted to say.
Maui dug a pit in which to hide. He “What if you go slowly across the sky—but
hadn’t hidden there for long before the Sun only for half the year?”
came blazing to the wiliwili tree. Maui cast “And for the other half?”
the first of his ropes—and he snared the Sun. “For the other half of the year,” Maui said,
Oh, it fought him! Oh, it burned at him! But “you may go as swiftly as you please.”
Maui was small and quick, quicker almost “I don’t know. . . .”
than thought. Maui raised the stone once more.
And quicker than thought, Maui used his “I agree!” the Sun shrieked. “We have a
sixteen ropes to bind the Sun and all its bargain.”
squirming legs. He bound it fast to the wiliwili Maui used the stone to cut the Sun free.
tree, then picked up the stone. The Sun shot back up into the sky.
“I will cut off your legs!” he threatened. And so it is that the days are short for half
“No!” the Sun cried in terror. “Spare me!” the year. Those are the days when the Sun
“Why? Why should I spare someone who races across the sky. But for the other half of
is so selfish? You race across the sky to please the year, the Sun moves slowly, and that, or so
yourself and think nothing of the folk below this story says, is the work of Maui the clever.

Inanna’s Descent to the Underworld
An Ancient Sumerian Myth
Inanna was the Sumerian goddess of love and war, a very important goddess who
was later known as Ishtar and Astarte. The story of Inanna and Dumuzi is the oldest
form of the tale type known by the Greeks as “Venus and Adonis.” But Inanna’s
descent and return also has a link to rituals of a shaman’s voluntary (symbolic)
death and rebirth.
T here was the strongest love between the

goddess Inanna, who is love and lust to-
gether, and the mortal Dumuzi. But mortals
me? What impelled her spirit hither? I am as I
should be! Should I drink water with the spir-
its of the dead? Should I eat clay for bread,
die, and gods may sometimes mourn. And, drink muddy water for beer? Should I be-
sometimes, some of them determine to do moan the men who left their wives behind?
more than mourn. They will not let their Should I bemoan the maidens wrenched from
lovers go. their lovers’ laps? Or should I bemoan the
Kurnugi is the land from which no one re- tender babe sent off before his time?
turns. It is the dark house wherein dwells “Go, Gatekeeper; open the gate for her,”
Erkalla’s god, the house wherein those who the queen concluded in a voice as cold as clay.
enter never leave, where dust is their only “Let her enter. Treat her in accordance with
food and darkness their only way. the ancient rules.”
To Kurnugi, that land from which no one The gatekeeper went and opened the gate
returns, that place of the dead, was great to Inanna.
Inanna determined to go. No other god could “Enter, my lady. May the palace of Kur-
stop her or persuade her otherwise. nugi be glad to see you.”
When she arrived at the gate of Kurnugi, He let her in through the first door, but
Inanna commanded, “Gatekeeper, open your stripped off and took away the great crown
gate for me! Let me come in! If you do not from her head.
open the gate for me to come in, I shall smash “Gatekeeper, why have you taken away
the door and shatter the bolt; I shall raise up the great crown from my head?”
the dead, and they shall eat the living! The “Go in, my lady. Such are the rites of the
dead shall outnumber the living!” mistress of the underworld.”
The gatekeeper cried out, “Stop, lady; do He let her in through the second door, but
not break it down! Let me go and report your stripped off and took away her earrings.
words to Queen Ereshkigal.” “Gatekeeper, why have you taken away
The gatekeeper hurried to Queen Ereshki- my earrings?”
gal. “Inanna is here!” “Go in, my lady. Such are the rites of the
When Ereshkigal heard this, her face mistress of the underworld.”
turned as pale with anger as a cut-down He let her in through the third door, but
tamarisk, while her lips turned as dark as a stripped off and took away the beads from
bruised kuninu-reed. “What drove her here to around her neck.
638

Inanna’s Descent to the Underworld 639
“Gatekeeper, why have you taken away Now, back in the mortal realm sadness
the beads from around my neck?” reigned, for there could be no love or lust with
“Go in, my lady. Such are the rites of the Inanna gone to the underworld. The bull ig-
mistress of the underworld.” nored the cow; the boy and girl ignored each
He let her in through the fourth door, but other; the man slept in one room and the
stripped off and took away the ornaments from woman in another.
her breast. Papsukkal, vizier of the great gods, hung
“Gatekeeper, why have you taken away his head. Dressed in mourning clothes, his
the ornaments from my breast?” hair unkempt, he went before the gods and
“Go in, my lady. Such are the rites of the wept.
mistress of the underworld.” “Inanna has gone down to the underworld
He let her in through the fifth door, but and has not come up again.”
stripped off and took away the girdle of birth- The wise god Ea created a person, an im-
stones from around her waist. age, Asushunamir, which means “good looks.”
“Gatekeeper, why have you taken the “Go, Asushunamir, set thy face to the
girdle of birthstones from around my waist?” gate of the Land of No Return. The seven
“Go in, my lady. Such are the rites of the gates of the Land of No Return shall be
mistress of the underworld.” opened for thee. Ereshkigal shall see thee
He let her in through the sixth door, but and rejoice. When her heart has calmed, and
stripped off and took away the bangles from her mood is happy, let her utter the oath of
her wrists and ankles. the great gods.
“Gatekeeper, why have you taken away “Then ask her this: ‘Pray, lady, let them
the bangles from my wrists and ankles?” give me the life-water bag so that I may drink
“Go in my lady. Such are the rites of the from it.’ ”
mistress of the underworld.” So he went, and so it happened. As soon
He let her in through the seventh door, as Ereshkigal heard his request, she struck her
but stripped off and took away the robes from thigh and bit her finger, restless with worry.
her body. “You have asked of me something that should
“Gatekeeper, why have you taken away not be asked. Asushunamir, I will curse thee
the robes from my body?” with a mighty curse!”
“Go in, my lady. Such are the rites of the
mistress of the underworld.” The food of the city’s gutters shall be
Naked and unafraid, Inanna went down thy food;
to Kurnugi. As soon as Inanna had de- The sewers of the city shall be thy drink.
scended to the Land of No Return, Ereshki- The threshold shall be thy habitation;
gal saw her. Inanna, heedless of all but The besotted and the thirsty shall smite
rage, flew at her, and the queen cried to her thy cheek!
vizier:
She knew that as soon as Asushunamir
Go, Namtar, lock her up in my palace! was hers, she must keep a balance by return-
Release against her the sixty miseries: ing Inanna. She did not know that Asushu-
Misery of the eyes against her eyes, namir was a mere image, not reality.
Misery of the sides against her sides, So Ereshkigal told her vizier, Namtar,
Misery of the heart against her heart, “Sprinkle Inanna with the water of life and
Misery of the feet against her feet, take her from my sight!”
Misery of the head against her head— And Namtar sprinkled Inanna with the
Against every part of her, against her water of life and took her from the queen’s
whole body! presence.

640 Retellings
When through the first gate he had made her go out, he returned to her the beads for
her go out, he returned to her the robes for her her neck.
body. When through the sixth gate he had made
When through the second gate he had her go out, he returned to her the earrings for
made her go out, he returned to her the ban- her ears.
gles for her wrists and ankles. When through the seventh gate he had
When through the third gate he had made made her go out, he returned to her the great
her go out, he returned to her the girdle of crown for her head.
birthstones for her waist. But Inanna knew her rebirth was not in
When through the fourth gate he had made vain. As she was reborn, so would Dumuzi re-
her go out, he returned to her the ornaments turn to her every spring.
for her breast. “You shall not rob me forever of my only
When through the fifth gate he had made love!” And so indeed, they did not.

Prince Wicked and the Grateful Animals
A Parable from the Jataka
“Prince Wicked and the Grateful Animals” is a prime example of the “grateful ani-
mals” folk motif, in which animals that are helped by a human repay the kindness in
turn. The Jataka, or Jatakas, is a collection of moral tales of the previous lives of the
Buddha. They are said to have been compiled sometime between the third century
b.c.e. and the fifth century c.e.
O nce upon a time, a king had a son named

Prince Wicked. He was fierce and cruel,
and he spoke to nobody without abuse or
he would drown when he came across a log.
He climbed up on the log and floated farther
down the river.
blows. Like grit in the eye was Prince Wicked When the great storm arose, the water
to everyone, both in the palace and out of it. rushed into the homes of a rat and a snake who
His people said to one another, “If he acts lived on the riverbank. The rat and the snake
this way while he is a prince, how will he act swam out into the river and found the same log
when he is king?” the prince had found. The snake climbed up
One day when the prince was swimming on one end of the log, and the rat climbed up
in the river, suddenly, a great storm came on, on the other.
and it grew very dark. In the darkness, the ser- On the river’s bank, a cottonwood tree
vants who were with the prince swam from grew, and a young parrot lived in its branches.
him, saying to themselves, “Let us leave him The storm pulled up this tree, and it fell into
alone in the river, and he may drown.” the river. The heavy rain beat down the parrot
When they reached the shore, some of the when it tried to fly, and it could not go far.
servants who had not gone into the river said, Looking down, it saw the log and flew down
“Where is Prince Wicked?” to rest. Now, there were four on the log float-
“Isn’t he here?” the prince’s attendants ing downstream together.
asked. “Perhaps he came out of the river in the Just around the bend in the river, a certain
darkness and went home.” Then, the servants poor man had built himself a hut. As he
all went back to the palace. walked to and fro late at night listening to the
The king asked where his son was, and storm, he heard the loud cries of the prince.
again the servants said, “Isn’t he here, O The poor man said to himself, “I must get that
King? A great storm came on soon after we man out of the water. I must save his life.” So
went into the water. It grew very dark. When he shouted, “I will save you! I will save you!”
we came out of the water, the prince was not as he swam out in the river.
with us.” Soon, he reached the log, and pushing it
At once, the king had the gates thrown by one end, he soon pushed it into the bank.
open. He and all his men searched up and The prince jumped up and down, he was so
down the banks of the river for the missing glad to be safe and sound on dry land.
prince. But no trace of him could be found. Then the poor man saw the snake, the rat,
In the darkness, the prince had been and the parrot, and he carried them to his hut.
swept down the river. He was crying for fear He built a fire and put the animals near it so
641

642 Retellings
they could get dry. He took care of them first, At once, the snake darted forth, and with
because they were the weaker, and afterward every mark of respect he said, “Father, in this
he looked after the comfort of the prince. place there is much gold. Dig it up and take it
Then, the poor man brought food and set all.”
it before them, looking after the animals first “Very well,” said the poor man. “When I
and the prince afterward. This made the young need it, I will not forget.”
prince angry, and he said to himself, “This After visiting for a while, the poor man
poor man does not treat me like a prince. He said good-bye to the snake and went to where
takes care of the animals before taking care of the rat lived, calling out, “Rat!”
me.” Then, the prince began to hate the poor The rat came at once and did as the snake
man. had done, showing the poor man where the
A few days later, when the prince, the money was buried.
snake, the rat, and the parrot were rested and “When I need it, I will come for it,” said
the storm was all over, the snake said good- the poor man.
bye to the poor man with these words: “Fa- Going next to the parrot, the poor man
ther, you have been very kind to me. I know called out, “Parrot!” and the bird flew down
where there is some buried gold. If ever you from the treetop as soon as he heard the call.
want gold, you have only to come to my home “Oh, Father,” said the parrot, “shall I call
and call, ‘Snake!’ and I will show you the together all my family and friends to gather
buried gold. It shall all be yours.” choice rice for you?”
Next, the rat said good-bye to the poor The poor man, seeing that the parrot was
man. “If ever you want money,” said the rat, willing and ready to keep his promise, said, “I
“come to my home and call out, ‘Rat!’ and I do not need rice now. If ever I do, I will not
will show you where a great deal of money is forget your offer.”
buried near my home. It shall all be yours.” Last of all, the poor man went into the city
Then the parrot went to the poor man, where the king lived. The king, seated on his
saying: “Father, silver and gold have I none, great white elephant, was riding through the
but if you ever want choice rice, come to city. The king saw the poor man and said to
where I live and call, ‘Parrot!’ and I will call himself, “That poor man has come to ask me
all my family and friends together, and we for the great riches I promised to give him. I
will gather the choicest rice in the fields for must have his head cut off before he can tell
you.” the people how he saved my life when I was
Last came the prince. In his heart, he the prince.”
hated the poor man who had saved his life. So the king called his servants to him and
But he pretended to be as thankful as the ani- said, “You see that poor man over there? Seize
mals had been, saying, “Come to me when I him and bind him, beat him at every corner of
am king, and I will give you great riches.” So the street as you march him out of the city,
saying, he went away. and then chop off his head.”
Not long after this, the prince’s father The servants had to obey their king. So
died, and Prince Wicked was made king. He they seized and bound the poor man. They
was then very rich. beat him at every corner of the street. The
By and by, the poor man said to himself, poor man did not cry out, but he said, over
“Each of the four whose lives I saved made a and over again, “It is better to save poor, weak
promise to me. I will see if they will keep their animals than to save a prince.”
promises.” At last, some wise men among the crowds
First of all, he went to the snake, and along the street asked the poor man what
standing near his hole, the poor man called prince he had saved. Then, the poor man told
out, “Snake!” the whole story, ending with the words, “By

Pr ince Wicked and the Grateful Animals 643
saving your king, I brought all this pain upon Going to where the rat lived, the king
myself.” called, “Rat!” Out came the rat, and bowing
The wise men and all the rest of the crowd low to the king, the rat said, “Take all the
cried out, “This poor man saved the life of our money buried here and have your servants
king, and now the king has ordered him to be carry it away.”
killed. How can we be sure that he will not “I will,” said the king, and he asked the rat
have any, or all, of us killed? Let us kill him.” to go with him and the snake.
And in their anger, they rushed from every Then, the king went to where the parrot
side upon the king as he rode on his elephant, lived, and called, “Parrot!” The parrot flew
and, with arrows and stones, they killed him down to the king’s feet and said, “O King,
then and there. shall I and my family and my friends gather
Then, they made the poor man king, and choice rice for you?”
set him to rule over them. “Not now, not until rice is needed,” said
The poor man ruled his people well. One the king. “Will you come with us?” The parrot
day, he decided once more to try the snake, was glad to join them.
the rat, and the parrot. So, followed by many So with the gold and the money, and with
servants, the king went to where the snake the snake, the rat, and the parrot as well, the
lived. king went back to the city.
At the call of “Snake!” out came the snake The king had the gold and the money hid-
from his hole, saying, “Here, O King, is your den away in the palace. He had a tube of gold
treasure; take it.” made for the snake to live in. He had a glass
“I will,” said the king. “And I want you to box made for the rat’s home, and a cage of
come with me.” gold for the parrot. Each had the food he liked
Then, the king had his servants dig up the best of all to eat every day, and so these four
gold. lived happily all their lives.

The Lady, or the Tiger?
An American Riddle Tale
The story “The Lady, or the Tiger?” is perhaps the most classic example of a riddle
tale, a story with an ending left to the audience to debate. It was written in 1884 by
American author and humorist Frank R. Stockton (1834–1902).
I n the very olden time there lived a semi-

barbaric king, whose ideas, though some-
what polished and sharpened by the
vaults, and its unseen passages, was an agent
of poetic justice, in which crime was punished,
or virtue rewarded, by the decrees of an im-
progressiveness of distant Latin neighbors, partial and incorruptible chance.
were still large, florid, and untrammeled, as When a subject was accused of a crime of
became the half of him which was barbaric. sufficient importance to interest the king, pub-
He was a man of exuberant fancy, and, withal, lic notice was given that on an appointed day
of an authority so irresistible that, at his will, the fate of the accused person would be de-
he turned his varied fancies into facts. He was cided in the king’s arena, a structure which
greatly given to self-communing, and, when well deserved its name, for, although its form
he and himself agreed upon anything, the and plan were borrowed from afar, its purpose
thing was done. When every member of his emanated solely from the brain of this man,
domestic and political systems moved who, every barleycorn a king, knew no tradi-
smoothly in its appointed course, his nature tion to which he owed more allegiance than
was bland and genial; but, whenever there pleased his fancy, and who ingrafted on every
was a little hitch, and some of his orbs got out adopted form of human thought and action
of their orbits, he was blander and more ge- the rich growth of his barbaric idealism.
nial still, for nothing pleased him so much as When all the people had assembled in the
to make the crooked straight and crush down galleries, and the king, surrounded by his
uneven places. court, sat high up on his throne of royal state
Among the borrowed notions by which on one side of the arena, he gave a signal, a
his barbarism had become semified was that door beneath him opened, and the accused
of the public arena, in which, by exhibitions of subject stepped out into the amphitheater. Di-
manly and beastly valor, the minds of his sub- rectly opposite him, on the other side of the
jects were refined and cultured. inclosed space, were two doors, exactly alike
But even here the exuberant and barbaric and side by side. It was the duty and the privi-
fancy asserted itself. The arena of the king was lege of the person on trial to walk directly to
built, not to give the people an opportunity of these doors and open one of them. He could
hearing the rhapsodies of dying gladiators, open either door he pleased; he was subject
nor to enable them to view the inevitable con- to no guidance or influence but that of the
clusion of a conflict between religious opin- aforementioned impartial and incorruptible
ions and hungry jaws, but for purposes far chance. If he opened the one, there came out
better adapted to widen and develop the men- of it a hungry tiger, the fiercest and most cruel
tal energies of the people. This vast amphithe- that could be procured, which immediately
ater, with its encircling galleries, its mysterious sprang upon him and tore him to pieces as
644

T he Lady, or the Tiger? 645
a punishment for his guilt. The moment that The institution was a very popular one.
the case of the criminal was thus decided, dole- When the people gathered together on one of
ful iron bells were clanged, great wails went up the great trial days, they never knew whether
from the hired mourners posted on the outer they were to witness a bloody slaughter or a
rim of the arena, and the vast audience, with hilarious wedding. This element of uncertainty
bowed heads and downcast hearts, wended lent an interest to the occasion which it could
slowly their homeward way, mourning greatly not otherwise have attained. Thus, the masses
that one so young and fair, or so old and re- were entertained and pleased, and the think-
spected, should have merited so dire a fate. ing part of the community could bring no
But, if the accused person opened the charge of unfairness against this plan, for did
other door, there came forth from it a lady, the not the accused person have the whole matter
most suitable to his years and station that his in his own hands?
majesty could select among his fair subjects, This semi-barbaric king had a daughter as
and to this lady he was immediately married, blooming as his most florid fancies, and with a
as a reward of his innocence. It mattered not soul as fervent and imperious as his own. As is
that he might already possess a wife and fam- usual in such cases, she was the apple of his
ily, or that his affections might be engaged eye, and was loved by him above all human-
upon an object of his own selection; the king ity. Among his courtiers was a young man of
allowed no such subordinate arrangements to that fineness of blood and lowness of station
interfere with his great scheme of retribution common to the conventional heroes of ro-
and reward. The exercises, as in the other in- mance who love royal maidens. This royal
stance, took place immediately, and in the maiden was well satisfied with her lover, for
arena. Another door opened beneath the king, he was handsome and brave to a degree un-
and a priest, followed by a band of choristers, surpassed in all this kingdom, and she loved
and dancing maidens blowing joyous airs on him with an ardor that had enough of bar-
golden horns and treading an epithalamic barism in it to make it exceedingly warm and
measure, advanced to where the pair stood, strong. This love affair moved on happily for
side by side, and the wedding was promptly many months, until one day the king hap-
and cheerily solemnized. Then the gay brass pened to discover its existence. He did not
bells rang forth their merry peals, the people hesitate nor waver in regard to his duty in the
shouted glad hurrahs, and the innocent man, premises. The youth was immediately cast
preceded by children strewing flowers on his into prison, and a day was appointed for his
path, led his bride to his home. trial in the king’s arena. This, of course, was
This was the king’s semi-barbaric method an especially important occasion, and his
of administering justice. Its perfect fairness is majesty, as well as all the people, was greatly
obvious. The criminal could not know out of interested in the workings and development of
which door would come the lady; he opened this trial. Never before had such a case oc-
either he pleased, without having the slightest curred; never before had a subject dared to
idea whether, in the next instant, he was to be love the daughter of the king. In after years
devoured or married. On some occasions the such things became commonplace enough,
tiger came out of one door, and on some out but then they were in no slight degree novel
of the other. The decisions of this tribunal and startling.
were not only fair, they were positively deter- The tiger cages of the kingdom were
minate: The accused person was instantly searched for the most savage and relentless
punished if he found himself guilty, and, if in- beasts, from which the fiercest monster might
nocent, he was rewarded on the spot, whether be selected for the arena; and the ranks of
he liked it or not. There was no escape from maiden youth and beauty throughout the land
the judgments of the king’s arena. were carefully surveyed by competent judges

646 Retellings
in order that the young man might have a fit- any one who had ever before been interested
ting bride in case fate did not determine for in such a case, she had done what no other
him a different destiny. Of course, everybody person had done,—she had possessed herself
knew that the deed with which the accused was of the secret of the doors. She knew in which
charged had been done. He had loved the of the two rooms, that lay behind those doors,
princess, and neither he, she, nor any one else, stood the cage of the tiger, with its open front,
thought of denying the fact; but the king would and in which waited the lady. Through these
not think of allowing any fact of this kind to in- thick doors, heavily curtained with skins on
terfere with the workings of the tribunal, in the inside, it was impossible that any noise or
which he took such great delight and satisfac- suggestion should come from within to the
tion. No matter how the affair turned out, the person who should approach to raise the latch
youth would be disposed of, and the king of one of them. But gold, and the power of a
would take an aesthetic pleasure in watching woman’s will, had brought the secret to the
the course of events, which would determine princess.
whether or not the young man had done And not only did she know in which room
wrong in allowing himself to love the princess. stood the lady ready to emerge, all blushing
The appointed day arrived. From far and and radiant, should her door be opened, but
near the people gathered, and thronged the she knew who the lady was. It was one of the
great galleries of the arena, and crowds, unable fairest and loveliest of the damsels of the court
to gain admittance, massed themselves against who had been selected as the reward of the ac-
its outside walls. The king and his court were cused youth, should he be proved innocent of
in their places, opposite the twin doors, those the crime of aspiring to one so far above him;
fateful portals, so terrible in their similarity. and the princess hated her. Often had she
All was ready. The signal was given. A seen, or imagined that she had seen, this fair
door beneath the royal party opened, and the creature throwing glances of admiration upon
lover of the princess walked into the arena. the person of her lover, and sometimes she
Tall, beautiful, fair, his appearance was greeted thought these glances were perceived, and
with a low hum of admiration and anxiety. even returned. Now and then she had seen
Half the audience had not known so grand a them talking together; it was but for a moment
youth had lived among them. No wonder the or two, but much can be said in a brief space;
princess loved him! What a terrible thing for it may have been on most unimportant topics,
him to be there! but how could she know that? The girl was
As the youth advanced into the arena he lovely, but she had dared to raise her eyes to
turned, as the custom was, to bow to the king, the loved one of the princess; and, with all the
but he did not think at all of that royal person- intensity of the savage blood transmitted to
age. His eyes were fixed upon the princess, her through long lines of wholly barbaric an-
who sat to the right of her father. Had it not cestors, she hated the woman who blushed
been for the moiety of barbarism in her nature and trembled behind that silent door.
it is probable that lady would not have been When her lover turned and looked at her,
there, but her intense and fervid soul would and his eye met hers as she sat there, paler and
not allow her to be absent on an occasion in whiter than any one in the vast ocean of anx-
which she was so terribly interested. From the ious faces about her, he saw, by that power of
moment that the decree had gone forth that quick perception which is given to those whose
her lover should decide his fate in the king’s souls are one, that she knew behind which door
arena, she had thought of nothing, night or crouched the tiger, and behind which stood the
day, but this great event and the various sub- lady. He had expected her to know it. He un-
jects connected with it. Possessed of more derstood her nature, and his soul was assured
power, influence, and force of character than that she would never rest until she had made

T he Lady, or the Tiger? 647
plain to herself this thing, hidden to all other covered her face with her hands as she
lookers-on, even to the king. The only hope for thought of her lover opening the door on the
the youth in which there was any element of other side of which waited the cruel fangs of
certainty was based upon the success of the the tiger!
princess in discovering this mystery; and the But how much oftener had she seen him at
moment he looked upon her, he saw she had the other door! How in her grievous reveries
succeeded, as in his soul he knew she would had she gnashed her teeth, and torn her hair,
succeed. when she saw his start of rapturous delight as
Then it was that his quick and anxious he opened the door of the lady! How her soul
glance asked the question: “Which?” It was as had burned in agony when she had seen him
plain to her as if he shouted it from where he rush to meet that woman, with her flushing
stood. There was not an instant to be lost. The cheek and sparkling eye of triumph; when she
question was asked in a flash; it must be an- had seen him lead her forth, his whole frame
swered in another. kindled with the joy of recovered life; when
Her right arm lay on the cushioned para- she had heard the glad shouts from the multi-
pet before her. She raised her hand, and made tude, and the wild ringing of the happy bells;
a slight, quick movement toward the right. No when she had seen the priest, with his joyous
one but her lover saw her. Every eye but his followers, advance to the couple, and make
was fixed on the man in the arena. them man and wife before her very eyes; and
He turned, and with a firm and rapid step when she had seen them walk away together
he walked across the empty space. Every heart upon their path of flowers, followed by the
stopped beating, every breath was held, every tremendous shouts of the hilarious multitude,
eye was fixed immovably upon that man. in which her one despairing shriek was lost
Without the slightest hesitation, he went to the and drowned!
door on the right, and opened it. Would it not be better for him to die at
Now, the point of the story is this: Did once, and go to wait for her in the blessed re-
the tiger come out of that door, or did the gions of semi-barbaric futurity?
lady? And yet, that awful tiger, those shrieks,
The more we reflect upon this question, that blood!
the harder it is to answer. It involves a study Her decision had been indicated in an
of the human heart which leads us through instant, but it had been made after days and
devious mazes of passion, out of which it is nights of anguished deliberation. She had
difficult to find our way. Think of it, fair reader, known she would be asked, she had decided
not as if the decision of the question depended what she would answer, and, without the
upon yourself, but upon that hot-blooded, slightest hesitation, she had moved her hand to
semi-barbaric princess, her soul at a white heat the right. The question of her decision is one
beneath the combined fires of despair and jeal- not to be lightly considered, and it is not for
ousy. She had lost him, but who should have me to presume to set myself up as the one per-
him? son able to answer it. And so I leave it with all
How often, in her waking hours and in her of you: Which came out of the opened door,—
dreams, had she started in wild horror, and the lady, or the tiger?

Storytelling Resources
Worldwide List of Courses In and/or About Storytelling
at Colleges and Universities
T his list began in 1998 when Eric Miller,

then a doctoral student in folklore at the
University of Pennsylvania, felt there was a
The following list includes courses in a
number of disciplines; international offerings
are listed first, followed by courses offered by
need for such a list and began compiling it. In universities within the United States. The ad-
2002, Miller embarked on two years of field- dress, specific contact information, website,
work in south India and passed on compiling and a brief description are given for each pro-
duties to Millie Jackson. Jackson, who had gram as applicable. Note that many courses
earned a Ph.D. from Michigan State Univer- are taught by adjuncts and are not taught
sity, began studies in storytelling at East Ten- every semester; check with the university to
nessee State University during her sabbatical in determine the status of current courses and
2004; updating the list became part of her re- future offerings.
search on storytelling. Although Miller is now
settled in Chennai, on India’s southeast coast, Australia
Jackson continues to update the list, which is
Parsifal College (a Rudolf Steiner training
accessible at http://shesig.pbwiki.com.
college), Sydney
Both of these scholars believe that story-
P.O. Box 231, West Pennant Hills
telling studies is an interdisciplinary field
Sydney 2125
of study, or a discipline unto itself. For intro-
Australia
ductions to storytelling studies, please see
Phone: +61 (0) 2 9680 9533
Miller’s comments at http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/
Courses: Storytelling for Early Childhood Teachers,
storytelling/definition.html and the Storytell-
and Storytelling and Puppetry.
ing, Self, and Society’s editorial policy statement
at http://www.courses.unt.edu/efiga/SSS/SSS
Southern Cross University
_ Journal.htm.
P.O. Box 157
The full text of what is considered to be a
Lismore, NSW 2480
founding article of storytelling studies, “Once
Australia
Upon a Time: An Introduction to the Inau-
http://www.scu.edu.au/index.php
gural Issue,” by Joseph Sobol, John S. Gentile,
Course: ENG 355: Storytelling: Emphasizes
and Sunwolf, can be found at http://www.
the importance of storytelling as a method of
courses.unt.edu/efiga/SSS/IntroInaugural
transmitting culture, and enables students to
IssueSSSJournal.htm.
enjoy, prepare, and tell stories to children.
649

650 Stor ytelling Resources
Canada West Hoathly Road

East Grinstead, West Sussex RH19 4NF
Cape Breton University England, UK
Folklore (Community Studies) Phone: +44 (0) 1342 321330
P.O. Box 5300, 1250 Grand Lake Road Contact: Christopher Garvey, Director
Sydney, Nova Scotia, B1P 6L2 http://www.artemisspeechanddrama.org.uk/
Canada
Contact: Afra Kavanagh, Emerson College (Rudolf Steiner College)
afra_kavanagh@uccb.ca School for Storytelling
http://faculty.cbu.ca/afrak/storytelling/ Forest Row
default.htm East Sussex RH18 5JX
Offers courses and sponsors annual Universal Child England, UK
Care Benefit (UCCB) Storytelling Symposium. Contact: Ashley Ramsden, Director
http://www.emerson.org.uk/index.php?id=21
Memorial University of Newfoundland, Courses are offered full time, part time, and
St. John’s on weekends.
Department of Folklore
St. John’s, Newfoundland A1C 5S7 University of Kent
Canada School of Drama, Film and Visual Art
Phone: 709-737-8402 Canterbury CT2 7NB
Contact: folklore@morgan.ucs.mun.ca England, UK
http://www.mun.ca/folklore/ Contact: Vayu Naidu
Offers courses in folk literature, folk tales, http://www.kent.ac.uk/sdfva/
and mythology. Applicable courses are related to performance
and cinema.
University of Alberta, Edmonton
School of Library and Information Studies University of Glamorgan
3-20 Rutherford South Drama
Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2J4 Pontypridd, CF37 1DL
Canada Wales, UK
Contact: Gail de Vos, Phone: +44 (0) 1443 482693
storyteller.devos@telusplanet.net Contact: Mike Wilson, mwilson@glam.ac.uk
http://www.slis.ualberta.ca/ Courses are offered through the Drama
department and as part of the continuing
Germany education program. Opportunities for indepen-
dent study also are available at the graduate
Richard Martin
level.
Bornstrasse 83 Darmstadt
Phone: +49 (0) 6151 377 175
University of Glasgow
Contact: info@tellatale.eu
Dumfries Campus
www.tellatale.eu
Rutherford McCowan Buildings
Offers teacher training workshops in “Using
Dumfries DG1 4ZL
Storytelling in the Classroom” at various
Scotland, UK
universities in Germany and other countries.
Contact: Tom Pow, t.pow@crichton.gla.ac.uk
http://www.cc.gla.ac.uk/layer2/
United Kingdom creativeculture.htm
Artemis School of Speech and Drama Courses in storytelling offered through the Creative
Perdue Centre for the Arts and Cultural Studies Program.

Worldwide List of Courses 651
United States Using Story in Business Settings, Using Story

in Educational Settings, and Using Story in
Note: Additional lists of U.S. higher Healing Settings.
education Folklore and Folklife programs
are kept by the American Folklife Center, California
Library of Congress Research Center
(http://www.loc.gov/folklife/source/grad. Antelope Valley College
html) and the American Folklore Society Communication Arts
(http://www.afsnet.org/aboutfolklore/ 3041 West Avenue K
wherestudyFL.cfm). Lancaster, CA 93536
Phone: 661-722-6300, ext. 6477
Alaska Contact: Debra Olson Tolar, dtolar@avc.edu
University of Alaska, Fairbanks California State University, Los Angeles

Alaska Native Studies Program Charter College of Education
319 Brooks Building Division of Curriculum and Instruction
Fairbanks, AK 99775-6300 King Hall D2069
Phone: 907-474-7181 Los Angeles, CA 90032
http://www.uaf.edu/ans/index.html Contact: Ambika Gopalakrishnan,
Selected courses included storytelling by indigenous agopala@calstatela.edu
cultures. http://www.calstatela.edu/academic/ccoe/
This university offers courses in storytelling, digital
Arizona storytelling, and folklore. Certificate in Storytelling:
Glendale Community College This program is designed for persons with an
Building 02, Room 121 interest in the techniques, theories, and literature
6000 West Olive Avenue associated with the ancient and modern art of
Glendale, AZ 85302 storytelling. The certificate is valuable for teacher
Phone: 623-845-3686 use in language arts instruction and for improving
Contact: Joyce Story, communications skills; it also can be used
Joyce.story@gcmail.maricopa.edu effectively by librarians and recreation leaders.
Course: The Art of Storytelling. This program is open to matriculated, upper
division undergraduate and postbaccalaureate
South Mountain Community College students. Completion of this credit certificate
Storytelling Institute in the Communications program requires thirty-two units in core and
and Fine Arts Division elective courses.
7050 South 24th Street
Phoenix, AZ 85040 Chapman University College
Phone: 602-243-8000 Professional Development Center
Contacts: Lorraine Calbow; LynnAnn 3001 Lava Ridge Court
Wojciechowicz; Liz Warren, Roseville, CA 95661
liz.warren@smcmail.maricopa.edu. Phone: 916-984-6248
http://eport.maricopa.edu/published/l/yn/ Contact: Susan M. Osborn,
lynnannw/home/1/ sosborn@ix.netcom.com
The Storytelling Program of Study involves six
required courses and various electives. Students San Jose State University
need not be matriculated in a B.A. program. Television, Radio, Film, Theatre
Courses include: The Art of Storytelling, Life One Washington Square
Stories, Multicultural Folktales, Mythology, San Jose, CA 95192-0098

Phone: 408-924-4568 Storytelling for the Elementary School, The Oral

Contact: Beverly Swanson, Tradition in Ancient and Modern Mythology,
Beverly1007@aol.com Storytelling in Art and Legend, and Storytelling
Theater Arts 131: Storytelling & Creative in Art and Technique. The school also offers
Dramatics. special programs, field projects, and independent
studies in storytelling.
University of California, Los Angeles
(UCLA) University of Bridgeport
Information Studies School of Education and Human Resources
220GSE&IS Carlson Hall
Los Angeles, CA 90095 303 University Avenue
Phone: 310-206-9363 Bridgeport, CT 06604
Contact: Virginia Walter, vwalter@ucla.edu Contact: Connie Rockman,
www.ucla.edu connie.rock@snet.net
Course: Storytelling for Teachers.
Connecticut
Florida
The Graduate Institute
701 North Street Florida Atlantic University
Milford, CT 06460 South Florida Storytelling Project
Phone: 203-874-4252; 860-701-7708 Communications
Contacts: Wendy Cook, Robin Moore, 777 Glades Road
graduateinstitute@learn.edu Boca Raton, FL 33431
www.learn.edu/ot/ Phone: 561-297-0042
Offers a Master of Arts degree in Oral Traditions. Contact: Caren S. Neile, cneile@fau.edu,
carenina@bellsouth.net
http://www.fau.edu/storytelling/index.htm
Southern Connecticut State University
School of Communication, Information and
Library Science
Georgia
501 Crescent Street Kennesaw State University
New Haven, CT 06575 Department of Theatre and Performance
Phone: 203-392-5711 Studies
Contact: Gwendolin Nowlan, Director, 1000 Chastain Road, Box #3103
nowlan@scsu.ctstate.edu Kennesaw State University
http://www.southernct.edu/programs/ Kennesaw, GA 30144
storytelling Phone: 770-423-6338
Offers a master’s program in Oral Tradition. Contacts: John S. Gentile (Chair),
Courses include: Fostering the Multiple jgentile@kennesaw.edu; Hannah B.
Intelligences through the Oral Tradition, Harvey, hharvey3@kennesaw.edu
Historical and Cultural Integration of Music and http://www.kennesaw.edu/theatre/
Oral Tradition, History and Development of the monkeyking/
Folktale in the Oral Tradition, History and Courses: 1) Storytelling I: Folktale and Legend:
Development of the Oral Tradition, Integrating The study of folk narrative forms of folktale and
Enhanced Learning Techniques and Movement legend through storytelling performance. Introduces
into the Oral Tradition, Integrating the Oral student to folkloristics as a field of study; to the
Tradition into the Elementary Curriculum, nature, structure, and function of narrative; and to
Integrating the Oral Tradition into the Middle the aesthetics, methods, and practice of storytelling.
and High School Curriculum, Methods of 2) Storytelling II: Myth and Epic: The study of

folk narrative forms of myth and epic through 501 East Daniel
storytelling performance. Introduces students to the Champaign, IL 61820
various approaches to the study and interpretation Phone: 217-244-7451
of world mythologies and to the aesthetics, methods, Contact: Betsy Hearne, ehearne@uiuc.edu
and practice of storytelling. http://www.lis.uiuc.edu/~hearne/
Courses offered in person and online through
Hawaii LEEP (an online scheduling option).
University of Hawaii, Manoa
Academy for Creative Media Indiana
2550 Campus Road Indiana University
Honolulu, HI 96822 School of Library and Information Science
Contact: Chris Lee, Chair, Academy for 755 West Michigan Street, UL 3100N
Creative Media, cpl@hawaii.edu Indianapolis, IN 46202-5195
http://acm.hawaii.edu/ Contact: Hope Baugh, bryteller@yahoo.com
Courses in Storytelling and Story Theater. http://www.slis.iupui.edu/
Course: S603: Workshop in Youth Services
Illinois Librarianship—Storytelling (1.5 credits).
Dominican University The course is a special topics course taught by
Graduate School of Library and Information several instructors in various locations around
Science Indiana.
Crown 323, 7900 West Division Street
River Forest, IL 60305 Indiana University
Phone: 708-524-6871 Department of Folklore, M.A. and Ph.D.
Contact: Janice M. Del Negro, 504 North Fess
jdelnegro@dom.edu Bloomington, IN 47405
Course: Storytelling for Adults & Children. Phone: 812-855-0395
Contact: Richard Bauman,
Northern Illinois University bauman@indiana.edu
School of Theatre and Dance
Dekalb, IL 60115 Iowa
Phone: 815-753-8074 University of Iowa
Contact: Patricia Ridge, pridge@niu.edu College of Education
http://www.vpa.niu.edu/theatre.html Department of Curriculum and Instruction
Program in Literature, Science & the Arts
Northwestern University 13-E North Hall
Department of Theatre, in the School of Iowa City, IA 52242
Speech Phone: 319-335-3011
Chicago and Evanston, IL Contact: Steve McGuire,
Phone: 847-491-3163 s-mcguire@uiowa.edu
Contact: Rives Collins, r-collins@nwu.edu
Courses include Adapting Folk Tales and
Other Sources, and Intensive Coaching for
Kentucky
Storytellers. Western Kentucky University
Folk Narrative
University of Illinois Department of Folk Studies and
Graduate School of Library and Information Anthropology
Studies Bowling Green, KY 42101

Phone: 270-745-5896 Courses are offered through the Department of

Contact: Chris Antonsen, Education (Early Childhood), the Department of
Chris.antonsen@wku.edu English, and the Center for Professional Studies.
Louisiana Harvard University

Lousiana State University Folklore and Mythology Program
School of Library and Information Science 11 Prescott Street
276 Coates Hall Cambridge, MA 02138
Baton Rouge, LA 70803 Phone: 617-495-4788
Phone: 225-578-1467 Contact: folkmyth@fas.harvard.edu
Contact: Dr. Margie J. Thomas, Faculty http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~folkmyth/
Coordinator, Mthom39@lsu.edu
Lesley University
Maine 29 Everett Street
Cambridge, MA 02138
University of Southern Maine Phone: 617-349-8740; 800-999-1959 ext. 8426
Center for the Study of Lives Contact: Lisa Donovan
400 Bailey Hall http://www.lesley.edu/offcampus/term/
Gorham, ME 04038 nmagss_cal.html
Phone: 207-780-5078 The Creative Arts in Learning program offers
Contact: Robert Atkinson storytelling specialization as part of master’s of arts
Teaching the telling of sacred stories. and master’s of education degrees.
Maryland Simmons College

Garrett Community College Graduate School of Library and Information
166 Lodge Circle Science
Swanton, MD 21561 Room P-204D
Phone: 301-387-9199 300 The Fenway
Contact: Gail N. Herman Boston, MA 02115
Offers courses on using storytelling in education Phone: 617-521-2793
and business. Contact: Maggie Bush,
Margaret.bush@simmons.edu
Western Maryland College Course: LIS 423: Storytelling.
School Library Media Program
Hill Hall Michigan
Westminster, MD 21157
Grand Valley State University
Contact: Joanne Hay, jhay@cvn.net
Lake Superior Hall 121
http://www2.yk.psu.edu/~mer7/storytel.html
Allendale, MI 49401
Course: Art of Storytelling.
Phone: 616-331-3510
Contact: Karen Libman, libmank@gvsu.edu
Massachusetts Course: CTH 300: Storytelling.
Fitchburg State College
160 Pearl Street Wayne State University
Fitchburg, MA 01420 Teacher Education Division
Contact: Laurie DeRosa, Chair of Education, 241 Education Building
Lderosa@fsc.edu Detroit, MI 48202
www.fsc.edu Phone: 313-577-0928

Contact: R. Craig Roney, rroney@wayne.edu Phone: 402-558-0864

Graduate course in storytelling are cross-listed Contact: Rita Paskowitz, storywitz@juno.com
with the School of Information and Library Course: Storytelling and Education.
Science; this university also offers related special
topics courses. New Jersey
Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey
Minnesota School of Communication, Information, and
Metropolitan State University Library Studies
Communication, Writing, and the Arts 4 Huntington Street
Department New Brunswick, NJ 08901-1071
Suite 205, Energy Park Place Phone: 732-932-7500
1380 Energy Lane Contact: lis@scils.rutgers.edu
St. Paul, MN 55108 http://www.scils.rutgers.edu
Contacts: Loren Niemi, niemistory@aol.com, Course: Traditions in Oral Narration.
Loren.Niemi@metrostate.edu, 651-793-
1439; Nancy Donoval, 651-999-5940 New Mexico
http://www.metrostate.edu/cas/cwa/index.
html New Mexico State University
Courses: Storytelling as a Modern Communications Department of Management
Art, and Storytelling as Presentation & Perfor- Las Cruces, NM 88003-8003
mance (both analytic and performance skills). Contact: David Boje, dboje@nmsu.edu
http://business.nmsu.edu/~dboje/
Courses on business and storytelling.
University of Minnesota, Twin Cities
205 Folwell Hall
Minneapolis, MN New York
Phone: 612-624-1041 Bank Street Graduate School of Education
Contact: Jack Zipes, Zipes001@umn.edu Main Campus Location
Course offered in the summer: Storytelling, Critical 610 West 112th Street
Literacy, and Creative Drama. New York, NY 10025-1898
Phone: 212-875-4492
Missouri Contact: Nina Jaffe, njaffe@bankstreet.edu
http://www.bankstreet.edu/gs/
University of Missouri—Columbia.
Graduate courses: Storytelling for Children, Folklore
Center for Studies in Oral Tradition
in the Classroom, and Human Development I:
66 McReynolds Hall
Programming for Young Audiences.
Columbia, MO 65211-2370
Phone: 573-882-9720
Ithaca College
Contact: John Miles Foley, Director,
Department of Speech Communication
csot@missouri.edu
422 Muller Center
http://oraltradition.org/
Ithaca, NY 14850
Phone: 607-274-3931
Nebraska Contact: Bruce Henderson,
University of Nebraska, Omaha henderso@ithaca.edu
Teacher Education
Kayser Hall 314 Palmer School of Library and Information
6001 Dodge Street Science
Omaha, NE 68182 720 Northern Boulevard

Brookville, NY 11548-1300 Ohio

Phone: 516-299-2866
Contact: Amy Spaulding, Ashland University
amy.spaulding@liu.edu Communication Arts
Courses include Storytelling and Folk Literature, Ashland, OH 44805
and Myth and the Age of Information (the roles of Phone: 419-289-5143
story and storytelling in the modern world). Contact: Deleasa Randall-Griffiths,
DRANDALL@ashland.edu
Course in International Storytelling is offered in
New York University
Communications and Education.
Department of Performance Studies
721 Broadway, 6th Floor
New York, NY 10003 The Ohio State University
Phone: 212-998-1620 Enarson Hall
Contact: Barbara Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, 154 West 12th Avenue
bkg@nyu.edu Columbus, OH 43210
http://performance.tisch.nyu.edu/page/home. www.osu.edu
html Storytelling courses are offered through Freshman
Seminars and through Folklore and Area Studies
Yeshiva University, Stern College for (i.e., Near Eastern Language & Culture).
Women
525 West End Avenue Pennsylvania
New York, NY 10024 Allegheny College
Phone: 917-326-4810 Psychology
Contact: Peninnah Schram, 520 N. Main Street
Peninnah1@aol.com Meadville, PA 16335
Contact: Joshua Searle-White,
North Carolina jsearle@allegheny.edu
The University of North Carolina—Chapel Course: FS 101: Adventures, Mysteries, and Just
Hill Plain Lies: The Art of Telling Stories.
School of Library and Information Science
CB#3360 Manning Hall Kutztown University
Chapel Hill, NC 27599 Performance Studies/Speech and Theatre
Phone: 919-962-7622 Speech Communication
Contact: Brian Sturm, sturm@ils.unc.edu 15200 Kutztown Road
http://ils.unc.edu/~sturm/ Kutztown, PA 19530
Course: INLS 121: Principles and Techniques Phone: 610-683-4251
of Storytelling. Contact: Deryl Johnson,
Johnson@kutztown.edu
The University of North Carolina,
Greensboro University of Pittsburgh
University Speaking Center School of Information Sciences
3211 MHRA Building 135 North Bellefield
Greensboro, NC 27403 Pittsburgh, PA 15260
Contact: Kim Cuny, kmcuny@uncg.edu Phone: 412-624-3988
Course: Storytelling Across Cultures (Freshman http://www.ischool.pitt.edu/
Seminars). Course: LIS 2326: Storytelling.

Tennessee Vermont
East Tennessee State University Goddard College
Department of Curriculum and Instruction 123 Pitkin Road
P.O. Box 70784 Plainfield, VT 05667
Johnson City, TN 37614-1709 Phone: 785-843-0253
Phone: 423-439-7863 Contact: Caryn Mirriam-Goldberg,
Contact: Joseph Sobol, Director of Coordinator, carynken@mindspring.com
Storytelling Program, sobol@etsu.edu http://www.goddard.edu/masterarts_
http://www.etsu.edu/stories transformative
Offers a master’s of arts in Reading with a Offers master’s of arts in Individualized Studies,
Concentration in Storytelling. Courses include: concentration in Transformative Language Arts.
Advanced Storytelling, Basic Storytelling,
Historical and Psychological Foundations of Virginia
Storytelling, Linguistics of Reading (section
focusing on storytelling), and Practicum. Electives George Mason University
include Storytelling Institutes, Story Performance, Department of English
and special topics courses. Capstone Project and Robinson A439
thesis options are available. 4400 University Drive, MSN 3E4
Fairfax, VA 22030
University of Tennessee, Knoxville Phone: 703-993-1172
School of Information Science Contact: Margaret R. Yocom,
451 Comm UEB myocom@gmu.edu
Knoxville, TN 37996
Contact: Tena Litherland, clither1@utk.edu Washington
Course: IS 576: Storytelling in the Library and Shoreline Community College
Classroom. Humanities Division, Speech
Communication
Texas 16101 Greenwood Avenue North
University of North Texas Shoreline, WA 98133-5696
School of Library and Information Sciences Phone: 206-546-4795
Information Sciences Building, Room 216 Contact: Brooke Zimmers,
P.O. Box 311068 bzimmers@shoreline.edu
Denton, TX 76203-1068 Course: Speech Communications: The Art of
Phone: 940-565-2187 Storytelling.
Contact: Elizabeth Figa,
efiga@lis.admin.unt.edu, slis@unt.edu Western Washington University
http://www.unt.edu/slis; http://www.courses. Woodring College of Education
unt.edu/efiga/Figa/ Miller Hall 265
Graduate Academic Certificate in Bellingham, WA 98225
Storytelling: http://www.unt.edu/slis/ Phone: 360-650-6446
programs/storytellingcert.htm Contact: Rosemary Scott Vohs,
Courses: SLIS 5440, Storytelling, and SLIS 5611, Rosemary.Vohs@wwu.edu
Advanced Storytelling. The first course is offered www.wwu.edu/~rvohs
each semester, 100 percent online; the second course Courses offered include Advanced Storytelling,
also is taught online, but has an optional on-site The Power of Storytelling in Action, Reader’s
component and is offered just once a year. Theatre in the Classroom, and Storytelling:

Practical Field Applications, as well as summer Offers storytelling courses in the Theatre department
workshops and independent studies. (460) and School of Information Studies.
University of Wisconsin, Madison

Wisconsin American Indian Studies Program
University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee 315 Ingraham Hall
Theatre 278 1155 Observatory Drive
P.O. Box 413 Madison, WI 53706
Milwaukee, WI 53201 Phone: 608-263-5501
Phone: 414-229-6066 Contact: aisp@mailplus.wisc.edu
Contact: Robin Mello, rmello@uwm.edu Courses in American Indian Oral Literature.
Storytelling Festivals
F ollowing is a list of storytelling festivals.

The international festivals are listed first,
followed by those held in the United States.
British Columbia
Kootenay Storytelling Festival. Proctor.
The location, contact information, website, 888-422-1123. www.kootenaystory.org.
and month or season are listed for each festi- July.
val as applicable. All events are annual unless Vancouver Storytelling Festival. Vancouver.
otherwise noted. 604-876-2272. info@vancouverstorytelling.
Those wishing to attend any of the org. www.vancouverstorytelling.org. Time
festivals listed here should be aware that sto- varies.
rytelling festivals may be cancelled, resched-
uled, or have their organizers or sites changed. Manitoba
While the events included represent many Sundog Storytelling Festival. Winnipeg. 204-
major events, this is not to be considered a 956-2830. February.
comprehensive list, since storytelling events
may be held in other areas, and new story- Newfoundland
telling festivals may be started up after this
list is published. St. John’s Storytelling Festival. St. John’s.
866-576-8508. office@sjfac.nf.net. www.
Australia nlfolk.com/storytelling/storytelling.html.
November.
Australian National Storytelling
Conference/Festival. Perth. 61-0-35333- Ontario
4347. astewart@netconnect.com.au.
Brantford Storytelling Festival. Brantford.
Canada 519-756-0727. taletellers@bizbrant.com.
www.tales.bizbrant.com. October.
Alberta Ottawa Storytelling Festival. Ottawa. 613-722-
T.A.L.E.S. Fort Edmonton Storytelling Festival. 2606. ruth@rasputins.ca. Autumn.
Edmonton. holly.gilmour@interbaun.com; The Toronto Festival of Storytelling. Toronto.
mamclean@shaw.ca. www.ecn.ab.ca/~tales/. 416-656-2445. admin@storytellingtoronto.
September. org. March/April.

Stor ytelling Festivals 659
Quebec California
Note: The Quebec festivals, though bilingual, are Ananda Storytelling Festival. Nevada City.
mostly for French speakers. www.livingwisdom.org. Autumn.
De Bouche à Oreille (From the Mouth to the Bay Area Storytelling Festival. San Francisco.
Ear). Montreal. info@andrelemelin.com. www.bayareastorytelling.org/. May.
Time varies. Mariposa Storytelling Festival. Mariposa.
Festival du Conte (Storytelling Festival). West www.arts-mariposa.org/storytelling.html.
Brome. Time varies. March.
Le Festival Intercultural du Conte du Quebec (The
International Storytelling Festival of Colorado
Quebec), Montreal. 514-272-4494.
Rocky Mountain Storytelling Festival.
rosebudc@sympatico.ca. http://festival-
Palmer Lake. www.colo-performingartists.
conte.qc.ca/. Bi-annually in October.
com/Festival/homepage.html. Mid-
summer.
Yukon Territory
Yukon International Storytelling Festival. Connecticut
Whitehorse. yukonstory@yknet.yk.ca.
Connecticut Storytelling Festival. New
Time varies.
London. www.connstorycenter.org/festival.
html. Late April or early May.
Ireland
Féile Scéalaíochta Chléire/The Cape Clear Florida
Island International Storytelling Festival. Cracker Storytelling Festival. Homeland
Cape Clear Island, Skibbereen, County Heritage Park. 863-834-4274. October.
Cork. http://indigo.ie/~stories/. Tampa Hillsborough County Storytelling
September. Festival. www.tampastory.org/.
April.
New Zealand
Glistening Waters Storytelling Festival. Georgia
Masterton. gw@waireap.org.nz. Time Azalea Storytelling Festival. La Grange
varies. College, La Grange. www.lagrange.edu/
azalea/index.html. March.
United Kingdom Winter Storytelling Festival. Southern
Festival at the Edge. Much Wenlock, Order of Storytellers. Atlanta. www.
Shropshire. www.festivalattheedge.com. southernorderofstorytellers.org/.
July. January.
North Pennines Storytelling Festival.
Teesdale, Tynedale, Wear Valley, Eden.
Illinois
www.npenninestorytelling.org.uk/. Annual Sterling Storytelling Festival. Sterling.
October. 815-625-1370. akpeach54@hotmail.com.
August/September.
United States Fox Valley Folk Music & Storytelling Festival.
Geneva. 630-897-3655. September.
Arizona Illinois Storytelling Festival. Spring Grove.
Mesa Storytelling Festival. Mesa. 480-644- 630-877-0931. info@storytelling.org.
6500. www.mesaartscenter.com. October. August.

Indiana Montana
Hoosier Storytelling Festival. Indianapolis. Montana Story Telling Roundup. Cut Bank.
317-576-9848. Ellen@storytellingarts.org. 406-336-3253; 406-873-2295. www.
October. northerntel.net/~cbchambe/storytel/. April.
Iowa Nebraska
Iowa Storytelling Festival. Clear Lake. Buffalo Commons Storytelling Festival.
641-357-6134. clplib@netins.net. July. McCook. http://www.buffalocommons.
org/. May.
Kansas
New Mexico
Kansas Storytelling Festival. Downs. http://
www.downsks.net/. April. Taos Storytelling Festival. Taos. 877-758-7343;
575-758-0081. www.somostaos.org.
October.
Kentucky
Cave Run Storytelling Festival. Morehead. New York
606-780-4342; 800-654-1944.
Riverway Storytelling Festival. Albany. 518-
caverunstoryfest.org/. September.
383-4620. www.riverwaystorytellingfestival.
Corn Island Storytelling Festival.
org. April/May.
Louisville. 502-245-0643.
www.cornislandstorytellingfestival.org/.
September.
Oregon
Stories by the Sea. Newport. 541-265-ARTS.
Massachusetts September.
Tapestry of Tales Storytelling Festival.
Three Apples Storytelling Festival. Bedford.
Portland. 503-988-5402. November.
617-499-9529. www.threeapples.org.
September or October.
Pennsylvania
Michigan Three Rivers Storytelling Festival. Pittsburgh.
smith6@einetwork.net. August.
Detroit Storytelling Festival. Livonia. http://
www.detroitstorytelling.org/. September. South Carolina
Michigan Storytellers Festival. Flint. 810-232-
7111. www.flint.lib.mi.us/msf. July. Patchwork Tales Storytelling Festival. York
County Public Library, Rock Hill. www.
Mississippi patchworktales.org. March.
Mississippi Blueberry Jubilee Storytelling Tennessee

Festival. Poplarville Storytelling Guild.
Poplarville. www.blueberryjubilee.org. Haunting in the Hills, a Storytelling Event. Big
June. South Fork National River and Recreation
Area, Big South Fork. 423-569-9778.
September.
Missouri
National Storytelling Festival. International
St. Louis Storytelling Festival. St. Louis. 314- Storytelling Foundation, Jonesborough.
516-5961. www.umsl.edu/divisions/conted/ www.storytellingfoundation.net/festival/
storyfes/. April/May. festival.htm. October.

Stor ytelling Festivals 661
Texas Washington
George West Storyfest. George West. Bellingham Storytelling Festival. Bellingham.
http://georgeweststoryfest.org/. 360-714-9631. November.
November. Forest Storytelling Festival. Port Angeles. 360-
Squatty Pines Storytelling Retreat. White- 417-5031; 206-935-5308. forestfest@yahoo.
house. 903-510-6400. http://www. com. October.
easttexastellers.homestead.com/Squatty.
html. March. Wisconsin
Northlands Annual Conference and
Utah Storytelling Workshop. Location varies.
Timpanogos Storytelling Festival. Orem. www.northlands.net. April.
801-229-7050. www.timpfest.org. Riverbend Storytelling Festival. West Bend.
August/September. info@riverbendstorytelling.org. October.

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Index
Note: Motifs within stories are listed under the Abzu House. See E-Abzu Aenea (island), 3:449
subheading “mythology.” Numbers in Accolon, 2:315 Aeneas (Aineias), prince of Troy,
bold indicate volumes. Page numbers in
italics refer to illustrations. Achelous, 2:416 1:9–11, 10, 87; 2:232, 283
Acheron (river), 1:10, 90; 2:392 Aeneid, The (Virgil), 1:9–11, 10, 148;
A Achi lhamo, 3:456 3:467
Achilleis (Statius), 1:148 Aesacus, 2:406
Aarne, Antti, 1:1–2; 2:318; 3:444, Achilles, 1:6–7 Aeschylus, 2:351
452 birth and upbringing, 1:87, 94; Aesir
Aarne-Thompson tale type index. 2:339–340 creation of, 2:335
See Types of the Folktale: A in Greek epics, 1:147; 2:233, 286 exploits, 2:424
Classification and Bibliography at Troy, 1:12, 30; 2:219, 231–232, home of, 2:424
Aatxe, 1:56 232, 367; 3:466 leadership, 1:176
Abasi. See Abassi Achilles’ heel, 1:7 members, 1:49, 178; 2:341
Abassi (Abasi; Obassi), 1:2; 3:500, Achiyah, 3:592 as reflection of Norse society, 2:324
502 Acrisius, King, 3:624, 626 See also Asgard
Abatwa, 1:2–3 Acrites, 1:116 Aesop, 1:xviii, 11–12, 156; 3:473
Aberdeen Bestiary, 1:66 Adad. See Ishkur Aesop’s Fables, 1:xx, 11, 11–12, 84,
Abla, 1:23; 2:356 Adam (first man), 2:426; 3:476 119, 123, 156; 2:243, 301, 310,
Abominable Snowman. See Yeti Adam de la Halle, 2:347; 3:468 314; 3:473
Aboriginal mythology, Australia, Adapa, 1:7–8, 132 Aesop’s Fables (Assemblies of Aesopic
1:3–5 Adon (Adonis), 1:8–9, 28 Tales; Demetrius of Phaleron),
afterlife, 1:4 Adonis. See Adon 1:12
ancestors, prehistoric, 1:3 Adrastus, king of Argos, 1:24–25 Aetheopis (Aithiopis), 1:12–13
birds, 2:381 Adro, 1:9 Aethiopia (Arctinus of Miletus), 1:147
ceremonies and rituals, 1:3, 4 Adroa, 1:9 Aethra of Troezen, 3:450
creation myths, 1:3, 4 Adroanzi, 1:9 Afanc, 2:280
ghosts, 1:192 Adventure tales, as genre, 1:xxi Afghanistan
origin myths, 1:4 See also specific stories folktales, 2:361
owls, 2:354 “Adventures of Ferdinand Feghoot Internet humor on, 2:244
reincarnation, 2:384 in Time and Space, The,” 2:411 mythology, 2:354
snakes, 2:425 Adventures of Superman, The (radio Afrasiyab, 3:535–537
spirits, 1:4, 5, 80 show), 2:439 Africa
string figure tradition, 2:434 Ady, Thomas, 2:224 bards, 1:209–210
Abosom, 3:501 Aegean Sea, naming of, 3:451 Bushmen, mythology, 1:13; 2:330
Abracadabra, 1:5 Aegeus, king of Athens, 3:450, 451 East, mythology, 1:9
Abraham (Jewish patriarch), 3:446, Aegir, 2:219, 336 folklore
447 Aegis, 1:58; 2:408 fingernails, 1:166
Abrasax (Abraxas), 1:5 Aegisthus, 1:159; 2:351 helper animals, 1:22
Abraxas. See Abrasax Aelian, 3:475–476 insects, 2:243
Absalon, archbishop of Lund, 2:402 Aelianus, Claudius, 1:84 folktales, 1:21; 2:216, 230, 297;
Abzu, 1:5–6, 137 Aello, 2:216 3:518
I-1

I-2 Index
Africa (continued) Afterlife (continued) Akkadians

mythology Sakai people (Malaysia), 1:74 mythology (continued)
amulets, 3:501 Semang people (Malaysia), origin of civilization, 2:235
birds, 1:2 1:73–74 resurrection, 2:236
creation myths, 1:9, 13; 3:501 See also Heaven; Underworld trees, 2:237
death, 1:15; 3:500–501 Afternoon of a Faun (Debussy), 2:441, underworld, 2:236
dogs, 3:501 442 Aksumite kingdom, 1:153
dwarves, 3:523 Agamemnon, king of Mycene Al Asmai, 1:23, 32; 2:396
generosity in, 1:97 death of, 1:159; 2:351, 407 Ala, 2:315; 3:501
ghosts, 1:192 exploits, 1:147; 2:305 “Aladdin and the Magic Lamp”
gods and goddesses, 1:2, 9, 13, Trojan War, 1:7; 2:231–232, 277, (Arabian Nights), 1:117
15; 3:500–502 407; 3:466 Alae, 2:301
heroes, 1:13 Aganju, 3:502 Alalu (Alalus), 1:15, 25
monsters and odd creatures, 1:14 Agathe, 1:176 Alalus. See Alalu
origin of death, 1:15; 3:500–501 Age (Fon god), 3:500 Alamo, massacre at, 1:96
origin of disease, 1:9 Agemem, 1:165 Albania
origin of evil, 1:9 Aglaophonos, 2:416 heroes, 2:440
origin of geographical features, Agnes, Saint, 1:200 mythology
3:501, 502 Agriculture, origin myths vampires, 3:487
origin of human beings, 1:2, 15; Egyptian, 1:110 werewolves, 3:497
3:501, 502 Finnish, 3:482 Alberich the Nibelung, 2:387–388,
owls, 2:354 Greek, 1:29, 115 390
reincarnation, 2:384 Agta, 1:165 Alcuin, 1:90
shape-shifters, 1:13; 2:411 Agwo, 3:502 Alda, 2:428
skulls, talking, 2:419 Ahes. See Dahut Alecton (ship), 2:404
small creatures, 1:2–3 Ahriman, 3:534 Alekoko, 2:304
spirits, 1:9; 3:501, 502, 523 Ahti (Ahto), 1:13 Alexander the Great, 1:78, 147, 148;
tigers, 3:464 Ahto. See Ahti 3:475
tricksters, 1:xviii, 13, 21; 3:464, Ahuizotl, 1:46 Alexanderlied, 1:145
500, 501, 502, 518, 542–543 Ahwere, 2:409 Alexandra (Lycophron), 1:147
turtles and tortoises, 3:518 Aias. See Ajax Alfar, 1:176–177; 2:336
twins, 3:501 Aida (Verdi), 2:348 Alfheim, 1:38, 176–177; 2:336
World Tree, 3:500 Aide, 1:56 Alfonso VI, king of Spain, 1:135
North, mythology, 1:15 Aido-Hwedo, 3:500 Algonquin mythology, 2:421
South, mythology, 1:2–3, 13, 14; Aietes, king of Colchis, 1:35 Alhambra Theater (Utah), 1:198
2:243 Aigamuxa, 1:14; 2:266 Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland
string figure tradition, 2:434 Ailill, king of Connaught, 3:580 (Carroll), 2:295; 3:489
sub-Saharan, folktales, 2:230 Aineias. See Aeneas Alien (1979 film), 2:227
West Aino, 1:14; 2:258; 3:482, 612–613 Allat, 2:315
bards, 1:209–210 Ainu people, folktales, 2:253 All-Father (Australian aboriginal), 1:4
folktales, 1:xx, 21; 3:518, 542 Aiomum Kondi (Inhabitants of the All-Mother (Australian aboriginal),
mythology, 1:2; 3:500–502 High), 1:14–15 1:4
Yoruban storytelling, 3:517–518 Aircraft, ghostly, 1:190 Alma Mergen, 3:605
women warriors, 1:17 Aithiopis. See Aetheopis Alo chorus, 3:517–518
African Americans Aja, 3:502 Aloadae, 3:520
folktales and folk beliefs, Ajax (Aias), 1:12, 147; 2:233, 286, 368 Alp (trud), 2:329–330
1:112–113; 2:229–230 Ajok, 1:15 Alseids, 2:339
fingernails, 1:166 Aka, king of Kish, 1:201 Al-Sirat, 1:73
trickster tales, 3:462, 464 Akan people, mythology, 3:501 Altan Shagai, 3:604
heroes, 2:255–256 Akkadians Amadis de Gaule (Amadis of Gaul ;
mythology, mermaids, 2:305 ceremonies and rituals, 2:235 anonymous), 1:15–16, 148, 160
oral histories, 2:350 literature, 3:521 Amadis of Gaul (Child of the Sea),
Afrits, 1:117 mythology 1:15–16
Afterlife afterlife, 2:236 Amadlozi, 3:523
in Akkadian mythology, 2:236 amulets, 2:236 Amaethon, 1:33
in Australian Aboriginal fish, 2:235 Amam, 2:425
mythology, 1:4 giants, 2:235 Amaterasu, 2:382
in Egyptian mythology, 1:26; 2:294, gods and goddesses, 1:137–138; Amazons, 1:16–18
410 2:235–237 exploits, 3:451, 466
in Norse mythology, 1:38; 3:483, monsters and odd creatures, in modern tales, 3:512
484 2:235, 236 queens of, 1:12, 17, 147; 3:451

Index I-3
Amen. See Amun American Indians An (Anu; Sumerian/Babylonian

Amenemhat I, pharaoh of Egypt, mythology (continued) god), 1:20–21
2:415 shape-shifters, 3:621–622 Bull of Heaven, 1:78–79
Amenemhat III, pharaoh of Egypt, Sioux, 1:172; 3:464 exploits, 1:8, 101, 169; 2:236
2:279 Southwest, 3:623 family, 1:6, 139; 2:235; 3:481
America. See United States spiders, 1:174; 3:627–629 Ana Njoku, 3:502
American Folklore Society, 3:452 spirits, 3:461, 531, 532 Analytical psychology, 2:260–261
American Indians supernatural beings, 3:627–629 Anansasem, 1:21
ceremonies and rituals, 1:172 Tlingit, 2:354 Ananse. See Anansi
comets, 1:96 Tohono O’odham, 2:243 Anansesem, 3:543
culture heroes, 1:103 tricksters, 1:85, 103, 174; 2:324, Anansi (Ananse) the spider, 1:xviii;
folktales, 1:xx 381–382; 3:462, 464, 541, 3:464, 500, 518, 542–543
Apache, 3:541 627–629 Anasazi people, comets, 1:96
bison, 1:84–85 turtles and tortoises, 1:174; Anat, 1:98
Nez Perce, 1:22 2:323; 3:630–631 Ancestors and ancestral spirits
Passamaquoddy, 1:22 twins, 3:631 in African mythology, 3:501, 523
Pueblo, 1:22 Wichita, 1:194 in Australian Aboriginal
Southwest, 1:103; 3:541 Zuni, 2:214; 3:464 mythology, 1:3, 4
Tsimshian, 1:22 sacred clowns, 1:172 Andersdatter, Anne Marie, 1:109
ghosts, 1:189 storytelling, Iroquois, 2:245–247 Andersen, Ed K., 1:109
mythology string figure tradition, 2:434, 435 Andersen, Hans Christian,
Algonquin, 2:421 American mythology. See United 1:xxi–xxiii, 108, 108, 109;
Apache, 2:354 States 2:303, 307–308; 3:464
birds, 2:324; 3:622, 627–629, American Werewolf in London (1981 Anderson, Karen, 1:107
630–631 film), 3:499 Anderson, Poul, 1:107; 2:439
Blackfoot, 2:243 Ameto (Boccaccio), 1:70 Andhra Pradesh, storytelling in,
Cherokee, 2:354; 3:464 Amfortas, 1:207 2:239–240
creation, 2:247, 323, 382; Amityville, New York, ghosts, 1:194 Andromache, 2:407
3:630–632 Amityville Horror, The (1979 and 2005 Andromeda, 3:625–626
Dakota, 2:354 films), 1:194 Andronicus, Livius, 1:147–148
death, 2:324 Amled (Amleth), Prince, 1:18, 188; Andumbulu, 3:501
flood, 3:631–632 2:402 Angantyr, 2:223
frogs and toads, 3:628 Amled (musical), 1:18 Angel of Death, 1:114
ghosts, 1:192, 194 Amleth. See Amled Anglo Saxons
heroes, 1:103; 3:627–629 Amma, 3:501 literature, 1:63–65, 64; 2:418
Hopi, 2:354; 3:464, 627–629 Ammon, 1:147 mythology
Iroquois, 1:147; 2:246, 247; Ammut, 2:294 fate and destiny, 1:64, 161
3:630–632 Amon. See Amun gods and goddesses, 3:503
Kwakiutl, 2:354 Amores (Ovid), 2:353 monsters and odd creatures,
magic, 3:621–622, 627–629 Amos (prophet), 1:66 1:63
monsters and odd creatures, Amphisbaena, 1:18–19; 2:425 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 1:65
3:627–629 Amulets, 1:19, 19 Angrboda (Distress-Bringer), 1:163;
Navajo (Diné), 1:xxii; 2:354; in African mythology, 3:501 2:220
3:464, 627 in Babylonian mythology, 2:353 Angus of the Bruff, 3:587
Nez Percé, 3:464 in Egyptian mythology, 2:221, 248, Animal cults, Egyptian, 1:58
Oglala Sioux, 2:354–355 328 Animals
origin of death, 2:324 gestures, 2:215 animal cults, Egyptian, 1:58
origin of evil, 3:632 good-luck, 1:182 beast epics, 1:144; 2:385
origin of insects, 3:632 horseshoes, 2:228 bestiaries, 1:65–66, 66
origin of moon, 3:622, 631 in Persian mythology, 3:536 Bremen Town Musicians, 1:72
origin of seasons, 2:421 protective, 1:155, 155 brides/bridegrooms, 1:21–22;
origin of stars, 3:622 in Sumerian and Akkadian 2:425–426
origin of sun, 3:622, 631 mythology, 2:236 children raised by
owls, 2:354–355 in West African mythology, 3:501 in Babylonian mythology, 1:202
Pacific Northwest, 2:242, 324, See also Talismans in Roman mythology, 1:48
354, 381–382; 3:464, Amun (Amen; Amon; Amun-Re), in Sumerian mythology, 1:138
621–622 1:20, 20, 60; 2:294, 370; 3:454, disguised as humans, 2:412
Pawnee, 1:194 496–497 ears, humans with, 1:133–134
Plains Indian, 1:73 Amunenshi, ruler of Upper Retjenu, famous historical, 1:78
ravens and crows, 2:324; 3:464, 2:415 in form of men, in American
621–622 Amun-Re. See Amun Indian mythology, 3:630–631

I-4 Index
Animals (continued) Antero Vipunen, 1:23–24 Apple Tree Man, 1:31

ghostly, 1:195 Anthès, Georges d’, 2:373 Apple trees and apples, 1:30–31, 31
gods turned into, 1:131; 3:520–521 Anthony, Piers, 1:206 in American mythology, 1:31;
grateful, 1:22; 3:641–643 Antichrist, 1:24 2:256–257, 257
guardian spirits, 2:411 Antigone, 1:24–25; 2:346 in Celtic mythology, 1:43
helpers, 1:22 Antioche, 1:144 in Christian mythology, 1:30
in American mythology, 2:256 Antiochos, 1:12 in Norse mythology, 2:336
in Buddhist mythology, Antiope, 1:17; 3:451 Appleseed, Johnny, 1:31; 2:256–257,
3:641–643 Antique cycle, 1:144 257
dragonslayers, 1:130 Ants, 2:243 “Appointment in Samarra” (Jewish
in European folktales, Antum, 1:79 folktale), 3:540, 592, 598
2:373–375, 374 Anu (Hittite god), 1:15, 25–26, 149, Apprenti sorcier, L’ (The Sorcerer’s
familiars, 1:160 202; 3:448, 450, 455 Apprentice ; Dukas), 2:429
in “heart in the egg” folktale Anu (Sumerian/Babylonian god). “Après-Midi d’un Faune, L’”
type, 2:218 See An (Mallarmé), 2:441
in Persian mythology, 3:535–536 Anubis (Anpu), 1:26, 26, 110, Apsu, 1:5–6, 6, 102; 3:454–455
in Russian mythology, 2:249; 118–119, 137; 2:294, 328; Apsu House (E-abzu), 1:6
3:600 3:469–470 Apsyrtos, 1:35
simpletons, 1:172–173 Anuket (Anukis), 2:266 Aquino, Maria D’, 1:70
humans in form of Anukis. See Anuket Arabian Nights, The. See Thousand and
changed by curse, 1:106, 178; “Any Major Dude Will Tell You” One Nights, The
2:376 (song), 2:431 Arabs
changed by gods, 2:221 Anzu, 1:27–28, 201; 2:289–290 folktales, 1:xxii, 22, 72; 2:393, 403
changed by magic, 1:177; 2:230, “Anzu” (poem), 1:27–28 hand gestures, meaning of, 2:214,
412; 3:576–577, 586–587, Anzu bird, 2:332 215
613, 619 Aoyama, Tessan, 1:192 history, 1:116
origin myths Apache literature, 1:32; 2:395–396
Australian Aboriginal, 1:4 folktales, 3:541 mythology
Ethiopian, 1:153 mythology, 2:354 birds, 2:393
Greek, 2:221 Apalala, 1:127 gods and goddesses, 2:315
parts of, used in cursing, 1:105 Apep, 1:125; 2:384, 408 heroes, 2:393, 395–396
in Roman mythology, 1:84–85 Aphophis, 2:383 invisibility, 1:117
stories about, as genre, 1:xxi Aphrodite (Venus), 1:28 magic and magicians, 1:32, 92
talking Adonis, 1:8 shape-shifters, 1:117
in American Indian folktales, Egyptian gods, 2:217 spirits and supernatural beings,
3:621–622 exploits, 1:31, 34–35; 2:277, 323; 1:117–118
in Buddhist mythology, 3:465–466, 507 tricksters, 1:117
3:641–643 in modern tales, 3:512 unicorns, 3:478
in Egyptian mythology, 3:470 origin of, 1:8, 28; 2:328 wise men and women, 1:92
in European folktales, Apis bull, 2:352 storytelling, 1:32
2:373–375, 374 Apkallu, 1:7–8 superstitions, 2:214
in fables, 1:xx Apollo, 1:28–30, 29 Arachne, 1:32–33, 40
in Germany mythology, 2:389 associated animals, 1:61; 2:310, 364 Aragorn, 2:439
in Greek mythology, 2:406 associated deities, 2:229 Aranhrod, 3:616–618
in Hindu mythology, 1:168 exploits, 1:10, 12, 125, 133, 147; Aranzahus, 2:277; 3:448, 450
in Jewish mythology, 3:447 2:222, 381, 407, 425; 3:461, Aratta, 2:289; 3:481
in Norse mythology, 2:399 463, 467, 623 Aratta, Lord of, 1:116, 140–142
in Welsh mythology, 3:498 origin, 3:520 Arawaks of Guyana, mythology,
See also Beasts; half-human half- role, 2:406 1:14–15
animals; specific animals and “Apollo and the Muses” (Peruzzi), Arawn, 1:33
stories 1:29 Archdruid’s Barrow, 2:432
Ankh, 1:20 Apollonius of Rhodes (Apollonius Archetypes, 1:33–34; 2:260–261, 261,
Annwfn, 1:33 Rhodius), 1:34–35, 147; 2:305 321
Anouilh, Jean, 1:25 Apollonius of Tyana, 3:475 baby cast adrift, 1:48–49
Anpu, 3:469–471 Apollonius Rhodius. See Apollonius Boy Who Didn’t Know Fear,
See also Anubis of Rhodes 1:71–72; 2:389
Anshar, 3:455 Aponibolinayen, 1:165 versus symbol or stereotype, 1:34
Antaboga, 1:50 Apophenia, 1:196 See also Heroes and heroines;
Antar, 1:22–23; 2:356, 395–396 Apotequil (Apocatequil), 2:238 Tricksters; Wise men and
Antar Symphony (Second Symphony; Appalachian folktales, 3:571 women; Witches and
Rimsky-Korsakov), 2:396 Apple Mother. See Pomona sorceresses

Index I-5
Archive of Estonian Folklore, 1:151 Arthur, king of Britain (continued) Asia

Arctinus of Miletus, 1:147; 2:232 sword, 1:43; 2:272, 272, 315, 344, mythology (continued)
Ares, 1:12, 28; 2:221; 3:520 439, 441 frogs and toads, 1:179
Argo (ship), 2:305, 417; 3:623 in Welsh folklore, 1:33, 63 generosity in, 1:97
Argonautica (Apollonius of Rhodes), Arthurian legends, 2:272, 272–274 monsters and odd creatures,
1:34–35, 147, 148 associated characters, 2:314–315; 2:300
Argonauts, 1:xxii; 2:216, 417; 3:623 3:459, 563–566 owls, 2:354
Argos (dog), 1:119 in English epics, 1:207–208; 2:273, shape-shifters, 2:411
Argus, 2:221 299–300, 314–315; 3:465 tricksters, 3:464
Arhan Chotgor, 3:605 fools in, 1:173–174 unicorns, 3:474
Ariadne, 2:311; 3:451 in French epics, 1:43–44, 144, 144 Asimov, Isaac, 2:404
Ariane and Bluebeard (Ariane et Barbe- in German epics, 1:146 Ask (Ash), 2:335
Bleue ; Dukas), 1:69 hags in, 3:508 Aso, 1:110
Ariane et Barbe-Bleue (Ariane and Irish mythology incorporated into, Assemblies of Aesopic Tales (Aesop’s
Bluebeard; Dukas), 1:69 3:580 Fables ; Demetrius of Phaleron),
Arianrhod, 1:36 magic in, 2:269 1:12
Arianrhod Castle (Caer Arianrhod), quests in, 2:377 Association for the Care of
1:36 related legends, 2:293; 3:465 Fairytales of European Cultures
Ariel (mermaid), 2:308 sleepers, enchanted, 2:421 (Gesellschaft zur Pflege des
Ariel (spirit), 3:461 in Spanish epics, 1:148 Märchengutes europäischer
Aries, 2:323 swords, 2:441 Völker), 1:187
Aristaeus, 1:29 tree spirits in, 3:461 Association of Vietnamese
Aristophanes, 2:401 See also Avalon; Camelot; Grail; Folklorists, 3:489
Aristotle, 2:230, 347; 3:475 Merlin Astar, 1:153
Arjasp, 3:538 Aruru, 1:139, 202 Astarte (Ashtoreth), 1:28, 98; 2:228,
Arjuna, 2:298; 3:508 Asag, 2:331, 332 237
Arjuna Pandava, 2:298 Asante people, mythology, Astolpho of England, 1:89
Ark of the Covenant, 1:153 3:500–501 Astyanax, 2:233
Arks Asbjørnsen, Peter Christen, 1:37–38 Asushunamir, 3:639
in Babylonian mythology, 1:169–170 Asclepius (Asclepios), 1:29, 94; Asvattha, 3:512
in Christian mythology, 1:85, 170; 2:425 Aswang, 1:165
2:310, 325; 3:446, 476, 521 Asgard, 1:38 At the Back of the North Wind
in Hindu mythology, 1:168 bridge to, 1:73 (MacDonald), 2:295
in Sumerian mythology, 1:169 building of, 1:199 Atai, 1:2; 3:500
Armageddon, 1:36–37, 37 guardians of, 2:219, 441 Atai Ulaan, 3:603, 605
Armenians, folktales, 1:22; 3:573 places within, 3:483 Atalanta, 1:31
Arnason, Kálfur, 1:68 residents, 1:163; 2:336, 424 Atargatis, 2:304
Arngrim, 2:223 World Tree, 3:516 Athelwold, king of England, 2:218
Arnold, Matthew, 3:465 Ash. See Ask Athena (Athene; Minerva), 1:39–40,
Arnold, T.J., 2:385 Ash trees 40
Aroueris, 1:110 in German mythology, 2:390 exploits, 2:343
Arouet, François-Marie. See Voltaire in Norse mythology, 3:516 interventions in worldly affairs,
Around the Moon (Verne), 1:xxi; in Western European mythology, 1:7, 62; 2:286, 344, 345, 351,
2:403–404 1:39, 39 359; 3:625
Arrow-Odd, 1:200; 2:223 Ashante people, folktales, 3:542–543 jealousy, 1:32–33
Arsian Tash, 2:430 Ashmodai, king of demons, judgment of Paris, 1:31; 2:277;
Art Amatoria (The Art of Love ; Ovid), 3:595–597 3:465–466
2:353 Ashtar, 1:8 origin of, 1:40; 3:520
Art of Love, The (Art Amatoria; Ovid), Ashtoreth. See Astarte origin of humans, 2:368
2:353 Ashurbanipal, king of Assyria, 1:202 symbols, 2:353
Artemis, 1:29, 58; 2:228, 277; 3:520 Asia Athena Parthenos, 1:40
Arthur, king of Britain, 1:xx; 2:272, central Athene. See Athena
272–274; 510–511 folktales and folklore, 1:166; Athens, naming of, 1:40
birth and childhood, 3:510 2:361 Athtar, 2:237
enemies, 2:314–315 mythology, 1:168; 3:506 Athyr. See Hathor
fall of, 2:273, 315 folktales, 1:166; 2:216, 297, 361, Atilla the Hun, 1:145
foretelling of, 1:129 429 Atlantis, 2:438
historical reality, 1:xxi; 2:273–274 hand gestures, meaning of, 2:214 Atlas, 1:40–41; 2:339; 3:479, 625
role, 2:268 mythology Atrahasis. See Ziusudra
supernatural features, 2:325, 423; dogs, 1:119 Atra-hasis. See Ziusudra
3:503 doomsday, 2:324 Atropos, 1:161

I-6 Index
Atum, 1:20, 41, 42, 142; 2:294, 337, Babies. See Children; Ugly babies, Bal Bhavan, 2:239
413; 3:448 jokes and folklore Balakirev, Mily, 2:348
Aucassin, 1:41–43 Babrius, Valerius, 1:12 Balan Bacham, 1:73–74
Aucassin et Nicolette (anonymous), Baby cast adrift archetype, 1:48–49 Balder, 1:49–50, 178; 2:220, 336,
1:144 Babylon, sultan of, 3:570 402; 3:463, 633
Aude, 2:393 Babylonians Baldwin, Joe, 1:193
Audhumla, 2:335; 3:517 history, 1:101 Baldwin the Ass, 2:385
Augustus, Emperor of Rome, 2:353 literature, 1:27, 102, 158, 201–203 Bali
Aulad, 3:536 mythology mythology, 1:50–51; 2:310
Auloniads, 2:339 birds, 1:27–28, 152–153 puppetry, 3:494–495
Aurelianus, Ambrosius, 2:274 creation myths, 1:27, Balios, 2:232
Austéja, 1:61 101–102103, 125–126; Balkis. See Sheba, queen of
Australia 3:454–455 Ballad of Casey Jones, The (Skinner),
ballads, 1:51–52 curses, 1:8 2:378–379
folktales, heroes, 2:264–265, 265 death, 1:7–8 “Ballad of Jed Clampett, The”
mythology, insects, 2:243 demons, 1:149, 201; 2:331 (song), 1:53
See also Aboriginal mythology, dragons, 1:125; 2:332 “Ballad of Reading Gaol” (Wilde),
Australia fate and destiny, 3:455 1:53
Austria flood, 1:7, 169–170; 2:331 Ballads
folktales, 1:22 ghosts, 1:192 British, 1:51–54; 3:546–548
scholars of mythology, 2:321 giants, 2:323 broadsides, 1:51–52, 74
Authentication, in urban legends, gods and goddesses, 1:5–6, 6, classic, 1:51–52
3:480 28, 102–103, 139, 149–150; collections, 1:51, 93
Avalon (1990 film), 1:44 2:328–329, 331–332; Finnish, 1:14
Avalon (Island of Apples; Fortunate 3:454–455 as genre, 1:xx
Isle), 1:31, 43–44; 2:273, 274, heroes, 1:27–28, 78–79, 138, homiletic, 1:53–54
293, 314, 421 152–153, 201–203; 3:481 modern, 1:53
Avaricious Knight, The (Pushkin), idyllic places, 1:116 in the New World, 1:51–52
2:373 magical plants, 1:152–153; 3:481 Russian, 1:80
Averieva, Julia, 2:435 monsters and odd creatures, scholars of, 1:51, 93, 108
Aviation ghosts, 1:190–191 1:27–28, 46, 78–80; 2:304, See also specific ballads
Awan, 1:50 332; 3:455, 481 Balthasar, 2:296
Aya. See Sherida origin of calendar, 1:102–103 Bambara people, mythology, 3:501
Aya ito tori, 2:434 origin of death, 1:7–8 Bamileke people, mythology, 3:500
Ayers Rock (Uluru), 1:5 origin of evil, 1:149 Banebdjet, 1:98
Aymara people, mythology origin of floods, 2:331 Bangwa people, mythology, 3:500
frogs and toads, 1:179 origin of gods and goddesses, Bannik, 1:54
insects, 2:243 1:102; 3:454 Banshee, 1:54–55
Azmari (singers), 1:154 origin of human beings, Barbarossa, Frederic, 2:421
Aztec mythology 1:102–103, 169; 3:455 Barbe Bleue. See Bluebeard
creation myths, 1:45 owls, 2:353 Barbers, 1:133–134
flood, 1:168 quests, 2:377 Bard of Lake Town, 1:129
frogs and toads, 1:178 snakes and serpents, 1:152, 201, Bards
gods and goddesses, 1:44, 44–46; 203; 2:332; 3:455 in Russia, 2:268
2:315–316 tricksters, 1:8 in West Africa (Griots), 1:209–210
insects, 2:243 turtles and tortoises, 2:332 See also Minstrels; specific storytellers;
origin of calendar, 1:45 underworld, 1:149–150, other types of storytellers
origin of geographical features, 201–202; 2:328–329 Barghest, 1:66
2:365–366 wise men and women, 1:7–8 Bark beetles, 2:242
origin of human beings, 1:46 World Tree, 3:512 Barleycorn, John, 3:461
snakes, 2:425 Bacchante, HMS, 1:171 Barnum, Phineas Taylor “P.T.,” 1:99
tricksters, 1:45 Bactrachomyomachia (Battle of Frogs Barong, 1:50, 50
underworld, 1:46 and Mice), 1:147 Bartók, Béla, 1:69
Aztlan, 1:46 Badger spirits, in Japanese Bartsch, Jakob, 3:477
mythology, 3:464 Basajaun (Old Man of the Woods;
B Bagat, 1:165 Lord of the Woods), 1:56
“Bagful of Tricks, A” (Uighur Basandere, 1:56
Ba (life force), 1:20 folktale), 3:607–608 Basile, Giambattista, 1:55
Baba Yaga, 1:47; 2:249, 376, 420 Baggins, Frodo, 3:458 Basilides of Egypt, 1:5
Babalu-Aye, 3:502 Bagobo people, 1:165 Basilidians, 1:5
Babe (ox), 3:445 Baku, 1:49; 2:330 Basilisk, 1:55–56, 56; 2:425

Index I-7
Basques Belasco Theater (New York), 1:198 Bible (continued)

folktales, 1:57 Belet, 1:73 unicorns, 3:476
in French history, 2:428 Beligen, 3:605 vanishing hitchhiker motif, 3:488
mythology, 1:56–57 Bell, John, 1:195 wise men, 2:275, 275–276, 296
Bast. See Bastet Bell Witch, 1:195 Bidpai, 2:356
Bastet (Bast), 1:26, 57–58, 58, 85; Bellerophon, 1:61–62, 62 ; Bifrost, 1:38, 73; 2:219
2:408, 409 2:358–359, 406 “Big Bad John” (song), 1:53
Bat, The (Die Fledermaus; Strauss), 1:59 “Belling the Cat” (Aesop), 1:84 Big Claus, 3:464
Bata, 3:469–471 Bello Gallico, De (The Gallic War; “Big Toe, The,” 2:259
Batara Kala, 1:50 Julius Caesar), 3:475 Bilaan people, 1:165
Bathala, 1:165 Benaiah, son of Jebodiah, 3:595–597 Bilskirnir, 3:453
Bathhouse spirits, 1:54 Bendigeidfran (Bran the Blessed), Bilulu, 1:132
Batibat, 1:165 1:63, 199 Binghamton University, New York,
Batman, 1:59, 159; 3:509 Benét, Stephen Vincent, 1:113 ghost stories, 1:189
Bats, 1:58–59 Benin Binu, 3:501
Battle of Frogs and Mice mythology, 3:500 Birbal, 2:239
(Bactrachomyomachia), 1:147 storytelling, 3:517–518 Birch trees, in Buryat mythology,
Battle of Hastings, 1:96 Beowulf, 1:63–65, 128–129; 2:441 3:513
Battle of Kadesh, 1:59–60 Beowulf (anonymous), 1:63–65, 64, Bird of Life. See Garuda
“Battle of the Trees, The” (“Cad 128–129, 143; 2:418 Birds
Goddeu”), 1:33 Berekhiah ben Natronai ha-Nakdan, in African mythology, 1:2
Batur, 1:118 1:65 in American Indian mythology,
Baucis, 3:461 Berlioz, Hector, 1:11; 2:442; 3:467 2:324; 3:622, 627–629, 630–631
Bauefre, Prince, 2:357 Bermeo, 1:56 in Arabic folktales, 2:393
Baum, L. Frank, 3:511 Bermuda Triangle, 1:105–106 in Australian aboriginal mythology,
Baychinco, 2:364 Bernardo del Carpio, 1:148 2:381
Bayeux Tapestry, 1:96 Berossos, 1:170 in Babylonian mythology, 1:27–28,
Beagle, Peter S., 3:478 Berserkers, 3:498 152–153
Beannighe (washerwoman), 1:54–55 Bertha, Queen (Bertha Big-Foot; in Chinese mythology, 2:364, 382
Bear of Tuonela, 3:482 Queen Goose-Foot; Goose- in Egyptian mythology, 2:248, 364,
Bears Footed Bertha), 2:317, 393 364–365
brides/bridegrooms, 1:22 Bertha Big-Foot. See Bertha, Queen in Finnish mythology, 2:234, 283;
in Finnish mythology, 3:482 Bestiaries, 1:65–66, 66 3:482
loss of tail, 3:443 Beth-Gelert. See Beddgelert, Wales in Flemish mythology, 2:276
“Bearskin” (Brothers Grimm), 1:112 Bettelheim, Bruno, 1:xix in German mythology and tales,
Beasts Bettiscombe Manor, Dorset, 2:418 2:261, 389
bestiaries, 1:65–66, 66 Beverly Hillbillies, The (TV show), 1:53 in Hittite mythology, 2:417
epics, 1:144; 2:385 Beyla, 1:177 in Indian mythology, 1:185,
fables, 2:401 Bhagavad Gita, 1:xx; 2:298; 3:512 185–186; 3:529
See also Animals Bharata, 2:298; 3:527–528, 529 in Iroquois mythology, 2:246
“Beauty and the Beast” (Le Prince Bhima, 2:298 in Italian mythology, 3:588–589
de Beaumont), 1:21; 2:433 Bhopa (storytellers), 2:239 in Jewish mythology, 3:447
Beaver-trout. See Fur-bearing trout Biaime. See Biame in Melanesian mythology, 2:425
Becket, Thomas, 1:82 Biame (Biaime), 1:4 in Norse mythology, 1:177; 2:220;
Beddgelert (Beth-Gelert), Wales, Bible 3:483, 516
1:119; 3:609–610 apples, 1:30 in Persian mythology, 2:414–415;
Bédier, Joseph, 3:465 babies cast adrift, 1:48 3:534–535, 538
Bedwang, 1:50 doomsday, 1:36–37, 37 in Polynesian mythology, 2:301
Beelzebub, 3:561–562 dragons, 1:125–126 in Russian mythology and tales,
Bees, 1:60–61 flood, 1:170 1:167; 2:249; 3:600
Beethoven, Ludwig von, 2:303, giants, 1:199 in Sumerian mythology, 1:27–28;
347–348, 442 kings, 2:275, 275 2:289–290
Beetles, 2:242–244 magic, 1:104, 105 in Thai mythology, 1:186
Beg, Iskander, 2:440 mice, 2:310 in Tibetan mythology, 3:603
Beginner’s luck, 1:182 monsters and odd creatures, 1:204 in Welsh mythology, 2:382, 387
Behavior, mythology as education in, Proverbs, 2:369 See also Black hens; Chickens;
2:324, 357 rape, false accusations of, 1:159 Eagles; Owls; Ravens and
Beheading contest, 3:581–582 scapegoats, 2:402 crows; other birds
Behemoth, 1:126 snakes, 2:425, 426 Birkabegn, king of Denmark, 2:217
Beher, 1:153 spirits, 1:191 Birraghnooloo, 1:4
Belasco, David, 1:198 as story source, 1:xx Birth (2004 film), 2:384

I-8 Index
Bison, 1:84–85 Book of Heroes (Heldenbuch; Kaspar Brer Rabbit, 3:464

Bison Bull, 2:332 von der Rhön), 1:146 Breton
Biwa hoshi style, 2:252 Book of Last Tales (Tolkien), 3:457 folktales, 1:133
Black cats, 1:85–86 Book of Negro Folklore, The (Hughes mythology, 1:61; 3:518–519
Black Cauldron, The (1985 film), 1:204 and Bontemps), 2:230 “Brewery of Eggshells” (Welsh
Black dogs, 1:66–67 Book of Renard, The (Roman du folktale), 3:544–545
Black Dragon Pool Chapel, 1:127 Renard), 1:144 Bricriu of the Bitter Tongue, 3:580
Black hens, 1:92 Book of Taliesin, 1:33 Brides/bridegrooms, animal, 1:21–22
Black Lady (Zwarte Madam), Book of the Dead, The, 1:26 Bridge of San Luis Rey, The (Wilder),
3:523–524 Book of the Duchess (Chaucer), 1:91 1:74
Black Lady, The (De Zwarte Madam; Book of the Goetia of Solomon the King, Bridge on the River Kwai, The (1957
comic book), 2:282 The, 2:275 film), 1:74
Black magic, 1:67–69; 2:296 Book of the Rose, The (Le Roman de la Bridges, 1:73, 73–74
Black ox, 3:571, 572 Rose), 1:144 in Norse mythology, 1:38, 73; 2:219
Black School, 1:67–69 Book of Thebes (Roman de Thèbes), 1:144 in Persian mythology, 1:119
Black Schuck, 1:66 Book of Troyè (Roman de Troie), 1:144 Brigand, the. See Razboynik, Solovei
Blackfoot, mythology, 2:243 Books, magic, 2:409, 429 Briseis, 1:7
Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine, 2:338 Boondocks Monster, 1:81 Brisingamen, 1:177; 2:220
Blanche, duchess of Lancaster, 1:91 Boorman, John, 2:273 Brisings, necklace of, 1:177
Blast, 1:38; 2:424 Bor, 2:335 Brittany
Blodeuedd, 3:618–619 Borgnine, Ernest, 1:191 folktales, 1:54–55, 107
Blodeuwedd, 3:619 Boris, Czar of Russia, 2:348 mythology, sunken cities, 2:438
Blondel. See Jean de Nesle Boris Godunov (Mussorgsky), 2:348 Broadside ballads, 1:51–52, 74
Blood Woman, 2:366 Boris Godunov (Pushkin), 2:373 Broadsig, 1:53
Blue, luckiness of, 1:19 ; 2:228 Borneo Broken Sword, The (Anderson), 2:439
“Blue Beard” (Perrault), 2:362 mythology, 1:127 “Brother Came from the Hiding
Blue Fairy Book, The (Lang), 2:281 string figure tradition, 2:434 Place Because He Was Afraid of
Blue ox, 2:225 Boro circles, 1:4 the Coming Rain,” 2:435
Bluebeard (Barbe Bleue), 1:69, 69–70 Borodin, Aleksandr, 2:348, 428 Brotherhood of the World (2001 film),
Ariane et Barbe-Bleue (Ariane and Boroka, 1:165–166 1:181
Bluebeard; Dukas), 1:69 Bors, 1:207 Brothers
Bluebeard’s Castle (Bartók), 1:69 Boston Red Sox, curse on, 1:106 Tale of the Two Brothers, 3:469–470
operetta about Barbe Bleue Bougar, count of Valence, 1:41–42 twin, as folktale type, 3:469
(Offenbach), 1:69, 69 Bouilly, Jean Nicholas, 2:348 “Two Brothers, The,” 1:159
Boabdil, 2:421 Boulle, Pierre, 1:74 younger, quests and, 2:377
Boas, Franz, 2:230 “Boundin’” (cartoon), 2:250 Also see Twins; specific brothers
Boat of Heaven, 2:235 Bowie, David, 1:203 Brothers Grimm. See Grimm
Boats Bows, magical, 2:344; 3:527, 528 Brothers
in Egyptian mythology, 2:409 Boy Scouts, camp legends, 1:81 Brownies, 1:76–77; 3:551
ghost ships, 1:170–172, 171; “Boy Who Couldn’t Shudder,” 1:71; Bruin the Bear, 2:385
2:363–364 3:614 Brunhild (Geibel), 1:77
See also Arks “Boy Who Didn’t Know Fear,” Brunhilde (Brynhild; Brunnehilde),
Bobby Mackey’s Music World, 1:71–72; 2:389 1:77; 2:388–391, 421; 3:484, 614
1:193–194, 196 “Boy Who Wanted to Know What Brunnehilde. See Brunhilde
Boccaccio, Giovanni, 1:70–71, 91, Fear Was,” 1:71 Brunswick County, North Carolina,
114, 157; 2:400, 433 Bradley, Marion Zimmer, 1:44, 208; ghosts, 1:193
Bogatyr (Bogatyri), 1:71, 80, 118; 2:273; 3:510 Bryan, Pearl, 1:194
2:234–235, 267–270; 3:491 Brahma, 2:380, 382 Brynhild. See Brunhilde
Bogatyri. See Bogatyr Brahma-missile, 3:532 Brynner, Yul, 1:198
Boguet, Henri, 3:499 Brahms, Johannes, 2:291 Bucephalus, 1:78
Bohemia, folktales, 3:571 Bram Stoker’s Dracula (1992 film), 3:487 Buddha
Boito, Arrigo, 1:162 Bran the Blessed. See Bendigeidfran culture hero, 1:103
Boleyn, Anne, 1:194 Brand, Oscar, 1:52 works on, 3:641
Bolster, 1:200 Brandelois, 2:302 Buddhism
Bonaparte, Joseph, 2:254 Branwen, 1:63; 2:387 death in, 1:113
Bonaparte, Napoleon, 2:254, 347 Bratt, Edith, 3:456–458 folktales, 2:334
Bontemps, Arna, 2:230 “Brave Little Tailor, The” (German left-handedness in, 2:214
Book of Alexander (Roman folktale), 3:573–574 mythology
d’Alexandre), 1:144 Bread and Puppet Theater dragons, 1:127
“Book of Ancient Stories, The” (“Li (Vermont), 2:372 monsters and odd creatures,
Livre des Ansienes Estories”), 1:17 Bremen Town Musicians, 1:72 2:326

Index I-9
Buddhism Caduceus, 2:222, 425 Canute VI, king of Denmark, 1:188

mythology (continued) Caer Arianrhod (Arianrhod Castle), Cap of Darkness, 3:625
reincarnation, 2:384 1:36 Cape Verde Islands, folktales, 3:578
snakes and serpents, 3:641–643 Caesar, Julius, 2:341; 3:475 Capital Plaza Theater (South
wise men and women, 3:642–643 Caesar Augustus, 1:148 Carolina), 1:198
Bugs Bunny, 1:209 Cagn. See Kaang Carabas, Lord Marquis de, 2:374
Bujold, Lois McMasters, 2:404 Cain, Dean, 2:439 Cardeño, abbot of, 1:135
Bukhe Beligte. See Geser Caladbolg, 2:441 Caribbean, folktales, 1:xxiii; 3:469,
Bulgaria, mythology Calais (argonaut), 2:216 542
dragons, 3:522 Calendar, origin myths Carmilla: A Vampyre Tale (Le Fanu),
hags, 2:330 Aztec, 1:45 3:487
shape-shifters, 3:522 Babylonian, 1:102–103 Carn Galva, giant of, 1:200
Bulina (Bylini), 1:71, 80, 118 Calixtus III, Pope, 1:96 Carnarvon, Earl, 1:105
Bull Demon King, 2:258 Callidice, Queen, 3:449 Carroll, Lewis (Charles Lutwidge
Bull of Heaven, 1:21, 78–80, 201, “Calliope” (Gaiman), 2:400 Dodgson), 2:295; 3:478, 489
202; 2:237; 3:481 Callisthenes, 1:147 Cartazoon, 3:475
Bull Roarer, 1:4 Callisto, 2:221 Carter, Howard, 1:105
Bulls Calypso, 2:222, 339, 344, 345 Carter, Lynda, 3:512
in Basque mythology, 1:56 Cambodia, folktales, 3:573 Cartoons
in Egyptian mythology, 3:470–471 Cambrensis, Giraldus, 3:498 cat-and-mouse tales, 1:84
in Greek mythology, 2:279, 280 ; Cambridge University, ghost stories, See also other cartoons and characters
3:451, 521 1:189 Caspar, 2:296
in Roman mythology, 1:84–85 Camden, William, 2:293 Cassandra, 1:30; 2:232, 233, 367,
in Sumerian and Babylonian Camelot, 1:207; 2:272–273, 274 407; 3:467
mythology, 1:21, 78–80, 201, Camelot (Broadway musical), 2:273 Castle of Eggs, 3:570
202; 2:237; 3:481 Cameroon, mythology, 2:354; 3:500 Castles, chasing, in the air
Bunraku puppet plays, 2:253, 370–371 Camoëns, Luiz Vas de, 2:291–292 (expression), 1:122
Bunyan, Paul, 2:225; 3:445 Camp stories, 1:81–82 Castor, 2:278; 3:521
Bunyips, 1:80 Campfire storytelling, 1:82 Castrati, 2:347
Buprestid beetles (jewel beetles), Canada Castration
2:242 ballads, 1:51–52 of gods
Bura people, mythology, 3:501 folktales, 1:86, 113; 3:445 in Egyptian mythology, 1:98
Burgundian-Hunnish cycle, 1:145 mythology in Greek mythology, 1:28
Buri, 2:335; 3:517 ghosts, 2:363–364 in Hittite mythology, 1:25; 2:277;
Burma, mythology monsters and odd creatures, 2:280 3:450
frogs and toads, 1:179 owls, 2:354 of humans, in Egyptian mythology,
owls, 2:354 spirits, 2:292–293 3:470
Burne, Charlotte S., 2:274 urban legends, 3:488 “Cat and the Mice, The” (Aesop),
Burra katha, 2:240 Candide (Voltaire), 2:401 1:84
Burroughs, Edgar Rice, 1:138, 175–176 Candle in the Dark, A (Ady), 2:224 “Cat and the Mouse in Partnership,
Burton Agnes Hall, 2:419 Canis Major (Greater Dog; The” (Brothers Grimm), 1:84
Buryat people, mythology, 3:513 constellation), 1:119 Catarina de Atayde, Dona, 2:291
Bushmen of the Kalahari, Canis Minor (Lesser Dog; Catch-22 (Heller), 2:401
mythology, 2:330 constellation), 1:119 Catch-phrases, 3:500
Butcher, S.H., 2:281 Cannibalism Cathedral, The (Huysmans), 2:303
Butterflies, 2:243 in American folktales, 2:259–260 Cathedral of Saint-Maria (Burgos,
Bwca, 1:76 in English folktales, 2:259–260 Spain), 1:56
Byelabog, 2:419 in German folktales, 2:261–262 Catherine the Great, of Russia, 1:124
Bylina (Bylini), 2:234–235, 268, 398; in Trobriander mythology, 2:324 Catholic Church, in Internet
3:491 Cannibalism, in Russian mythology, jokelore, 2:244
Bylini. See Bylina 1:47 Catoblepas, 1:84–85
Byzantine Empire “Cantar de la Afrenta de Corpes” Cats, 1:85–86
history, 1:116 (“Song of the Insult of black, 1:85–86
literature, 1:116 Corpses”), 1:135 brides/bridegrooms, 1:21, 22
“Cantar de las Bodas” (“Song of the cat-and-mouse tales, 1:82–83
C Marriage”), 1:135 in Egyptian mythology, 1:57–58,
“Cantar del Destierro” (“Song of the 58, 85
Ca dao, 3:490 Exile”), 1:135 in English folktales, 3:553–554, 566
“Cad Goddeu” (“The Battle of the Canterbury Tales (Chaucer), 1:32, 70, in European folktales, 2:373–375,
Trees”), 1:33 82–83, 83, 91–92, 92, 157, 175; 374, 385
Cadmus, 1:125 2:369, 385, 400, 401, 433; 3:508 in Flemish mythology, 2:276

I-10 Index
Cats (continued) Ceres. See Demeter Chernabog, 2:419

helper, 1:22 Ceridwen, 1:48 Chernava. See Volkhova, Princess
in Irish folktales, 3:580 Cernwennan, 2:441 Cherokee, mythology
in Japanese mythology, 2:412 Cervantes, Miguel de, 1:16, 148, 159; owls, 2:354
in Norse mythology, 1:85, 177 2:369, 401 tricksters, 3:464
Cat’s cradle, 2:434, 435 Chac Uayab Xoc, 1:168 Cherry trees, in American folktales,
Cattle of the Sun, 2:343, 344 Chakyar, 2:241 2:325
Cattle Raid of Cooley. See Tain Chakyar kuttu, 2:240–241 Chicken Little, 1:92
“Cauld Lad of Hilton, The” (English Chalchiuhtlicue, 1:45 Chickens
folktale), 3:551 Cham, 3:456 counting before they are hatched,
Caxton, William, 2:299, 385 Champ (Champy), 1:88; 2:280 1:122–123
Ceilidh, 2:405 Champlain, Lake, 1:88 in folktales, 1:92–93
Celaeno, 2:216 Champlain, Samuel de, 1:88 Chicomecoatl, 1:44–45
Celtic Tales (Jacobs), 3:601 Champy. See Champ Child, Francis James, 1:51, 93, 108;
Celts Chan (lake monster), 2:280 3:546
ceremonies and rituals, 2:313 Ch’an Chu, 1:179 Child ballads, 1:51
folktales, 1:22, 31, 48, 73; 2:367; Changelings, 3:544–545 Child Ballads, The. See English and
3:445 Chanson de la Croisade Albigeoise Scottish Popular Ballads
mythology (Song of the Albigensian Crusade ; Child of the Sea. See Amadis
fairies and fairy-like creatures, William of Tudela), 1:144 of Gaul
1:31, 44; 3:566 Chanson de Roland (The Song of Children
gods and goddesses, 2:315, 382 Rowland), 1:143–144; 2:393, abandoned
kelpies, 2:412 428–429 in English literature, 2:217–218
lovers, 3:465 Chansons de geste, 1:143; 2:428 in Persian mythology, 3:534–535
owls, 2:354 See also Epics, French in Spanish/Portuguese
plants, magical and sacred, 1:39, Chant de Dahut, Le (Hernandez), literature, 1:15–16
39, 136; 2:313 1:107 cast adrift, 1:48–49; 3:624
shape-shifters, 1:48 Chantico, 1:45 changelings, 3:544–545
swords, 2:441 Chapbooks, 1:88–89 kept in tower, 1:123; 3:624
witches, hags, and sorceresses, Chapel Hill, Tennessee, ghosts, killed by parent, 2:261; 3:536–537
1:48; 2:213 1:193 lost and/or raised by others,
storytellers, 1:xviii Chapelain, Jean, 1:144 2:345–346, 387; 3:534–535,
women warriors, 1:17 Chapman, John, 2:256–257, 257 588, 604
Centaur, The (Updike), 1:94 Chapmen, 1:88 murdered/sacrificed
Centaurs, 1:86–87, 93–94, 94 Charlemagne, and peers, 1:89–90, in Egyptian mythology, 2:409
Center for Puppetry Arts (Atlanta), 90, 144 in Greek mythology, 2:277
2:372 enchanted sleep of, 2:421 stepmothers, wicked, 2:216, 261;
Central America, mythology, fish in, in French epics, 1:143–144; 2:428 3:504, 588–591
1:168 in German epics, 1:145, 146 storytelling for, 1:xxvii, xxviii–xxix
Cepheus, king of Phoenicia, 3:625 historical reality, 1:145; 2:428 taken or promised to others, 3:575,
Cerambus, 2:242 mother of Charlemagne, 2:317 576–577
Cerberus, 1:87–88, 119, 120 ; 3:623 swords, 2:441 ugly babies, jokes and folklore,
Cerberus (2005 film), 1:88 Charles I, Holy Roman Emperor. See 3:473–474
Ceredwyn, 2:296 Charlemagne “Children and the Ogre, The,”
Ceremonies and rituals Charlie Daniels Band, 1:113 2:215–216
Akkadian, 2:235 Charon, 2:392, 392 Children of Godfrey (Enfances de
American Indian, 1:172 Charos, 1:91 Godefroi, Les), 1:144
Australian Aboriginal, 1:3, 4 Charun, 1:90–91 Children’s and Household Tales (Kinder-
Celtic, 2:313 Charybdis, 1:35; 2:344, 345 und Hausmärchen; Brothers
Chinese, 2:242 “Chasing castles in the air” Grimm), 1:1, 72, 75, 187
connection to myth, 2:321 (expression), 1:122 Chimera, 1:62, 62; 2:358
Egyptian, 2:294, 309 Chateaubriand, François René de, China
English, 1:31 1:145 ceremonies and rituals, 2:242
Greek, 1:115 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 1:32, 70, 82–83, comets, 1:96
Hittite, 2:233 83, 91–92, 92, 157, 175; 2:369, folktales, 1:22, 72, 85–86, 120;
in India, 2:239 385, 400, 401, 433; 3:508 3:607–608
Phoenician, 1:8 Cheiron, 1:29; 2:368 mythology
role of, 2:322 Chelm, wise men of, 1:xx, 175; bats, 1:59
Russian, 2:397 3:508–509 birds, 2:364, 382
Slavic peoples, 1:54; 2:419–420 Cheops. See Khufu bridges, 1:73, 73
Sumerian, 2:235, 327 Chephren. See Kahfra cats, 1:85–86

Index I-11
China Christian mythology (continued) Cocomama (Mama Coca), 2:238

mythology (continued) spirits, 1:191; 3:461 Cocteau, Jean, 1:25
demons, 2:258 superstitions, 2:214 Cocytus (river), 2:392
dogs, 1:119 unicorns, 3:476, 477 Cogaz, 1:13
dragons, 1:126, 126–127; 2:258 wise men, 2:275, 275–276, 296 Coiste-bodhar, 1:55
frogs and toads, 1:179 See also Judeo-Christian mythology Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, 2:362
gods and goddesses, 1:85, 127 Christianity, in Finnish mythology, Colbert Report, The, 2:401
insects, 2:242, 243 2:263 Colbum (ship), 2:363
lions, 2:258 Chronicles of Narnia (Lewis), 1:87 Collected Odes (Mu’allaqat; Hammad
magic and magicians, 3:464 Chrysophylax Dives, 1:129 the Transmitter), 1:32
monkeys, 2:258–259; 3:464 Chuku (Chukwu), 3:501 Collection of Ballads (Long), 3:546
monsters and odd creatures, Chukwu. See Chuku Collective unconscious, 1:95–96;
2:258, 280 Chumong. See Dongmyeongseong 2:260–261, 321
origin of human beings, 1:127 Chupacabras (goat suckers), 1:94–95 College ghost stories, 1:189–190
origin of writing, 1:127; 3:477 Cibotium barometz , 3:489 Columbus, Christopher, 2:307
owls, 2:354 Cicadas, 2:242 Comets, 1:96
shape-shifters, 2:411 Cid, El. See El Cid Comic tales (Schwänke)
spirits, 2:258 Cinderella, 1:88; 2:316, 319, 362; as classification, 1:187
tricksters, 2:258–259; 3:464 3:444, 503, 504, 507 Fabliau, 1:156–157
unicorns, 3:477–478 “Cinderella” (Perrault), 1:157 Common man
vampires, 3:484, 487 Cinvat (Separation Bridge), 1:73 triumph over the mighty, 1:83–84;
wise men or women, 1:179 Cio-cio San (Madame Butterfly), 3:573
puppetry, 2:371 2:349 working class heroes, 2:255–256
storytellers, 1:xviii Cipactli, 1:46 Communist Party, and Indian
string figure tradition, 2:434 Cippi, 2:228 storytelling, 2:240, 241
tongue twisters, 3:460 Circe, 1:35; 2:222, 343, 345; 3:449 Companions. See Faithful
Uighur folktales, 3:607–608 Cities. See Sunken cities companions
urban legends, 3:488 Civil War, American, tales of, 3:540 Compassion, 1:97
Chinvat Bridge, 1:119 Clarent, 2:441 Compleat Angler, The (Walton), 1:74
Chiron, 1:87, 87, 93–94, 94; 2:339 Clarke, Arthur C., 2:404 Computer virus warnings, false,
Chironium, 1:94 Classic ballads, 1:51–52 2:245
Chitrakatha style, 2:239–240 Classification Con men or women, 1:97–98
Chivalric romance, 1:148 of folktales Conall Cearnach, 3:580–581
Chon-Chan, 2:253 Aarne, Antti, 1:1–2 Concobar, King, 3:465
Chosen Fables in Verse (Fables Choisies, Types of the Folktale: A Confidence Man: His Masquerade, The
Mises en Vers ; La Fontaine), 2:279 Classification and (Melville), 1:97–98
Chrestomatheia, 2:232, 277, 286; 3:449 Bibliography (Aarne and Confidence men. See Con men or
Chrétien de Troyes, 1:43–44, 144; Thompson), 1:1–2; 3:444, women
2:314 452 Confucius, 3:478
Christian mythology of mythology, motif indexes, Connla, 1:31
ancient British monuments, 2:317–319 Conor, king of Ulster, 3:580
2:431–432 Claudianus, 1:148 Conrad, Joseph, 1:175
Antichrist, 1:24 Claus, Big, 3:464 Conte del Graal (The Story of the Grail;
apples, 1:30 Claus, Little, 3:464 Chrétien de Troyes), 1:206
bestiaries, 1:65–66, 66 Cleer, Saint, 2:433 Contendings of Horus and Seth, The,
cats, 1:85 Clemens, Samuel Langhorne. See 1:98–100, 186; 2:248
Coptic Christians, 1:154 Twain, Mark Contes et Nouvelles en Vers (Stories and
death, 1:113 Cliffs of Heaven (Himinbjorg), Novels in Verse ; La Fontaine),
dogs, 1:120 2:219 2:279
dragons, 1:125–126, 128, 128–129 Clotho, 1:161 Coo, Jan, 2:365
epics, 1:143, 145, 148 Clouds (Nuages; Debussy), 2:442 Copyright, storytelling, 1:xxiii
fools, 1:173 Clouds, The (Aristophanes), 2:401 Corinna, 2:353
ghosts, 1:192–194 Clovis ou la France Chrétienne Coronis, 1:29
giants, 1:199, 200 (Desmarets), 1:144 Corpse lights, 2:319
labyrinths, 2:279–280, 280 Clurichan, 2:284 Cosford Aerospace Museum, 1:190
magic, 1:104, 105; 2:275, 314 Clymene, 1:40 Cotton Vitellius, 1:63
mice, 2:310 Clytemnestra, 1:159; 2:351, 407; Couldrette, 2:302
parables, 1:xx 3:466, 521 Council Book (Popol Vuh), 2:366–367
sleepers, enchanted, 2:421 Coatlicue (serpent skirt), 1:44; Counting chickens before they are
snakes and serpents, 1:105; 2:425, 2:315–316 hatched, 1:122–123
426 Cockatrice, 1:95; 2:425 Counting-out rhymes, 1:100

I-12 Index
Court epics (France), 1:143–144 Croatia, folktales, 1:22 Curses (continued)

Courtly epics (Arthurian), 1:146 Crockett, Davy, 1:xx, xxix, 103, 167; in Welsh mythology, 1:159;
Courtroom dramas, 2:320 3:445 3:617–618
Cowboys, as culture heroes, 1:103 Crocodiles, in Egyptian mythology, Curtana, 2:441
Cows 1:123–124; 2:357, 358 Curtius, Quintius, 1:148
in European folktales, 2:314 Croesus, 1:11 Custom and Myth (Lang), 2:281
in Khoikhoi mythology, 2:267 Cronica Rimada, 1:148 Cwn Annwn (Hounds of Annwn),
in Near Eastern folktales, 2:314 Cronos (Greek god) 1:119
in Norse mythology, 2:335; 3:517 exploits, 1:28, 170; 3:625 Cycle of France, 1:143–144
Cox, Palmer, 1:76 family, 1:87, 93, 114; 2:221; 3:520 Cyclops, 1:10, 200; 2:343, 345
Coyolxauhqui, 1:44 overthrow of, 1:41; 2:368; 3:520 Cyparissus, 1:30
Coyote, as trickster Cronus (Egyptian god), 1:110 Cypress tree, in Greek mythology,
in American Indian mythology, Cropsey Maniac, 1:81 1:30
1:85, 103, 174; 2:324; 3:462, Crossed fingers, 2:214 Cypria (Stasimus of Cyprus), 1:146
464, 541 Crowley, Alastair, 1:68 Cyprian Iliad (Naevius), 1:148
in Aztec mythology, 1:45 Crows. See Ravens and crows Cyprus, folktales, 2:306
Cozies, 2:320 Cruise, Tom, 1:203–204 Cyrene, 1:29
Craig-y-Dinas, 2:422–423 Crusade epics, 1:144 Czech Republic
Crane, Stephen, 1:34 Crusades, 1:24 folktales, 1:48; 3:507
Crayon, Geoffrey, 1:175 “Crystal Casket, The,” 3:588–591 ghost stories, 1:191
Creation myths Ctesias, 3:475
African, 1:9, 13; 3:501 Cu Sith (Fairy Hound), 1:119 D
American Indian, 2:247, 323, 382; Cuchulain, 3:580–582
3:630–632 “Cuchulain and the Green Man,” Daedalus, 2:309, 311
Australian Aboriginal, 1:3, 4 3:580–582 Daemonologie (James I), 1:105
Aztec, 1:45 Cuckolds, revenge of, 1:114 Daeva, 3:534, 535–536
Babylonian, 1:27, 101–103, “Cuckoo, The” (English folktale), Dagamba people, mythology, 3:501
125–126; 3:454–455 3:552 Dagnall, Susan, 3:457
Balinese, 1:50–51 Cui, César, 2:348 Dahl, Roald, 1:209
Chinese, 3:477 Cult of Osiris, 2:247–248, 328, 352 Dahut (Ahes), 1:107; 3:518–519
East African, 1:9 Culture Daily Planet newspaper, 2:438
Egyptian, 1:41, 142; 2:383, 413 mythology as expression of, Daily Show, The (TV show), 2:401
European, 2:315 2:322–323 Dain, 3:516
Filipino, 1:165 respect for, in storytelling, 1:xxiv Dairy farming, origin of, 1:29
Finnish, 2:234 Culture heroes, 1:103–104 Dakota, mythology, 2:354
Greek, 2:315 as expression of cultural morality, Dalang, 2:371; 3:494
Hittite, 3:479 2:322–323 Dame a la Licorne (Lady with a
Indonesian, 2:315 gods, 2:324 Unicorn) tapestries, 3:477
Iroquois, 2:247; 3:630–632 See also Heroes Damgalnuna, 1:5
Jewish, 3:446 Culwch, 2:387 Damkina, 1:6, 102; 3:455
Kavirondo people, 3:495–496 Cumulative rhymes and tales, 1:104; Danae, Princess, 3:521, 624
Mayan, 2:366 3:555–556, 559–560 “Danced-Out Shoes, The,” 3:444
Mesopotamian, 1:100–103, 199 Cunoval, 2:433 Dancing Elms of Devon, 1:136
Middle Eastern, 1:125 Cunto de li cunti, overo lo trattenemiento Dankaran Touman, 2:437
Nigerian, 2:315 de peccerille. See Pentamerone, Il Danske, Loger, 2:421
Norse, 1:199; 3:517 Cupid. See Eros Danske Folkeæventyr (Grundtvig),
South American, 1:14 “Cupid and Psyche,” 2:376; 3:507 1:108–109
Sumerian, 1:27, 101–102, 125–126; Curoi of Kerry, 3:580–582 Dante Alighieri, 1:70, 87, 94, 143
3:454–455 Curse of the Bambino, 1:106 Danu, 2:315
Teuton, 2:315 Curse of the Werewolf, The (1960 film), Daphne (nymph), 1:30; 2:309; 3:461
universality of, 2:323 3:499 Daramulun, 1:4
West African, 3:501 Cursed places, 1:105–106 Darius II, king of Persia, 3:475
Creator, The, in Iroquois mythology, Curses, 1:104–106 Das Rheingold. See Rheingold, Das
2:247 Babylonian, 1:8 Dasaratha, king of Kosala, 3:527–529
Creatures. See Monsters and odd breaking of, 1:106 Daughters, poorly-married, 1:135
creatures in fairytales, 3:507 David, (Hebrew king), 1:113–114,
Creon, king of Thebes, 1:25; 2:346 in Germany mythology, 2:388, 390 199
Crete, in Greek mythology, 1:35; in Greek mythology, 2:345 Dazhdebog, 2:419, 420
2:421; 3:451, 520, 521 in opera, 2:348 De Bello Gallico. See Bello Gallico, De
Crick Stone (Men-An-Tol), 2:432, in Swedish literature, 2:222–223 De Iside et Osiride. See Iside et Osiride,
432 swords, 2:222–223 De

Index I-13
De Zwarte Madam. See Zwarte Madam, Deianira, 1:87 Destiny. See Fate and destiny
De Deirdre, 3:465 “Destiny” (American Civil War tale),
Dead Dekla, 1:161 3:540
attempted communication with, Delight (graphic novel character), Destiny (graphic novel character),
1:194–195 2:400 2:400
grateful, 1:xx, 208 Delilah, 3:470 Destruction (graphic novel
vampires, 1:166; 2:227; 3:484–488 Delirium (graphic novel character), character), 2:400
See also Resurrection; Underworld 2:400 Destruction of world. See Doomsday
Dear Abbey, 2:227 Delphic oracle, 1:78; 2:346, 406 Detective novels, 2:320
Death, 1:113–114 Demeter (Ceres), 1:114–115, 115; Deutsche Mythologie (German
capturing of, 1:113 2:416; 3:520 Mythology; Grimm), 1:75
elm trees, 1:136 Demetrius of Phaleron, 1:12 Deutsche Sagen (German Legends ;
escape from, in West African Demon-Maiden, 1:201 Brothers Grimm), 1:75
mythology, 3:500 Demons Devi, 2:315
foreshadowing of, 2:242 in Babylonian mythology, 1:149, Device, Alison, 1:106
in American mythology, 1:61 201; 2:331 Devil, the. See Satan
in British mythology, 1:61, 66; in Chinese mythology, 2:258 “Devil and Daniel Webster, The”
2:382 demon midwives, 1:157–158 (Benét), 1:113
deathwatch beetles, 2:242 in Egyptian mythology, 2:408 “Devil and the Lazy Man, The,”
in European mythology, 1:96, in English folktales, 3:561–562 1:113
124 in Ethiopian mythology, 1:153 “Devil and Tom Walker, The”
in French mythology, 2:302 in fairy tales, 3:507 (Irving), 1:113
in German mythology, 1:124 in Finnish mythology, 2:283 “Devil Went Down to Georgia, The”
in Irish mythology, 1:54–55 in Hindu mythology, 2:380 (song), 1:113
in Roman mythology, 2:353 in Hungarian mythology, “Devil’s Church, The,” 1:111
in Slavic mythology, 2:271 2:285–286 Devil’s Dandy (Dando) Dogs, 1:66
gods and goddesses of in Indian mythology, 2:380; Devnarayan, 2:239
in Aztec mythology, 1:44, 45 3:527–533 Dharma, 2:299
in Egyptian mythology, 1:26 in Japanese mythology, 2:412; Dhritarashtra, King, 2:298, 299
in Greek mythology, 2:328 3:518 Dhritarashtras, 2:298–299
in Ibo mythology, 2:315 in Jewish folktales, 1:157–158; Dia, 3:451
in Incan mythology, 2:238 3:595–597 Diadochus, Proclus, 2:232, 277, 286;
in Indian mythology, 2:239 in Persian mythology, 2:361 3:449
in Khoikhoi mythology, 2:266 in Sumerian mythology, 1:131–132; Diamond insect (shamir), 3:595–597
in Jewish mythology, 3:446 2:331 Diana (Greek god), 2:341
necessity of, 1:113 See also Djinn; Satan Diana (superhero). See Wonder
origin of Denmark Woman
American Indians, 2:324 fairies and fairy-like creatures, Diarmid, 3:465
Babylonians, 1:7–8 1:109, 110 Diaz de Vivar, Rodrigo. See El Cid
North Africans, 1:15 folktales, 1:xxi “Dick Whittington and His Cat”
West Africans, 3:500–501 heroes, 1:18 (English folktale), 3:553–554
in Persian folktales, 3:598 literature, 2:402 Dickie (screaming skull), 2:418–419
tricking of, 1:113–114 Norse mythology, 1:108 Dido, queen of Carthage, 1:10, 11
See also Afterlife puppetry, 2:370 Dido and Aeneas (Purcell), 1:11
Death (graphic novel character), traditional tales, 1:107–110 Die Fledermaus. See Fledermaus, Die
2:400 Dennett, Richard Edward, Die Neue Melusine. See Neue Melusine,
Death of Gilgamesh, The (anonymous), 3:549–550 Die
1:132, 169, 202 Der Fliegende Hollander. See Fliegende Dierdre, 2:367
Deathwatch beetle, 2:242 Hollander, Der Dietrich von Bern, 1:145
Debussy, Claude, 2:441, 442 Der Freischütz . See Freischütz, Der Digenis Acritas, 1:116
Decameron (Boccaccio), 1:70, 91, 114, Der Ring des Nibelungen. See Ring des Digenis Acritas, 1:116
157; 2:400, 433 Nibelungen, Der Digte (Moe), 1:38
Dechtire, 3:580 “Derby Ram, The” (ballad), 1:53 Dila, 1:166
Decius, 2:421 Descent of Ishtar, The (anonymous), Dilmun, 1:116, 137–138; 2:330, 331
Decuma, 1:161 1:131–132 Diné. See Navajo
Deer Desire (graphic novel character), Diomedes, 2:286, 305
in Norse mythology, 3:516, 516 2:400 Dione, 1:28
in Tibetan mythology, 3:606 Desmarets de Saint-Sorlin, Jean, Dionysus, 3:451, 521
Deer bunny. See Jackalope 1:144 Disaster, foreshadowing of, 2:305,
Deevs, 2:361 Despair (graphic novel character), 319
DeFoe, Daniel, 1:88 2:400 See also Death, foreshadowing of

I-14 Index
Discworld (Pratchett), 1:160; 3:511 Dogs (continued) Dragons, 1:125, 125–130, 128
Disease in Persian mythology, 1:119 in Anglo-Saxon literature, 1:64
gods of, 2:407 in Russian folktales, 3:600 in Babylonian mythology, 1:125;
mythology of origin shaggy dog stories, 2:410–411 2:332
British, 1:135 in Slavic mythology, 2:420 in Borneo mythology, 1:127
East African, 1:9 urban legends and superstitions, in Buddhist mythology, 1:127
Greek, 2:368 1:120 in Bulgarian mythology, 3:522
Norse, 2:220 vampires and, 3:486 in Chinese mythology, 1:126,
Tibetan, 3:603 in Welsh folktales, 3:609–610 126–127; 2:258
“Disputation Between Ewe and in West African mythology, 3:501 in Christian mythology, 1:125–126,
Wheat, The,” 1:101 Dokk alfar, 2:335–336 128, 128–129
“Dispute Between the Shepherd and Dole Cannery Signature Theaters in Egyptian mythology, 1:125
the Farmer” (anonymous), 1:131 (Hawaii), 1:198–199 in English mythology, 1:128–129,
Distress-Bringer (Angrboda), 1:163; Dolphins, luckiness of, 1:19 130; 2:229; 3:510
2:220 Domovoi (Domovois), 1:54, 121; in European mythology, 1:128,
Divine Comedy, The (Dante), 1:87, 2:270, 420 128–129
94, 143 Domovois. See Domovoi in French folktales, 1:128, 184
Divine order, in Jewish mythology, Don Quixote (Cervantes), 1:16, 148, in German mythology, 1:128, 146;
3:447 159; 2:369, 401 2:388–389
Diwata, 1:165 Don Quixote (Strauss), 2:441 in Greek mythology, 1:30, 35, 116,
Diwatas, 1:165 Dongmyeongseong (Chumong), 125; 3:471, 471–472
Dixon-Dickie, Ned, 2:419 1:121–122; 2:212 in Hawaiian mythology, 1:128
Dixwell, Epes Sargent, 1:93 Dongu, 1:80 hero slayers of, 1:130
Djang, 1:3 Doniger, Wendy, 2:309 in Hittite mythology, 1:125; 2:233,
Djedefre, 2:383 “Donkeyskin” (“Peau d’Ane”; 237; 3:450
Djedemankh, 2:357–358 Perrault), 1:157 in Japanese mythology, 1:126,
Djedi, 2:358 “Don’t count your chickens before 126–127
Djehuty. See Thoth they are hatched” (expression), in Javanese mythology, 2:326–327
Djinn (djinni; jinn; genie) 1:122–123 in Korean mythology, 1:127
in Arab mythology, 1:32, 117–118 Dooley (ghost), 1:189 in Malay mythology, 2:326
in Islamic mythology, 2:275 “Doomed Prince, The,” 1:123–124; in modern literature, 1:129
in Kenyan storytelling, 2:265 2:367 in Norse mythology, 1:128; 2:336
in Persian mythology, 2:361; 3:534, Doomsday in Persian mythology, 3:535–536,
535–536 Judeo-Christian mythology, 538
Djinni. See Djinn 1:36–37, 37; 2:324 in Russian mythology, 1:118; 2:269
Doctor. See Dr. Norse mythology (Ragnarok), 2:342 sacrifice of princess to, 1:130
Dodgson, Charles Lutwidge. See combatants, 1:38, 177, 185; in Slavic mythology, 3:491
Carroll, Lewis 2:342, 342; 3:483, 484, 633 in Sumerian mythology, 1:125;
“Dog in the Manger, The” (Aesop), events during, 1:73; 2:219–220, 2:332
1:119 324, 337, 384; 3:516 in Thai mythology, 2:326–327
Dogon people, mythology, 3:501 events following, 1:50; 2:335, 384 in Welsh mythology, 2:280
Dogs, 1:118–121 prophesy concerning, 1:163 Dragon-slayers, 1:130
in Asian mythology, 1:119 as universal myth, 2:324 Draupadi, 2:299
in Basque folklore, 1:57 Doppelgangers, 1:124–125 Dream of the Endless (graphic novel
black supernatural, 1:66–67 Dostoyevsky, Fyodor, 2:241 character). See Sandman
brides/bridegrooms, 1:22 Dotson Sa (Great Raven), 2:382 Dreaming, the, 1:3, 3–4, 5; 2:384
in British folktales, 1:119 Double Indemnity (1944 film), 1:159 Dreams
in Chinese mythology, 1:119 Doyle, Arthur Conan, 1:67, 119, 159; metaphors in, 2:309
in Christian mythology, 1:120 2:320 Romans on, 1:10
in Egyptian mythology, 1:26, 26, Dr. Faustus. See Faust, Johann Dreamtime, the. See Dreaming, the
118–119, 123–124 Dr. Glove, 2:253 Dresden Files, The (TV show), 1:160
in Filipino mythology, 1:119, 165 Dr. Strangelove, Or: How I Learned to Drew, Nancy, 1:xxi
in Flemish mythology, 2:276 Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb Drinks, magical, 3:527
in Greek mythology and tales, (1964 film), 2:401 Driva, 2:329
1:87–88, 119; 2:314 Dracula, 2:411; 3:487 Dromi, 1:163
in Hawaiian mythology, 2:359 Dracula (1931 film), 3:487 Druidic mythology, prophesy in,
helpers, 1:130 Dracula (1979 film), 3:487 2:382
in Japanese mythology, 1:119 Dracula (Stoker), 3:487 Drungmas, 3:456
in Jewish mythology, 1:120 Dragonflies, 2:243 Drungpas, 3:456
in Korean mythology, 1:119 Dragonriders of Pern (science Dryads, 2:339; 3:461–462
in Norse mythology, 1:119, 185 fiction series), 1:129 Duamutef, 2:228–229

Index I-15
Duane, Diane, 3:511 “East of the Sun, West of the Moon,” Egypt
Duat, 2:384 3:506 mythology (continued)
Dubiaku, 3:500 Easter Island, string figure tradition, frogs, 1:178; 2:221
Dubroise, Jean, 1:28 2:434, 435 gods and goddesses, 1:20, 20,
Dukas, Paul, 1:69; 2:429 Eastern Airlines Lockheed 1011 26, 26, 41, 42, 57–58, 58,
Dumuzi, 1:8, 28, 130–132; 2:235, Flight 401, ghosts of, 1:190–191 98–100, 110–111, 142,
236–237; 3:638–640 Eastern Airlines Lockheed 1011 186; 2:221, 228–229, 229,
“Dumuzi’s Dream” (anonymous), number N318EA, haunting of, 247–248, 266, 294, 295,
1:131; 3:481 1:190–191 308–309, 315, 327–328,
Duneyr, 3:516 Eastern Europe 337, 338–339, 351–352,
Dung beetles, 2:242 folktales, 1:xxiii, 22 352, 369–370, 383,
Durandal. See Durindana mythology, vampires, 3:484, 383–384, 407, 407–408,
Durathror, 3:516 486–487 413–414, 414, 424–425;
Durendal. See Durindana See also nations and peoples 3:448–449, 449, 454
Durga, 2:239 Ebih, 2:235–236 heroes, 2:408–410
Durgha, 2:315 Echidna, 1:87; 2:430 magic and magicians, 1:105;
Durin, 2:222 Echo, 2:339, 340 2:228, 357–358, 409, 410
Durindana (Durandal; Durendal), Ector, Sir, 2:272; 3:510 monsters and odd creatures,
2:441 Edda 2:294, 429–430, 430
Durtal, 2:303 Poetic Edda, 2:335 origin of agriculture, 1:110
Duryodhana, 2:299 Prose Edda (Sturluson), 1:49–50; origin of gods, 2:413; 3:448
Dushan, 3:529–530 2:335 origin of law, 1:110
Duttur, 1:131 Edith (ghost), 1:189 origin of religion, 1:110
Dvalin, 2:222; 3:516 Edmund Fitzgerald (ship), 2:364 resurrection, 1:110; 2:248, 352;
Dvorák, Anton, 2:397 Edric, Wild, 1:67 3:470–471
Dwarves Educational storytelling, 1:xviii, xix, shape-shifters, 3:470–471
in African mythology, 3:523 xxix snakes and serpents in,
in German mythology, 2:387–388, in India, 2:240, 241 1:123–124; 2:383, 384, 408,
389 Iroquois, 2:246–247 413
in Kenyan mythology, 2:382 in United States, 2:372 spirits, 1:123
in Norse mythology, 1:163; See also other storytelling traditions sunken cities, 2:438
2:222–223, 337 and specific themes tricksters, 2:248
in Swedish mythology, 2:222–223 Edward III, king of England, 3:553 twins, 2:248
wise men/women, 3:506 Eerige, 1:151 underworld and afterlife, 1:26;
Dwende, 1:165 Effendi Nasreddin. See Nasreddin 2:217, 294, 410, 425
Dylan, 1:36; 3:616 Effigies, for cursing, 1:105 origin of name, 2:370
Efik people (Africa), mythology, 1:2; storytelling in, 1:xvii
E 3:500 symbols, 2:242, 424–425
Egbere, 3:502 Ehecatl, 1:45
Ea. See Enki Egypt Eight Infinite Ones. See Ogdoad, the
E-Abzu (Abzu House), 1:6, 137 ceremonies and rituals, 2:294, 309 Eileithyia, 3:520
Each Uisge, 2:280 folktales, 1:136–137, 159; 2:367 Eingana, 2:425
Eagles history, 1:37, 59–60 Einherjar, 3:483, 484
in American Indian mythology, labyrinths, 2:279 Eir, 1:178
3:622, 627–629 literature, 1:98–100, 186; 2:248, eitr (ether), 3:517
in Babylonian mythology, 1:152–153 408–410, 412–413, 415–416; Ekera, 1:153
in Finnish mythology, 3:482 3:468–470 Ekhi, 1:56
in French folktales, 3:473 mythology Ekkehard of Saint Gall, 1:145
in Norse mythology, 3:483, 516 amulets, 2:221, 248, 328 E-kur, 1:139
in Russian mythology, 3:600 bees, 1:61 Ekwu, 3:502
in Welsh mythology, 3:619 birds, 2:248, 364, 364–365 El Cid, 1:135, 148
E-ana temple, 2:235, 237 bulls, 3:470–471 El Poema de Mio Cid. See Poema
Ears, animal, humans with, 1:132–133 cats, 1:57–58, 58, 85 de Mio Cid, El
Earth Initiate, 2:323 creation myths, 1:41, 142; 2:383, Elaine (Arthur’s half-sister),
Earth mother. See Mother goddess 413 2:314
Earthquakes, origin of, Norse crocodiles, 1:123–124; 2:357, 358 Elder trees, in Serbian mythology,
mythology, 1:50 demons, 2:408 1:134
Earthsea novels (Le Guin), 1:129 dogs, 1:26, 26, 118–119, 123–124 Eldjárnsson, Hálfdán, 1:68
East Africa, mythology, 1:9 dragons, 1:125 Electra, 2:216, 351
See also Africa fates, 1:161 Electromagnetism, and ghost
East Germany, folktales, 1:187 floods, 2:266 phenomena, 1:195–197

I-16 Index
Elektra (Strauss), 2:351 England (continued) Enkum, 2:235

“Elena the Wise,” 3:444 mythology, 1:159–160 Enlil, 1:139
Eleusinian mystery rites, 1:115 cats, 3:553–554, 566 associated deities, 2:277
Elf arrows. See Elf-shot crows, 3:559–560 exploits, 1:20, 27, 169; 2:236, 331
Elf folk of light (Lios alfar), 1:38 dogs supernatural, 1:66–67 family, 1:137; 2:235, 327; 3:481
Elf-shot, 1:135–136 demons, 3:561–562 role, 1:101
Eliade, Mircea, 2:321 dragons, 1:128–129, 130; 2:229; stories about, 1:139–140; 2:327
Elichoreph, 3:592 3:510 Enlil and Ninlil, 1:139; 2:327
Elijah (prophet), 1:157; 3:447 fairies and fairy-like creatures, Enlil and Sud, 1:139–140
Elijudnir, 2:220 2:365 Enmerkar, king of Uruk/Sumer,
Elinas, king of Albania, 2:302 fools, 3:509–510, 552 1:116, 140–142; 2:289–290;
Elisena, 1:15–16 foxes, 3:557–558 3:481
Elizabeth I, queen of England, ghosts, 1:189, 190, 194 Enmerkar and Ensuhgirana, 1:141–142
1:124, 143; 2:312, 341; 3:476, heroes, 1:130; 2:272, 272–274, Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, 1:140
512 422–423; 3:458–459, 465 Ennead of Heliopolis, 1:98–99, 142;
Elk, in Finnish mythology, 2:283 insects, 2:243 2:328, 408; 3:468–469, 470
Elm. See Embla magic and magicians, 1:106; Ennius, 1:148
Elm trees, 1:136 2:224, 272, 422–423; Ennugi, 1:139
Elohim, 1:126 3:561–562, 563, 568–570 Ensuhgirana, lord of Aratta,
Eloquent peasant, tale of the, monsters and odd creatures, 1:141–142; 3:481
1:136–137 1:208–209 Ents, 3:461–462
Elphin, 1:48 owls, 2:353–354 Enuma Elish (When on High), 1:5–6,
Elric of Melniboné, 2:441 prophesy, 1:129 102, 125; 3:454–455
Elrod, P.N., 3:488 shape-shifters, 2:314 Eos, 1:12
Elves small beings, 1:76–77; 2:259–260; Epic of Gilgamesh, The
in British folktales, 2:341 3:551, 563–567 characters and creatures in, 1:7,
elf folk of light (Lios alfar), 1:38 spiders, 3:567 27, 78–79, 158; 3:521
elf-shot, 1:135–136 spirits, 2:272; 3:568 classification of, 1:160
in Norse mythology, 1:38, 176–177; tricksters, 1:199 events in, 1:78–79, 114, 138,
2:335–336 witches and sorceresses, 1:136; 169–170, 202–203; 3:481
Elysian Fields, 1:11 2:224, 273, 432 history of, 1:xviii, 201–202
E-mah, 2:330 scholars of folktales, 2:338 symbols in, 2:424
Embla (Elm), 2:335 scholars of myth, 2:321 Epic of Kings (Shah-nameh; Ferdowsi),
Emer (daughter of Forgall the string figure tradition, 2:434 1:164; 2:397, 415
Wily), 3:580 superstitions, frogs and toads, Epic of the Beast (Rose), 2:385
Emerald City, 3:511 1:179–180 Epics
Emory University, ghost stories, white horses of, 3:502–503 allegorical, 1:144
1:189 See also Arthurian legends; Great Anglo Saxon, 1:63–65, 64
“Emperor’s New Clothes, The” Britain; Merlin animal (beast), 1:144; 2:385
(Anderson), 1:109 English and Scottish Popular Ballads, Arabian, 2:395–396
Endless, the (graphic novel The (Child), 1:51, 93; 3:546 Chinese, 2:258–259
character), 2:400 Enide, 1:44 Christian, 1:143, 145, 148
Endymion, 2:421 Enki (Ea), 1:137–138 court (French), 1:143–144
Enfances de Godefroi, Les (Children of appearance, 2:304 courtly (Arthurian), 1:146
Godfrey), 1:144 dwelling, 1:5 defined, 1:142
Engel, M.J., 2:417 exploits, 1:6, 7–8, 27, 101–102, 131, English, 1:207–208; 2:273,
England 141, 169–170; 2:236, 329, 330, 299–300, 314–315; 3:465
ceremonies and rituals, 1:31 332; 3:474, 479, 639 Finnish, 2:234, 258, 263–264,
folktales, 1:xxii, 22, 31, 66–67, 72, family, 2:235 276–277; 3:611–613
86, 124, 168, 199–200, 200; stories about, 1:101–102, 116, 137, folk, 1:142–143
2:272, 272–274, 363, 385, 138; 2:330 French, 1:43–44, 143–145; 2:428
418–419; 3:443, 504, 551, 552, Enki and Inanna, 1:138 as genre, 1:xx
553–554, 555–556, 557–558, Enki and Ninhursanga, 1:116, 137; 2:330 German, 1:145–146, 210–211;
559–560, 561, 563–567, Enki and Ninmah, 1:102, 138 2:393
568–570, 576, 588 Enki and the World Order, 1:101–102, Greek, 1:12–13, 34–35, 116,
jump tales, 2:259–260 138 146–147; 2:277–278, 286,
labyrinths in, 2:280 Enkidu, 1:79, 138, 158, 201–202; 344–345; 3:449
literature, 1:82–83, 83, 91–92, 2:237; 3:481 historical, 1:145
92, 128–129, 162, 200, 203; Enkimdu, 1:131 Indian, 2:239, 297–299, 298;
2:217–218, 273, 299–300, 341, Enki’s Journey to Nippur 3:527–533
401, 403 (anonymous), 1:137 Iranian, 3:534

Index I-17
Epics (continued) Etna, Mount, 3:472 Europe (continued)

Irish, 3:580 Etruscans, hand gestures, meaning superstitions, 2:228, 381
Iroquois, 2:247 of, 2:215 See also Eastern Europe; Western
Italian, 1:89, 160 Eugammon of Cyrene, 1:147 Europe; nations and peoples
literary, 1:143 Eugamonn, 3:449 European Fairytale
Mali, 2:436–438, 437 Eugene Onegin (Pushkin), 2:372–373 Association (Europäische
Near East, 1:7, 78–79, 114 Eugpamolak Manobo, 1:165 Märchengesellschaft; EMG),
Roman, 1:9–11, 10, 147–148 Eulenspiegel, Till, 1:97, 175; 3:463 1:187–188
Russian, 1:71, 80, 118, 143; Euripides, 1:25; 2:347, 351; 3:467 Eurydice, 1:52, 114, 136; 2:222;
2:234–235, 267–270, 427–428 Europa, 3:521 3:623
Scandinavian, 1:200 Europäische Märchengesellschaft Eurynome, 1:61
Spanish, 1:15–16, 135, 143, 148, 160 (European Fairytale Eurypylos, 2:286
Sumerian and Babylonian, Association; EMG), 1:187–188 Evander, king of Pallenteum, 1:11
1:78–79, 116, 160, 201–203 Europe Eve (first woman), 2:425, 426;
Thai, 2:380–381 comets, 1:96 3:476
Tibetan, 3:456 folktales, 1:71–72; 2:216, 230, 297, Every Tongue Got to Confess
See also specific epics 314, 316, 316–317, 334, 341, (Hurston), 2:230
Epigoni, 1:147 373–375, 374, 429; 3:463, 469, Evil
Epimenides, 2:421 578 origin myths
Epimetheus, 1:41; 2:368 mythology American Indian, 3:632
Erda (Urd), 2:315, 388, 390 bees, 1:61 Babylonian, 1:149
Erebus, 1:90 cats, 2:373–375, 374, 385 East African, 1:9
Erec (Hartmann von Aue), 1:146 creation myths, 2:315 Greek, 2:368
Erec and Enide (Chrétien de Troyes), death, 1:96, 124 Tibetan, 3:603
1:44, 144 dogs, 1:66–67, 87–88, 119, 185; symbols of, 2:425
Ereshkigal, 2:235, 236, 328–329; 2:276, 314; 3:600, 609–610 See also Evil Eye, protection from
3:638–639 dragons, 1:128, 128–129 Evil eye
Eretica, 3:487 foxes, 2:385–386, 411 characteristics of, 1:104, 154–155
Erie Board of Trade (ship), 2:364 frogs and toads, 1:179 protection from, 1:19, 155, 155;
Erinyes, 2:351 ghost ships, 1:170–172, 171 2:215, 228
Eris, 3:465 gods and goddesses, 2:315 Excalibur, 1:43; 2:272, 272, 315, 439,
Eritrea, 1:153 heroes, 1:130; 2:421 441
Erlik Khan, 1:73 hyenas, 1:230 Excalibur (1981 film), 2:273, 300
Erman, Adolf, 2:357 invisibility, 2:213–214 Eye of Horus, 2:229
Ermellina, 3:589–591 leucrotta, 1:230 Eye-in-hand motif, 2:215
Ermenrich the Goth, 1:145 lions, 2:230, 385
Ernst, duke of Bavaria, 1:145 magic and magicians, 1:39, 105, F
Eros (Cupid), 1:28, 97; 3:507 106; 2:213–214, 275, 313
Eros and Psyche, 1:97; 3:507 monsters and odd creatures, Fa (Fon god), 3:500
Erra, 1:149–150 1:55–56, 56, 95, 203–204; Fables, 1:156
Erra and Ishum, 1:149 2:300, 302–303, 304–308, as genre, 1:xx
Eryale, 3:624 307, 425, 425 Greek, 1:11, 11–12, 156
Esagila, 1:103 ogres, 2:374 See also Aesop’s Fables; specific fables
Eshu, 3:502 plants, magical and sacred, 2:313 Fables Choisies, Mises en Vers (Chosen
Eskimo. See Inuit shape-shifters, 1:203; 2:411 Fables in Verse ; La Fontaine),
Espurgatoire Seint Patrice (St. Patrick’s snakes and serpents, 1:55–56, 56, 2:279
Purgatory; Marie de France), 95; 2:302 Fabliau (Fabliaux), 1:156–157; 2:401
2:301 spirits, 2:305, 308, 329–330; 3:461 Fabliaux. See Fabliau
Estonia tree spirits, 3:461 Faceless Nun (ghost), 1:189
folktales, 3:571–572 vegetable sheep/lambs, Facetious Nights of Straparola, The
storytelling, 1:150–152 3:488–489 (Le Piacevoli Notti; The Nights of
Estonian National Culture Center, villains, 1:69, 69–70, 89 Straparola; Straparola), 2:433
1:151–152 water spirits, 2:305, 308 Faerie (place), 1:136; 2:361;
Etana, king of Kish, 1:152–153; 3:481 wolves, 2:385 3:546–548, 563, 566
Eteocles, 1:24–25 nonsense rhymes, 2:333–334 Faerie Queene, The (Spenser), 1:143
Eternal life. See Immortality nursery rhymes, 2:316–317, Fafnir, 1:128; 2:336, 387–388, 389,
Ether, 3:517 337–338 399
Ethiopians opera, 2:347–350 Fair Melusina (Mendelssohn), 2:303
mythology, 1:153–154; 2:275 puppetry, 2:370 Fair-haired Sure of Hand. See Lleu
storytelling, 1:154 storytellers, 2:310–311, 312, Llaw Gyffes
in Trojan War, 3:466 312–313 “Fairies, The,” 2:362

I-18 Index
Fairies and fairy-like creatures Fantasy, 1:160 Ferdowsi (Firdawsi; Firdusi;

in ballads, 1:52; 3:546–548 magicians and wizards in, 3:503, Firdousi), 1:163–164; 2:397;
in British mythology and tales, 510 3:534
1:76–77, 135–136; 2:341; modern, 1:160; 3:503 Ferdowsi Tousi, Hakim Qasem.
3:546–548, 563 as source of stories, 1:xxi See Ferdowsi
in Celtic mythology and tales, 1:31, See also specific works and authors Ferguson, Marie, 2:273
44; 3:566 Farmer Giles of Ham (Tolkien), Feridoun, king of Persia, 3:534
Danish folktales, 1:109, 110 1:129 Fertility
in English mythology, 2:365 Faro, 3:501 elm trees, 1:136
fairy dogs, 1:119 Farsi (Parsee) religion, 2:296 mythical plant of, 1:152–153
fairy godmothers, 1:157; 3:503, 507 Fasolt, 2:387–388 Fertility gods and goddesses
fairy midwives, 1:157–158 Fata morgana, 2:315, 320 Akkadian, 2:235–237
in fairy tales, 1:xxii Fate and destiny Aztec, 1:44–45
in French mythology, 2:302 in American folktales, 3:540 Babylonian, 1:5–6; 2:331–332
in Irish mythology, 1:54–55 in Anglo-Saxon literature, 1:64 Egyptian, 2:217, 221, 266
iron, effects of, 2:361 in German mythology, 2:390 Greek, 1:114–115, 115
in Italian mythology, 3:588–591 in Greek mythology, 1:161; Hindu, 2:326
in Middle Eastern folktales, 1:23 2:345–346, 351 Hittite, 2:219; 3:449–450
in Persian mythology, 2:361 in Jewish folktales, 3:447, 592 Norse, 1:177, 177, 178; 2:336
in Russian folktales, 2:396 in opera, 2:348 Phoenician, 1:8
in Scottish mythology, 2:405 in Persian folktales, 3:598 Slavic, 2:397
tests by, 3:507 in Sumerian and Babylonian Sumerian, 2:235–237, 331–332
in Welsh folktales, 3:544–545 mythology, 3:455 West African, 1:2
werefoxes, 2:411 Fates See also specific gods and goddesses
Fairy dogs, 1:119 in Norse mythology, 3:516 FFC. See Folklore Fellows
Fairy godmothers, 1:157; 3:503, 507 in various cultures, 1:161 Communications
Fairy midwives, 1:157–158 Father of the Secret Society, 2:323 Fiammetta, 1:70
Fairy Hound (Cu Sith), 1:119 Fathers. See specific people and gods “Fiammetta” (Boccaccio), 1:70
Fairy tale teller (Märchenerzähler), Fatima, 1:69 Fiddlers, satanic, 2:431
1:188 Faust, Johann (Doctor Faustus), Fidelio (Beethoven), 2:347–348
Fairy tales 1:68, 146, 161–163, 162 Fielding, Henry, 2:401; 3:459
characteristics of, 1:xxi–xxiii Faust (Goethe), 1:162, 162; 2:262 Fig trees, in Hindu mythology, 3:512
collections of, 1:108, 109 Faust (Gounod), 1:162 Fiji, string figure tradition, 2:434
demons in, 3:507 Faust Overture, A (Wagner), 1:162 Filipinos. See Philippines
Estonian, 1:150, 152 Faust Symphony, A (Liszt), 1:162 Film noir, 3:480
See also Andersen, Hans Christian; Faustus, Doctor. See Faust, Johann Filocolo (Boccaccio), 1:70
Kinder- und Hausmärchen Fear, child not knowing, 1:71–72; Filostrato (Boccaccio), 1:70
(Brothers Grimm); specific 2:389 Fingernails, folklore about,
fairy tales Feast during the Plague, The 1:166–167
“Fairy Temple, The” (Herrick), (Pushkin), 2:373 Finian’s Rainbow (musical), 2:284
2:341 Feathered serpent (Quetzalcoatl), Fink, Mike, 1:xx, 167
Fairytale circles (Märchenkreise), 1:45 Finland
1:188 Feathers ballads, 1:14
Faithful companions in Egyptian mythology, 2:294, 295 folktales, 3:443
modern, 1:159 in Persian mythology, 3:535, 538 literature, 1:14; 2:234, 263–264,
in mythology, 1:158–159 in Russian mythology, 1:167 276–277, 283–284; 3:611–613
See also Enkidu; Lakshmana Feghoot, 2:411 mythology
Faithful John, 1:158 Fellowship of the Ring, The (Tolkien), birds, 2:234, 283; 3:482
Faithless wives, 1:159; 3:463, 3:457 creation myths, 2:234
470–471 Feminism demons, 2:283
Falcons, in Norse mythology, on Arthurian legend, 2:315 folklore, 1:14
3:516 on mythology, 2:321 gods and goddesses, 1:13; 2:234
Falling Hare (cartoon), 1:209 Fénelon, François, 1:145 heroes, 2:233–234, 263, 283–284;
False Men (Na Fir Bhreige), 2:433 Fenge, 1:18 3:506, 611–613
Falsehood (Egyptian allegorical Feng-huang, 2:364 magic and magicians, 2:258, 263,
figure), 3:468–469 Fenrir (Fenris Wolf), 1:46, 119, 163, 288; 3:482, 611–613
Falstaff (Verdi), 2:348 185; 2:220, 337 origin of agriculture, 3:482
Familiars (familiar spirits), Fenris Wolf. See Fenrir origin of fire, 3:482
1:159–160 Fensalir, 1:178 origin of plants, 3:611
Family stories, 1:xix, xxiv–xxv Ferandis, 3:537 ravens and crows, 2:381
Fantasia (1940 film), 2:429; 3:561 Ferdinand I, king of Spain, 1:135 reputation for magicians, 3:571

Index I-19
Finland “Fleming’s Folly,” 2:287 Folkyang, 1:177

mythology (continued) Flemish mythology Folly Cove (Massachusetts), 2:287
resurrection, 2:283 birds, 2:276 Fon people, mythology, 3:500
saltiness of ocean explained, cats, 2:276 Fons, 2:339
2:233, 288, 399; 3:482 dogs, 2:276 Fool tales
scholars of folklore, 1:1–2; 2:318; shape-shifters, 2:276, 281–282 Congolese, 3:549–550
3:443–444 snakes and serpents, 2:276 English, 3:552
shape-shifters, 2:288 spirits, 2:276 moon in, 2:314
small beings, 3:459 tricksters, 2:281–282; 3:463 as tale type, 1:xx
spirits, 1:13; 3:611 witches, 3:523–524 wise men of Chelm, 1:xx, 175;
witches and hags, 2:288 Fliegende Hollander, Der (The Flying 3:508–509
wizards, 3:482–483, 611–613 Dutchman: Wagner), 1:171 wise men of Gotham, 3:509–510,
wolves, 3:482 Flight 401 ghosts, 1:190–191 552
Finley, Foster Fink, 1:198 Flint. See Than-wisk-a-law See also Noodle tales; Numskull
Finnish Academy of Science and “Floire and Blanchefleur” stories
Letters, Folklore Fellows (Boccaccio), 1:70 Foolish men of Gotham, 3:509–510,
Communications (FFC), 1:1 Floods, 1:168–170 552
Firdawsi. See Ferdowsi in American Indian mythology, Fools, 1:172–175
Firdousi. See Ferdowsi 3:631–632 in Arthurian legends, 1:173–174
Firdusi. See Ferdowsi in Aztec mythology, 1:45 in Christian mythology, 1:173
Fire, origin myths in Babylonian mythology, 1:7, in Congolese folktales, 3:549–550
Finland, 3:482 169–170; 2:331 in English mythology and tales,
Greeks, 1:103; 2:222, 368 in Egyptian mythology, 2:266 1:173–174; 3:509–510, 552
“Fire! Fire! Burn Stick!” (English in Greek mythology, 1:170 in European folktales, 2:314
folktale), 3:555–556 in Hindu mythology, 1:168 in Japanese folktales, 1:173
Firebird, 1:167; 2:248 in Incan mythology, 2:238 in Middle Eastern folktales, 1:174
Firebird, The (Stravinsky), 1:167; in Judeo-Christian mythology, 1:170 in Near Eastern folktales, 2:314
2:218, 248–249 in Slavic mythology, 3:490 in Palestinian storytelling, 2:356
“First catch your hare” (expression), in South American mythology, 1:14 in Persian folktales, 1:174
1:122 in Sumerian mythology, 1:168–169; in Polish mythology, 1:xx, 175;
Fish, 1:167–168 2:331; 3:521 3:508–509
in Akkadian mythology, 2:235 Flordelis, 1:89 Foreknowledge
in central American mythology, Florestan, 2:348 in Arab mythology, 1:117
1:168 Florismart, 1:89 of death
in Hawaiian mythology, 1:168 Flower prince (Xochipilli), 1:45 in American mythology, 1:61
helper, 1:22, 168 Flying Dutchman, 1:170–171, 171 in British mythology, 1:61, 66;
in Hindu mythology, 1:168 Flying Dutchman, The (Der Fliegende 2:382
in Islamic mythology, 1:168 Hollander; Wagner), 1:171 deathwatch beetles, 2:242
in Korean mythology, 2:212 Folk epics, 1:142–143 in European mythology, 1:96,
in North American folktales, Folk medicine 124
1:180–181 elm trees, 1:136 in French mythology, 2:302
in Polynesian mythology, 1:168 Western Europe, 1:39 in German mythology, 1:124
in Sumerian mythology, 2:235, 290 Folklore in Irish mythology, 1:54–55
in twin brothers folktales, 3:469 as genre, 1:xx–xxi in Roman mythology, 2:353
Fish-dragons, 1:127 jokelore, Internet, 2:244 in Slavic mythology, 2:271
Fisher King, 1:173, 206, 207, 208 types of, 1:xx–xxi in German mythology, 1:92, 124
Fisher King, The (1991 film), 1:208 See also Folktales; specific folktales mermaids, 2:304
“Fisherman and His Wife, The,” Folklore Fellows Communications in Russian mythology, 1:121
1:168 (FFC), 1:1 in South African mythology, 1:2
“Fisherman and the Genie, The” Folktale, The (Thompson), 3:452 in Tibetan mythology, 3:603
(Arabian Nights), 1:117 Folktales See also Fortune-telling; Prophesy
Fishing, 1:167–168 categorization of, 1:108 Forgall the Wily, 3:580
Fiuweigh, 1:165 collections, 1:1–2, 37–38, 55, 65, Fornaldar sagas, 2:222
Five flowers (Macuilzochitl), 1:45 75–76, 93, 108–109; 2:433; Fortunate Isle. See Avalon
Five Nations. See Iroquois 3:452 Fortune-telling
Fjort people, folktales, 3:549–550 cumulative, 1:104; 3:555–556, bees, 1:61
Flaccus, Quintus Horacius. See 559–560 Slavic folktales, 1:54
Horace definition of, 2:325; 3:479 Foster, Alan Dean, 2:250
Fledermaus, Die (The Bat ; Strauss), tale types, 3:443–444 Fouque, Lamotte, 2:303
1:59 See also Urban legends; specific Four Sons of Aymon, The (Quatre Fils
Fleetwood Mac, 1:191 peoples, traditions, and themes d’Aymon), 1:143–144

I-20 Index
Four-leaf clovers, 1:182 Freischütz, Der (Weber), 1:176 Gamab, 2:266

“Fox and the Grapes, The” (Aesop), Freki, 2:342 Gambling, superstitions, 1:182–183
1:xx French Canadians, folktales, 1:113 Gamelan, 1:183
Fox Fables (Mishlei Shualim; Freud, Sigmund, 2:260, 321, 346 Games, role-playing, 2:394–395
Berekhiah ben Natronai ha- Frey, 1:38, 176–177, 177; 2:335, 336, Gamgee, Samwise, 3:458
Nakdan), 1:65 441 Gandales, 1:15–16
Foxes Freya, 1:176–177, 177 Gandalf, 3:483, 503–504, 508, 511
in English folktales, 3:557–558 associated objects, 1:85; 2:220 Gandalin, 1:15–16
in European mythology, exploits, 2:322, 424; 3:453 Gandhari, 2:299
2:385–386, 411 role, 2:336, 388 Gandhi, Indira, 2:239
in Japanese mythology, 3:464 Fricka, 2:388 Gandhi, Mahatma, 1:103; 2:240
in Sumerian mythology, 2:330 Frieischutz, 1:176 Ganelon (Gano) of Mayence, 1:89;
in tail tales, 3:443 “Friend-of-a-friend” motif, 3:480 2:393, 428
Fox-maidens, 2:411 Frigga (Frigg), 1:178 Ganesh, 2:297–298
Fragarach, 2:441 exploits, 2:439 Ganglati, 2:220
Frame stories, 1:175–176 family, 1:49; 2:341; 3:633 Ganglot, 2:220
France role, 2:336; 3:483 Ganioda’yo (Handsome Lake),
customs and superstitions, 2:313 Friggarock (Frigga’s distaff), 1:178 2:247
folktale collectors, 1:65 Frigga’s distaff (Friggarock), 1:178 Gano (Ganelon) of Mayence, 1:89;
folktales, 1:21, 72, 86, 107, 114, Frisian Islands, folktales, 2:305–306 2:393
184; 2:279, 300–301, 373–374, “Frog and the Mouse, The,” 2:310 Ganymede, 3:521
385; 3:473, 575, 576, 578 “Frog Prince, The,” 1:106, 178, 180 Garadie, Count of, 1:210
literature, 1:43–44, 143–145, Frogs and toads, 1:178–180 Garden of Eden, 2:426
206–207; 2:279, 300–301, 316, in American Indian mythology, Gareth, 1:173–174
362, 362, 403 3:628 Gargouille, La, 1:184
monuments, ancient, 2:431 in Aymara mythology, 1:179 Gargoyles, 1:183–185, 184
music, 1:162; 2:403, 429 brides/bridegrooms, 1:21, 22 Gargoyles (TV show), 1:184
mythology in Egyptian mythology, 1:178; Garin, Count of Beauclaire, 1:41–42
birds, 3:473 2:221 Garm, 1:119, 185; 2:220
cities, sunken, 3:518–519 superstitions, 1:179–180 Garuda, 1:185, 185–186; 2:364
death, 2:302 From the Earth to the Moon (Verne), Gaueko, 1:57
dragons, 1:128, 184 2:403–404 Gautama, 2:334
evil eye, 1:154 Frost, Grandfather, 2:427 Gawain, 2:273, 441; 3:461, 508, 580
fairies and fairy-like creatures, Frost giants, 2:335, 341; 3:517 Gayundi, 1:4
2:302 Fruitful Jewel, Princess, 1:127 Gazelle, as helper, 1:22
heroes, 1:89–90, 90 ; 3:465, Fu Hsi, emperor of China, 1:127; Geb (earth), 1:186; 2:414
614–615 3:477 Ennead member, 1:142
insects, 2:243 Fulla, 1:178 exploits, 2:408
monsters and odd creatures, Fuller, John G., 1:191 family, 1:41; 2:228, 328, 338, 352,
2:302, 404, 404 Fur-bearing trout, 1:180–181 413–414; 3:448
shape-shifters, 2:292–293 Future, knowledge of. See Geibel, Emanuel von, 1:77
small beings, 2:292–293 Foreknowledge Geirrendour the Giant, 2:219
spirits, 2:292–293 Gelert, 1:119
tricksters, 2:292–293 G Generosity, in heroes, 1:97
werewolves, 3:498–499 Genesis (band), 2:431
opera, 2:347 Gabon, mythology, 3:500 Genghis Khan, 3:476–477
puppetry, 2:370 Gabrielle (Xena’s sidekick), 1:159 Genie. See Djinn
scholars of mythology, 2:321 Gaea. See Gaia Geoffrey of Monmouth, 1:43, 129;
storytellers, 2:257; 3:467–468 Ga-gorib, 2:266–267 2:314, 431
storytelling, 2:401 Gaia (Gaea), 1:30, 115; 2:304, 315; George, Saint, 1:128, 128, 130; 2:229
tongue twisters, 3:460 3:472, 512, 520 George V, king of England, 1:171
See also Arthurian legends Gaiman, Neil, 2:400 Gérard de Roussillon, 1:144
Franciade (Ronsard), 1:144 Gaito kamishibai, 2:252–253, 264 Gerd, 1:177; 2:336
Francis, Saint, 1:173 Gal Nurman Khan, 3:605 Geri, 2:342
Francus, 1:144 Galahad, 1:207; 2:439, 440 Gerlint, Queen, 1:211
Frankenstein (Shelley), 1:206 Galaor, 1:16 German Legends (Deutsche Sagen;
Franklin, Benjamin, 1:103; 2:369 Galatine, 2:441 Brothers Grimm), 1:75
Frazer, James, 2:321 Gala-tura, 2:236 German Mythology (Deutsche
Frederick III, king of Norway and Gallic War, The (De Bello Gallico; Julius Mythologie ; Grimm), 1:75
Denmark, 2:399 Caesar), 3:475 Germany
Freie Theatre, 1:187 Galungan (Balinese holiday), 1:50 East, folktales, 1:187

Index I-21
Germany (continued) “Get Up and Bar the Door” (ballad), Giants (continued)
folktale collectors, 1:75–76 1:53 in Babylonian mythology, 2:323
folktales, 1:22, 69, 77, 84, 86, 92, Gettysburg College, ghost stories, in Basque mythology, 1:57
112, 158, 176, 187; 2:250, 1:189 in Christian mythology, 1:199, 200
261–262, 310, 375, 385; 3:504, Gewi, 1:13 in English mythology and tales,
573–574, 575–577, 578–579 Ghana 2:431; 3:564
literature, 1:128, 145–146, 162, folktales, 3:542–543 in European folktales, 3:463
207, 210–211; 2:303, 393, 429 mythology, 3:500–501 in fairy tales, 3:507
music, 1:162 Ghille-dhu, 3:461 in Finnish mythology, 1:23
mythology Ghost of Flight 401 (Fuller), 1:191 in German mythology, 2:323,
bees, 1:61 “Ghost of Flight 401, The” (song), 387–388
birds, 2:261, 389 1:191 in Greek mythology, 1:199; 2:221;
creation, 2:323 Ghost ships, 1:170–172, 171; 3:520
curses, 2:388, 390 2:363–364 in Hittite mythology, 2:417; 3:450,
death, 1:124 Ghostly Matters (Gordon), 1:190 479
dragons, 1:128, 146; 2:388–389 Ghosts in Incan mythology, 2:238
dwarves, 2:387–388, 389 in African mythology, 1:192 in Irish folktales, 3:581
evil eye, 1:154 in American Indian mythology, in Jewish mythology, 1:205
fate and destiny, 2:390 1:192, 194 in Norse mythology, 1:50, 177,
giants, 2:323, 387–388 American Indian, 1:189 199; 2:219, 322, 324, 335, 336,
heroes, 1:97, 145–146; 2:421; in American mythology, 1:189–191, 424, 433; 3:453, 463, 483, 517,
3:465 193–195, 197–199; 2:363–364, 634–635
horses, 2:390, 391 380 in Spanish/Portuguese literature,
invisibility, 1:124; 2:388, 389 in Australian aboriginal mythology, 1:16
magic and magicians, 1:176; 1:192 in Sumerian mythology, 2:235
2:213–214, 390–391; 3:575 aviation, 1:190–191 in Teutonic mythology, 2:323
monsters and odd creatures, in Babylonian mythology, 1:192 in Tibetan mythology, 3:604
1:210 in British mythology, 1:171, 196 in Welsh mythology, 1:63; 2:387
in opera, 2:387–391 in camp stories, 1:81 in West African mythology, 3:500
owls, 2:354 in campfire stories, 1:82 in Western European folktales, 2:296
ravens and crows, 2:391 in Canadian mythology, 2:363–364 Giant’s Causeway (Northern
shape-shifters, 2:388, 390; college, 1:189–190 Ireland), 1:200
3:576–577 in Czech mythology, 1:191 Gibichungs, 2:390
small beings, 3:575 in English mythology and tales, Gicandia, 2:265
spirits and supernatural creatures, 1:189, 190; 2:363 Gigantes, 3:520
1:124; 2:288, 306, 329–330 in European folktales, 1:170–171, Gigantopithecus, 3:515
swords, 2:440 171 Gildas, 2:274
tricksters, 3:573–574 ghost stories, 1:191–192 Gilgamesh, 1:201–203
twins, 2:388 grateful, 1:208 associated characters, 1:138
vampires, 3:487 haunted places, 1:189–190, exploits, 2:237, 377
wise men and women, 3:578–579 192–199, 193 parents, 2:289
wolves, 2:388; 3:498 in Indian mythology, 1:191 role, 1:132
puppetry, 2:370 in Indonesian mythology, 1:192 stories about, 1:21, 78–79, 101,
storytelling, 1:186–188 in Japanese mythology, 1:192 201–202; 2:237
tongue twisters, 3:460 in Judeo-Christian tradition, 1:191, See also Epic of Gilgamesh, The
See also Siegfried 192–194 Gilgamesh, death of. See Death of
Gernsback, Hugo, 2:404 in Norwegian mythology, 1:191 Gilgamesh, The
Gersiwaz, 3:537 poltergeists, 1:195 Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld
Geruth, princess of Jutland, 1:18 railroad, 1:193 (Gilgamesh and the Netherworld),
Gesar of Ling, 3:456 reason for existence of, 1:193–194 1:101, 201–202; 2:237
Gesellschaft zur Pflege des scientific research on, 1:194–197 Gilgamesh, epic of. See Epic of
Märchengutes europäischer ships, 1:170–172, 171; 2:363–364 Gilgamesh, The
Völker (Association for the in Thai mythology, 1:191–192 Gilgamesh and Aka, 1:201
Care of Fairytales of European in theaters, 1:197–199 Gilgamesh and Huwawa, 1:201, 202
Cultures), 1:187 versus spirits, 1:195 Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven,
Geser, 3:603–606 See also Spirits 1:21, 78–79, 201, 202; 2:237
Geshtinana, 1:131; 2:237 Giacomo, Jacquerio, 1:144 Gilgamesh and the Cedar Forest, 1:201
Gessler, 3:504–505 Giant elephant bird (Aepyornis Gilgamesh and the Netherworld
Gesta Danorum (Story of the Danes; maximus), 2:393 (Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the
Grammaticus), 1:18, 188–189; Giants, 1:199–200 Netherworld), 1:101, 201–202;
2:402 in Akkadian mythology, 2:235 2:237

I-22 Index
Gilles de Rais, 1:69 Gods and goddesses Gorynytch, Zmei, 1:118

“Gingerbread Boy, The,” 3:557–558 origin myths (continued) Gospel of Nicodemus, 1:206
Girl Guides (Britain), 1:76 Sumerian, 3:454 “Gotcha” tales, 1:82, 104
Girl Scouts as reflection of cultural values, Gotham, wise/foolish/mad men of,
Brownies, naming of, 1:76 2:323, 324 3:509–510, 552
camp legends, 1:81 types, 2:324 Gotham City, 3:509
Girra, 1:27 See also Death, gods and goddesses Gotterdammerung. See Ragnarok
Gish-hur, 2:332 of; Fertility gods and Gotterdammerung (Twilight of the Gods;
Gishzida, 1:8 goddesses; Trickster gods; Wagner), 2:387, 390–391
Giulianna, 2:348 Water gods; specific gods and Gottfried of Strassburg, 1:146
Gjallar, 2:219–220 goddesses, peoples, and traditions Gounod, Charles, 1:162
Gjallar Brú, 1:73 God’s clown, 1:173 Goya, Francisco, 2:296
Gjoll (river), 1:73 Godunov, Boris Fyodorovich, 2:373 Grabbist, 1:200
Gjukings, 2:399 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, Gradlon, king of Ys, 1:107; 3:518
Gladsheim (Place of Joy), 1:38 1:124, 162, 162 ; 2:262, 303, 385, Graeae, 3:625
Glass, Philip, 2:262 429 Grail, 1:43, 146, 148, 206–208, 207;
Glassie, Henry, 2:350 Goguryeo Kingdom, 1:121–122; 2:377, 439, 440
Glaucus, 1:61 2:212 Grail Knight, 2:440
Gleipnir, 1:163 Gold Tooth. See Heimdall Grail of Hearts, The (Shwartz),
Glenrowan Hotel siege, 2:264–265 Goldborough, 2:218 1:208
Glove, Dr., 2:253 Golden age, 2:323 “Grain of Corn, A” (English
Gna, 1:178 “Golden Arm, The” (Twain), 2:259 folktale), 3:559–560
Gnostics, magic words, 1:5 “Golden Arm, The” (“Who’s Got My Grainne, 3:465
Goajiro mythology, 2:243 Golden Arm”), 1:82, 104; 2:259 Gram, 2:439
Goat suckers (Chupacabras), Golden Bough, The (Frazer), 2:321 Grandfather Frost, 2:427
1:94–95 Golden Fleece, 1:xxii, 35, 125, 147; Grandfather Wisdom, 3:507
Goats 2:216, 305, 377 Grane, 2:390
in Norse mythology, 3:453, 516 “Golden Goose, The” (Brothers Grani, 2:399
in West African mythology, 3:501 Grimm), 1:173 “Grasshopper and the Ant, The”
“Goblin Market” (Rossetti), 1:203 “Golden Key, The” (MacDonald), (Aesop), 2:243
Goblins, 1:203–204 2:295 Grateful dead tales, 1:xx, 208
Godard, Earl, 2:217–218 Golden Mother. See Mama Quills Great Britain
Godmothers, fairy, 1:157; 3:503, 507 Golding, William, 2:403 ballads, 1:51–54; 3:546–548
Godrich, Earl of Cornwall, 2:218 Goldman, William, 1:176 folk beliefs, 2:426
Gods and goddesses Gold-Tree, 3:601–602 folktales, 1:71–72, 76–77, 120, 200;
castration of gods “Gold-Tree and Silver-Tree” 3:575
in Egyptian mythology, 1:98 (Scottish folktale), 3:601–602 monuments, ancient, 2:431–432,
in Greek mythology, 1:28 Golem, 1:204–206; 3:593–594 432
in Hittite mythology, 1:25; 2:277; Golem in the Gears (Anthony), 1:206 mythology
3:450 “Golem of Prague, The,” 3:593–594 bees, 1:61
conflict among Goliath, 1:199 death, 1:61, 66; 2:382
in Aztec mythology, 1:44 Goncharova, Natalya Nikolayevna, dogs, 1:119
in Babylonian mythology, 1:6, 6, 2:373 fairies and fairy-like creatures,
102–103; 2:329, 332 Göndul, 3:484 1:76–77, 135–136; 2:341;
in Egyptian mythology, 1:98–100, Gonzales, Fernan, 1:148 3:546–548, 563
110–111; 2:228, 328, 408; Good and evil ghosts, 1:171, 196
3:449 myth as expression of cultural invisibility, 1:76
in Greek mythology, 1:28, 41, views on, 2:322–323 magic, 2:269, 314, 431
125; 2:221, 222, 368, 368; reward and punishment of monsters and odd creatures,
3:520 Australian Aboriginal, 1:4 2:280–281
in Hawaiian mythology, 2:360 West African, 1:2 origin of disease, 1:135
in Hittite mythology, 1:15, 25; See also Evil Satan, 2:431–432
2:277; 3:448, 474 Goose, Elizabeth, 2:317 spirits, 2:319
in Korean mythology, 2:212 Goose-Footed Bertha. See Bertha, sunken cities, 2:293
in Norse mythology, 2:439 Queen witches, 1:136, 159–160
in Sumerian mythology, 2:332; Gopis, 3:464 storytelling in, 1:xviii
3:455 Gordon, Avery F., 1:190 superstitions, 2:382
origin myths Gordon, Eric Valentine, 3:457 urban legends, 3:488
Babylonian, 1:102; 3:454 Gorgons, 3:624–625 See also England; Scotland; Wales
Egyptian, 2:413; 3:448 Gorlois, Duke, 2:272, 314 Great Ennead of Heliopolis. See
Norse, 2:335; 3:517 Gorsak Makua, 2:330 Ennead of Heliopolis

Index I-23
Great Lakes, ghost ships on, Greeks Gregory of Tours, 1:65

2:363–364 mythology (continued) Gremlin Gus, 1:209
Great Pike, 3:482 invisibility, 3:625 Gremlins, 1:208–209
Great Raven (Dotson Sa), 2:382 labyrinths in, 2:279 Gremlins (1984 film), 1:209
Great Sphinx of Gizeh, 2:429 magic, 1:5, 19, 30, 105 Gremlins, The (Dahl), 1:209
Greater Dog (Canis Major; mice, 2:310 Gremlins 2 (1990 film), 1:209
constellation), 1:119 monkeys, 3:473 Grendel, 1:63–64, 64
“Greatest Liar of Them All” (Apache monsters and odd creatures, Grenier, Jean, 3:498–499
folktale), 3:541 1:18–19, 29, 62, 62, 86–88, Gretchen (Margarite), 1:162, 162
Greeks 87, 125; 2:216, 304, Grete (puppet), 2:370
ceremonies and rituals, 1:115 311, 344, 346, 346, 408, Grey, Lady Jane, 1:194
culture heroes, 1:103 416–417, 417, 429–430, Griffins, 1:210
drama, 2:347 430 ; 3:471, 471–472, 520, Griffon (ship), 2:363
famous animals in history, 1:78 624 – 625 Grillparzer, Franz, 2:303
folktales, 1:11, 11–12, 32–33, 120, origin of agriculture, 1:29, 115 Grim (fisherman), 2:217–218
133, 159; 2:314, 334; 3:445, origin of animals, 2:221 Grimiore, 2:275
469, 473, 576 origin of arts and sciences, 2:222 Grimm, Dorothea, 1:75
literature, 1:xviii, 11, 11–13, 34–35, origin of disease, 2:368 Grimm, Philipp Wilhelm, 1:75
116, 156, 200; 2:225–226, origin of evil, 2:368 Grimm Brothers (Jacob and
231–233, 232, 277–278, 286, origin of fire, 1:103; 2:222, 368 Wilhelm), 1:75, 75–76, 187,
304–305, 344–345, 401; 3:449, origin of hard work, 2:368 205; 2:261; 3:575, 576–577, 578
467 origin of human beings, 2:368 Bremen Town Musicians tale, 1:72
mythology, 1:24–25 origin of raven’s blackness, 2:381 “Cat and the Mouse in
animals, 1:87–88 origin of seasons, 1:115 Partnership,” 1:84
apples, 1:30–31 origin of weights and measures, Deutsche Sagen (German Legends),
birds, 2:364, 364–365 2:222 1:75
collections of, 2:309 owls, 2:353 folktales, 1:76, 84, 112, 215–216,
creation myths, 2:315 prophesy, 1:78; 2:339, 345–346, 216; 2:367; 3:504, 507,
curses, 2:345 377, 405–407; 3:624 573–574
divine guardians, 3:507–508 quests in, 1:35; 2:377; 3:624 – 625 Kinder- und Hausmärchen (Children’s
dogs, 1:87–88, 119; 2:314 ravens and crows, 2:381 and Household Tales), 1:1, 72,
dragons, 1:30, 35, 116, 125; resurrection, 1:114 75, 187
3:471, 471–472 rivers, 2:392, 392 Gringotts Bank, 1:203
elm trees, 1:136 sacrifices, human, 2:233, 277, Griots (Griottes; Jelis), 1:143,
evil eye, 1:154–155 311, 402; 3:451, 625 209–210
fate and destiny, 1:161; scapegoats, 2:402 Griottes. See Griots
2:345–346, 351 shape-shifters, 3:520–521 Gronw Pebyr, Lord of Penllyn,
flood, 1:170 sleepers, enchanted, 2:421 3:618–620
frogs and toads, 1:179 snakes, 2:221, 406, 425; 3:623 Gropper, William, 2:257
generosity in, 1:97 spiders, 1:33 Group of Five, 2:348–349
giants, 1:199; 2:221; 3:520 spirits, 2:304, 339–340; 3:461 Grove of Glesir, 3:483
gods and goddesses, 1:20, 26, sunken cities, 2:438 Grove Theater (Utah), 1:198
28–30, 29, 39–41, 40, 90, swords, 2:440 Grumbo, the giant, 3:564
114–115, 115; 2:221–222, tricksters, 2:222; 3:463 Grundtvig, Svend, 1:1, 108–109
315, 323, 324, 328, 368, turtles and tortoises, 1:11, 11 Gu (Fon god), 3:500
368, 408; 3:454, 520–521, twins, 3:520–521 Gua Langsuir, 2:417
521 underworld, 1:87–88, 90, 115; Guardians of Uruk, 2:235
golden age, 2:323 2:222, 339, 343, 377; 3:507, Gudarz, 3:537
half-gods, 1:6–7; 2:305 623 Gudr, 3:484
half-human half-animals, unicorns, 3:475 Gudron (Kudrun), 1:146, 210–211
1:86–87, 87, 93–94, 94; vampires, 3:485, 486 Gudrun, 1:77, 210–211; 2:399
2:279, 280, 311–312; 3:451 werewolves, 3:497 Guenole, Saint, 1:107
heroes and notable figures, wise counselors, 3:507 Guests, mysterious, in Russian
1:6–7, 16–18, 61–62, 62 ; witches and sorceresses, 2:343, mythology, 2:234 –235
2:219, 231–232, 232, 345; 3:451 Gugulanna, 2:236
342–344, 343, 345–346, puppetry, 2:370 Guigemar, 3:614 – 615
346, 361, 367, 368, 368 ; “Green Gravel,” 2:338 “Guigemar” (Marie de France),
3:450–451, 624–626 “Green Grow the Rushes-O” 3:614 – 615
horses, 2:232, 358–359 (ballad), 1:52 Guignol (puppet), 2:370
hyenas, 2:230 Green Knight, 3:461 Guillaume d’Orange, 1:143
insects, 1:61; 2:242, 243 Green Man, 3:461 Guillintani. See Heimdall

I-24 Index
Guinea, mythology, 3:500 Half-gods and half-goddesses “Hare and the Tortoise, The”
Guinevere, 2:272–273, 314, 423 in Greek mythology, 1:6–7; 2:305 (Aesop), 1:11, 11
Guingamar, lord of Avalon, 1:44 in Irish mythology, 3:580 Hares
Gul Nazar, 1:23; 2:396 in Sumerian and Babylonian in American Indian mythology,
Gullibility Virus, 2:245 mythology, 1:202 1:103
Gullinbursti, 1:177 See also specific half-gods and half- culture hero, 1:103
Gulliver’s Travels (Swift), 1:200; goddesses in Greek folktales, 1:11, 11
2:401 Half-human half-animals in Kenyan storytelling, 2:265
Gulltop, 2:219 in Aztec mythology, 1:46, 178 See also Rabbits
Gumali, 3:496 in Greek mythology, 1:86–87, Harikatha, 2:240, 241
Gunabibi (Kunapipi), 1:4 87, 93–94, 94 ; 2:279, 280, Harikatha bhagavatars, 2:240
Gunlod, 2:336 311–312; 3:451 Harleian Bestiary, 3:476
Gunn, 3:484 in Polynesian mythology, 1:168 Haroeris, 2:229
Gunther, 1:77; 2:390–391 in Russian mythology, 2:234 Harold, king of Denmark, 3:506
Guntram (Strauss), 2:311 See also Mermaids; Werewolves; Harold II, king, 1:96
Gurdon, Arizona, ghosts, 1:193 specific half-humans half-animals “Harper Valley PTA” (song), 1:53
Gurt Dog, 1:67 Hall of Maaty (Hall of Two Truths), Harpies, 1:10, 10, 35; 2:216
Gushnasaph, 2:296 2:294 Harpocrates, 2:229
Gushtasp, 3:538 Halley, Edmund, 1:96 Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets
Gusli, 1:80 Halley’s Comet, 1:96 (Rowling), 2:365
Guthrie Theater (Minnesota), Halliwell, James, 2:338 Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone
1:198 Halloween, jack-o’-lanterns, (Rowling), 3:478
Gutrune, 2:390–391 2:319–320 Hartmann von Aue, 1:146
Guys and Dolls (musical), 1:182 Halstensson, Philip, 2:223 Hartmut, King, 1:211
Guytrashm, 1:67 Hamadryads (wood nymphs), 2:339; Harvard Exit Theater (Washington),
Gwawdenoorte, 1:4 3:461 1:198
Gwawl, 2:386–387 Hamaveran, king of, 3:536 Hastings, battle of, 1:96
Gwion, 1:48 Hambly, Barbara, 3:488 Hathor (Athyr; Egyptian goddess),
Gwydion, 1:36; 3:616–620 Hamilton, Laurell K., 3:488 2:217
Gypsum, 2:332 Hamlet (Shakespeare), 1:18, 188; associated gods, 2:383; 3:449
2:305, 402 associated objects, 1:58
H Hammad the Transmitter, 1:32 exploits, 1:98–99; 2:407, 416; 3:469
Hamsa (Hand of Fatima), 1:155 family, 2:228, 369
Habaek, 1:121–122; 2:212 Han Hormasta, 3:603, 605 Hathors (Egyptian fates), 1:123, 161;
Haddon, A.C., 2:434 Hana ka uluna (prepare the pillow), 2:217
Hades, 1:10, 87, 115, 136; 2:343; 2:436 Hatiba, Princess, 3:497
3:520, 623 Hanan Pacha, 1:73; 2:238 Hatshepsut, pharaoh of Egypt,
Hadubrand, 1:145 Hanashika, 2:251–252 2:294, 309
Haemon, 1:25 Hand of Fatima (hamsa), 1:155; Haudenosaunee. See Iroquois
Haemosu, 1:121–122; 2:212 2:215 Haunted places, 1:189–190,
Hafgan, 1:33 Hand of Glory, 2:213–214 192–199, 193
Hagan (Gudrun character), 1:210 Hand of God, 2:215 Haunting of Hill House (Jackson), 2:227
Hagen (Brinhild henchman), 1:77; Hand of Miriam, 2:215 Hauschild, Wilhelm, 1:207
2:390–391 Hands Hauteclere, 2:441
Haggard, King, 3:478 fingernails, folklore about, Havelock the Dane, 2:217–218
Hags, 2:213 1:166–167 Hawaii
in Bulgarian mythology, 2:330 gestures, meaning of, 2:214 –215 folktales, 3:488
in fairy tales, 3:508 Hand of Glory, 2:213–214 mythology
in Finnish mythology, 2:288 superstitions about, 2:214 dogs, 2:359
in Polish mythology, 2:330 Handsome Lake. See Ganioda’yo dragons, 1:128
in Russian folktales, 1:47; 2:249, “Hangman, The” (ballad), 1:52 fish, 1:168
376, 420 Hannahanna (Hannahannas), gods and goddesses, 2:223–224,
in Slavic mythology, 2:420 2:215; 3:450 359–360
Hahhimas, 2:417 “Hansel and Gretel,” 1:75; resurrection, 2:223–224, 360
Haiti, folktales, 3:473 2:215–216, 216 ; 3:504 shape-shifters, 2:360
Hai-Uri, 2:266–267 Hansel and Gretel (Humperdinck), small beings, 2:303–304
Hajuin Ekaku, 1:173 2:291 string figure tradition, 2:434, 436
Hakawati (Hakawaty), 1:32; 2:356 Hanuman, 2:240, 381; 3:529–532 Hazzah, Beroka, 3:447
Ha-Kohen, Isaac, 1:206 Haptu, 3:501 He Who Is Upon His Mountain and
Ha-Levi, Ya’akov Sason, 1:206 Hapy, 2:229 Lord of the Sacred Land. See
“Half-Chick, The,” 1:92 Hara Zutan, 3:604, 605 Anubis

Index I-25
He Who Saw the Deep, 1:201, 202 Henpecked (term), 1:92 Heroes and heroines (continued)
He Whose Voice Must Be Obeyed Henriade, La (Voltaire), 1:144 –145 in African mythology, 1:13
(Nankilstlas), 2:382 Henry, John. See John Henry in Albanian mythology, 2:440
Healing. See Medicine Henry, Prince of Portugal, 2:292 in American Indian mythology,
“Heart in the egg,” 2:218 Henry II, king of England, 1:103; 3:627–629
Heart of Darkness (Conrad), 1:175 2:300–301 in American mythology, 1:167
Heath Hounds, 1:67 Henry IV, king of England, in Anglo-Saxon mythology, 1:63–65
Heaven 1:144 –145 animals, 1:22
in Balinese mythology, 1:50 Henry V, king of England, 3:554 in Arab mythology, 2:393, 395–396
in Incan mythology, 1:73; 2:238 Henry VIII, king of England, 1:194 archetype, 1:34
in Islamic mythology, 1:73 Henry of Poitou, Abbot, 1:67 in Australian folktales, 2:264 –265,
in Japanese mythology, 1:74 Henson, Jim, 2:372 265
in Norse mythology (Valhalla), Heorot, 1:63 in Babylonian mythology, 1:27–28,
1:38; 2:337, 342, 390, 391; Hepatu. See Hebat 78–79, 138, 152–153, 201–203;
3:483 Hephaestus, 1:12, 28, 35, 40; 2:221, 3:481
Hebat (Hepit; Hepatu), 2:219; 3:474 323; 3:449, 520 in Balinese mythology, 1:51
See also Wurusemu Hepit. See Hebat compassion in, 1:97
Hebe, 2:221; 3:520 Heqat (Hekat; Heket), 2:221, 266, con men, 1:97–98
Hector, prince of Troy, 2:219 308 culture heroes, 1:103–104
family, 2:367, 407 Heqit, 1:178 in Danish mythology, 1:18
Trojan War, 1:7, 12, 146; Hera (Juno), 2:221–222 in Egyptian mythology, 2:408–410
2:231–232; 3:466 apples of Hesperides, 1:30 in English mythology, 1:130; 2:272,
Hecuba (Euripides), 3:467 exploits, 1:86 272–274, 422–423; 3:458–459,
Hecuba (Hecube), queen of Troy, family, 3:520 465
1:30; 2:219, 367, 406–407 intervention in mortal affairs, 1:9, in Ethiopian mythology, 1:153
Heel Stone, 2:431 11; 2:231, 406, 425; 3:507–508 in European mythology, 1:71–72,
Hei, 2:436 jealousy, 1:29 130; 2:421
Heidrek, king of Reidgotaland, judgment of Paris, 2:277; in Finnish mythology, 2:233–234,
2:223 3:465–466 263, 283–284; 3:506, 611–613
Heidrun, 3:516 Herakleion, 2:438 in French mythology, 1:89–90, 90 ;
Heike Monogatari (The Tale of the Hercules 3:465, 614 – 615
Heike), 2:252 archetype, 1:34 generosity in, 1:97
Heimdall (Heimdallr; Guillintani; Chiron, 1:87, 94 in German mythology, 1:77, 97,
Gold Tooth), 1:38, 73; death of, 1:87 145–146; 2:389–390, 421, 439,
2:219–220, 336, 441 divine assistance and hindrance, 441; 3:465, 614
Heimdallr. See Heimdall 1:40; 2:221 in Greek mythology, 1:6–7,
Heimskringla (Sturluson), 1:65 exploits, 2:305, 368, 425; 3:451 16–18, 61–62, 62, 116; 2:219,
Heinlein, Robert A., 2:404 family, 3:626 231–232, 232, 342–344, 343,
Heitsi-Ebib, 2:266, 267 Jason, 1:35 345–346, 346, 361, 367, 368,
Hekat. See Heqat labors of, 1:17, 30, 41, 87, 94, 119, 368; 3:450–451, 624 – 626
Hekate, 1:35 125, 147 in Indian mythology, 1:103;
Heket. See Heqat in modern tales, 3:512 3:527–533
Hel, 2:220 TV series about, 1:88 in Irish mythology, 1:200; 3:512,
associated gods, 1:119 Herensuge, 1:57 580–582
dog of, 1:185 Herero Bushmen of Namibia, 1:13 in Japanese mythology, 3:518
exploits, 1:49–50; 3:633 Herfjoturr, 3:484 in Korean mythology, 1:121–122
family, 1:163 Hermanubis, 1:26 in Mali mythology, 2:436–438, 437
role, 3:483 Hermes (Egyptian god), 1:110 in Middle Eastern mythology,
World Tree, 3:516 Hermes (Greek god; Mercury), 1:22–23
Hel cake, 1:185 1:115; 2:221, 222; 3:454, 463, in Moorish mythology, 2:421
Heldenbuch (Book of Heroes; Kaspar 625 in Norse mythology, 1:77; 2:421;
von der Rhön), 1:146 Hermes Psychopompos, 1:26 3:483
Helen of Troy, 1:146; 2:231, “Hermit’s Curse” legend, 2:287 in North American mythology,
277–278, 351; 3:451, 466, 521 Hermopolis, 3:454 1:130; 2:438–439
Helenus, Prince of Troy, 2:286, Herms, 2:222 in Norwegian mythology, 3:506
406–407 Hernandez, Manuel, 1:107 in Persian mythology, 2:397;
Helheim, 1:119, 185; 2:220 Hero Twins, 2:366 3:506
Helike (city), 2:438 Herodotus, 1:11, 16, 58; 2:304; 3:475 in Polynesian mythology,
Helios, 1:28–29, 110 Heroes and heroines 2:301–302
Heller, Joseph, 2:401 in African American folktales, in Portuguese mythology, 1:15–16;
Hemenway, Robert, 2:230 2:255–256 2:421

I-26 Index
Heroes and heroines (continued) Hindu mythology (continued) Hittites

in Russian mythology, 1:71, 80, epics, 2:297–299, 298 mythology (continued)
118; 2:234 –235, 248–249, fish, 1:168 gods and goddesses, 1:15, 25;
267–270; 3:491, 506 floods, 1:168 2:215, 219, 237, 277, 417;
in Scottish mythology, 2:423 gods and goddesses, 2:315, 326, 3:448, 449–450, 474, 513
sleeping, 2:422–424; 3:594 326–327 lions, 2:219
in Spanish mythology, 1:15–16, monsters and odd creatures, monsters and odd creatures,
135, 148 2:425 2:277; 3:474
in Sumerian mythology, 1:27–28, in puppet shows, 2:371 warfare, 1:37
78–79, 138, 201–203; reincarnation, 2:384 Hjalmar, 2:223
2:289–290; 3:521–522 shape-shifters, 2:380 Hladgunnr, 3:484
in Swedish mythology, 2:422 snakes, 1:185, 185–186; 2:326, Hlidskjalf, 1:178; 2:342
in Swiss mythology, 3:504 –506, 505 326–327, 425 Hlin, 1:178
in Tibetan mythology, 3:603–606 spirits and supernatural beings, Hlod Hlod, 2:223
in Welsh mythology, 1:63, 199 1:191 Hlokk, 3:484
women, 3:512 tigers, 3:644 – 647 H’mon, 3:490
working class, 2:255–256 tricksters, 3:462, 464 Hobbit, The (Tolkien), 1:129, 203; 3:457
See also Culture heroes; specific World Tree, 3:512 Hocus-Pocus, 2:224
heroes and heroines Hippocrene (spring), 2:359 Höd, 1:49, 50; 3:463
Heroides (Ovid), 2:353 Hippolyte, queen of Amazons, Hodag, 2:224 –225
Herrick, Douglas, 2:250 1:17; 3:451 Hodag: A New Musical Based on
Herrick, Robert, 2:341 Hippolytus, 1:159; 3:451 the Exploits of Gene Shepard,
Hervarar Saga, 2:222–223 Hirohito, 1:127 Wisconsin’s Greatest Trickster
Hervor, 2:223 Hiroshima, tales about, 2:239, (Peterson), 2:225
Herwig, King, 1:211 254 Hoder, 3:633
Herzog Ernst, 1:145 Hirshe, 1:13 Hodson, B.H., 3:514
Hesiod, 1:28, 147, 161 Hispanics, hand gestures, meaning Hofud, 2:441
Hesperia, 2:406 of, 2:215 Hofvarpnir, 1:178
Hesperides, 1:30, 41, 125 Histoires ou contes du temps passé, Hokkaido, storytelling on, 2:253
Hestia, 3:520 avec des moralités (Histories or Holbrook, Belinda, 2:436
Hetel, King, 1:210–211 Tales of Past Times, with Morals ; Holmes, Sherlock, 1:159; 2:320
Heyoka, 1:172 Perrault), 2:316, 316, 362 Holua, 2:360
Hiawatha, 1:103; 2:247 Historia von Doctor J. Faustus (Spies), Holy Grail. See Grail
Hibakusha-active, 2:254 1:162 Holy Grail, The (1975 film), 2:273
High John the Conqueror, 3:462 Historical fiction Homer, 1:xviii, xx, 28, 147;
Highway 23 ghost, 1:193 as genre, 1:xxi 2:225–226, 226, 344
Hi’iaka, 2:223–224, 359, 360 mysteries, 2:320 See also Iliad; Odyssey
Hi’iaka sisters, 2:223 romances, 2:395 Homeward Voyage (Nostroi; Agias of
“Hild, Queen of the Elves,” 3:444 See also specific works and authors Troezene), 1:147
Hilda. See Hilde (Hilda; wife of Historie of Reynart the Foxe (Caxton), Homiletic ballads, 1:53–54
Hagen) 2:385 Honey, I Shrunk the Kids (1989 film),
Hilde (daughter of Hagen), 1:210 Histories or Tales of Past Times, with 3:459
Hilde (Hilda; wife of Hagen), 1:210 Morals (Histoires ou contes du Honneger, Arthur, 2:441, 442
Hildebrand, 1:145 temps passé, avec des moralités ; Honsi, 3:500
Hildebrandslied (Lay of Hildebrand), Perrault), 2:316, 316, 362 Honsu, 3:500
1:145 History of the Kings of Britain, The Hood, Robin, 1:52
Hildegarde of Bingen, 3:476 (Geoffrey of Monmouth), 1:43, Hook, The, 1:82; 2:226–227
Hildesheim, monk of, 2:421 129 “Hook, The,” 1:82
Hildr, 3:484 History of Tom Thumbe the Little, for Hope Diamond, 1:106
Hillary, Edmund, 3:515 his small stature surnamed, King Hopi
Himinbjorg (Cliffs of Heaven), Arthurs Dwarfe, The (Johnson), mythology
2:219 3:458 owls, 2:354
Hina (Maui’s mother), 2:301 Hitchhikers, vanishing, 1:82; 2:245, supernatural beings, 3:627–629
Hina of the Sea (Maui’s sister), 380; 3:488 tricksters, 3:464
2:301 Hittites sacred clowns, 1:172
Hindu mythology ceremonies and rituals, 2:233 Hopoe, 2:223
birds, 1:185, 185–186; 2:364 mythology Horace, 2:401
demons, 2:380 birds, 2:417 Horant, 1:210
dogs, 1:119 creation myths, 3:479 Hordedef, 2:358
doomsday, 2:324 dragons, 1:125; 2:233, 237; 3:450 Horemakhet (Horus-on-the-
dragons, 1:127 giants, 2:417; 3:450, 479 Horizon), 2:229

Index I-27
Hormisdas, 2:296 Hrothgar, king of Denmark, 1:63, 65 Huysmans, Joris-Karl, 2:303

Horned Toad, in American Indian Hruntung, 2:441 Hvergelmir (roaring kettle), 3:516
mythology, 3:628 Hsien, 2:242 Hweonhwa, 2:212
Horror genre, 2:227–228 Huang Di, emperor of China, Hyacinthus, 1:30
See also specific stories 3:477–478 Hydra, 1:125; 2:425
Horses Hubbard, Mother, 1:89 Hyel (Hyel-Taku), 3:501
in Eastern European folktales, Hudson, Henry, 2:307 Hyel-Taku. See Hyel
3:486 Hug-Dietrich, 1:146 Hyenas, 2:230
in German mythology, 2:390, 391 Hughes, Howard, 1:197 Hyfaidd Hen, 2:386
in Greek mythology, 2:232, Hughes, Langston, 2:230 Hygelac, king of the Geats, 1:63–64,
358–359 Huginn, 2:220, 342, 381 64, 65
in Norse mythology, 2:342, 390, Hugo, Victor, 1:145; 2:348 Hylas, 2:305
399, 424 Hugues Capet, 1:144 Hymir, 3:453, 634 – 635
in Persian mythology, 2:397 Huhi, 2:434
in Russian mythology, 2:249 Huitzilopochtli, 1:44; 2:315–316 I
in Scottish mythology, 2:280 Hula, 2:359, 360
in Tibetan mythology, 3:605 Huld, 2:329 I, Reynard (Moi, Renart; cartoon),
white horses of England, Human beings, origin of 2:385
3:502–503 in African mythology, 1:2, 15; I brogen og i tjaernet (In the Well and
wooden, in Trojan War, 2:232, 286, 3:501, 502 the Pond; Moe), 1:38
343; 3:466, 466–467 in Australian Aboriginal I Was a Teenage Werewolf (1957 film),
in world mythology, 1:130; 2:297 mythology, 1:4 3:499
Horseshoes, as good luck charm, in Aztec mythology, 1:46 Ibla (Ablah), 2:396
2:228 in Babylonian mythology, Ibn al-Athir, 1:117
Horus, 2:228–229, 229 1:102–103, 169; 3:455 Ibo mythology, 2:315; 3:501–502
exploits, 1:186; 2:328, 383, 408; in Chinese mythology, 1:127 Ibon, 1:57
3:454 in Filipino mythology, 1:165 Icarus, 2:309
family, 2:248 in Greek mythology, 2:368 Iceland
origin, 2:221 in Incan mythology, 2:238 folktales, 1:67–69; 3:575
role, 2:294 in Mayan mythology, 2:366 literature, 3:498
works on, 1:98–100, 186; 2:248 in Sumerian mythology, 1:101–102; mythology, 1:77; 2:329
Horus-on-the-Horizon 3:455 Idavoll, 1:38
(Horemakhet), 2:229 Human sacrifice. See Sacrifices, Idiots, 1:174
Horus-son-of-Paneshe, 2:410 human See also Fools
Horus-the-son-of-the-Nubian- Humbaba, 1:138, 158, 202; 3:481 Id-surangal, 2:235
woman, 2:410 Humperdinck, Engelbert, 2:216, 291 Idun, 2:336
Hostius, 1:148 Hunahpu, 2:366 Iduna, 1:31
Hottentot people. See Khoikhoi Hunding, 2:388 Idylls of the King (Tennyson), 2:273,
people Hundred Days, The (O’Brian), 3:478 300
Houdini, Harry, 1:194 –195 Hungary Ieimakids, 2:339
Hound of the Baskervilles, The (Doyle), folktales, 1:xxi, 92 Igor, Prince, 2:427–428
1:67, 119 mythology Igraine, Duchess of Cornwall, 2:272,
Hounds of Annwn (Cwn Annwn), demons, 2:285–286 274, 314; 3:510
1:119 shape-shifters, 2:285 Igwe, 3:501–502
“House Carpenter, The” (ballad), vampires, 3:485 Ikkyu Sojun, 1:173
1:53 Huntington College, Alabama, ghost Ikoro, 3:502
“House of the Rising Sun, The stories, 1:189 Ikpa Ison, 1:2
(song), 1:53 Huon de Bordeaux, 1:144 Il Pentamerone. See Pentamerone, Il
Household Tales (Brothers Grimm). Huon of Bordeaux, 1:89 Ilazki, 1:56
See Kinder - und Hausmärchen Hupasiayas of Zigaratta, 2:237 Iliad (Homer), 1:146; 2:231–232,
(Children’s and Household Tales) Hurlers of Saint Cleer, 2:433 232
Houses, haunted, 1:193–194 Hurston, John, 2:229 Aeneid, 1:10
“How Jack Beat the Devil,” Hurston, Lucy Potts, 2:229 author of, 2:225–226
1:112–113 Hurston, Zora Neale, 2:229–230 characters in, 1:16–17; 2:219,
How to Tell Stories (Iwaya), 2:252 Husbands 367
How-and-why (pourquoi) tales, 1:xx; missing, quest for, 2:376–377 events in, 1:29; 3:467
3:518 snake, 2:425–426 hero of, 1:6–7
Hrafnsmal (anonymous), 3:498 Husheng, king of Persia, 3:534 Latin translations, 1:147–148
Hrist, 3:484 Huve (Huwe), 1:13 performance of, 1:xviii, xx
Hrodland, Count of the Marches of Huwawa, 1:201 related works, 1:12
Brittany, 2:428 Huwe. See Huve translations, 2:281

I-28 Index
Ilion Persis (Sack of Troy; Arctinus of Incest Indrajit, 3:532

Miletus), 1:147; 2:232–233 in Finnish mythology, 2:276 Inferno (Dante), 1:70, 87
Illalei (Wak), 1:153 in Greek mythology, 2:346 Infrasound, and ghost phenomena,
Illuyankas, 1:125; 2:233, 237; 3:450 Incredible Hulk, 3:499 1:197
Ilmarinen, 2:233–234, 263, 283, 399; Incredible Shrinking Man, The (1957 Inhabitants of the High (Aiomum
3:482–483 and 2008 films), 3:459 Kondi), 1:14 –15
Ilmatar, 2:234; 3:482, 611 Incredible Shrinking Woman, The (1981 Inklings, the, 3:457
Ilya, Saint, 3:522 and 1994 films), 3:459 Inkosazana, 3:523
Ilya Murometz (Ilya of Murom), India Inktomi the Spider, 1:174; 3:462,
2:234 –235 ceremonies and rituals, 2:239 464
Ilya of Murom. See Ilya Murometz culture heroes, 1:103 Inma. See Tjuringa
Imbaluri, 3:479 mythology “Inna and Bilulu” (anonymous),
Imgarra, Mount, 3:474 birds, 1:185, 185–186; 2:382; 1:132
Imhotep, 2:369 3:529 Insects, 2:242–244
Imilozi (whistlers), 3:523 demons, 2:380; 3:527–533 in American Indian mythology,
Imi-ut, 1:26 divine counselors, 3:507–508 2:243; 3:632
Imiut fetish, 1:26 fairies and fairy-like creatures, in Greek mythology, 1:61; 2:242,
Immortality 2:361 243
granting of folktales, 1:xxii, 22, 122–123; in Jewish mythology, 3:595–597
in Chinese mythology, 2:258 2:412; 3:443, 469, 557 origin myths
in European folktales, 2:308 frogs and toads in, 1:179 American Indian, 2:243
in Greek mythology, 2:278 gods and goddesses, 2:239, Roman, 2:242
in Sumerian and Babylonian 324 in Roman mythology, 2:242
mythology, 1:20, 116, 169, heroes, 1:103; 3:527–533 Instructions of Shuruppak, The,
203 literature, 1:114, 156, 158–159; 3:521–522
loss of 2:297–299, 298, 356–357; International Folklore Congress,
in African mythology, 3:523 3:527–533 3:452
in Egyptian mythology, 1:111 magic and magicians, 1:105; International String Figure
in Greek mythology, 1:7, 115 3:527, 528, 530, 532 Association, 2:436
in Sumerian and Babylonian monkeys, 3:529 Internet, satire on, 2:401
mythology, 1:169–170, 203 owls, 2:354 Internet lore (netlore), 2:244 –245
quest for, in Sumerian and ox-eared boy, 1:134 Interpretation of Dreams, The (Freud),
Babylonian mythology, 1:138, shape-shifters, 2:411 2:321
152–153, 203; 2:377 snakes and serpents, 1:158–159, Inti, 2:238
Imo Miri, 3:502 185, 185–186; 2:425 Introduction to a Science of Mythology
Implied Spider, The (Doniger), 2:309 spirits, 1:191; 3:461 (Lévi-Strauss), 2:321
Imposters, dragon-slayers, 1:130 sunken cities, 2:438 Inuit
Imsety, 2:229 tricksters, 2:239 string figure tradition, 2:435
In the Well and the Pond (I brogen og i twins, 3:532 superstitions, 2:214
tjaernet; Moe), 1:38 unicorns, 3:474 – 476 Invincibility, in Greek mythology, 1:7
Inanna (Ishtar), 2:235–237 wise men, 2:298; 3:529, 532 Invisibility
exploits, 1:78–79, 131–132, 141, storytelling in, 1:xviii; 2:239–241 in Arab mythology, 1:117
201, 202; 2:290, 377; 3:474, string figure tradition, 2:434 in British mythology, 1:76
623, 638–640 See also Hindu mythology in European mythology, 2:213–214
family, 1:21, 139, 140; 3:481 Indian Ministry of Culture, 2:239 in German mythology, 1:124;
related goddesses, 1:28 Indika (Megasthenes), 3:475 2:388, 389
Inanna and Dumuzi, 1:131–132; Indo-European mythology, wolves, in Greek mythology, 3:625
2:236–237; 3:638–640 3:497–498 in Jewish mythology, 1:205
Inaras, 2:233, 237 Indonesia in Russian mythology, 1:121
Inaros, 2:409 folktales, 1:22, 86; 3:443, 469 Io, 2:221
Incantation, The (Goya), 2:296 music, 1:183 Iobates, King, 1:62
Incantations, 2:296–297 mythology Iphigenia, 2:277
Incas birds, 1:186 Iran
mythology, 1:73; 2:237–239 creation myths, 2:315 folktales, 2:361
giants, 2:238 gods and goddesses, 2:315 hand gestures, meaning of, 2:214
gods and goddesses, 2:238 owls, 2:354 See also Persia
origin of fruits and vegetables, spirits, 1:192 Iraq, mythology, 1:28
2:238 puppetry, 2:370, 371; 3:494 – 495, Ireland
origin of human beings, 2:238 495 folktales, 1:xxi, xxii, xxiii, 168,
underworld, 2:238–239 tongue twisters, 3:460 200; 2:319–320; 3:580–582,
scapegoats, 2:402 Indra, 1:119, 127 583–584, 585–587

Index I-29
Ireland (continued) Isis (continued) Iwaya, Sazanami, 2:252

local legends, 2:287 powers, 3:454 Iwein (Hartmann von Aue), 1:146
monuments, ancient, 2:431 role, 2:315 Ixion, king of Thessaly, 1:86
mythology Islam Iztaccíhuatl, 2:365–366
cats, 3:580 folktales, 2:275
death, 1:54 –55 in French epics, 2:428 J
fairies and fairy-like creatures, mythology
1:54 –55 cats, 1:85 Jack (beanstalk climber), 1:199;
female heroes, 3:512 dogs, 1:120 3:463
giants, 3:581 fish, 1:168 Jack (Stingy Jack), 2:319–320
gods and goddesses, 2:382; insects, 2:243 “Jack and Jill,” 2:338
3:580 paradise, 1:73 “Jack and the Beanstalk,” 1:199;
heroes, 1:200; 3:512, 580–582 in Persia, 2:296 2:296
leprechauns, 2:284 Island of Apples. See Avalon “Jack the Giant Killer,” 1:88,
lovers, 3:465 Island of the Dead (Australian 199–200, 200
magic and magicians, 1:105; Aboriginal), 1:4 Jackal (African god). See Ogo
3:580–582, 585–587 Island-in-the-Midst, 1:98–99 Jackalope (deer bunny; Lepus
owls, 2:354 Ismene, 1:24 –25; 2:346 temperamentalus), 2:250–251, 251
small beings, 2:284; 3:583–584 Isolde of the White Hands, 3:465 “Jackalope” (Foster), 2:250
snakes, 2:426 Isolde the Fair (Yseult; Iseult), 3:465 Jackals
spirits, 1:54 –55 Istari, 3:511 in Egyptian mythology, 2:384
tricksters, 3:583–584 Italy in Hindu mythology, 3:462
storytellers, 2:404 – 405 folktale collectors, 1:55; 2:433 Jackel, Mester (puppet), 2:370
storytelling, 2:350 –351 folktales, 1:22, 69, 86, 114; 2:334, Jack-o’-Lantern, 2:319–320
werewolves, 3:498 375; 3:571, 573, 575, 576, Jackson, Andrew, 1:195
Irij, 3:534 588–591 Jackson, Peter, 3:458
Iron, supernatural beings’ dislike hand gestures, meaning of, 2:214, Jackson, Shirley, 2:227
of, 1:92 215 Jacob (Jewish patriarch), 3:447
Iron Fan Princess, 2:258 literature, 1:70–71, 114, 160; 2:433 Jacobs, Joseph, 3:561, 601
Iron Giant, The (1999 film), 1:200 music, 1:162 Jaguar Night, 2:366
Iroquois (Haudenosaunee) mythology Jaguar Quitze, 2:366
mythology birds, 3:588–589 Jäguõhtud, 1:151
birds, 2:246 evil eye, 1:154, 155 Jain tradition, 3:461
creation, 1:147; 3:630–632 fairies and fairy-like creatures, James I, king of England, 1:105
gods and goddesses, 2:247 3:588–591 James VI, king of Scotland, 3:477
twins, 2:247 insects, 2:243 Jan Klaassen (puppet), 2:370
storytelling, 2:245–247 magic and magicians, 3:571 Janaka, King, 3:528
Irving, Washington, 1:113, 175, 193; shape-shifters, 3:589–590 Janet (rescuer of fairy lover),
3:509 tricksters, 1:114 3:546–548
Isaac (Jewish patriarch), 3:447 witches and sorceresses, 3:571, Japan
Isabella (ghost), 1:189 588–591 folktales, 1:49, 86, 120, 173; 2:384,
Isabella (ship), 2:363 puppetry, 2:370 386
Ischys, 2:381 Itching palms, superstitions about, mythology
Isengrim the Wolf, 2:385 2:214 afterlife, 1:74
Iseult. See Isolde the Fair Itotori, 2:434 bats, 1:59
Isfendiyar, 3:538 It’s a Bird . . . It’s a Plane . . . It’s bridges, 1:73, 73
Ishkur (Adad), 1:27, 139, 141, 152; Superman! (musical), 2:439 cats, 2:412
2:235 Ivain le Chevalier au Lion (Ivan the demons, 2:412; 3:518
Ishtar. See Inanna Knight of the Lion; Chrétien de dogs, 1:119
Ishtar Gate, 1:125 Troyes), 1:144 dragons, 1:126, 126–127
Ishum, 1:149 Ivaldi (Vate), 2:336 fools, 1:173
Iside et Osiride, De (Plutarch), Ivan. See Ivan Tsarevich foxes, 3:464
1:110–111; 2:352 “Ivan and the Great Grey Wolf,” 1:22 frogs and toads, 1:179
Isimud, 1:5 Ivan Kupalo (John the Bather), ghosts, 1:192
Isis, 2:247–248 2:420 gods and goddesses, 1:74; 2:382
associated gods, 2:308 Ivan the Knight of the Lion (Ivain le heroes, 3:518
cult of, 2:328 Chevalier au Lion; Chrétien de insects, 2:243
Ennead member, 1:142 Troyes), 1:144 owls, 2:354
exploits, 1:26, 98–99, 110–111; Ivan Tsarevich, 2:248–249, 377; shape-shifters, 2:411, 412; 3:464
2:328, 352 3:599–600 spirits, 1:49; 2:330; 3:464
family, 1:186; 2:229, 328, 339 Ivory Coast, mythology, 3:501 sunken cities, 2:438

I-30 Index
Japan Jews Joyce, James, 3:467

mythology (continued) mythology (continued) Judah the Prince, Rabbi, 3:446
swords, 2:441 fate and destiny, 3:447, 592 Judeo-Christian mythology
tricksters, 3:464 giants, 1:205 babies cast adrift, 1:48
unicorns, 3:478 heroes, 2:275, 275–276 doomsday, 1:36–37, 37 ; 2:324
wise men or women, 1:179 invisibility, 1:205 flood, 1:170
puppetry, 2:370–371 magic, 1:5; 3:596 spirits, 1:191; 3:461
storytelling, 2:251–254, 264 monsters and odd creatures, Judy (puppet), 2:370, 371
string figure tradition, 2:434 1:204 –206; 3:593–594, Juglares (minstrels), 1:148
women warriors, 1:17 595–597 Juha, 2:356
Jarilo. See Yarilo Satan, 3:447 Juhan, Miku, 1:151
Jarnsaxa, 3:453 scapegoats, 2:402 Jump tales, 1:104; 2:259–260
Jason tricksters, 3:464 Jung, Carl Gustav, 1:34, 95–96;
associated characters, 1:87, 93–94, unicorns, 3:476 2:260–261, 261, 321
94; 3:623 wise men and women, 2:275, Jungle Book (Kipling), 1:138
companions, 2:417 275–276; 3:595–597 “Juniper Tree, The,” 2:261–262;
divine assistance, 2:221 World Tree, 3:513 3:504
exploits, 1:34 –35, 125, 147; 2:305, Talmudic storytelling, 3:445–448 Juniper Tree, The (Glass), 2:262
377; 3:507–508 See also Judeo-Christian mythology Juno. See Hera
stylistic elements of story, 1:xxii Jinn. See Djinn Jupiter, 1:20
Játaka (Jatakas), 2:334; 3:641 Joan, Princess, 3:609 Juturna, 2:339
Jatayu, 3:529 Joan of Arc, 1:144 Juvenal, Iunius, 2:401
Java Joao de Lobeira, 1:15 Juvencus, 1:148
music, 1:183 Job evaluations, fake, on Internet,
mythology, 2:326–327 2:244 K
puppetry, 3:494 – 495 Jocasta, 1:24; 2:346
Jean de Nesle (Blondel), 2:312–313; Johanna (ghost), 1:194, 196 Ka (soul), 2:266
3:467–468 John, king of England, 3:509 Kaang (Cagn), 1:13
Jelis. See Griots John, Saint, 2:421 Kabbalah, 3:513
Jemschid, king of Persia, 3:534 John III, king of Portugal, 2:291 Kabuki, 2:370
Jentilak, 1:57 John Craig (ship), 2:363 Kabunian, 1:165
Jeremiah (prophet), 1:205 John Henry, 2:255–256 Kachinas, 1:172
Jersey Devil, 2:254 –255 John of Gaunt, 1:91 Kadesh, battle of, 1:59–60
Jerusalem, and Antichrist, 1:24 John the Baptist, 3:488 Kahfra (Chephren), pharaoh of
Jesters, 1:172; 2:348 John the Bather. See Ivan Kupalo Egypt, 2:429
Jesuit Relations, 2:247 Johnson, Richard, 3:458 Kai kai, 2:435
Jesus Jokelore, 2:244, 380 Kai-Kaus, king of Persia, 3:535–537
birth of, 2:296 Jonah’s Gourd Vine (Hurston), 2:230 Kaikeyi, 3:527, 529
culture hero, 1:103 Jonak, 2:399 Kai-Khosrau, 3:537–538
Egyptian iconography, 2:248 Jones, Casey, 2:378–379 Kai-Kobad, king of Persia, 3:535
resurrection of, 2:324 Jongleurs, 2:257 Kaiumers, king of Persia, 3:534
scapegoat, 2:402 Jonson, Ben, 2:341, 401 Kal-El, 2:438
Jeu de Robin et Marion, Le (The Play of Jormungand, 1:163; 2:220 Kalervo, 2:276
Robin and Marion; Adam de la Joruri, 2:253 Kalevala, 2:263–264
Halle), 3:468 Joseph (patriarch), 1:159 characters, 1:14; 2:233, 234,
Jewel beetles (buprestid beetles), Joseph, the golem of Prague, 276–277, 283–284; 3:482–483
2:242 3:593–594 events, 3:611–613
Jews Joseph Andrews (Fielding), 2:401 influence of, 3:511
folktales, 1:xx, 113–114, 157–158, “Joseph d’Arimathe” (Robert de sampo (magic mill), 2:233, 288,
174 –175; 3:508–509, 540, 592, Boron), 1:206 399; 3:482
593–594, 595–597 Joseph of Arimathea, 1:43, 206; Kali, 2:382
hand gestures, meaning of, 2:215 2:439 Kalin, Tsar, 2:235
literature, 1:104 Jotenheim. See Jotunheim Kama-kama, 1:165
mythology Jotun, 1:199; 2:324, 433 Kamapua’a, 2:360
birds, 3:447 Jotun, 2:336 Kamishibai, 2:252–253, 264
cats, 1:85 Jotunheim, 1:199; 2:336; 3:516 Kantele, 3:482
creation myths, 3:446 Joukahainen, 1:14; 2:258; 3:482, Kapampangan people, 1:165
death, 3:446 611–613 Kapok trees, 1:165
demons, 1:157–158; 3:595–597 Journal for Hermits (Grimm), 1:205 Karakuri, 2:370
dogs, 1:120 Journey to the West (Monkey), Karta, 1:161
in Ethiopia, 1:154 2:258–259 Kaspar (forester), 1:176

Index I-31
Kaspar von der Rhön, 1:146 Kinder- und Hausmärchen (Children’s Kosensei, 1:179
Kasper (puppet), 2:370 and Household Tales; Brothers Koshaku (Kodan) storytelling, 2:252
Katadesmoi, 1:105 Grimm), 1:1, 72, 75, 187 Koshares, 1:172
Kathaprasangam, 2:241 Kine Pratie, 1:80 Krar, 1:154
Katrijn (puppet), 2:370 King Amuses Himself, The (Le Roi Kriemhild, 1:146
Kausalya, 3:527 s’amuse; Hugo), 2:348 Krishna, 2:239; 3:464, 508
Kavad, 2:239 King of Dreams (graphic novel Krishna Vasudeva, 2:298–299
Kavirondo people, 3:495–496 character). See Sandman Krisky (Plaksy), 2:330
Kawah, 3:534 “King of the Cats,” 2:274 –275 Krohn, Julius, 3:443–444
Kay, Sir (seneschal), 1:173; 2:272, 273 “King of the Cats is Dead,” Krohn, Kaarle, 1:1; 3:443–444
Kazakhstan, mythology, 2:280 2:274 –275 Kronos. See Cronos (Greek god)
Kelly, Ned, 2:264 –265, 265 King of Ys, The (Anderson and Krylov, Ivan, 1:156
Kelly, Walt, 1:209 Anderson), 1:107 Kryptonite, 2:439
Kelpies, 2:412 “King Orfeo” (ballad), 1:52 Kudayuri, 2:323
“Ken Starr Trek Report, The,” 2:244 “King Solomon and the Demon” Kudrun. See Gudron
Kennedy, Joseph, 1:106 (Jewish folktale), 3:595–597 Kuliana Dragon, 2:332
Kennedy family, curse on, 1:106 King Stone, 2:431–432 Kullervo, 2:276–277
Kenning, 2:418 Kings. See specific kings Kuluppu, 3:512
Kent, Clark, 1:48; 2:438 Kipling, Rudyard, 1:138 Kumans, 2:427
Kent, Jonathan and Martha, 2:438 Kirin, 3:478 Kumarbi (Kumaris), 1:25; 2:277;
Kenya Kirina, Battle of (1235), 2:437 3:448, 450, 474
mythology Kiriwina Islands, mythology, 2:323 Kumaris. See Kumarbi
birds, 2:382 Kirtan, 2:240 Kummiya, king of. See Teshub
dwarves, 2:382 Kirtankars, 2:240 Kunapipi. See Gunabibi
gods and goddesses, 3:495–496 Kish, 1:152 Kunchan Nambiar, 2:241
tricksters, 2:265 Kishar, 3:455 Kung-san people, 2:323
storytelling, 2:265 Kiskilussa, battle at, 2:233 Kunti, 2:299
Kephara. See Kephri Kiskindha (kingdom of monkeys), Kupala (festival), 2:419–420
Kephri (Kephara), 2:242 3:529 Kupalo, 2:419–420
Kepler, Johannes, 3:477 Kitsune, 2:412 Kupalo, Ivan (John the Bather),
Kerala state, storytelling in, Klaassen, Jan (puppet), 2:370 2:420
2:240–241 Klingsor, 1:207 Kupava, 2:427
Ker-Ys. See Ys Kludde, 2:276 Kur-gara, 2:236
Kesar’s Saga, 3:456 Knights of the Round Table, Kursanagi-no-tsurugi, 2:441
Khafre, 2:357 2:272–273 Kuru’s Field, 2:299
Khar, 3:529–530 Knives, witches and wizards Kurushima, Takehiko, 2:252
Khentiamentiu, 2:352 wounded by, 3:571–572 Kusa, 3:532
Khnum, 1:186; 2:221, 266, 308, 327; Knot, that can’t be untied, Kutha, 2:237
3:470 3:614 – 615 Kwakiutl people
Khoikhoi people (Hottentots), Knot of Isis (tyet ), 2:248 mythology, 2:354
mythology, 1:14; 2:266 Kodama, 3:462 string figure tradition, 2:435
Khon drama, 2:381 Kodan (koshaku) storytelling, 2:252 Kwataka, the Man Eagle, 3:627–629
Khonsu, 1:20, 20 Koen dowa style, 2:252 Kyllikki, 2:283–284
Khorovod, 2:397 Koko, 2:436 Kyoko, Matsuoka, 2:253
Khors, 2:419 Kolduni, 3:491 Kypria, The, 2:277–278
Khosrow II, 1:164 Kon, 2:238
Khufu (Cheops), pharaoh of Egypt, Konrad, Priest, 2:393 L
1:xvii; 2:357, 358 Koran, curses in, 1:104
Khun-Anup, 1:136–137 Korea La Fontaine, Jean de, 1:156; 2:279,
Khwatay-namak, 1:164 mythology 307; 3:473
Ki lin, 3:478 dogs, 1:119 La Gargouille. See Gargouille, La
Kievan cycle, 2:267–270, 398; 3:491 dragons, 1:127 La Henriade. See Henriade, La
Kikimora, 2:270–271 gods and goddesses, 2:212 La Muse Historique. See Muse
Kikimora, Opus 63 (Liadov), 2:271 heroes, 1:121–122 Historique, La
Kikuyu, 2:265 resurrection, 1:122 La Pucelle. See Pucelle, La
Killer bees, 1:61 shape-shifters, 2:212 La Sablière, Madane de, 2:279
Kimat, 1:119, 165 string figure tradition, 2:434 La Traviata. See Traviata, La
Kinabalu, 1:127 Koschei the Deathless, 2:249; Labuna, 1:168
Kinae, 1:154 3:599–600 Labyrinth (1986 film), 1:203
“Kind and unkind girls” tales, “Koschei the Deathless” (Russian Labyrinths, 2:279–280
2:271–272 folktale), 3:599–600 Lachesis, 1:161

I-32 Index
Ladakh, literature, 3:456 Larvae (Lemures), 2:283 Leinster, king of, 3:585, 587
Ladon, 1:125 Larvandad, 2:296 Lel (shepherd), 2:427
“Lady, or the Tiger?, The” Last Unicorn, The (Beagle), 3:478 Lemminkainen, 2:263, 283–284
(American folktale), 3:644 – 647 Latinus, king of Latium, 1:11 Lemures. See Larvae
Lady Jane Grey, 1:194 Launcelot du Lac, 1:144 Lensmen series (Smith), 2:404
Lady of Plague, 2:407 Laure, Jules, 1:90 Leonora, 2:348
See also Sekhmet Laurel trees, in Greek mythology, Léonore (Bouilly), 2:348
Lady of the Lake, 2:272, 441 1:30; 2:309; 3:461 Leopold, Duke of Vienna, 2:312–313
Lady of the Mountain. See Ninmah Lava, 3:532 Leprechaun (2002 film), 2:284
Lady Who Gives Birth (Nintu), 1:140 Lavinia, of Latinus, 1:11 Leprechauns, 2:284; 3:583–584
Lady with a Unicorn (Dame a la Law “Leprechaun’s Gold, A” (Irish
Licorne) tapestries, 3:477 origin of folktales), 3:583–584
Ladybird beetles. See Ladybugs in Australian Aboriginal Lepsius, Karl Richard, 2:357
Ladybugs (ladybird beetles), 2:242 mythology, 1:4 Lepus temperamentalus. See Jackalope
Ladyhawke (1985 film), 3:499 in Egyptian mythology, 1:110 Les Martyrs. See Martyrs, Les
Laeding, 1:163 Law, John, 1:106 Les Troyens. See Troyens, Les
Laegaire, 3:580–581 Lawson, John, 1:200 Leshiye. See Leshy
Laelaps, 1:119 Lay of Hildebrand (Hildebrandslied), Leshy (Leshiye), 2:284 –285, 420
Laertes, 2:345 1:145 Lesser Dog (Canis Minor;
Laevedolge, 2:381 “Lay of the Emir,” 1:116 constellation), 1:119
Lahama, 2:235 Le Chant de Dahut. See Chant de Lethe (river), 2:392
Lahamu, 3:455 Dahut, Le Leto, 1:29, 30; 3:520–521
Lahmu, 3:455 Le Fanu, J. Sheridan, 3:487 Leucrotta, 2:230
Laila, 1:174 Le Fay, Morgan. See Morgan le Fay Leucsoia, 2:416
Laima, 1:161 Le Guin, Ursula K., 1:129 Leviathan, 1:126
Lais, 1:144 Le Jeu de Robin et Marion. See Jeu de Lévi-Strauss, Claude, 2:321
Laius, king of Thebes, 2:345–346 Robin et Marion, Le Lewis, C.S., 1:87, 208; 2:295; 3:457,
Lakapati, 1:165 Le Morte d’Arthur. See Morte d’Arthur, Le 461
Lake Champlain Phenomenon Le Piacevoli Notti. See Piacevoli Notti, Le Leyak, 1:50–51
Investigation, 1:88 Le Pont de la Rivière Kwai. See Pont de Li Livre des Ansienes Estories, 1:17
Lake monsters, 1:88; 2:280–281 la Rivière Kwai, Le Li Shou, 1:85
Lakone Mana, 3:627–629 Le Prince de Beaumont, Jeanne- Liadov, Anatol, 2:271
Lakshmana (Luxman), 1:158–159; Marie, 1:21 Liberia, storytellers, 1:xviii
3:527–532 Le Roi s’amuse. See Roi s’amuse, Le Liderc, 1:92; 2:285–286
Lakshmi, 3:527 Le Roman de la Rose. See Roman de la Life of Alexander (Plutarch), 1:78
Lama manis, 3:456 Rose, Le Life of Merlin (Vita Merlini; Geoffrey
Lambs of Tartary, 3:488–489 Le Roman de Renar. See Roman de of Monmouth), 1:43; 2:314
Lami manipas, 3:456 Renar, Le Ligeia, 2:416
Lamiak, 1:57 Leaf, Walter, 2:281 “Light Princess, The” (MacDonald),
Lamias, 3:522 Lear, Edward, 2:333 2:295
Lampades, 2:339 Lebe, 3:501 Lights, mysterious, 2:319–320
Lancelot, 2:268, 273, 314, 441 Leeds, Mrs., 2:254 Lilac Fairy Book, The (Lang), 2:281
Land of No Return (Sumerian, Left-handedness, superstitions Lilith, 1:155
Akkadian, and Babylonian about, 2:214 Lilith (MacDonald), 2:295
mythology), 1:6; 2:236 Legba, 3:500 Lincoln, Abraham, 1:34; 3:540
Landis, Geoffrey, 2:404 Legend (1986 film), 1:203–204 “Lion and the Mouse” fable, 2:310
Lane, Lois, 2:439 Legend of Sleepy Hollow (Irving), 1:193 Lion King, The (musical), 2:372
Lang, Andrew, 2:281 Legend of the Centuries, The (Légende Lions
Lange Wapper, 2:281–282 des Siècles ; Hugo), 1:145 in Chinese mythology, 2:258
Lanval, 1:43, 44 Legend: The Arthurian Tarot in European mythology and tales,
Laocoon, 1:147 (Ferguson), 2:273 2:230, 385
Lao-Tzu, 1:173 Legendary Adventures of Hercules (TV in Hittite mythology, 2:219
Lapetus, 1:40 show), 1:88 in Persian mythology, 3:535
“Laplander Wizard, The,” 3:571–572 Légende des Siècles (The Legend of the in Russian mythology, 2:249
Laplanders. See Saami people Centuries ; Hugo), 1:145 Lios alfar (elf folk of light), 1:38;
L’apprenti sorcier. See Apprenti sorcier, L’ Legenden (saints’ legends), 1:187 2:336
“L’Après-Midi d’un Faune.” See Legends Liougat, 3:487
“Après-Midi d’un Faune, L’” definition of, 2:325 Lisa (twin), 3:500
Lara, 1:148 as genre, 1:xx–xxi Lists, fake, on Internet, 2:244 –245
Lararium, 2:283 local, 2:286–288 Lisuarte, king of England, 1:16
Lares, 2:282, 282–283 See also specific legends Liszt, Franz, 1:162

Index I-33
Literary epics, 1:143 Loki Lyonors, Dame, 1:174

Literature characteristics, 3:463 “Lytel Geste of Robyne Hood, A”
chansons de geste, 1:143; 2:428 exploits, 1:31, 49–50; 2:220, 424; (ballad), 1:74
epic fantasy adventure, 1:15–16 3:453, 633
fantasy, 1:xxi, 160 family, 1:163; 2:337, 342 M
magicians and wizards in, 3:503, in modern tales, 3:512
510 role of, 2:336 Ma Vlast (My Country; Smetana),
modern, 1:160; 3:503 Lombard cycle, 1:145–146 2:442
frame stories, 1:175–176 Lone Ranger, 1:159 Maat (truth; order), 2:294, 295, 383;
horror genre, 2:227–228 Long, Andrew, 3:546 3:449, 454
mystery stories, 1:xxi; 2:320 Lönnrot, Elias, 2:263; 3:611 Maaui-tikitiki. See Maui
romance, 2:395 Loons, in American Indian Mabinogion
chivalric, 1:148 mythology, 3:630–631 characters, 1:33, 36, 63, 199;
Medieval Europe, 1:41–43 Lord of the Flies (Golding), 2:403 2:386–387
satire, 2:401 Lord of the Rings (Tolkien), 1:160, events, 1:159; 3:616–620
science fiction, 1:xxi; 2:403–404 203; 2:222, 399, 439; 3:456, magic in, 2:296
as source of stories, 1:xxi 457–458, 461–462, 503–504, 511 Macaire, 1:144
See also Epics; specific works and Lord of the two lands. See Atum Macbeth (Shakespeare), 1:34
authors; specific peoples and Lord of the Woods (Basajaun; Old MacCool, Finn, 1:200
traditions Man of the Woods), 1:56 MacDonald, George, 1:203; 2:295
Lithuanian mythology Lorelei, 2:288 MacDonald, Margaret Read, 2:318
bees, 1:61 Lost Boys, The (1987 film), 3:487 Macer, 2:353
fates, 1:161 Lotus-Eaters, 2:343 MacLeish, Archibald, 1:113
Little Claus, 3:464 Louhi, ruler of Pohjola, 2:233, 283, MacMurray, Fred, 1:159
“Little Claus and Big Claus” 288, 399; 3:482–483 Maco light, 1:193
(Andersen), 3:464 Louis I, Holy Roman Emperor, 1:145 MacRoich, Fergus, 2:441
Little Humpbacked Horse, The, 2:377 Louis XIV, king of France, 2:362, Macuilzochitl (five flowers), 1:45
Little Iliad (anonymous), 1:12, 147; 362, 401 Mad men of Gotham, 3:509–510,
2:232, 286 Louis-Philippe, king of France, 2:348 552
“Little Mermaid, The” (Anderson), Loup-garous. See Werewolves Madam Pele. See Pele
1:109; 2:303, 307–308 Love at First Bite (1979 film), 3:487 Madama Butterfly (Puccini), 2:349
Little Mermaid, the (Disney Sudios’s Lowe, Perele, 1:206 Madhafah, 2:356
character), 2:308 Lubava, 2:398 Madrigals, 2:347
“Little Red Riding Hood” Lucan, 1:148 Mae Nak, 1:191–192
(Perrault), 1:187; 2:362 Lucerne Chronicles, 1:96 Magarac, Joe, 2:255
Little Theater (Jamestown, New Luciads, The (Os Lusiadas ; Magazine of Fantasy and Science
York), 1:198 Camöens), 2:291–292 Fiction, 2:411
Liu Hai, 1:179 Lucy, Saint, 1:173 “Mage: The Ascension” (game),
Liu Jingting, 1:xviii Ludwig (father of Hartmut), 1:211 3:508
“Livre des Ansienes Estories, Li” (“The Ludwigslied, 1:145 Magic
Book of Ancient Stories”), 1:17 Lugalbanda, 1:27; 2:288; 3:481 in American Indian mythology,
Lizards, as brides/bridegrooms, 1:22 Lugalbanda and the Mountain Cave, 3:621–622, 627–629
Lleu Law Griffes. See Lleu Llaw 2:289 in Arabic folktales, 1:32
Gyffes Lugalbanda and the Thunderbird, black, 1:67–68; 2:296
Lleu Llaw Gyffes (Lleu Law Griffes; 2:289–290 Black School, 1:67–69
Lleu of the Sure Hand; Fair- Lugale (O King, Storm of Majestic in British mythology, 2:269, 314,
haired Sure of Hand), 1:36, Splendor), 2:331 431
159; 3:617–620 Lugbara, 1:9 captives held by, 2:376–377
Lleu of the Sure Hand. See Lleu Llaw Lugh, 3:580 in Christian mythology, 1:104, 105;
Gyffes Lullabies, 2:290–291 2:275, 314
Llewellyn, Prince, 3:609–610 Lullaby (Brahms), 2:291 curses, 1:104 –106
Llyr, 2:387 Luminous Being (Ryujin), 1:127 in Egyptian mythology, 1:105;
Lobsters, in Russian mythology, Lurbira, 1:56 2:228, 357–358, 409
3:600 Lutin, 2:292–293 in English mythology and tales,
Local legends, 2:286–288 Luxembourg, mythology, 2:302–303 1:106; 2:224; 3:561–562
Loew, Judah, 1:206 Luxman. See Lakshmana in European mythology, 1:39, 105,
Loft, Bob, 1:190–191 Lycanthropy, 2:411; 3:499 106; 2:213–214, 313
Loge, 2:387–388, 389, 390, 391 Lycomedes, king of Skyros, 1:7 evil eye
Lohiau, 2:223–224, 360 Lycophron, 1:147 characteristics of, 1:104, 154 –155
Lohurasp, king of Persia, 3:538 Lyngvi, Island of, 1:163 protection from, 1:19, 155, 155;
Lokananta, 1:183 Lyonesse, 2:293 2:215, 228

I-34 Index
Magic (continued) Magicians, wizards, and sorcerers Malu dances, 2:434

in fairy tales, 1:xxii (continued) Malyari, 1:165
fingernails, 1:166 in Italian folktales, 3:571 Mama Allpa, 2:238
in German mythology and tales, in Khoikhoi mythology, 2:267 Mama Camac, 2:238
1:176; 2:213–214, 390–391; in modern tales, 3:503, 511 Mama Coca. See Cocomama
3:575 in popular culture, 3:478 Mama Cocha (Sea Mother), 2:238
gray, 2:296 in Russian mythology and tales, Mama Quilla, 2:238
in Greek mythology, 1:5, 19, 30, 1:80; 2:270 Mama Quills (Mother Moon;
105 in Slavic mythology, 3:491–492 Golden Mother), 2:238
Hand of Glory, 2:213–214 sorcerer’s apprentice tales, 1:206; Mamazara. See Zaramama
incantations and spells, 2:296–297 2:297, 429; 3:561–562 Mamlambo, 3:523
in Indian mythology, 1:105; 3:527, in Sumerian mythology, 1:141–142 Mampes, 1:74
528, 532 in Swiss folktales, 3:571 Manai ikalanai, 2:301–302
in Jewish mythology and tales, 1:5; in Tibetan mythology, 3:604 Manananggal, 1:166
3:596 traveling in whirlwind, 3:571–572 Manasa, 2:239
magic words, 1:5; 2:224 in Welsh mythology, 2:422–423; Manawydan, 1:63; 2:386, 387
in Mali mythology, 2:437–438 3:616–620 Manco Capac I, 2:238
medicines white magic, 3:503–504 Mande people
apples, 1:30 wise counselors, 3:508 folktales, 2:436–437
in British mythology, 2:314 See also Merlin; Witches and mythology, 3:501
in Celtic mythology, 2:313 sorceresses; specific magicians, Mandjet-barque, 2:384
in Egyptian mythology, 2:228 sorcerers, and wizards Man-Eagle. See Kwataka
in Greek mythology, 1:19, 30 Magi, 2:295–296 Maniacs
in Norse mythology, 1:163; 2:337, Magni, 3:453 in camp stories, 1:81
342; 3:453 Mahabharata, 1:143; 2:297–299, 298 Hook, The, 1:82; 2:226–227
in Persian mythology, 3:537, 538 events, 1:114; 3:508 Western European folktales, 1:69,
in Polynesian mythology, 3:636 monsters and odd creatures, 1:185, 69–70
potions, 3:465, 469 185 Manipopo, 2:280
in Roman mythology, 1:5 performance of, 2:239; 3:494 Mankind, destruction of
in Russian mythology and tales, Maharal, the, 3:593–594 by fire, 1:14
2:269–270; 3:599–600 Mahmoud of Ghaznavi, 1:164 See also Floods
seven, as magic number, 2:376, 377 Mahrem, 1:153 Mano cornuta, 2:214–215
talismans, 3:444 Mahucutah, 2:366 Mano fico/figa, 2:215
in twin brothers folktales, 3:469 Maia Sauron, 3:511 Mansfield University, Pennsylvania,
white, 1:67; 2:296 Maiar, 3:511 ghost stories, 1:189
See also Amulets; Magicians, wizards, “Maid Freed from the Gallows, The” Manticore, 2:300
and sorcerers; Sleepers; (ballad), 1:52 Mantua, Duke of, 2:348
Witches and sorceresses; Maiden of Pohjola, 2:283, 288 Mantyo, 1:165
specific hags, magicians, sorcerers, Maidu, creation myths, 2:323 Manu. (Manu Vaivasvate), 1:168
sorceresses, witches, and wizards; Mairuak, 1:57 Manu Vaivasvate. See Manu
specific stories Majnu, 1:174 Manvantara, 2:324
Magic Flute, The (Mozart), 2:347 Makali, 2:436 Manzan Gurme Toodei, 3:603
Magic places, Celtic folklore, Making of Religion, The (Lang), 2:281 Mao Zedong, 2:258
1:43–44 Malagigi the Enchanter, 1:89 Maori
Magicians, wizards, and sorcerers, Malay mythology, 2:326 mythology, owls, 2:354
3:510, 510–511 Malaysia string figure tradition, 2:434
in Arab mythology, 1:92 folktales, 1:86 Map, Walter, 1:67
in Bohemian folktales, 3:571 mythology, 1:73–74 Mara, 2:329
in Chinese mythology, 3:464 demons, 2:417 Marathonian Bull, 3:451
in Egyptian mythology, 2:410 owls, 2:354 March, King, 1:133
in English mythology and tales, urban legends, 3:488 Märchen (wonder tales), 1:xx, 109,
2:224, 422–423; 3:563, Malcanthros, king of Byblos, 1:110 187
568–570 Malgven, queen of the North, 3:518 Märchenerzähler (fairy tale teller),
in Estonian folktales, 3:571–572 Mali 1:188
in European mythology, 2:275 heroes, 2:436–438, 437 Märchenkreise (fairytale circles),
in fairy tales, 1:xxii literature, 1:143; 2:436–438, 437 1:188
in Finnish mythology, 2:258, 263, mythology, 2:437–438; 3:501 Marduk
288; 3:482, 611–613 Malinowski, Bronislaw, 2:321 creation, 1:101, 102–103, 125, 126;
in Indian mythology, 3:530 Mallarmé, Stéphane, 2:441 2:304, 323; 3:455
in Irish mythology, 1:105; Malory, Thomas, 1:207; 2:273, exploits, 1:149
3:580–582, 585–587 299–300, 314–315; 3:465 family, 1:6; 3:455

Index I-35
Marepines (martallar), 2:329 McCaffrey, Anne, 1:129 Mephistopheles, 1:162, 162

Marerewana, 1:14 McCumhail, Fionn, 3:465 Mephistopheles (Boito), 1:162
Marfa, Princess, 3:491 McGee, Chas, 1:81 Mercury. See Hermes (Greek god)
Margaret of Antioch, Saint, 1:128 Me (Sumerian), 1:138; 2:235, 332 Meriaduc, 3:614–615
Margarite (Gretchen), 1:162, 162 Medea, 1:34–35; 3:451 Merib, 2:409
Mari, 1:56, 57 Medicine Merlin, 3:510, 510–511
Marie de France, 1:44, 65, 144, folk Arthur, 2:272, 293; 3:510–511
156–157; 2:300–301; 3:614 elm trees in, 1:136 associated characters, 3:459, 563
Mariurrika, 1:57 of Western Europe, 1:39 characteristics, 3:503, 508
Mark, King, 1:133; 3:465 magical death/enchanted sleep of, 2:421;
Mark, Saint, feast day of, 1:124 apples, 1:30 3:510–511
Marlowe, Christopher, 1:162 in British mythology, 2:314 exploits, 1:129; 2:320, 431, 440;
Marmanhig, 1:166 in Celtic mythology, 2:313 3:461
Marriage, prediction of, 1:92 in Egyptian mythology, 2:228 modern depictions, 2:273
Marriage of Figaro, The (Mozart), in Greek mythology, 1:19, 30 Merlin (French epic), 1:144
2:347 in Persian mythology, 3:537, 538 “Merlin” (Robert de Boron), 1:206
Mars, 1:48; 3:512 Medium (TV show), 1:160 Mermaids, 2:302–303, 304–308,
Marston, William Moulton. See Medr, 1:153 307
Moulton, Charles Medusa, 3:624–626 Mermen, 2:304, 306
Martallar (marepines), 2:329 Megasthenes, 3:475 Mernebptah, King, 2:409
Martha of Bethany, Saint, 1:128 Megiddo, 1:37, 37 Merope, Queen of Corinth,
Martyrs, Les (Chateaubriand), 1:145 Megingjard, 3:453 2:345–346
Mary (ghost), 1:198 Meistersingers, 2:311 Merry Maidens stone circle, 2:433
“Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary,” 2:338 Melampus of Thessaly, 2:406 Meshkiagasher, king of Uruk, 3:481
Mary, Queen of Scots, 2:338 Melanesia Meskhenet, 1:161; 2:308–309, 358
Masengo, 1:154 mythological studies, 2:321 Mesktet-barque, 2:384
“Master Smith, The,” 1:111–112 mythology, 2:425 Mesoamerican mythology
Math, son of Mathonwy, 3:616, 618 string figure tradition, 2:434 bats, 1:59
“Math, Son of Mathonwy,” 1:36 Melchior, 2:296 frogs and toads, 1:179
Math of Mathonwy, king of Mele (Melu), 1:165 Mesopotamia
Gwynedd, 1:36; 3:616 Melicia, 1:16 mythology
Matière de Rome la Grand (Matters Melior, 2:302 creation myths, 1:100–103, 199
of Great Rome), 1:143–144 Mellona, 1:61 evil places, 1:6
Matsya, 1:168 Melu. See Mele monsters and odd creatures,
Matter of Britain. See Arthurian Melusina. See Melusine 2:300
legends Melusine (Melusina), 2:301, 302, women in, 1:140
Matters of Great Rome (Matière de 306 See also Babylonians; Sumerians
Rome la Grand), 1:143–144 Melville, Herman, 1:97–98 Messiah, in Talmudic tradition,
Maturin, Stephen, 3:478 Memnon, king of Ethiopia, 1:12; 3:446
Maud, William T., 3:484 3:466 Mester Jackel (puppet), 2:370
Maui, 2:434 Memorial Hall (Dayton, Ohio), Mestrovic, Mary, 2:255
Maui (Maaui-tikitiki), 2:301–302, 1:198 Mestrovic, Steve, 2:255
434; 3:636–637 Memphite Theology, 1:186 Metamorphoses (Ovid), 1:175; 2:309,
Mauthe Doog, 1:67 Men Scryfa, 2:433 353
Mawu, 3:500 Men-An-Tol (Crick Stone), 2:432, Metaphor, 2:309
Max (forester), 1:176 432 Metch-kangmi, 3:514
May Night, The (Rimsky-Korsakov), Mendelssohn, Felix, 2:303 Metis, 1:40; 3:520
2:397 Menehune, 2:303–304 Mexico
Mayans Menelaos. See Menelaus mythology, insects, 2:243
literature, 2:366 Menelaus (Menelaos), king of superstitions, 2:228
mythology Sparta Mice, 2:310, 429
creation myths, 2:366 exploits, 1:147; 2:305 brides/bridegrooms, 1:21, 22
gods and goddesses, 1:168 Trojan War, 2:231, 233, 277, in cartoons, 2:310, 429
insects, 2:242–243 342–343, 351; 3:466 cat-and-mouse tales, 1:82–83
origin of human beings, 2:366 Menelik I, 1:153 in English folktales, 3:566
snakes, 2:425 Menhyt, 2:266 Michabo, 2:421
twins, 2:366 Menkhpresiamun, king of Egypt, Michael (archangel), 1:128
World Tree, 3:513 2:410 Mickey Mouse, 2:310, 429
Mayari, 1:165 Menna, 1:60 “Microsoft Buys the Catholic
Mbaba Mwana Waresa, 3:523 Menouthis, 2:438 Church,” 2:244
Mbatuku, 3:502 Menteg, 1:74 Mictecacihuatl, 1:45

I-36 Index
Mictlan, 1:45, 46 Mishnah, 3:446 Monsters and odd creatures

Mictlantecuhtli, 1:45 Miss Saigon (Webber), 2:349 (continued)
Middle Earth, 3:511 Mister. See Mr. in Filipino mythology, 1:165–166
Middle East Mistletoe, 2:313; 3:633 in French mythology, 2:302, 404,
folktales, fools, 1:174 Mists of Avalon, The (Bradley), 1:44, 404
mythology 208; 2:273; 3:510 gargoyles, 1:183–185, 184
creation myths, 1:125 Miyazaki, Hayao, 3:462 in German mythology, 1:210
dragons, 1:125 Miyoko, Matsutani, 2:253–254 in Greek mythology, 1:18–19, 29,
fairies and fairy-like creatures, Mizguir, 2:427 62, 62, 86–88, 87, 125; 2:216,
1:23 Mjollnir, 3:453, 453, 634–635 304, 311, 344, 346, 346, 408,
golden age, 2:323 Moddey Dhoo, 1:67 416–417, 417, 429–430, 430;
heroes, 1:22–23 Modi, 3:453 3:471, 471–472, 520, 624–625
tricksters, 3:464, 607 Moe, Jorgen, 1:37–38 in Hittite mythology, 2:277; 3:474
superstitions, 2:228 Moi, Renart (I, Reynard; cartoon), husbands transformed, 2:376
See also Near East; nations and peoples 2:385 in Irish folktales, 3:581
Midgard, 1:38, 73; 2:336; 3:516 Moirai, 1:161 in Jewish mythology, 1:204–206;
Midgard serpent, 2:337, 425; 3:453, Mokosh, 2:420 3:593–594, 595–597
634–635 Molboer tales, 1:108, 109–110 in Khoikhoi mythology, 2:266–267
Midsummer Night’s Dream, A Moles, in American Indian lake monsters, 2:280–281
(Shakespeare), 2:341, 400; mythology, 3:627–629 in Norse mythology, 1:163; 2:337;
3:458 Molière, 2:401 3:463
Midwives, fairy and demon, Molpe, 2:416 in North American mythology,
1:157–158 Mongols 1:88; 2:224–225, 317
Mighty Mouse, 1:84; 2:310 mythology, 3:478 in Persian mythology, 2:300,
Miller, Richard, 1:198 in Russian mythology, 2:267–268 414–415; 3:534–535
Mills, Clara Urania (ghost), 1:189 Monkey ( Journey to the West), 2:258–259 quest motif, 2:377
Milton, John, 1:143 Monkey (Sun Wukong), 2:258–259 in Roman mythology, 1:84–85
Mime (dwarf), 2:389, 391 Monkeys in Russian mythology, 2:234, 249,
Mimir, 3:516 brides/bridegrooms, 1:22 269
Mimisbrunnr (well of wisdom), in Chinese mythology, 2:258–259; in South African mythology,
3:516 3:464 1:14
Minamoto Yoritomo, 3:518 in Greek folktales, 3:473 in Sumerian mythology, 1:27–28,
Minamoto Yoshitomo, 3:518 in Indian mythology, 3:529 46, 78–80; 2:235, 236, 332;
Minamoto Yoshitsune. See Yoshitsune in Thai mythology, 2:381 3:455, 481
Minerva. See Athena Monoceros, 3:475 in Tibetan mythology, 3:514–515,
Minks, in American Indian Mons Badonicus, battle of, 2:274 603, 605–606
mythology, 3:630 Monsters and odd creatures See also Dragons; Werewolves;
Minnesang, 1:146; 2:310–311 in African mythology, 1:14 specific monsters and creatures
Minnesingers, 1:146; 2:310–311 in Akkadian mythology, 2:235, 236 Montell, William Lynwood, 2:350
Minnie Mouse, 2:310 in American Indian mythology, Montu, 2:415
Minona, 3:500 3:627–629 Monty Python, 2:273
Minos, king of Crete, 2:279, 311; in American mythology, 2:254–255 Monuments, ancient, stone circles
3:451, 521 in Anglo-Saxon mythology, 1:63 and standing stones, 2:431–432,
Minotaur, 2:279, 280, 311–312; 3:451 in Asian mythology, 2:300 432
Minstelsy of the Scottish Border (Scott), in Aztec mythology, 1:46 Monzaemon, Chikamatu, 2:371
3:546 in Babylonian mythology, 1:27–28, Mo-o-inanea, 1:128
Minstrel shows, origin of, 2:312 46, 78–80; 2:304, 332; 3:455, Moon
Minstrels, 2:312, 312–313 481 in American Indian mythology,
azmari, 1:154 in Balinese mythology, 1:50–51 3:622
juglares, 1:80 in British mythology, 2:280–281 in Egyptian mythology, 1:110
minnesingers, 1:146 in camp stories, 1:81 in European folktales, 2:314
Shaziteli, 1:80 in campfire stories, 1:82 in Finnish mythology, 2:233
See also Bards; specific storytellers; in Canadian mythology, 2:280 as symbol, 2:228
other types of storytellers in Chinese mythology, 2:258, 280 Moon bridges, 1:73, 73
Minuchihr, king of Persia, 2:397; in Christian mythology, 1:204 Moorcock, Michael, 2:441
3:534, 535 in Egyptian mythology, 2:294, Moore, C.L. (Catherine Lucille),
“Miracle of the Grail, The” 429–430, 430 2:404
(Hauschild), 1:207 in English mythology, 1:208–209 Moors, mythology, 2:421
Mishlei Shualim (Fox Fables; in European mythology, 1:55–56, Moraes, Francisco de, 1:16
Berekhiah ben Natronai ha- 56, 95, 203–204; 2:300, 302– Morag, 2:280
Nakdan), 1:65 303, 304–308, 307, 425, 425 Mordred, 2:273, 293, 315

Index I-37
Morevna, Maria, 2:249 Mowgli, 1:138 Myth of Anzu, The, 2:332

Morgan, Francis X., 3:456–457 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 2:347 Mythography, 2:320–322
Morgan le Fay, 1:43, 44; 2:273, Mozart and Salieri (Pushkin), 2:373 Mythologiques (Lévi-Strauss), 2:321
314 – 315, 320, 341 Mr. Punch (puppet), 2:370, 371 Mythology, 2:322–325
Morgause, Queen of Orkney, 2:273, Mr. Rogers’ Neighborhood (TV show), basis in reality, 2:325
314, 315 2:372 definition of, 2:322, 324 – 325; 3:479
Morgenstern, S., 1:176 Mr. Wentling, 2:431 functions, 2:322–323
Morocco, mythology, 2:354; 3:485 Mua roi nuoc (water-puppet theater), as genre, 1:xx
Moroi, 3:485 3:490 motif indexes, 2:317–319
Morpheus (graphic novel Mu’allaqat (Collected Odes ; Hammad protagonist types, 2:324
character). See Sandman the Transmitter), 1:32 as reflection of cultural values,
Morphology of the Folktale (Propp), Muhammad (prophet), 1:85 2:323, 324
2:321 Muhrab, ruler of Kabul, 3:535 themes and motifs, 2:323–324
Morrigan, 2:382 Mukuru, 1:13 See also specific myths
Morskoi, Tsar, 2:398 Mules and Men (Hurston), 2:230
Morta, 1:161 Mullah Nasreddin. See Nasreddin N
Mortality. See Origin myths, death Mummu, 3:455
Morte d’Arthur, Le (Malory), Münchhausen, Karl Friedrich Na Fir Bhreige (False Men), 2:433
1:207–208; 2:273, 299–300, Hieronymus, Baron von, 3:445 Nachzehrer, 3:487
314 – 315; 3:465 Mungan Ngour, 1:4 Nada, queen, 2:400
Moses, 1:48, 103; 3:596 Mungun Shagai, 3:604 Naegling, 1:129
Moses, Man of a Mountain (Hurston), Muninn, 2:220, 342, 381 Naevius, 1:148
2:230 Muppets, 2:372 Nagas, 1:185, 185–186; 2:326,
Mosquitoes, 2:242–243; 3:603 Murders in the Rue Morgue, The (Poe), 326–327, 425
Mother goddess (Earth mother), 2:320 Naharin, princess of, 1:123–124
2:315–316 Muromets, Ilya, 1:71, 118; 2:268–269 Nahuelito, 2:280
in Egyptian mythology, 2:339 Murwakala, 2:371 Naiads (water nymphs), 2:305, 339,
in Sumerian mythology, 2:330–331 Muse Historique, La, 2:316 387, 416
Mother Goose, 2:316, 316–317, 362; Muses, 1:12 Nakula, 2:298
3:509 Mushmahhu, 2:332 Nala, 3:531
Mother Goose’s Melody (Perrault), Music Name, as magic, 3:575
2:316, 338 as accompaniment to storytelling, Namma, 1:102
Mother Goose’s Tales (Perrault), 2:316 2:239–240, 252, 310–311, 356, Nammu, 1:137
“Mother Holle,” 1:97; 3:507 428; 3:467–468, 490, 494 Namo, Duke of Bavaria, 1:89
Mother Hubbard, 1:89 opera, 2:347–350 Namtar, 2:328–329; 3:639
Mother Moon. See Mama Quills tone (symphonic) poems, 2:441–442 Nana Buluku, 3:500
Mothers See also Minstrels; specific music, Nana-Suen Journal to Nippur, 2:327
wicked, 2:262; 3:576–577, 601–602, composers, and musicians Naneferkaptah, Prince, 2:409
616–618 Musical instruments Nankilstlas (He Whose Voice Must
wicked stepmothers, 2:216, 261; Indonesian, 1:183 Be Obeyed), 2:382
3:504, 588–591 magical, 1:133–134 Nanna, 2:235, 236; 3:481
See also Fairy godmothers; specific West African, 1:210 Nanna-Suen (Sin), 2:327
people and goddesses Musin-Pushkin, Aleskey, 2:427–428 Naoise, 3:465
Mothman, 2:317 Muspelhiem, 2:336; 3:517 Napaeae, 2:339
Mothman Prophecies, The (2002 film), Musso-Koroni, 3:501 Napoleon, 2:254, 347
2:317 Mussorgsky, Modest, 2:348, 373 Naran Goohon, 3:603–605
Moths, 2:243 Mut, 1:20, 20 Nare Maghan, king of the
Motif indexes, 2:317–319 Muwatillis, Hittite king, 1:59–60 Mandingo, 2:437
Motif-Index of Folk-Literature My Best Friend Is a Vampire (1988 Narnia, 3:461
(Thompson), 2:318, 319; 3:452 film), 3:487 Narwhals, 3:476
Motifs, 2:319 My Country (Ma Vlast; Smetana), 2:442 Nascakiyetl (Raven-at-the-Head-of-
Moulton, Charles (William Moulton My Life and Hard Times (Thurber), Nass), 2:382
Marston), 3:512 1:xix Naso, Publius Ovidius. See Ovid
Mount Ararat, 2:325 “My Mother Slew Me, My Father Ate Nasreddin (Effendi Nasreddin;
Mount Olympus, 3:520 Me,” 2:262 Mullah Nasreddin; Nasreddin
Mount Qaf, 2:361 Myanmar, folktales, 1:22 Hodja), 1:174; 3:607–608
Mount Saint Mary’s College, Myers, Ernest, 2:281 Nasreddin Hodja. See Nasreddin
Maryland, 1:189–190 Myrmidons, 2:231 Nastasya, 1:118
Mourning Becomes Electra (O’Neill), Mystery lights, 2:319–320 National Folklore Support Center
2:351 Mystery stories, 1:xxi; 2:320 and Dakshina Chitra arts center
Mouse. See Mice Myth, Ritual, and Religion (Lang), 2:281 and museum (India), 2:241

I-38 Index
National Storytelling Network, 1:xxvi New Melusine, The. See Neue Melusine, Nippur, 1:139
Natural History (Pliny the Elder), Die Nirriti, 2:380
1:84–85 New Zealand Nirvana, 2:214
Naturalists (Physiologus), 1:66 ballads, 1:51–52 Nisaba, 1:139, 141
Nature spirits, East Africans, 1:9 origin of, in Polynesian mythology, Nisses, 1:109, 110
Nauder, king of Persia, 3:535 2:301 Nit. See Neith
Naunet, 2:337 Newekwe, 1:172 Nittala Brothers, 2:240
Nausicaa, 2:345 Nez Perce Njord (Niord), 1:176; 2:336
Navajo (Diné), mythology folktales, 1:22 Noah, 1:85, 170; 2:310, 325; 3:446,
owls, 2:354 mythology, tricksters, 3:464 476, 521
standard phrases in, 1:xxii N’ha-a-tik. See Ogopogo No-Bigger-Than-A-Finger, 2:332–333
supernatural beings, 3:627 Nibelheim, 2:388 Noble, Philip, 2:436
tricksters, 3:464 Nibelungenlied (Song of the Nibelungs), Noble Leo the Lion, King, 2:385
Near East 1:77, 128, 143, 146, 186; 2:387 Nocnitsa, 2:330
folktales, 2:314, 429; 3:576 Nibelungs, 2:387–388 Noguchi, Hiroshi, 2:436
mythology Nicholas, Saint, 2:349 Nolan, Hugh, 2:350–351
bats, 1:59 Nicholas, Tsar of Russia, 2:373 Nommo, 3:501
death, 1:114 Nicolette, 1:41–43 Nona, 1:161
evil eye, 1:155 Nidavellir, 2:336 “Nonne’s Preeste’s Tale,” 2:385
See also Middle East; nations and peoples Nidhogg (Tearer of Corpses), 2:425; Nonsense rhymes, 1:xx; 2:333–334
Nebka, King, 2:357 3:516 Noodle tales (simpleton tales),
Nebkaure, King, 1:137 Niflheim, 2:220, 336; 3:516, 517 1:172–173; 2:334–335
Nebraska Wesleyan University, ghost Nigeria See also Fool tales; Fools; Numskull
stories, 1:189 mythology, 1:2; 3:501–502 stories
Nebthet. See Nephthys creation myths, 2:315 Nooralie, 1:4
Nebuchadnezzar, 1:125 gods and goddesses, 2:315; 3:500 Nor (Moe and Asbjørnsen), 1:38
Nebuchadnezzar II, 1:101 owls, 2:354 Nornor. See Norns
Nectanebus, 1:147 storytelling, 3:517–518 Norns (Nornor), 1:161; 2:390; 3:516
Nefertum, 2:369, 408 Night (nyx), 1:90 Norse peoples
Nehebkau, 2:425 “Night the Bed Fell, The” folktales, 2:334, 377
“Neiman Marcus Cookie Recipe, (Thurber), 1:xix literature, 1:128; 2:399
The,” 2:245 Nightingale the Robber. See mythology, 2:335–337
Neit. See Neith Razboynik, Solovei afterlife, 3:483
Neith (Neit; Nit; Net), 1:61, 98–99; Nightmares, 2:329–330 apples, 1:31
2:235, 266, 383 Nights of Straparola, The (Le Piacevoli ash trees, 1:39, 39
Nemty-Nakht, 1:136–137 Notti; The Facetious Nights of birds, 1:177; 2:220; 3:483, 516
Neoptolemus, 2:286, 367, 406–407 Straparola; Straparola), 2:433 bridges, 1:73
Nepal, folktales, 1:113 Nike, 2:328 cats, 1:85, 177
Nephthys (Nebthet), 2:328 Nikitich, Dobrynya, 1:71, 118; 2:269 cosmology, 2:335–336
Ennead member, 1:142 Nimue (Viviane), 3:461, 510 creation myths, 1:199; 3:517
exploits, 1:26; 2:248, 308, 352 Nineveh, 1:202 dogs, 1:119, 185
family, 1:110, 186; 2:248, 339, 408 Ningal, 2:235 doomsday, 2:342
Nereids, 1:35; 2:339; 3:625 Ningirsu. See Ninurta dragons, 1:128; 2:336
Nereus, 2:339 Ningyo-joruri, 2:370–371 dwarves, 1:163; 2:222–223, 337
Nergal, 1:139; 2:328–329 Ninhursag. See Ninmah elves, 1:38, 176–177; 2:335–336
Nergal and Ereshkigal, 2:328–329 Ninhursanga, 1:138; 2:330–331 fates, 1:161
Nespawershepi, 2:383, 414 Ninkura, 2:330 giants, 1:50, 177, 199; 2:219,
Nessos, 1:87 Ninlil (Sud), 1:101, 139–140; 2:327 322, 324, 335, 336, 424,
Net. See Neith Ninmah (Ninhursag; Lady of the 433; 3:453, 463, 483, 517,
Netherlands Mountain), 1:27, 102; 2:304, 634–635
folktales, 1:86; 2:385 331–332 gods and goddesses, 1:38, 49–50,
puppetry, 2:370 Ninsar, 2:330 176–177, 177, 178, 199;
Neti, 2:236 Ninshubur, 2:235, 236 2:219–220, 322, 324, 335,
Netlore. See Internet lore Ninsun, 1:78, 201; 2:289; 3:481 336, 341–342; 3:452–454,
Neue Melusine, Die (The New Melusine; Nintu (Lady Who Gives Birth), 453, 463, 484, 484, 517, 634
Goethe), 2:303 1:140 heroes, 1:77; 2:421; 3:483
Neuntöter, 3:487 Ninurta (Ningirsu), 1:27–28, 139; horses, 2:342, 390, 399, 424
New Caledonia, string figure 2:331–332 magic, 1:163; 2:337, 342; 3:453
tradition, 2:434 Ninurta and the Turtle, 2:332 in modern tales, 3:512
New Kalevala, The (Uusi Kalevala), Niobe, 1:30 monsters and odd creatures,
2:263 Niord. See Njord 1:163; 2:337; 3:463

Index I-39
Norse peoples Norway Observations on the Language of

mythology (continued) folktale scholars, 1:37–38 Chaucer and Gower (Child), 1:93
in opera, 2:387–391 folktales, 1:72, 111–112; 2:375; Oceania, mythology, 2:324
origin of aurora borealis, 3:484 3:443, 473, 506 Oceanids, 2:339
origin of disease, 2:220 ghost stories, 1:191 Oceans
origin of earthquakes, 1:50 mythology, heroes, 3:506 human residence in, 2:306
otherworlds, 1:38 warriors, 3:498 saltiness of, in Finnish mythology,
prophesy, 1:163, 178; 2:337; Norwegian Fairy Stories and Folk 2:233, 288, 399; 3:482
3:492–493, 633 Legends (Moe), 1:38 sunken cities, 2:293, 438–439;
ravens and crows, 2:342, Norwegian Folk Stories (Norske 3:518–519
381–382; 3:484 folkeeventyr ; Moe and See also Water gods and spirits
reincarnation, 2:384 Asbjørnsen), 1:38 Oceanus, 2:339
shape-shifters, 2:399 Nosferatu (1922 film), 3:487 Ocypete, 2:216
small beings, 1:38, 176–177; Nostroi (Homeward Voyage ; Agias of Od, 1:177
2:335–336 Troezene), 1:147 Odd creatures. See Monsters and
snakes, 2:425; 3:516, 633, Nothung (Needy), 2:388–389, 441 odd creatures
634 –635 Novak, David, 2:436 “Ode to Billy Joe” (song), 1:53
swords, 2:439, 440 Novels. See Fantasy; Science fiction Odhinn. See Odin
tricksters, 1:31; 2:220, 336; Novgorod, Russian folk epics on, Odin (Odhinn; Ygg), 2:335,
3:463, 633 1:80 341–342, 342
underworld, 1:49–50, 73, 119, Nuages (Clouds; Debussy), 2:442 associated items, 1:39; 2:220, 381;
185; 2:220, 366 Nudimmud, 3:455 3:484
warriors, 1:77 See also Enki creation of, 3:517
witches and sorceresses, Nuhata Nurgai (Slimy Face). See exploits, 1:199; 2:339, 421, 440;
3:492–493 Geser 3:513, 516
wolves, 1:46, 119, 163, 185; Numskull stories, 1:108, 109–110 family, 1:49, 77, 178; 2:337, 399,
2:220, 337, 342; 3:483 See also Fool tales 440; 3:484, 633
World Tree (Yggdrasil), 1:39, Nun, 1:41; 2:337; 3:454 horse of, 2:424
161; 2:336, 341–342, 425; Nursery rhymes, 1:xx; 2:316–317, in modern tales, 3:512
3:513, 516, 516 337–338 origin, 2:335
storytellers, 2:418 Nursery Rhymes of England prophesy, 3:493
See also Ragnarok (Halliwell), 2:338 Ragnarok, 2:337
Norske folkeeventyr (Norwegian Folk Nuska, 1:139 as reflection of cultural values,
Stories; Moe and Asbjørnsen), Nut (sky), 2:338–339 2:323
1:38 Ennead member, 1:142 related gods, 2:439
North, Alice. See Norton, Andre family, 1:41; 2:228, 248, 328, 352, role, 1:38, 163; 2:336, 337; 3:454,
North Africa, mythology, 1:15 408, 413–414; 3:448 483
See also Africa role, 1:186; 2:384 O’Donnell, Red Hugh, 3:586–587
North America Nwyve, 2:280 Odudua, 3:502
folk beliefs, of snakes, 2:426 Nyambe, 3:500 Odysseus (Ulysses), 2:342–344, 343
folktales, 1:180–181; 2:250–251, Nyame, 3:501, 542–543 Athena’s help for, 1:40; 2:286
251; 3:469 Nyankomsem, 1:21 death of, 3:449
mythology Nymphs, 1:35; 2:339–340; 3:461, 520 dog of, 1:119
ash trees, 1:39 Nystrom, Jenny, 3:460 exploits, 1:200; 2:222, 286, 305,
heroes, 1:130; 2:438–439 Nyx (night), 1:90 339, 377, 416; 3:449
monsters and odd creatures, family, 2:361; 3:449
1:88; 2:224–225, 317 O in French epics, 1:145
shape-shifters, 2:411 in Greek epics, 1:147
superstitions O King, Storm of Majestic Splendor at Troy, 1:7, 12; 2:232–233, 286;
frogs and toads, 1:179–180 (Lugale), 2:331 3:466–467
horseshoes, 2:228 Oakeshott, William, 2:299 Odyssey (Homer), 1:146; 2:344–345
urban legends, 2:426 Oanes, 2:304 author of, 2:225
See also American Indians; Canada; See also Enki characters, 1:119
United States Obassi. See Abassi events, 1:200; 2:343–345, 416;
North East Aircraft Museum, 1:190 Obatala, 3:502 3:467
Northern Europe, folktales, 1:86 Oberon, 2:341, 400 hero of, 2:342–344, 343
Northwestern State University, ghost Oberon (Weber), 2:341 Latin translations, 1:147–148
stories, 1:189 Oberon (Wieland), 2:341 performance of, 1:xviii
Norton, Andre (Alice North), Oberon, or The Fairy Prince (Jonson), related works, 1:34; 3:449
2:404 2:341 supernatural creatures in, 2:308
Norton, Emperor, 2:400 O’Brian, Patrick, 3:478 translations, 2:281

I-40 Index
Oedipus, 1:24–25, 147; 2:345–346, Opera Origin myths (continued)

346, 430 Ring des Nibelungen, Der (The Ring evil
“Oedipus complex,” 2:346 of the Nibelung), 1:77, 146; American Indian mythology,
Offenbach, Jacques, 1:69, 69 2:387–391 3:632
Ogdoad, the (Eight Infinite Ones), stories in, 2:347–350 Babylonian mythology, 1:149
2:414; 3:454 Ophelia, 2:305 East African mythology, 1:9
Ogier le Danois (Ogier the Dane), 1:143 Opie, Iona, 2:338 Greek mythology, 2:368
Ogier the Dane, 1:89, 143; 2:441 Opie, Peter, 2:338 Tibetan mythology, 3:603
Ogier the Dane (Ogier le Danois), Oracle at Delphi, 2:346 fire
1:143 Oral history, 1:3; 2:350–351 Finnish mythology, 3:482
Oglala Sioux, mythology, 2:354 –355 Orb photographs, 1:196 Greek mythology, 1:103; 2:222,
Ogo (Pale Fox; Jackal), 3:501 Ordóñez de Montalvo, García, 1:15 368
Ogopogo (N’ha-a-tik), 2:280 Oreads, 2:339 Persian mythology, 3:534
“Ogre with the Three Golden Hairs, O’Reilly, Edward, 3:445 floods
The,” 3:507 Orestes, 1:159; 2:351 Babylonian mythology, 2:331
Ogres Orff, Carl, 1:25 Slavic mythology, 3:490
in European folktales, 2:374 Orgoli, 3:606 Sumerian mythology, 2:331
in fairy tales, 3:507 Oriana, princess of England, 1:16 fruits and vegetables, Incan
in Trobriander mythology, 2:324 Origin myths mythology, 2:238
Ogygia, 2:339 agriculture geographical features
Ohanashi No Rosoku (Story Candle; Egyptian mythology, 1:110 Aztec mythology, 2:365–366
Kyoko), 2:253 Finnish mythology, 3:482 Kiriwina Island mythology, 2:323
Ohyn, 3:487 Greek mythology, 1:29, 115 West African mythology, 3:501,
Okiku, 1:192 animals 502
Old, old coyote (Ueuecoyotl), 1:45 Australian Aboriginal mythology, gods and goddesses
“Old King Cole,” 2:338 1:4 Babylonian mythology, 1:102
“Old Lady Who Swallowed a Fly,” Ethiopian mythology, 1:153 Egyptian mythology, 2:413; 3:448
1:104 Greek mythology, 2:221 Norse mythology, 2:335; 3:517
Old Man of the Woods (Basajaun; arts and sciences, Greek Sumerian and Babylonian
Lord of the Woods), 1:56 mythology, 2:222 mythology, 3:454
Old One Tooth, 2:301 Aurora borealis, Norse mythology, human beings
Old Shock, 1:67 3:484 African mythology, 1:2, 15;
Old women, in Sumerian mythology, beer, Zulu mythology, 3:523 3:501, 502
1:131, 132 calendar Australian Aboriginal mythology,
Olentzero, 1:57 Aztec mythology, 1:45 1:4
Oliver (Olivier), 2:428, 441 Babylonian mythology, Aztec mythology, 1:46
Olivier. See Oliver 1:102–103 Babylonian mythology,
Olmec people, mythology, 1:178 cannibalism, Trobriander 1:102–103, 169; 3:455
Olokun, 3:502 mythology, 2:324 Chinese mythology, 1:127
Olorun, 3:502 civilization, Sumerian and Filipino mythology, 1:165
Olwen, 2:387 Akkadian mythology, 2:235 Greek mythology, 2:368
Olympus, Mount, 3:520 coffee, Ethiopian mythology, 1:154 Incan mythology, 2:238
O’Malley, Grace, 3:512 day’s length, modern, Polynesian Mayan mythology, 2:366
Omecihuatl, 1:45–46 mythology, 2:301 Sumerian mythology, 1:101–102;
Ometecuhtli, 1:45–46 death 3:455
Ometeotl, 1:45–46 American Indian mythology, human imperfections, Australian
Omuwanga, 3:496 2:324 Aboriginal, 1:4
On a Clear Day (musical), 2:384 Babylonian mythology, 1:7–8 insects
On the Nature of Animals (Aelianus), North African mythology, 1:15 American Indian, 2:243
1:84 West African mythology, Roman, 2:242
Once and Future King, The (White), 3:500–501 islands, Polynesian mythology,
2:273; 3:478, 510 demons, Ethiopian mythology, 2:301
One Hunahpu, 2:366 1:153 law
One Ring, 3:503 disease in Australian Aboriginal
O’Neill, Eugene, 2:351 British mythology, 1:135 mythology, 1:4
Onion, The, 2:401 East African mythology, 1:9 in Egyptian mythology, 1:110
Ono Pacakoti, 2:238 Greek mythology, 2:368 moon, American Indian, 3:622,
Onondaga, culture heroes, 1:103 Norse mythology, 2:220 631
See also Iroquois Tibetan mythology, 3:603 moon phases, Kung-san mythology,
Opening of the Mouth ceremony, earthquakes, Norse mythology, 2:323
2:309 1:50 plants, in Finnish mythology, 3:611

Index I-41
Origin myths (continued) Osiris (continued) Palnatoki, 2:402; 3:506

raven’s blackness sacrifices to, 2:294 Pan, 2:376; 3:461, 507
Aboriginal, 2:381 symbols of, 2:242 Panchatantra, 1:156; 2:356–357
Greek, 2:381 Osschaart, 2:276 Pandavas, 2:298–299
religion, Egyptian, 1:110 Ostrovsky, Aleksandr Nikolayevich, Pandora, 2:368
seasons 2:426, 427 Pandu, King, 2:298
American Indian, 2:421 O-tei, 2:384 Panfilo, 1:70
Greek, 1:115 Othello (Verdi), 2:348 Panji, 3:495
Polynesian, 3:636 Otherworlds Pantages Theater (California),
Russian, 2:427 bridges to, 1:73–74 ghosts, 1:197
Slavic, 2:419 in Celtic mythology, 1:43–44, 136 Panza, Sancho, 1:159
stars, American Indian, 3:622 in Norse mythology, 1:38; 2:336 Paper Moon (1973 film), 1:98
sun, American Indian, 3:622, 631 in Welsh mythology, 1:33 Papsukkal, 3:639
universality of, 2:323 See also Avalon; Faerie; Heaven; Papua New Guinea, string figure
weights and measures, Greek, Underworld tradition, 2:434
2:222 Otnit, 1:146 Papyrus Berlin 3033 (Papyrus Westcar),
women, Ethiopian mythology, Otnit, King, 1:145–146 2:357–358
1:153 Ottan thullal, 2:241 Papyrus Chester Beatty I, 1:98
work, hard, Greek mythology, Ouroboros, 2:424 – 425 Papyrus Westcar (Papyrus Berlin 3033),
2:368 Outlaws, in Australian folktales, 2:357–358
writing 2:264 –265, 265 Par scrolls, 2:239
Chinese, 1:127; 3:477 Overheard conversations, as story Parables, 1:xx
Persian, 3:534 source, 1:xxiv Paradise Lost (Milton), 1:143
See also Creation myths Ovid, 1:175; 2:309, 353, 416 Paraiaka, 2:361
Orion (constellation), 1:119; 2:248, Owain, 2:314 Parcae (Tria Fata), 1:161
352 Owls, 2:353–355 Pareidolia, 1:196
Orion (hunter), 1:119 in French folktales, 3:473 Pari. See Peri
Orishas, 3:502 in Welsh mythology, 3:619 Paris, Prince of Troy
Orlando. See Roland Ox, blue, 2:225 exploits, 1:31; 2:277; 3:465
Orlando Furioso, 1:89, 160 Oxford Dictionary of Nursery Rhymes family, 2:367
Orlando Inammorato, 1:89 (Opie and Opie), 2:338 Trojan War, 1:7, 12, 146, 147;
Ormuzd, 3:537–538 Oxford University, ghost stories, 2:231, 233, 277, 286, 342–343;
Orphans 1:189 3:465–466
magical or supernatural, 2:438–439 Oya, 3:502 Parliament of Foules, The
mistreated, 2:435 Oz, 3:511 (Canterbury), 1:91
successful, 3:553–554 Parody and satire
Orpheum Theater (Tennessee), P on Internet, 2:244 –245
1:198 in Japanese storytelling, 2:251–252
Orpheus Pabir people, mythology, 3:501 Parrots, in Buddhist folktales,
Eurydice, 1:52, 114, 136; 2:222, Pabuji, 2:239 3:641–643
377; 3:623 Pachacamac, 2:238 Parsee (Farsi) religion, 2:296
exploits, 1:35, 87, 119; 2:305, Pachatantra, 1:123 Parsifal (Wagner), 1:208
416–417 Pacific 231 (Honneger), 2:441, 442 Parvati, 2:315
in modern literature, 2:400 Pacific Islands, mythology, 1:192 Parzival (Wolfram von Eschenbach),
“Orpheus and Eurydice” (Greek Pacific Northwest, mythology, 2:242, 1:146, 207; 2:311
myth), 1:52, 114, 136; 2:222, 324, 354, 381–382; 3:464, Pasiphae, 2:311
377; 3:623 621–622 Passamaquoddy, folktales, 1:22
Orungan, 3:502 Padam, 2:239 Pastoral Symphony (Beethoven),
Orvendel, 1:18 Palace Theater (California), ghosts, 2:442
Os Lusiadas (The Luciads ; Camöens), 1:197 Pata, 2:239
2:291–292 Palamedes, 2:343 Patala, 2:326
Oshun, 3:502 Palatina, 2:302 Patriarchs, in Jewish mythology,
Osiris, 2:351–352, 352 Pale Fox. See Ogo 3:446–447
cult of, 2:247–248, 328, 352 Palestinians Patrocles. See Patroclus
death of, 2:324, 352 folktales, 1:84 Patroclus (Patrocles), 1:7; 2:219,
Ennead of Heliopolis, 1:142 storytelling, 2:356 231; 3:466
exploits, 1:98–99, 110–111; 2:328; Palladium, 1:147 Patterns in Comparative Religion
3:469–470 Pallas, 3:451 (Eliade), 2:321
family, 1:186; 2:229, 328, 339 Palmerin de Oliva (Vázquez), 1:16 Patua, 2:239
resurrection, 2:352 Palmerin of England (Moraes), 1:16 Pawnee, mythology, 1:194
role, 1:26; 3:454 Palm-Tree King, 2:332 Paye, Won-Ldy, 1:xviii

I-42 Index
Peacock, origin of tail feathers, Persia Pig, as brides/bridegrooms, 1:22

2:221 mythology (continued) Pigsy, 2:258
“Peau d’Ane” (“Donkeyskin”; origin of writing, 3:534 Pihana heiau, 2:304
Perrault), 1:157 snakes and serpents, 3:534 Pikovaya Dama (The Queen of Spades;
Pecos Bill, 1:xxix; 3:445 wise men, 2:295–296 Pushkin), 1:182; 2:373
Pegasus, 1:62, 62; 2:358–359, 406 witches and sorceresses, 3:536, Pines of Rome (Respighi), 2:442
Peirithous, 3:451 538 Pinkerton, B.F., 2:349
Pele (Madam Pele), 2:223–224, World Tree, 2:415; 3:512–513 Pinky and the Brain (cartoon), 1:84;
359–360; 3:488 See also Iran 2:250
Peleus, king of Phthia, 1:6–7, 146; Personal stories, 1:xxiii Pinney, Azariah, 2:418
2:339, 440; 3:465 Personal unconscious, 1:95–96 Pinney, Michael, 2:418
Pelias, King, 1:35 Peru, string figure tradition, 2:434 Pinon Maidens, 3:627
Pelota, 1:57 Perun, 2:420; 3:522 Piran, 3:537
Pemba, 3:501 Peruzzi, Baldassare, 1:29 Pirithous, king of the Lapiths,
Penates, 2:283 Pesesh-kef, 2:309 1:86–87
Pendawa cycle, 3:494 Peter, Saint, 1:111–112 Pisachas (vetala), 1:191
Pendragon, Uther, 3:510 Peterson, Dave, 2:225 Pisinoe, 2:416
Penelope, 2:342–343, 344, 361; Petrarch, 1:70 Piskeys. See Pixies
3:449 Petruk (puppet), 2:370 Pixies (piskeys), 2:365
Peneus, 1:30 Petruschka (puppet), 2:370 Place of Joy (Gladsheim), 1:38
Pentamerone, Il (Giambattista), 1:55 Phaedra, 1:159; 3:451 Places
Penthesilea, queen of Amazons, Phaedrus (slave), 1:12 cursed, 1:105–106
1:12, 17, 147 Phantastes (MacDonald), 2:295 haunted, 1:189–190, 192–199, 193
“People of the goddess Danu.” See Phantom bus, 2:363 local legends about, 2:287
Tuatha Dé Danann Phantoms. See Ghosts magic, Celtic folklore, 1:43–44
Perceval, 1:173, 206, 207; 2:268, 273, Pharsalia (Lucan), 1:148 See also Sacred places
311, 377 Philemon, 3:461 Plagues, in Babylonian mythology,
Perceval, 1:144 Philip (apostle), 3:488 1:169
“Perceval” (Robert de Boron), 1:206 Philip of Macedon, 1:78 Plaksy. See Krisky
Perele, 3:593–594 Philip of Neri, Saint, 1:173 Plant of Giving Birth, 3:481
Peri (Pari), 2:361 Philippines Plant-animal hybrids, in European
Perion, king of Gaul, 1:15–16 folktales, 1:22, 120 mythology, 3:488–489
Perkins, Marlin, 3:515 mythology, 1:164 –166 Plants
Perrault, Charles, 1:22, 69, 157, 187; creation myths, 1:165 magical
2:316, 362, 362, 373–374; 3:563 dogs, 1:119, 165 in Babylonian mythology,
Persea trees, in Egyptian mythology, monsters and odd creatures, 1:152–153; 3:481
3:471 1:165–166 in European mythology, 2:313
Persephone, 1:115, 115, 148; 2:222, origin of human beings, 1:165 in Indian mythology, 3:532
416; 3:451, 623 string figure tradition, 2:434 in Sumerian mythology, 2:313
Perseus, 1:40, 125; 3:521, 624 –626 superstitions, 2:214 See also Trees; specific plants and trees
Persia urban legends, 3:488 Plato, 1:105; 2:347, 438
amulets, 1:19 Philoctetes (Philoktetes), 1:147; Play of Robin and Marion, The (Le Jeu
folktales, 3:598 2:286 de Robin et Marion; Adam de la
literature, 1:163–164; 2:397; Philonoe, 1:62 Halle), 3:468
3:534 –539 Philyra, 1:87, 93 Pleides, 2:381
mythology Phineus, king of Thrace, 1:35; 2:216 Plemo, 3:447
birds, 2:414 – 415; 3:534–535, 538 Phlegethon (river), 2:392 Plena singers of Puerto Rico, 1:xix
death, 3:598 Phlegyas, king of the Lapiths, 1:29 Pliny the Elder, 1:84 – 85, 179; 2:300,
demons, 2:361 Phoebus. See Apollo 425; 3:475
dogs, 1:119 Phoenicians Plutarch, 1:26, 78, 110–111; 2:352
dragons, 3:535–536, 538 ceremonies and rituals, 1:8 Po (inferior soul), 3:487
fairies and fairy-like creatures, mythology Poe, Edgar Allan, 2:320
2:361 gods and goddesses, 1:8 Poels, Albert, 2:281
fate and destiny, 3:598 magic words, 1:5 Poem of My Cid. See Poema de Mio Cid,
fools, 1:174 Phoenix, 2:364, 364 –365 El
heroes, 2:397; 3:506 Phrasing, in storytelling, 1:xxvi Poema de Mio Cid, El (Poem of My Cid;
horses, 2:397 Physiologus (Naturalists; anonymous), The Song of the Cid), 1:135, 143,
magic, 3:537, 538 1:66; 3:477 148
monsters and odd creatures, Piacevoli Notti, Le (The Facetious Poetic Edda, 2:335
2:300, 414 – 415; 3:534 –535 Nights of Straparola; The Nights of Poetical Works of Edmund Spenser, The
origin of fire, 3:534 Straparola; Straparola), 2:433 (Child), 1:93

Index I-43
Pogo (comic strip), 1:209 Potter, Harry, 1:xxi, 68, 77, 87, 129, Princesses (continued)
Pohjola, 3:482 160, 203; 2:365; 3:503, 511 “Twelve Dancing Princesses, The,”
Pohjola, Maiden of, 2:233; 3:482 Pourquoi (how-and-why) tales, 1:xx; 3:444, 578–579
Poisoning, of girls, 3:588–591, 602 3:518 See also specific princesses
Pokémon, 1:49 Pratchett, Terry, 1:160; 3:511 Prinsen of Jylland (Prince of Jutland;
Poland Pravda (divine law), 2:420 1994 film), 1:18
folktales, 1:48, 111; 3:508–509 Praying Mantis, 2:243 Private-eye stories, 2:320
mythology Pre. See Re Problem novels, 1:xxi
fools, 1:xx, 175; 3:508–509 Pregnancy Procrustes, 3:450–451
hags, 2:330 prediction of child’s sex, 1:2 Prodigal son, parable of, 1:xx
owls, 2:354 protective magic, 1:19 Proetus, King, 1:62
werewolves, 3:497 spiritual aid in achieving, 1:5 Prohibitions, broken
Police procedurals, 2:320 “Preiddiau Annwfn” (“The Spoils of Australian Aboriginal, 1:4
Pollux. See Polydeuces Annwfn”), 1:33 Aztec, 1:45
Polo, Marco, 2:393; 3:477 Prepare the pillow (hana ka uluna), in European mythology, 2:302
Poltergeists, 1:195 2:436 in Finnish mythology, 2:276
Polybus, king of Corinth, 2:345–346 Preservation efforts in Greek mythology, 1:136; 2:346;
Polydectes, King, 3:624 – 625, 626 in India, 2:241 3:623
Polydeuces (Pollux), 2:278; 3:521 in Japan, 2:253 incest, 2:276, 346
Polyeidus, 1:62 Pressina, 2:302 in world mythology, 2:302, 376
Polyneices, 1:24 –25 Prester John, 3:476 Prometheus, 1:41, 87, 94, 103; 2:324,
Polynesia Priam, king of Troy, 2:367 368, 368
mythology family, 1:9, 30; 2:219, 231, 232, Prophesy
birds, 2:301 406–407; 3:465–466, 467 in Druidic mythology, 2:382
fish, 1:168 Trojan War, 1:17; 2:232–233 in English mythology, 1:129
gods and goddesses, 2:301–302; Primal cow, 2:335; 3:517 in Greek mythology, 1:78; 2:339,
3:461, 636–637 Primaleon (Vázquez), 1:16 345–346, 377, 405–407;
heroes, 2:301–302 Primordial waters (Nun), 1:41 3:624
origin myths, 2:301; 3:636 Prince, Diane, 3:512 in Norse mythology, 1:163, 178;
tricksters, 2:301–302; 3:636–637 “Prince and His Three Fates, The,” 2:337; 3:492–493, 633
string figure tradition, 2:434 – 435 1:xvii; 2:367 in Roman mythology, 1:9
Polypoites, 3:449 Prince Igor (Borodin), 2:348, 428 Propp, Vladimir, 2:321
Polyxene, 2:233 “Prince Ivan, The Firebird, and the Prose Edda, The (Sturluson), 1:49–50;
Pomona, 1:31 Great Gray Wolf,” 2:248 2:335
Pont de la Rivière Kwai, Le (Boulle), Prince of Jutland (Prinsen of Jylland; Prose Lancelot, 1:206–207
1:74 1994 film), 1:18 Prospero, 3:461
Poor Richard’s Almanack (Franklin), “Prince Wicked and the Grateful Protector spirits, East Africans,
2:369 Animals,” 3:641–643 1:9
Pope, Alexander, 2:401 Princes Prouesses et faitz du noble Huon de
Popocatépal and Iztaccíhuatl, doomed prince story, 1:123–124; Bourdeaux, Les, 2:341
2:365–366 2:367 Proverbs, 2:369
Popol Vuh (Council Book), 2:366–367 exiled, 3:529 Pryderi, son of Pwyll, 1:33; 2:386,
Popovich, Alyosha, 1:118; 2:268, “Frog Prince,” 1:106, 178, 180 387
269 with ox ears, 1:134 Psyche (girl), 3:507
Popular Rhymes and Nursery Tales See also specific princes Psychology, analytical, 2:260–261
(Halliwell), 2:338 Princess and the Goblin, The Ptah, 1:98; 2:294, 369–370, 408
Poquelin, Jean-Baptiste. See Molière (MacDonald), 1:203; 2:295 Puccini, Giacomo, 2:349
Port Royal, Jamaica, 2:438 Princess Bride (Goldman), 1:176 Pucelle, La (Chapelain), 1:144
Portugal Princess Mononoke (1997 film), 3:462 Pueblo
folktales, 3:578 Princess of Mars (Burroughs), folktales, 1:22
literature, 1:15–16 1:175–176 sacred clowns, 1:172
mythology Princesses Puerto Rico, Plena singers of, 1:xix
giants, 1:16 “Light Princess, The” “Puff the Magic Dragon” (song),
heroes, 1:15–16; 2:421 (MacDonald), 2:295 1:129
witches and sorceresses, 1:16 marriage to, as prize, 2:297; 3:528, Pulcinella, 2:370
Poseidon 573–574, 578–579 Pulcinello, 2:370
exploits, 1:40; 3:520 rescue of, 1:210–211; 3:469, Punch (puppet), 2:370, 371
family, 1:61–62; 2:358; 3:450 530–532, 599–600 Punch and Judy show, 2:370, 371
punishment of mortals, 1:125; sacrifice of, to dragon, 1:130 Punchinello, 2:370
2:343, 344, 345; 3:625 in tower, 1:xvii, 123; 2:367; 3:599, Punjabi, folktales, 1:120
Potiphar, 1:159 624 Punt, Lord of, 2:413

I-44 Index
Puppetry, 2:370–372 R Rape (continued)

Bunraku puppet plays, 2:253, of goddesses, Sumerian mythology,
370–371 Ra. See Re 1:139
Indonesia, 2:370, 371; 3:494 – 495, Rabbits Slavic mythology, 2:285
495 in North American folktales, Rape of the Locke, The (Pope),
water-puppet theater (mua roi 2:250–251, 251 2:401
nuoc), 3:490 trickster, 3:462 “Rapunzel,” 1:55; 2:367
Wayang kulit (shadow puppets), in African American folktales, Ratatosk, 3:516
1:183; 2:371; 3:494 – 495 3:464 Rats
See also Bread and Puppet Theater; in American Indian mythology, in Buddhist folktales, 3:641–643
Center for Puppetry Arts; other 1:174; 3:464 in Tibetan mythology, 3:603
puppetry forms and specific puppets See also Hares; Jackalope Ravana, king of demons, 1:158–159;
Purcell, Henry, Dido and Aeneas, Rabbit’s foot charms, 1:182 2:380, 381; 3:527, 530–532
1:11 Rackham, Arthur, 1:11 Ravanna. See Ravana
Purchas, Samuel, 2:307 Ragnarok (Gotterdammerung) Ravel, Maurice, 2:403
Pushking, Aleksandr Sergeyevich, combatants, 1:38, 177, 185; 2:342, “Raven Steals the Sun” (American
1:182; 2:372–373 342; 3:483, 484, 633 Indian folktale), 3:621–622
Puss in Boots, 1:22, 86; 2:362, events during, 1:73; 2:219–220, Raven-at-the-Head-of-Nass
373–375, 374 324, 337, 384; 3:516 (Nascakiyetl), 2:382
Puukonhoya, 3:627–629 events following, 1:50; 2:335, 384 Ravens and crows, 2:381–382
Pwca, 1:76 prophesy concerning, 1:163 in American Indian mythology,
Pwyll, king of Gwenydd, 1:33 Ragnell, Dame, 3:508 2:324; 3:464, 621–622
Pwyll, Lord of Dyfed, 2:386–387 Raidne, 2:416 in English folktales, 3:559–560
Pwyll Pen Annwfn. See Pwyll, Railroads in German mythology, 2:391
king of Gwenydd folklore, 2:378–380 in Norse mythology, 2:342,
Pylades, 2:351 ghosts, 1:193 381–382; 3:484
Pythia, the, 1:29; 2:406 Rainbow Serpent, 1:4 origin of blackness, 2:381
Python (monster), 1:29, 125 Rainbow Snake. See Wollunqua in Romanian folktales, 3:473
Rajasthan, storytelling in, 2:239 Rawi. See Rawiya
Q Rajush, 3:538 Rawiya (rawi), 1:32
Rakshasas, 2:380; 3:527–533 Raymond (husband of Melusina),
Qebehsunuef, 2:229 Rakugo style, 2:251 2:302
Qingu, 3:455 Rakush, 2:397; 3:535–536 Razboynik, Solovei (the Brigand;
Quamta, 1:13 Ralph and Rudy, 1:81 Nightingale the Robber),
Quatre Fils d’Aymon (The Four Sons of Rama, King, 1:158–159; 2:239, 344, 2:234 –235
Aymon), 1:143–144 380–381; 3:495, 527–533 Re (Ra; Pre; Re-Harakhety), 2:383,
Queen Goose-Foot. See Bertha, Rama I, king of Thailand, 2:381 383–384
Queen Rama II, king of Thailand, 2:381 associated gods, 1:20, 41, 58; 2:217,
Queen of Faerie, 3:546–548, 563, Rama cycle, 3:494 – 495 353, 425
566 “Ramadan” (Gaiman), 2:400 associated objects and animals,
“Queen of Hearts, The,” 3:489 Ramakian, 2:380–381 1:61; 2:364
Queen of Spades, The (Pikovaya Dama; Ramayana, The, 1:143 exploits, 1:125, 186; 2:407, 409
Pushkin), 1:182; 2:373 events in, 1:158–159; 2:344 family, 1:57; 2:328, 358; 3:448, 449,
Queens. See specific queens history of, 3:490, 494 454
Quests performance of, 2:239 offerings to, 2:294
in Arab mythology, 2:396 related works, 2:380–381 origin, 2:337
characteristics of, 2:377 retelling, 3:527–533 power of, 2:248
in Chinese mythology, 2:258–259 story of composition of, 3:532 role, 2:370
in English mythology, 1:207 Ramses II, pharaoh of Egypt, 1:37, Reagan, Ronald W., 2:250
in Finnish mythology, 3:482 48, 59–60, 68–69, 123; 2:408 Realistic novels, as source of stories,
in Greek mythology, 1:35; 2:377; Ramses III, pharaoh of Egypt, 1:20, 1:xxi
3:624 – 625 105 Re-Atum, 1:41
for missing husband, 2:376–377 Ramses V, pharaoh of Egypt, 1:98 Recurrent spontaneous
in modern tales, 3:511 Ramses XI, pharaoh of Egypt, 3:496 psychokinesis, 1:195
in Russian mythology, 1:167 Ramses the Great. See Ramses II Red Badge of Courage, The (Crane),
in Sumerian and Babylonian Rangda, 1:50 1:34
mythology, 1:138, 152–153, Rapa Nui, 2:435 Red Lady (ghost), 1:189
203; 2:377 Rapanui people, string figure Red Sox (baseball team), curse on,
in world mythology, 1:71–72 tradition, 2:434, 435 1:106
Quetzalcoatl (feathered serpent), Rape Reeve, Christopher, 2:439
1:45; 2:425 false accusations of, 1:62, 159 Reeves, George, 2:439

Index I-45
“Reeve’s Tale, The” (Chaucer), Reynard the Fox (Reinecke Fuchs; Robin Hood, 1:xx, xxi, 74, 97
1:157 Rodange), 2:385 Robinson, Gordon, 2:374
Re-Harakhety. See Re Rhadamanthys, 3:521 Robinson Crusoe (DeFoe), 1:88
Re-Harakhety (Re-Horus of the Rhea, 1:110, 114; 2:221, 339; Rock (Hittite creature), 3:474
Horizon), 2:229 3:520 Rock-a-bye, Baby (lullaby), 2:291
Re-Horakhty, 1:98–99; 3:470 Rheingold, Das (The Rhinegold; Rocs (Rucs; Rukhs; Rukhkhs), 2:393
Re-Horus of the Horizon (Re- Wagner), 2:387–388 Rod, 2:420
Harakhety), 2:229 Rhiannon, 2:386–387 Rogers, Fred (Mr. Rogers), 2:372
Reincarnation, 2:384 Rhinegold, The (Das Rheingold; Roi s’amuse, Le (The King Amuses
Reinecke Fuchs (Reynard the Fox; Wagner), 2:387–388 Himself; Hugo), 2:348
Goethe), 2:385 Rhinemaidens, 2:387, 391 Roland (Orlando), 1:89, 145; 2:393,
Reinecke Fuchs (Reynard the Fox; Rhydderch of Strathclyde, 1:206 428–429, 441
Rodange), 2:385 Rhymes Rolandslied (Song of Rowland), 1:145;
Religion, origin myths, Egyptian, counting-out, 1:100 2:393
1:110 cumulative, 1:104; 3:555–556, Role-playing games (RPGs),
Religious leaders, as culture heroes, 559–560 2:394–395
1:103 nonsense, 1:xx; 2:333–334 Roll, W.G., 1:195
Religious stories, as genre, 1:xx nursery, 1:xx; 2:316–317, 337–338 Rollright Stones, 2:431–432
See also specific religious stories tongue twisters, 3:460–461 Roman d’Alexandre (Book of
Remus, 1:48 verse stories, 3:489 Alexander), 1:144
Renenet, 1:161 Rialobran, son of Cunoval, 2:433 Roman de Brut (Wace), 1:43
Renenutet, 2:425 Rice, Anne, 3:488 Roman de la Rose, Le (The Book of the
Rensi, 1:137 Richard I, king of England, Rose), 1:144
Repo, Don, 1:190–191 2:312–313; 3:467–468 Roman de Renar, Le (The Story of
Report of Wenamun, 3:496–497 “Ricky with the Tuft,” 2:362 Renard), 2:385
Republic, The (Plato), 1:105 Riddle tales, American, 3:644 –647 Roman de Thèbes (Book of Thebes),
Republic of the Congo, folktales, “Riddles Wisely Expounded” 1:144
3:549–550 (ballad), 1:51 Roman de Troie (Book of Troy), 1:144
Respighi, Ottorino, 2:441, 442 Riddling sessions, in Kenyan Roman du Renard (The Book of
Resurrection storytelling, 2:265 Renard), 1:144
of animals “Ride of the Valkyries” (Wagner), Roman Festivals (Respighi), 2:441
in Korean mythology, 1:122 3:484 Romance, 2:395
in Western mythology, 3:477 “Ride of the Valkyries, The” (Maud), chivalric, 1:148
of gods 3:484 of Medieval Europe, 1:41–43
in Egyptian mythology, 1:110; Rigantona (Great Queen), 2:386 Romance of Antar, The (Sirat Antar ; Al
2:248, 352 Rigoletto (Verdi), 2:348 Asmai), 1:23, 32; 2:395–396
in Ethiopian mythology, 1:153 Rimsky-Korsakov, Nikolay, 1:23; Romania
in Sumerian and Akkadian 2:348, 396, 397, 403, 426, 427 folktales, 1:86; 3:473
mythology, 2:236 Rinaldo of Montalban, 1:89 mythology
as universal theme, 2:324 Ring Cycle (Wagner). See Ring des vampires, 3:485, 486, 499
of humans Nibelungen, Der werewolves, 3:497
in Egyptian mythology, 1:110; Ring des Nibelungen, Der (The Ring puppetry, 2:370
3:470–471 of the Nibelung ; The Ring Romans
in Finnish mythology, 2:283 Cycle; Wagner), 1:77, 146, 208; folktales, 3:445
in Greek mythology, 1:114 2:387–391, 399; 3:484 hand gestures, meaning of, 2:215
in Hawaiian mythology, Ring of the Nibelung, The. See Ring des literature, 1:9–11, 10, 147–148;
2:223–224, 360 Nibelungen, Der 2:401
in Khoikhoi mythology, 2:267 Rings, magic mythology
in twin brothers folktales, 3:469 in Christian mythology, 2:275 apples, 1:31
vampires, 1:166; 2:227; in German mythology, 2:387–391 bees, 1:61
3:484 – 488 Rites and rituals. See Ceremonies collections of, 2:309
in Welsh mythology, 1:159 and rituals death, 2:353
symbols of, 2:364 River Gjoll, 1:73 evil creatures, 1:84 – 85
Return of the King, The (2003 film), Rivers, in Greek mythology, 2:392, evil eye, 1:154
3:458 392 fates, 1:161
Return of the King, The (Tolkien), Rivers, W.H.R., 2:434 founding of Rome, 1:9, 48
3:457 Robert de Boron, 1:206 frogs and toads, 1:179
Return to Glennascaul (Welles), 3:488 Robert III, king of Scotland, 3:477 gods and goddesses, 1:20, 26,
Reynard the Fox, 1:144; 2:385–386 Robin (Batman’s sidekick), 1:159 39, 39–40, 114 –115, 115;
Reynard the Fox (Reinecke Fuchs; Robin and Marian (Adam de la 2:221–222, 248; 3:507
Goethe), 2:385 Halle), 2:347 insects, 2:242

I-46 Index
Romans Russia (continued) Sacrifices, animal

mythology (continued) literature, 1:80, 143, 156, 182; in Greek mythology, 2:368
magic, 1:5 2:234 –235, 267–270, 372–373, in Zulu mythology, 3:523
monsters and odd creatures, 427–428 Sacrifices, human
2:300, 416 music, 1:23, 167, 182; 2:218, 348, in Aztec culture, 1:44 – 45
origin of insects, 2:242 396, 397, 403, 426, 427 in European mythology, 1:130,
owls, 2:353 mythology 184; 2:305
prophesy, 1:9 birds, 1:167; 2:249; 3:600 in Greek mythology, 2:233, 277,
snakes, 2:425 dogs, 3:600 311, 402; 3:451, 625
spirits, 2:282, 282–283, 339 dragons, 1:118; 2:269 in opera, 2:349
twins, 1:48 fairies and fairy-like creatures, in Persian mythology, 3:534
unicorns, 3:475–476 2:396 in Russian folktales, 2:398
wise counselors, 3:507 gods and goddesses, 2:420 scapegoats, 2:402
witches and sorceresses, 2:353 hags, 1:47; 2:249, 376, 420 Sacrifices, symbolic, in English
swords, 2:440 heroes, 1:71, 80, 118; 2:234 –235, mythology, 3:461
Romanticism, 1:187 248–249, 267–270; 3:491, Sadko, 2:349, 398
Romanus, 1:184 506 Saemunder the Learned, 1:68–69
Rome, emperor of, in English horses, 2:249 Saena Tree, 3:512–513
folktales, 3:569–570 invisibility, 1:121 Saga of Coe Ridge (Montell), 2:350
Romeo and Juliet (Tchaikovsky), 2:442 lions, 2:249 Saga of Erik, 3:492–493
Romulus, 1:48 magic and magicians, 1:80; Saga of Hrolf Kraki, 3:493
Roncesvaux, 2:428 2:269–270; 3:599–600 “Saga of Pecos Bill” (O’Reilly), 3:445
Ronsard, Pierre de, 1:144 origin of seasons, 2:427 Saga of the Volsungs (Völsunga Saga),
Rork, king of Jutland, 1:18 owls, 2:354 1:77, 128; 2:399, 421, 439, 440;
Rose, William, 2:385 shape-shifters, 1:121; 2:269, 3:498
Rossetti, Christina, 1:203 270 Sagburu, 1:141–142
Rother, King, 1:145–146 small beings, 2:332–333 Sages. See Wise men and women
Rowling, J.K ., 1:xxi, 77, 87, 129, 203; spirits and supernatural beings, Sagittarius (constellation), 1:94
2:365; 3:478, 503, 511 1:121; 2:396–397, 420 Sahadeva, 2:298
Royal Deceit (1994 film), 1:18 tricksters, 2:332–333 Saiamuk, prince of Persia, 3:534
Royal Society of England, 3:489 vampires, 3:487 Saiawush, 3:537
Rozhenitsa, 2:420 wise men and women, 1:47 Saint. See St.
RPGs. See Role-playing games witches and sorceresses, 1:47 Saint Mary-of-the-Woods College,
Rucs. See Rocs wolves, 1:22; 2:248, 333 Indiana, ghost stories, 1:189
Rudabeh, 3:535 opera, 2:348–349 Saints’ legends (Legenden), 1:187
Ruddjedet, 2:358 puppetry, 2:370 Sakai people, mythology, 1:74
Rudolf, king of Prague, 3:594 scholars of folklore, 2:321 Sallinen, Aulis, 2:277
Rue, basilisks, 1:56 women warriors, 1:17 Salomon, king of Brittany, 1:89
Ruin of Britain, The, 2:274 Russian Rhapsody (cartoon), 1:209 Samanana, Lord, 2:332
Rukhkhs. See Rocs Rust, 3:538 Samanfo, 3:501
Rukhs. See Rocs Rustam, 2:397, 415; 3:535–539 Sambasivam, V., 2:241
Rumi, 1:174 Ruth, Babe, 1:106 Samengan, 3:537
“Rumpelstiltskin” (German Ryugu, 1:127 Samiel (Zamiel), the Wild
folktale), 3:575–576 Ryujin (Luminous Being), 1:127 Huntsman, 1:176
Runespear, 2:390 Sammonicus, Quintus Serenus, 1:5
Runge, Philippe Otto, 2:261 S Sampo (magic mill), 2:233, 288, 399;
Runyan, Damon, 1:182 3:482
Rusalka (Dvorák), 2:397 Saami people (Lapland), 2:381; Samson, 1:34; 3:470
Rusalka (Rusalki), 2:306, 396–397, 3:571 Sandman (Morpheus; Dream of
420 Saberhagen, Fred, 3:488 the Endless; King of Dreams;
Rusalki. See Rusalka Sack of Troy (Ilion Persis; Arctinus of graphic novel character), 2:400
Rusal’naia nedelia, 2:396–397 Miletus), 1:147; 2:232–233 Sandman, The (Gaiman), 2:400–401
Ruslan and Ludmila (Pushkin), 2:372 Sacred energy Sandy (Chinese monster-warrior),
Russ, Melchior, the younger, 3:505 Australian Aboriginal, 1:3–4 2:258
Russia Egyptian, 1:20 Sankgreal, 1:206–207
ceremonies and rituals, 2:397 Sacred history of culture, mythology, Santa Claus, helpers, 3:460
folktales, 1:22, 47, 54, 71–72, 80, 2:322 Saracens, 2:428
84, 86, 118, 157, 167; 2:375, Sacred places Sarah (ghost), 1:189
377, 398, 420, 426–427; 3:573, Australian Aboriginal, 1:3, 4 –5 Sargal Noyon, 3:604
576, 578, 599–600 Aztec, 1:46 Sargasso Sea, 1:106
Kievan cycle, 2:267–270 Sumerian, 1:101, 137–138 Sargon, king of Akkad, 1:48

Index I-47
Sarmatia, women warriors, 1:17 Scotland Separation Bridge (Cinvat), 1:73

Sarpedon, 3:521 mythology (continued) Sephirothal Tree of Life, 3:513
Saruman the White, 3:511 heroes, 2:423 Serbia
Sassouma, 2:437 horses, 2:280 folktales, 1:133–134
Satan magicians, 3:503 mythology, vampires, 3:486
Black School, 1:67–69 monsters and odd creatures, Series of Etana, The (They Planned Out
in British folktales, 2:431–432 2:280 a City), 1:152–153
deals with, 1:111–113, 161–162, 176 owls, 2:354 Serpent skirt (Coatlicue), 1:44
in Jewish mythology, 3:447 witches and hags, 2:214 Serpents. See Snakes and serpents
left handed, 2:214 royal arms, 3:477 Sesame Street (TV show), 2:372
in modern fiction, 1:113 swords, 2:440 Sesha, 2:326
wagers with, 1:68 See also Great Britain Seshat, 3:454
Satet (Satis), 2:266 Scots elm, 1:136 Set. See Seth
Satire, 2:401 Scott, Michael, 3:503 Setesuyara, 1:50
Satis. See Satet Scott, Walter, 3:546 Seth (Biblical figure), 3:446
Satrughna, 3:527–528 Screaming skull tales, 2:418–419 Seth (Set; Sutekh; Egyptian god),
Satyavan, 1:114 Scyld Scefing, king of Denmark, 1:63 2:408
Satyrs, 3:461 Scylla, 1:35; 2:344, 345 Ennead member, 1:142
Saum, 3:534–535 Sea bears, in American Indian exploits, 1:98–100, 125; 2:228, 229,
Savitri, 1:114 mythology, 3:630 324, 328, 383; 3:454, 469
Saweigh, 1:165 Sea Mother. See Mama Cocha family, 1:186; 2:248, 328, 339, 352
Saxo Grammaticus, 1:18, 65, 188; Sea people, in Russian mythology, offerings to, 2:294
2:402; 3:506 2:398 Seti I, pharaoh of Egypt, 1:48,
Scams, on Internet, 2:245 Sea serpents, 2:425 123–124
Scandinavia Sea Witch, 2:307–308 Setne Khamwaset, 2:408–410
folktales, 1:xxii, 22, 67–69, 71–72; Seal of Solomon, 1:92 Setne Khamwaset cycle, 2:408–410
2:329, 376, 412; 3:571, 575, 576 Seanachai, 2:404 – 405 Seven, as magic number, 2:376,
literature, 1:200 “Season of Mists” (Gaiman), 2:400 377
Scapegoats, 2:287, 402–403 Seasons Seven, The (demons), 1:149
Scarab beetles, 2:242 ceremonies, Hittite, 2:233 Seven Against Thebes, 1:24, 147
Scathach, 3:512 origin myths Seven Hunahpu, 2:366
Scheherazade, 1:175; 2:403; 3:463 American Indian, 2:421 “Seven Mermaids, The,” 2:305–306
Schmendrick the Magician, 3:478 Greek, 1:115 Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, 2:421
Scholars of ballads, 1:51, 93, 108 Polynesian, 3:636 Sewingshields, Castle of, 2:423
Scholars of folktales Russian, 2:427 Shaazgai Bayan, 3:604
Denmark, 1:108–109 Slavic, 2:419 Shaddad, 1:23; 2:396
England, 2:338 Sebastian, Don, 2:421 Shadow puppets (Wayang kulit),
Estonia, 1:151–152 Secace, 2:441 1:183; 2:371; 3:494 – 495
Finland, 1:1–2; 2:318; 3:443–444 Second Symphony (Antar Symphony; Shaggy dog stories, 2:410 –411
Norway, 1:37–38 Rimsky-Korsakov), 2:396 Shah-nameh (Epic of Kings; Ferdowsi)
United States, 2:229–230 Secrets, difficulty of concealing, characters, 2:397, 415
Scholars of myth, 2:321 1:133–134 events, 2:415
School, Black, 1:67–69 Sedgwick, Elizabeth Ellery, 1:93 history of, 1:164
School of Fairy Tales, Estonian Seelie Court, 2:405 retelling, 3:534 –539
National Culture Center, Seers, in Greek mythology. See Shahreyar, 1:164
1:151–152 Prophesy, in Greek mythology Shahryar, king of Samarkand, 2:403;
Schools. See specific schools Sehetipibre, King. See Amenemhat I 3:463
Schutz-Gruber, Barbara, 2:436 Seid, 2:342 Shakespeare, William
Schwänke (comic tales), 1:187 Seidr, 2:337; 3:492–493 grave of, 1:105
Schwetz-Lehman, Ida, 1:180 Seiogyu, 1:173 Hamlet, 1:18, 188; 2:305, 402
Science fiction, 1:xxi; 2:403–404 Seirenes. See Sirens influences on, 1:70
See also specific works and authors Sekhmet, 1:58; 2:369, 383, 407, Macbeth, 1:34, 161
Scop, 1:65 407–408; 3:449 Midsummer Night’s Dream, A, 2:341,
Scotland Selassie, Haile, 1:153; 2:275 400; 3:458
folktales, 1:xxi, 54–55, 67–69, Selkies. See Silkies Tempest, The, 3:461
76–77, 86, 113, 120, 168; Selyaninovich, Mikula, 1:80; 2:270 Venus and Adonis, 1:8
2:281, 433 Semang people, mythology, 1:73–74 Shakpana, 3:502
literature, 2:281, 295 Semele, 3:521 Shamans, 2:377; 3:497–498
mythology Sengelen Noyon, 3:603–605 Shamash. See Utu
fairies and fairy-like creatures, Senwosret I, king of Egypt, 2:415, Shamir (the diamond insect),
2:405 416 3:595–597

I-48 Index
Shango, 3:502 Ships. See Boats Sin. See Nanna-Suen; Suen

Shape-shifters, 2:411–412 Ships, ghost, 1:170–172; 171 Sinbad, 2:393
in African mythology, 1:13; 2:411 Shipton, Eric, 3:515 Sinfjotli, 3:498
in American Indian mythology, Shiva, 2:382 “Singing Birds of Rhiannon, The,”
3:621–622 “Shoemaker and the Elves, The” 2:387
in Arab mythology, 1:117 (Brothers Grimm), 1:76 Sin-liqe-uninni, 1:202
in Asian mythology, 2:411 “Shoes That Were Danced to Pieces, Sinon, 1:147
in Balinese mythology, 2:310 The,” 3:444 Sinta, 3:495
in Bulgarian mythology, 3:522 Sho-hsing, 1:59 Sinuhe, 2:415–416
in Celtic mythology, 1:48 Shrek 2 (2004 film), 1:157 Sinukuan, 1:165
in Chinese mythology, 2:411 Shri, 2:299 Sin-you, 3:478
in Egyptian mythology, 3:470–471 Shu, 2:413–414, 414 Siosiris, 2:409–410
in English mythology, 2:314 Ennead member, 1:142 Sioux Falls Community Theater
in European mythology, 1:203; 2:411 family, 1:41, 186; 2:338; 3:448 (South Dakota), 1:198
in Finnish mythology, 2:288 origin, 1:41; 2:383 Sioux mythology
in Flemish mythology, 2:276, role, 2:352 sacred clowns, 1:172
281–282 Shugdad, 3:538–539 tricksters, 3:464
in French mythology, 2:292–293 Shulgi, 1:201 “Sir Gawain and Dame Ragnell,”
in Germany mythology, 2:388, 390; Shurpanakha, 3:529–530 1:21
3:576–577 Shuruppak, 3:521–522 Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
in Greek mythology, 3:520–521 Shuster, Joe, 2:438 (Tolkien and Gordon,
in Hawaiian mythology, 2:360 Shwartz, Susan, 1:208 translators), 3:457
in Hindu mythology, 2:380 Sibelius, Jean, 2:277 Sira, 1:205
in Hungarian mythology, 2:285 Siberia, mythology, 1:73 Sirat Antar (The Romance of Antar ; Al
husbands transformed, 2:376 Siculus, Diodorus, 1:58 Asmai), 1:23, 32
in Italian mythology, 3:589–590 Sidekicks. See Faithful companions Siren song, 2:417
in Japanese mythology, 2:411, 412; Sidhe, 1:31 Sirens, 1:35, 107; 2:308, 343–344,
3:464 Siegel, Jerry, 2:438 344, 416–417, 417
in Korean mythology, 2:212 Siegfried Sirenum Scopuli, 2:416
in Norse mythology, 2:399 exploits, 1:145, 146; 2:389–390, Sirius (star), 2:248, 352
in North American mythology, 421, 439 Sirrush, 1:125
2:411 love, 1:77; 3:614 Siscoi, 3:485
in Russian mythology, 1:121; 2:269, sword of, 2:439, 441 Sisters
270 Siegfried (founder of Luxembourg), younger, quests and, 2:377
in Slavic mythology, 2:285, 420; 2:302–303 Also see Twins; specific sisters
3:491–492 Siegfried (Wagner), 2:387, 389–390 Sita, 1:158–159; 2:380–381; 3:527,
snake husbands, 2:425–426 Siegfried, King (in Gudrun), 1:211 528–533
vampires, 3:487 Sieglinde, 2:388–389 Sius, 2:417
werewolves, 1:113; 2:227, 411; Siegmund, 2:388–389 “Six Swans, The” (German folktale),
3:497–500 Sif, 2:336; 3:453, 634 3:576–577
world mythological themes, 2:297 Siggeir, King, 3:498 Six-Headed Wild Ram, 2:332
Shara, 1:27 Siglinde, 2:439 Skald, 2:418
Sharmash, 1:152 Sigmund, 3:498 Skaoli, 2:336
Sharnaihan Shara, 3:603 Sigrdrifa, 3:484 Skaziteli, 2:268
Sharur, 2:331 Sigrlami (Svafrlami), 2:222–223 Sketch Book (Irving), 1:175
Shatner, William, 1:209 Sigrún, 3:484 Skinbladnir, 1:177
Shaw, George Bernard, 2:401 Sigurd, 1:77; 2:399, 439, 440 Skinner, Wallace, 2:378–379
Shaziteli (minstrels), 1:80 Sigyn, 1:50 Skirnir, 1:177
Sheba, queen of (Balkis), 1:153; Silim, 3:534 Skriker, 1:67
2:275 Silkies (wereseals), 1:22; 2:411–412 Skuld (necessity), 1:161
Sheep, vegetable, 3:488–489 Silmarillion, The (Tolkien), 3:458 Skulls, talking/screaming, 2:418–419
Shelley, Kate, 2:378 Silver-Tree, 3:601–602 Skvader, 2:250
Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft, 1:206 Silvia, Rhea, 1:48 Sky World, 1:4
Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 1:124 Simargl, 2:420 Slasher fiction, 2:227
Shepard, Eugene S., 2:225 Simeon, Saint, 1:173 See also specific works and authors
“Shepherd and the Sea, The” Simpleton tales. See Fool tales; Slavic peoples
(La Fontaine), 2:307 Noodle tales ceremonies and rituals, 1:54;
Sherem Minaata Khan, 3:606 Simpletons, 1:172–173 2:419–420
Sherida (Aya), 3:481 Simpsons, The (TV show), 2:401 folktales, 1:xxii, 21, 54; 2:314
Sherpa, 3:514 Simurgh, 2:414–415, 420; 3:534–535, mythology, 2:419–420
Shining Brow (Taliesin), 1:48 538 death, 2:271

Index I-49
Slavic peoples Smithson, Henrietta, 2:442 Snow Maiden, The (Snegurochka;

mythology (continued) Snakes and serpents, 2:424–426 Rimsky-Korsakov), 2:348, 426,
dogs, 2:420 in Aboriginal mythology, Australia, 427
dragons, 3:491 2:425 Snow White, 3:504, 588–591
gods and goddesses, 2:419–420; in American Indian mythology, Snowmaiden. See Snegurochka
3:522 2:324 Sobek, 2:328
magicians, 3:491–492 in American mythology, 2:256 Socrates, 2:347
origin of floods, 3:490 in Australian aboriginal mythology, Sogbo, 3:500
origin of seasons, 2:419 2:425 Sogolon Conde, 2:437
shape-shifters, 2:285, 420; in Aztec mythology, 2:425 Sohrab, 2:397; 3:536–537
3:491–492 in Babylonian mythology, 1:152, Sokar, 2:352
snakes and serpents, 3:491 201, 203; 2:332; 3:455 Solais, Claiomh, 2:441
spirits and supernatural beings, in Balinese mythology, 1:50 Soldiers, ghosts of, 1:189
1:54; 2:270–271, 284–285, in Basque mythology, 1:57 Solomon, King, 1:92, 153; 2:275,
306, 420; 3:490 brides/bridegrooms, 1:22 275–276; 3:447, 464, 592,
tricksters, 2:284–285, 420 in Buddhist folktales, 3:641–643 595–597
witches and hags, 2:213 in Christian mythology, 1:105; Solymi, 1:62
Sleepers 2:425, 426 Somoa, mythology, 2:354
enchanted, 2:213–214, 421–422; in Egyptian mythology, 1:123–124; Song of Igor’s Campaign (Slovo o Polku
3:588–591, 602 2:383, 384, 408, 413 Igoreve), 1:143; 2:427–428
heroic, 2:422–424; 3:594 in European mythology, 1:55–56, Song of Roland (Chanson de Roland),
“Sleeping Beauty,” 1:55, 106; 2:296, 56, 95; 2:302 1:89, 143–144; 2:393, 428–429
316, 362, 421, 421 in Flemish mythology, 2:276 Song of Rowland (Rolandslied), 1:145;
Sleipnir, 2:342, 399, 424 folk beliefs about, 2:426 2:393
Slick, Thomas, 3:515 in folktales, 2:425–426 Song of the Cid, The. See Poema de Mio
Slimy Face (Nuhata Nurgai). See in Fon mythology, 3:500 Cid, El
Geser in Greek mythology, 2:221, 406, “Song of the Exile” (“Cantar del
“Slinderella’s Cipper,” 2:333 425; 3:623 Destierro”), 1:135
Sloan, Hans, 3:489 in Hindu mythology, 1:185, “Song of the Hoe, The,” 1:101
Slovo o Polku Igoreve (Song of Igor’s 185–186; 2:326, 326–327, 425 “Song of the Insult of Corpses”
Campaign), 1:143; 2:427–428 in Indian mythology, 1:158–159, (“Cantar de la Afrenta de
Small beings 185, 185–186; 2:425 Corpes”), 1:135
in American folktales, 2:259–260 in Irish mythology, 2:426 “Song of the Marriage” (Cantar de
in British folktales, 2:341 lake monsters, 1:88 las Bodas), 1:135
elf folk of light (Lios alfar), 1:38 legendary, 2:425 Song of the Nibelungs (Nibelungenlied),
elf-shot, 1:135–136 in Mayan mythology, 2:425 1:77, 128, 143, 146, 186; 2:387
in English folktales, 1:76–77; in Melanesian mythology, 2:425 Songs for the Nursery, or Mother Goose’s
2:259–260; 3:551, 563–567 in Near Eastern mythology, 1:114 Melodies (anonymous), 2:317
in French mythology, 2:292–293 in Norse mythology, 2:425; 3:516, Songs of heroic deeds (chansons de
in German folktales, 3:575 633, 634–635 geste). See Epics, French
in Hawaiian mythology, 2:303–304 in North American mythology, Songyang, 1:122
in Irish mythology, 2:284; 1:88 Soped (star), 2:248
3:583–584 in Persian mythology, 3:534 Sophocles, 1:25; 2:347, 351
miniature humans, 3:458–459, 459 in Roman mythology, 2:283 “Sorcerer’s Apprentice, The,”
in Norse mythology, 1:38, 176–177; sea serpents, 2:425 3:561–562
2:335–336 in Slavic mythology, 3:491 Sorcerer’s Apprentice, The (L’apprenti
pixies, 2:365 snake husbands, 2:425–426 sorcier ; Dukas), 2:429
in Russian folktales, 2:332–333 in Sumerian mythology, 2:332; Sorcerer’s apprentice tales, 1:206;
in South African mythology, 1:2–3 3:455 2:297, 429; 3:561–562
in Swedish mythology, 3:459–460 as symbols, 2:424–425 Sorgin, 1:57
See also Dwarves; Fairies and fairy- in West African mythology, 3:501 Sothis (star), 2:248
like creatures See also specific serpents Soul
Smallville (2001 film), 2:439 Snake-That-Knows-No-Charm, 1:201 in Egyptian mythology, 1:186
“Smart Man and the Fool, The” Sneferu, King, 2:357–358 selling to Satan, 1:111–113
(Congolese folktale), 3:549–550 Snegurochka (Snowmaiden), South Africa, mythology, 1:2–3, 13,
Smaug, 1:129 2:426–427 14; 2:243
Smendes, King, 3:496–497 Snegurochka (The Snow Maiden; See also Africa
Smetana, Bedrich, 2:442 Rimsky-Korsakov), 2:348, 426, South America
Smintheus, 1:29 427 gods and goddesses, 1:14–15
Smith, E.E. “Doc,” 2:404 Snipes, in Norwegian folktales, mythology
Smith, John, 2:307 3:473 bats, 1:59

I-50 Index
South America Spirits (continued) Star Wars (1977–2005 films), 1:xxi

mythology (continued) familiars (familiar spirits), Stasimus of Cyprus, 1:146
bridges, 1:73 1:159–160 Stationers’ Company, London, 1:74
monsters and odd creatures, in Filipino mythology, 1:165 Statius, 1:148
2:280 in Finnish mythology, 1:13; 3:611 Steely Dan, 2:431
South Bay Bessie, 2:280 in Flemish mythology, 2:276 Stepdaughters, put-upon, 3:504, 507
South India, storytelling in, in French mythology, 2:292–293 Stepmothers, wicked, 2:216, 261;
2:240–241 in German mythology, 1:124; 3:504, 588–591
Space opera, 2:404 2:288, 306, 329–330 Stereotype, versus archetype or
Spain in Greek mythology, 2:304, symbol, 1:34
folktales, 1:92; 3:443 339–340; 3:461 Stevenson, Robert Louis, 2:281; 3:499
literature, 1:15–16, 135, 143, 148, in Hindu mythology, 1:191 Stewart, Jon, 2:401
160 in Icelandic mythology, 2:329 Stheneboea, 1:62
mythology in Indian mythology, 1:191; 3:461 Stheno, 3:624
giants, 1:16 in Indonesian mythology, 1:192 Stigoi, 3:485
heroes, 1:15–16, 135, 148 in Irish folklore, 1:54–55 Sting, The (1973 film), 1:98
witches and sorceresses, 1:16 in Japanese mythology, 1:49; 2:330; Stingy Jack. See Jack
tongue twisters, 3:460 3:464 Stockton, Frank R., 3:644
Spamalot (Broadway musical), in Judeo-Christian mythology, Stoker, Bram, 3:487
2:273 1:191; 3:461 Stone Guest, The (Pushkin), 2:373
Specters. See Ghosts nature, East Africans, 1:9 Stonehenge, 1:200; 2:288, 431
Spells, 2:296–297 protector, East Africans, 1:9 Stones, standing, 2:431–432, 432
Spenser, Edmund, 1:143 in Roman mythology, 2:282, Stories and Novels in Verse (Contes et
Sphinx, 2:346, 346, 429–430, 430 282–283, 339 Nouvelles en Vers; La Fontaine),
Spider Woman (Native American in Russian mythology, 1:121; 2:279
supernatural being), 3:627–629 2:396–397, 420 Stormbringer (sword), 2:441
Spiders in Scandinavian folktales, 2:329 Story Candle (Ohanashi No Rosoku;
in American Indian mythology, in Slavic mythology, 1:54; Kyoko), 2:253
1:174; 3:627–629 2:270–271, 284–285, 306, 420; Story of Gelert, The” (Welsh
in English mythology, 3:567 3:490 folktale), 3:609–610
in Greek mythology, 1:33 in Tibetan mythology, 3:514, Story of Renar, The. See Roman de
tricksters, 3:462 603–606 Renar, Le
in African mythology, 1:xviii, 21; tree spirits, 3:461–462 Story of Sinuhe, The, 2:415–416
3:464, 500, 518, 542–543 versus ghosts, 1:195 Story of the Danes (Gesta Danorum;
in American Indian mythology, See also Ghosts Grammaticus), 1:18, 188–189;
1:174; 3:627–629 “Spoils of Annwfn, The” (“Preiddiau 2:402
Spiderwoman (Chinese creature), Annwfn”), 1:33 Story of the Grail, The (Conte del Graal;
2:258 Spring of Wisdom, 2:390 Chrétien de Troyes), 1:206
Spielberg, Steven, 1:209 Spy stories, 2:320 Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor, The,
Spies, Johann, 1:162 Squirrels, in Norse mythology, 3:516 2:412–413
Spirit-children, Australian Squonk Opera, 2:431 “Storyteller at Fault, The” (Irish
Aboriginal, 1:5 Squonks (lachrimacorpis dissolvens), folktale), 3:585–587
Spirits 2:430–431 Storytellers
in African mythology, 1:9; 3:501, Sri, 2:315 European, 2:310–311, 312,
502, 523 Sri Lanka, folktales, 1:22 312–313
in American Indian mythology, St. Patrick’s Purgatory (Espurgatoire French, 2:257; 3:467–468
3:461, 531, 532 Seint Patrice; Marie de France), Indian, 2:239–241
in Arab mythology, 1:117–118 2:301 Irish, 2:404–405
in Australian Aboriginal “St. Stephen and Herod” (ballad), in Irish folktales, 3:585–587
mythology, 1:4, 5, 80 1:52 Iroquois, 2:246
in Basque folklore, 1:56–57 Stag beetle, 2:242 Japanese, 2:251–254, 264
bathhouse, 1:54 Stags, in Norse mythology, 3:516, in Norse mythology, 2:418
in British mythology, 2:319 516 Palestinian, 2:356
in Canadian mythology, 2:292–293 Stall ballads, 1:74 Tibetan, 3:456
in Chinese mythology, 2:258 See also Broadside ballads in Welsh mythology, 3:617–618
in Egyptian mythology, 1:123 Standing stones, 2:431–432, 432 See also Bards; other types of storytellers
in English mythology and tales, Stane o’ Quoybune, 2:433 Storyteller’s Sourcebook: A Subject,
2:272; 3:568 Stanton Drew Stone Circle, 2:431 Title, and Motif Index to
in Estonian folktales, 1:151 Stanwyck, Barbara, 1:159 Folklore Collections for Children,
in European mythology, 2:305, Star of David, 1:92 1983 –1999, The (MacDonald
308, 329–330; 3:461 Star Trek (TV series), 1:xxi and Sturm), 2:318

Index I-51
Storyteller’s Sourcebook: A Subject, Suen (Sin), 1:139 Sundiata (anonymous), 1:143

Title, and Motif Index to Folklore Sugaar, 1:57 Sunken cities, 2:293, 438–439;
Collections for Children, The Sugriva, king of Kiskindha, 3:529 3:518–519
(MacDonald), 2:318 Suicide Supay, 2:238
Storytelling in Finnish mythology, 2:277 Superman, 1:48; 2:438–439
audience participation in, 1:xviii in German mythology, 2:288 Superman and the Mole Men (1951
camp stories, 1:81–82 in Greek mythology, 2:286 film), 2:439
campfire storytelling, 1:82 Sullivan’s Travels (1941 film), 2:401 Supernatural beings, in American
for children, 1:xxvii, xxviii–xxix Sumanguru, 2:437, 437 Indian mythology, 3:627–629
collecting stories, 1:xxiii–xxv Sumerian kings list, 1:7, 168; 3:521 Superstitions
dual, 1:xxvii–xxviii Sumerians about dogs, 1:120
educational, 1:xviii, xix, xxix ceremonies and rituals, 2:235, 327 about frogs and toads, 1:179–180
in India, 2:240, 241 literature, 1:27, 101, 158, 160, about gambling, 1:182–183
in Iroquois nation, 2:246–247 201–203; 2:289–290, 369 about hands, 2:214
in United States, 2:372 mythology about horseshoes, 2:228
effective, strategies and birds, 1:27–28; 2:289–290 American, 2:214, 381
techniques, 1:xxv–xxvii creation myths, 1:27, 101–102, Arab, 2:214
family stories, 1:xix, xxiv–xxv 125–126; 3:454–455 British, 2:382
fascination of, 1:xvii demons, 1:131–132; 2:331 Christian, 2:214
genres, 1:xix–xxi dragons, 1:125; 2:332 English, 1:179–180
history of, 1:xvii–xviii fate and destiny, 3:455 European, 2:228, 381
purpose of, 1:xviii–xix flood, 1:168–169; 2:331; 3:521 Filipino, 2:214
shaggy dog stories, 2:410–411 foxes, 2:330 French, 2:313
story collections, 1:xxiii–xxiv, 1–2, giants, 2:235 Inuit, 2:214
37–38, 55, 65, 75–76, 93, gods and goddesses, 1:5–6, Mexican, 2:228
108–109; 2:309, 318, 433; 3:452 20–21, 101–102, 130–132, Middle Eastern, 2:228
string figures in, 2:434–436 137–138, 139; 2:235–237, nautical, 2:305
tall tales, 1:180–181; 2:250–251, 328–329, 330–332; North American, 1:179–180; 2:228
251; 3:445 3:454–455, 480–481, Western European, 2:214, 228
teaching, to children, 1:xxix 638–640 Surpassing All Other Kings, 1:202
time and timing of, 1:xxvii heroes, 1:28, 138, 201–203; Surprise (ship), 3:478
See also Puppetry; specific nations 2:289–290; 3:521–522 Surtur, 2:336
and peoples; types of storytellers idyllic places, 1:116 Susanoo, 2:441
and specific storytellers; specific magic and magicians, 1:141–142 Sutaeans, 1:149
stories monsters and odd creatures, Sutekh. See Seth
Storytelling pouch, Iroquois, 2:246 1:27–28, 46, 78–80; 2:235, Svadlifari, 2:424
Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde 236, 332; 3:455, 481 Svafa, 3:484
(Stevenson), 3:499 origin of civilization, 2:235 Svantavit, 2:420
Straparola, Giovanni Francesco, origin of floods, 2:331 Svarog, 2:420
2:433–434 origin of human beings, Svartalfheim, 2:336
Strassburg, Gottfried von, 3:465 1:101–102; 3:455 Sveinsson, Brynjólfur, 2:399
Strauss, Johann, 1:59; 2:441 quests, 1:138, 152–153, 203; 2:377 Svengidirsson, Vanlandi, 2:329
Strauss, Richard, 2:311, 351, 441, resurrection, 2:236 Svyatogor, 2:270
442 sacred places, 1:101, 137–138 Swahili people
Stravinsky, Igor, 1:167; 2:218, 248 snakes and serpents, 2:332; 3:455 mythology, owls, 2:354
“Streets of Laredo, The” (ballad), 1:53 tricksters, 1:137–138 storytelling, 2:265
Stribog, 2:420 turtles and tortoises, 2:332 Swallowed heroes, 1:23
String figures, 2:434–436 underworld, 1:131–132; Swan-maidens, 2:412
String Stories (Holbrook), 2:436 2:236–237, 328–329; 3:623, Swans
Strong Copper, 2:332 638–640 brides/bridegrooms, 1:21, 22
Strophius, King, 2:351 wise men and women, 1:141–142 in Greek mythology, 3:520–521
Stubbe, Peter, 3:499 witches and sorceresses, humans turned into, 2:412;
Sturluson, Snorri, 1:49–50, 65; 1:141–142 3:576–577
2:329, 335 Sumitra, 3:527 Sweden
Sturm, Brian, 2:318 Sun folktales, 1:123; 2:250
Stygian Nymphs, 3:625 in American Indian mythology, literature, 2:222–223
Styx (river), 1:7, 90; 2:392, 392 3:622, 631 mythology
Sub-Saharan Africa, folktales, 2:230 in Finnish mythology, 2:233 curses, 2:222–223
See also Africa Sun and Moon dogs, 1:119 heroes, 2:422
Sud. See Ninlil Sun Wukong. See Monkey owls, 2:354
Sudan, mythology, gods, 1:15 Sundiata, 1:xx, xxix; 2:436–438, 437 small beings, 3:459–460

I-52 Index
Swift, Jonathan, 1:200; 2:401 Tale of Tales, or Entertainment for Little Tchue, 1:13
Swinburne, A.C., 3:465 Ones, The (Giambattista). See Te whai wawewawe a Maui, 2:434
Switzerland Pentamerone, Il Tearer of Corpses. See Nidhogg
folktales, 1:96; 3:571 Tale of the Eloquent Peasant, “Teeny-Tiny Woman, The,”
literature, 1:96 1:136–137 2:259–260
mythology Tale of the Heike, The (Heike Tefnut, 1:41, 142, 186; 2:383, 413;
heroes, 3:504–506, 505 Monogatari), 2:252 3:448–449, 449
witches and sorceresses, 3:571 Tale of the Two Brothers, 3:469–470 Teh, king of Ch’in, 1:119
scholars, 2:260–261, 261 Tale of Truth and Falsehood, Teiresias, 2:346, 406
Sword in the Stone, The (1963 film), 3:468–469 Telegonia (Eugammon of Cyrene),
2:273 Tale type index. See Types of the 1:147; 3:449
Sword with the Red Hilt, 2:440 Folktale: A Classification and Telegonus, 3:449
Swords, 2:440–441 Bibliography Telemachia, 1:147
broken, 2:389, 439–440 Taliban, Internet humor on, 2:244 Telemachus, 1:145; 2:342–343, 344,
cursed, 2:222–223 Taliesin (Shining Brow), 1:xviii, 48; 361; 3:449
magical, 2:388–389, 441 2:296 Télémaque (Fénelon), 1:145
stuck in stone or tree, 2:272, 272, Talking skulls, 2:418–419 Telepinu (Telepinus), 2:215, 417;
344, 440 Talismans, 3:444 3:449–450
Symbols See also Amulets Telepinus. See Telepinu
apple trees, 1:30–31, 31 Tall tales, 3:445 Teles, 2:416
bridges, 1:73, 73 fur-bearing trout, 1:180–181 Teleute, 2:328
insects, 2:242–243 Jackalope, 2:250–251, 251 Tell, William, 3:504–505
labyrinths, 2:279 Talmud Tell family, 2:421
scholars of, 2:260–261, 261 stories in, 1:204; 3:592 Temeen Ulaan, 3:604
versus archetype, 1:34 Talmudic storytelling, 3:445–448 Tempest, The (Shakespeare), 3:461
See also Collective unconscious; Talocan, 1:46 Temple of Heaven (Beijing, China),
other symbols Talos, 1:35 1:126
Symbols of Transformation (Jung), “Tam Lin” (ballad), 1:52; 3:546–548 Tenali Raman, 2:239
2:260 Tamarisk tree, 2:290 Tenger, 3:603
Symphonic (tone) poems, Tamine, 2:397 Tengu, 2:412
2:441–442 Tammuz. See Dumuzi Tengu demons, 3:518
Symphonie Fantastique (Berlioz), Tampa Theater (Florida), 1:198 Tennyson, Alfred Lord, 2:273,
2:442 Tan Hill horse, 3:503 300
Synchronicity, 2:261 Tanayoy, 2:435 Tenuki (badger) spirits, 3:464
Syrian mythology Tan-lon-ghy-au-wan-goon, 3:631–632 Terentius, Publius, 1:148
gods and goddesses, 1:28 Tanngnost (tooth-grinder), 3:453 Teshub (Taru, Tarhun), 2:215, 219,
monsters and odd creatures, 2:304 Tanngrisni (gap-tooth), 3:453 233, 237, 277, 417; 3:448, 450
Systrum, 1:58, 58 Tannhauser (Wagner), 2:311 Teumassian fox, 1:119
Tantemon, 3:496 Teutons
T Tanuki, 2:412 folklore, 1:73
Tanzania, mythology, 2:230 mythology
Taboos. See Prohibitions, broken Tao Te Ching, 1:173 creation myths, 2:315
Tabubu, 2:409 Taoism, symbols, 2:242 giants, 2:323
Tabulae defixiones, 1:105 Taperet, Lady, 1:42 gods and goddesses, 2:315
Tadaklan (Tinguian god), 1:119, Tarasque, 1:128 swords, 2:441
165 Tarhun. See Teshub Teyrnon, King, 2:387
Tagalog people, 1:165 Tarnhelm, 2:388, 389, 390, 391; Tezcatlipoca, 1:45, 46
Tahltan people, mythology, 2:242 3:460 Thailand
Tahmineh, 3:536–537 Tarnkap, 3:460 literature, 2:380–381
Tahumers, king of Persia, 3:534 Tartars, folktales, 1:xxii mythology, 2:326–327
Taigo Ryokan, 1:173 Tartarus, 2:368; 3:472, 520 birds, 1:186
Tail tales, 3:443 Tartary, lambs of, 3:488–489 dragons, 2:326–327
Tailors, in German folktales, Taru. See Teshub ghosts, 1:191–192
3:573–574 Tarzan, 1:138 women warriors, 1:17
Tain (Táin Bó Cúailnge; Cattle Raid Tasmisus, 2:219, 277; 3:448, 450 Thangkas, 3:456
of Cooley), 3:580 Tataka, 3:528 Than-wisk-a-law (Flint), 2:247;
Táin Bó Cúailnge. See Tain Tatanen, 1:20; 2:370 3:631
Taira Kiyomori, 3:518 Tawhaki, 2:434 That Hideous Strength (Lewis),
Tale of Gareth of Orkney (Malory), Taymor, Julie, 2:372 1:208
2:300 Tchaikovsky, Pyotr Ilich, 1:182; Thaumas, 2:216
“Tale of Sinbad,” 1:175 2:373, 442 Theater ghosts, 1:197–199

Index I-53
Thebais (anonymous), 1:147 Tiamat, 3:454–455 Tolkien, Arthur Reuel, 3:456

Thebais (Statius), 1:148 creation, 1:5–6, 6, 101, 102–103, Tolkien, Christopher Reuel, 3:457,
Theban cycle, 1:147 125, 126, 199; 2:304, 323; 458
Thebes 3:454–455 Tolkien, John Francis Reuel, 3:457
founding of, 1:125 family, 3:455 Tolkien, J.R.R. (John Ronald Reuel),
gods, 1:20, 20 Tibert (Tybalt) the Cat, 2:385 1:xxi, 160; 2:295; 3:456–458
in Greek mythology, 1:24–25 Tibet dragons, 1:129
Their Eyes Were Watching God folktales, 1:84; 3:603–606 goblins, 1:203
(Hurston), 2:230 heroes, 3:603–606 influences on, 2:222, 295, 399, 439;
Thelxiepia, 2:416 literature, 3:456 3:461–462
Theodoric the East Goth, 1:145 mythology magic and magicians, 3:503–504,
Theogony (Hesiod), 1:147 birds, 3:603 508, 511
Theouris, 2:408 foreknowledge, 3:603 Tolkien, Mabel Suffield, 3:456
Theriomorphs, 2:412 giants, 3:604 Tolkien, Michael Hilary Reuel, 3:457
See also Shape-shifters horses, 3:605 Tolkien, Priscilla, 3:457
Thersites, 1:12 magic and magicians, 3:604 Tolstoy, Leo, 2:241
Theseus, king of Athens, 1:17, 159; monsters and odd creatures, Toltecs, mythology, 1:45
2:280, 311; 3:450–451 3:603, 605–606 Tom (Irish stock character), 2:284
Thetis (sea nymph), 1:6–7, 12, 35, origin of disease, 3:603 Tom and Jerry (cartoon), 1:84
146; 2:231, 339–340; 3:465 origin of evil, 3:603 Tom Jones (Fielding), 2:401
Thetis (Titan), 1:161 spirits, 3:514, 603–606 Tom Thumb, 2:362; 3:458–459, 459
They Planned Out a City (The Series of unicorns, 3:478 Tom Thumbe, His Life and Death
Etana), 1:152–153 witches and wizards, 3:603, 604 (anonymous), 3:458
Thieves’ Lights, 2:213–214 yeti, 3:514–515 “Tom Thumb’s Adventures”
“This is the House That Jack Built,” storytelling, 3:456 (English folktale), 3:563–567
1:104 string figure tradition, 2:434 Tommy (Townsend), 3:511
Thokk, 1:50 Tid Mak, 1:191–192 Tomtar. See Tomte
Thomas (farmer), 3:583 Tigers Tomte (Tomten; Tomtar),
Thomas of Britain, 3:465 in African mythology, 3:464 3:459–460
Thompson, Stith, 1:1–2; 2:318, 319; in American folktales, 3:644–647 Tomten. See Tomte
3:444, 452 in Hindu mythology, 3:462 Tone (symphonic) poems,
Thor, 2:335; 3:452–454, 453 Tigris River, 2:331 2:441–442
exploits, 2:425; 3:634 – 635 Til Eulenspiegel’s Merry Pranks Tongue twisters, 3:460–461
as reflection of Norse culture, (Strauss), 2:441, 442 Tonto, 1:159
2:322 Tillotson, John, archbishop of Tontu, 3:459
role, 2:336 Canterbury, 2:224 Top-ten lists, on Internet, 2:244–245
spear of, 1:39 Time Machine, The (Wells), 1:xxi; Torah, 3:445–446
Thoth (Djehuty), 3:448, 454 2:404 Torelore, kingdom of, 1:42
associated objects, 2:294 Tinguian people, mythology, 1:119, Torres Strait islands, 2:434
exploits, 1:98; 3:449 165 Tortoises. See Turtles and tortoises
offerings to, 2:294 Tinirau, 1:168 Tosakanth, 2:381
works on, 2:358, 409 Tintagel, 2:274 Totemic creatures, ancestors, 1:4
Thousand and One Nights, The (The Titania, 2:341, 400 Tower
Arabian Nights), 1:32, 92, 175; Titans, 1:40–41, 103, 199; 2:221; child kept in, 1:123
2:377, 393, 403; 3:463 3:520 princess in, 1:123; 2:367; 3:599,
Three Norns, 2:390 Titus, Dave, 2:436 624
“Three Septembers and a January” Titus Caesar, 1:34 Townsend, Peter, 3:511
(Gaiman), 2:400 Tjak, 1:51 Tragical History of the Life and Death of
“Three Tragic Tales of Erin,” Tjuringa (inma), 1:4 Doctor Faustus, The (Marlowe),
2:367 Tlalic, 1:45 1:162
Three Weird Sisters, 1:161 Tlaltecuhti, 1:178 Transylvania, mythology, vampires,
Three Wise Men, 2:296 Tlazolteotl, 1:45 3:485
Through the Looking Glass (Carroll), Tlillan-Tlapallant, 1:46 Trash, 1:67
3:478 Tlingit, mythology, 2:354 Traviata, La (Verdi), 2:348
Thrud, 3:453 Toads. See Frogs and toads Treachery
Thrym, 2:337; 3:453 “ Toads and Diamonds,” 3:507 faithless wives, 3:463, 470–471
Thunstone, king of England, Toadstone, 1:179 Treasure
3:566–567 Toastmasters International, 1:xxvi in English mythology, 2:422–423
Thurber, James, 1:xix, 156 Tohono O’odham, mythology, 2:243 in Irish mythology, 3:583–584
Thutmose III, 2:294 Tokelosh, 3:523 in Welsh mythology, 2:422–423
Thutmosis III, 1:125 Tokyo Children’s Library, 2:253 Tree of All Remedies, 3:513

I-54 Index
Tree of Knowledge. See World Tree Trickster creatures (continued) Tristan (Tristram; Tristrem), 2:293;
Tree of life. See World Tree rabbits and hares, 1:103, 174; 3:465
Tree Spirits, 3:461–462 3:462, 464 Tristan and Iseult (Bédier), 3:465
Trees ravens, 2:381–382; 3:464 Tristan and Isolde, 3:465
in American folktales, 2:325 spiders, 1:174; 3:462, 542–543 Tristan and Isolde (Wagner), 3:465
ash, 1:39, 39 ; 2:390; 3:516 in African mythology, 1:xviii, 21; Tristram. See Tristan
in Babylonian mythology, 1:201 3:464, 500, 518, 542–543 Tristrem. See Tristan
birch, 3:513 in American Indian mythology, Trobriander culture, mythology,
in Buryat mythology, 3:513 1:174; 3:627–629 2:324
cherry, 2:325 toads, 1:179 Troilus, 1:30; 2:407
cypress, 1:30 tortoises, 1:174; 3:518 “Troilus and Cressida” story, 1:70
in Egyptian mythology, 3:471 turtles, 3:462 Trojan (mythical emperor),
elder, 1:134 in West African mythology, 1:21 1:133–134
elm, 1:136 Trickster gods and goddesses Trojan Cycle, 1:146–147
fig, 3:512 in African mythology, 1:13; 3:502 Trojan War, 3:465–467, 466
in Filipino mythology, 1:165 in Aztecs mythology, 1:45 epics on, 1:12, 146–147; 2:231–232,
in German mythology, 2:390 in Babylonian mythology, 1:8 232, 277–278, 286
in Greek mythology, 1:30; 2:309, in Egyptian mythology, 2:248 events and stories, 1:29, 30; 2:351,
339; 3:461 in Greek mythology, 2:222; 3:463 407
in Hindu mythology, 3:512 in Norse mythology, 1:31; 2:220, heroes and others, 1:6–7, 9, 17;
“Juniper Tree, The,” 2:261–262; 336; 3:463, 633 2:219, 343, 367, 406–407
3:504 in Slavic mythology, 2:420 Roman epics on, 1:148
kapok, 1:165 in Sumerian mythology, 1:137–138 wooden horse, 2:232, 286, 343;
laurel, 1:30; 2:309; 3:461 See also specific gods and goddesses 3:466, 466–467
in Norse mythology, 3:516 Tricksters, 3:462–465 Trojan Women, The (Euripides), 3:467
persea, 3:471 in African American folktales, Troubadours, 3:467–468
in Polynesian mythology, 3:462, 464 Trout, fur-bearing, 1:180–181
3:636 in African mythology, 1:xviii, 13, Troyens, Les (Berlioz), 1:11; 3:467
in Russian mythology, 2:234 21; 3:464, 500, 501, 502, 518 Trud. See Alp
in Serbian mythology, 1:134 in Arab folktales, 1:117 True Jaguar, 2:366
spirits in, 3:461 as archetype, 1:34; 2:324 True stories, as genre, 1:xix
in Sumerian and Akkadian characteristics, 3:462 See also specific stories
mythology, 2:237, 290 con men or women, 1:97–98 Truth (Egyptian allegorical figure),
in Swedish mythology, 2:329 in English folktales, 1:199 3:468–469
in Swiss folklore, 2:261 female, 3:462–463 Tryggvesson, Olaf, 2:421
tamarisk, 2:290 in Flemish mythology, 2:281–282; Tsarevich, Ivan. See Ivan Tsarevich
in Western European mythology, 3:463 Tsimshian, folktales, 1:22
1:39, 39 fool, 1:174 Tuatha Dé Danann (“People of the
Wiliwili trees, 3:636 in French mythology, 2:292–293 goddess Danu”), 2:315
willow, 1:201; 3:513 in German folktales, 3:573–574 Tugorkan, 2:269
See also Apple trees and apples; heroes as victim of, 1:97 Tumen Jargalan, 3:604–605
World Tree in Indian folktales, 2:239 Tundun, 1:4
Trevilian, 2:293 in Irish folktales, 3:583–584 Tunstead farm, 2:418–419
Trevor, Steve, 3:512 in Italian folktales, 1:114 Tur, 3:534
Tria Fata (Parcae), 1:161 in Kenyan storytelling, 2:265 Turan, 3:535
Trick of the Tail, A (Genesis), 2:431 in Polynesian mythology, Turgarin, 2:269
Trickery 2:301–302; 3:636–637 Turkey
of dragon-slayer, 1:130 in Russian folktales, 2:332–333 folktales, 1:22, 48, 174; 3:469
faithless wives, 1:159; 3:463, in Slavic mythology, 2:284–285 mythology, 2:280
470–471 in Uighur folktales, 3:607–608 puppetry, 2:370
See also Fool tales; Fools; Noodle See also Trickster creatures; Turnus, king of Rutulians, 1:11
tales; Numskull stories Trickster gods and goddesses; Turoldus, 2:428
Trickster creatures Trickery; specific tricksters Turpin, archbishop of Reims,
in American Indian mythology and Tripitaka, 2:258 1:89
tales, 1:85, 103, 174; 2:324, Triptolemos, 1:115 Turtles and tortoises
381–382; 3:462, 464, 541, Tristam and Iseult (Arnold), 3:465 in American Indian mythology,
627–629 Tristam of Lyonesse (Swinburne), 1:174; 2:323; 3:630–631
in Chinese mythology, 2:258–259 3:465 brides/bridegrooms, 1:22
coyotes, 1:45, 85, 103, 174; 2:324; Tristan, 1:144 in Greek folktales, 1:11, 11
3:462, 464, 541 Tristan (Gottfried of Strassburg), in Sumerian and Babylonian
foxes, 2:385–386 1:146 mythology, 2:332

Index I-55
Turtles and tortoises (continued) Ueuecoyotl (old, old coyote), 1:45 Underworld
trickster, 3:462 Uffington horse, 3:503 guardians of (continued)
in African folktales, 3:518 UFOs, pareidolia, 1:196 in Sumerian mythology, 2:236;
in American Indian folktales, Ugly babies, jokes and folklore, 3:638
1:174 3:473 in Hindu mythology, 2:326
Tuscarora, history, 2:247 “Ugly Duckling, The” (Anderson), in Incan mythology, 2:238–239
See also Iroquois 1:109 in Mesopotamian mythology, 1:6
Tut, pharaoh of Egypt, 1:105 Uha Loson, 3:605 in Norse mythology, 1:49–50, 73,
Tutankhamen, 1:105; 2:407 Uhlakanyana, 3:523 119, 185; 2:220, 336
Twain, Mark, 2:259, 401 Uighurs, folktales, 3:607–608 in Roman mythology, 1:10–11
“Twelve Dancing Princesses, The” Ukoy, 1:166 in Siberian mythology, 1:73
(German folktale), 3:444, Ukqili, 3:523 in Sumerian mythology, 1:131–132;
578–579 Ukraine 2:236–237, 328–329; 3:623,
Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the folktales, 1:54 638–640
Sea (Verne), 2:404 mythology, 2:354 visits to
Twilight of the Gods (Gotterdammerung; Ukupanipo, 1:168 in Greek mythology, 2:343, 377;
Wagner), 2:387, 390–391 Ulfedhnar (wolf-warriors), 3:498 3:507, 623
Twilight Zone (TV show), 1:209 Ullikummi, 2:219, 277, 417; 3:448, in Polynesian mythology, 2:301
Twins 450, 474, 479 in Roman literature, 1:148
in American Indian mythology, Uluru (Ayers Rock), 1:5 in Sumerian, Babylonian, and
3:631 Ulysses. See Odysseus Akkadian mythology,
brothers, as folktale type, 3:469 Ulysses (Joyce), 3:467 1:131–132, 201–202;
in Egyptian mythology, 2:248 Umvelinqangi, 3:523 2:236–237, 329, 397;
in Fon mythology, 3:500 Unconscious 3:638–640
in Germany mythology, 2:388 collective, 1:95–96; 2:260–261, 321 in Welsh mythology, 1:33, 119
in Greek mythology, 3:520–521 personal, 1:95–96 “Undine” (Fouque), 2:303
in Indian mythology, 3:532 Underworld “Unfortunate Rake, The” (ballad),
in Iroquois mythology, 2:247 in Australian aboriginal mythology, 1:53
in Mayan mythology, 2:366 1:4 Ungrateful man tales, 1:22
in Roman mythology, 1:48 in Aztec mythology, 1:46 Unicorns, 3:474–479, 476
in Welsh folktales, 3:544–545 in Babylonian mythology, in German folktales, 3:573–574
in West African mythology, 3:501 1:201–202 in popular culture, 3:478
Twist, Basil, 2:372 in Balinese mythology, 1:50 United States
Two Brothers, Tale of the, 3:469–470 bridges to, 1:73–74 ballad scholars, 1:51
“Two Brothers, The,” 1:159 cyclic residence in, 1:115, 132 ballads, 1:51–52
Two Towers, The (Tolkien), 3:457 in Egyptian mythology, 1:26; 2:217, counting-out rhymes, 1:100
Twt y Cymrws, 3:544 294, 410, 425 folktales, 1:xxiii, 71–72, 86, 96, 120,
Tybalt. See Tibert the Cat elm trees, 1:136 167, 168, 179; 2:421, 430–431;
Tyet (knot of Isis), 2:248 gods and goddesses of, 2:351–352, 3:445, 553, 571, 578, 644
Types of the Folktale: A Classification 352 jump tales, 2:259–260
and Bibliography, The (Aarne and in Akkadian mythology, 2:236 legends, 1:xx–xxi
Thompson), 1:1–2; 3:444, 452 in Babylonian mythology, mythology
Types of the Folktale, The (Verzeichnis 1:149–150; 2:328–329 bees, 1:61
der Märchentypen; Aarne), 1:1–2; in Greek mythology, 1:10, 87, cats, 1:86
3:452 115, 136; 2:343; 3:520, 623 death, 1:61
Typhon (Egyptian god), 1:87, 110; in Incan mythology, 2:238 fate and destiny, 3:540
2:430 in Norse mythology, 1:49–50, ghosts, 1:189–191, 193–195,
Typhon (Greek monster), 1:125; 119, 163, 185; 2:220; 3:483, 197–199; 2:363–364, 380
2:408; 3:471, 471–472, 520 516, 633 heroes, 2:255–257, 257, 438–439;
Tyr, 1:46, 163, 185; 2:336, 337 in Sumerian mythology, 2:236, 3:445, 512
Tyrfing, 2:222–223 328–329 insects, 2:243
Tzizimimet, 1:46 in Welsh mythology, 1:33 magic, curses, 1:106
Tzohar, 3:446 in Greek mythology, 1:87–88, 90, mice, 2:310
115; 2:222, 339, 343, 377; miniature human beings, 3:459,
U 3:507, 623 459
guardians of monsters and odd creatures,
Ubainer, 2:357 in Egyptian mythology, 2:425 2:254–255
Ubar-Tutu, 3:521 in Greek mythology, 1:87–88, owls, 2:354
Ubelluris. See Upelluri 119, 120 ; 3:623 railroads, 2:378–380
Uca Pacha, 2:238–239 in Norse mythology, 1:119, 185; puppetry, 2:372
Udam, Leena, 1:151 2:220 scholars of folklore, 3:452

I-56 Index
United States (continued) Valley of the Pines, 3:470 Villains (continued)

scholars of mythology, 2:318 Vampires, 1:166; 2:227; 3:484–488 “heart in the egg” motif, 2:218
scholars of oral history, 2:350 Van Buren, Abigail, 2:227 Western European folktales, 1:69,
superstitions, 2:214, 381 Van Demien, Captain. See Van der 69–70
urban legends, 3:488 Decken, Captain See also specific villains
See also African Americans; Van der Decken, Captain Villupattu storytellers, 2:240
American Indians (Vanderdecken; Van Demien; Vinaver, Eugène, 2:299
University of Northern Colorado, Van Straaten), 1:170–171 Vingolf, 1:38
Greeley, 1:189 Van Straaten, Captain. See Van der Viracocha, 2:238, 238
Unkulunkulu, 3:523 Decken, Captain Virgil, 1:9–11, 10, 148; 3:467, 568
Unseelie Court, 2:405 Van Winkle, Rip, 2:421 “Virgil the Magician,” 3:568–570
Untamo, 2:276 Vanaheim, 1:38; 2:336 Virgin Mary, 2:228, 248, 271
Unwaba, 3:523 Vanderdecken, Captain. See Van der Vishnu
Updike, John, 1:94 Decken, Captain associated creatures, 1:185, 185
Upelluri (Ubelluris), 3:474, 479 Vanir, 1:38, 176; 2:324, 336, 424 incarnations, 1:168; 2:298, 381;
Uranus, 1:28; 3:625 Vanishing hitchhiker, 1:82; 2:245, 3:464, 527–533
Urban legends, 3:479–480 380; 3:488 Vishnusharman, 2:356
in campfire storytelling, 1:82 “Vanishing Hitchhiker, The,” 1:82; Vishwamitra, 3:528
dogs, 1:120 2:245 Vita Merlini (Life of Merlin; Geoffrey
fingernails, 1:166 Varcolac, 3:497 of Monmouth), 1:43; 2:314
hitchhikers, vanishing, 1:82; 2:245, Varg treo (wolf tree), 3:498 Vitra, 1:127
380; 3:488 Vasco de Gama, 2:291–292 Viviane. See Nimue
Hook, The, 1:82; 2:226–227 Vasilache (puppet), 2:370 Vivien, 2:421
mice, 2:310 Vasilisa, Princess, 3:599–600 Vlaccus, Gaius Valerius, 1:34–35
snakes, 2:426 “Vasilissa the Beautiful” (folktale), Vladimir, prince of Kiev, 1:71, 80,
Urd (fate; Norse mythology), 1:161 1:47 118; 2:234–235, 267–270; 3:491
Urd (Teutonic mythology). See Erda Vasistha, 3:527 Vladimir, son of Igor, 2:427
Urdarbrunnr (well of fate), 3:516 Vassilissa, 2:270 Vodianikha, 3:490
Urganda the Unknown, 1:16 Vate. See Ivaldi Vodianoi, 3:490
Urien, king of Gore, 2:314 Vázquez de Coronado, Francisco, Voldemort, 3:478
Urmai Goohon, 3:604–605 1:16 Vol’ka the magician, 1:80; 2:268,
Ur-Namma, 1:201 Ve, 2:335, 341; 3:517 270; 3:491–492
Ur-shanabi, 1:203 Vegetable sheep/lambs, 3:488–489 Volkhova (Chernava), Princess,
Uruk, 1:78–79, 140; 2:235, 237, Veles (Volos), 2:420 2:398
289–290 Vellamo, 1:13 Volkhova (river), 2:398
Uta-napishti. See Ziusudra Venus. See Aphrodite Volos. See Veles
Uther Pendragon, 2:272 Venus and Adonis, 1:8; 3:638 Völsunga Saga (Saga of the Volsungs),
Uthlanga, 3:523 Venus and Adonis (Shakespeare), 1:8 1:77, 128; 2:399, 421, 439, 440;
Uttu (Sumerian spider goddess), Verdandi (being), 1:161 3:498
1:138; 2:330 Verdi, Giuseppe, 2:348 Voltaire, 1:xx, 144–145; 2:401
Utu (Shamash; Sumerian god), Verne, Jules, 1:xxi; 2:403–404 Völva, 2:337; 3:492–493
1:131–132, 139, 140; 2:235, 289; Verse stories, 3:489 Voodoo dolls, 1:105
3:480–481 Verzeichnis der Märchentypen (The Vortigern (Celtic king), 1:129; 3:510
Uusi Kalevala (The New Kalevala), Types of the Folktale; Aarne), Vourukasha, 3:513
2:263 1:1–2; 3:452 Voyage of the Argo (Apollonius of
Uyon-uyon, 1:183 Vesta, 2:283 Rhodes), 2:305
Uzume, 1:74 Vetala (pisachas), 1:191 Vseslav, prince of Polovsk, 3:491
Vibhishana, 3:531–532 Vulture, in West African mythology,
V Vichama, 2:238 1:2
Victoria Theater (Dayton, Ohio),
Vainamoinen, 3:482–483 1:198 W
exploits, 1:14, 23; 2:233, 258, 263, Vidar, 1:163
288, 399; 3:611–613 Vietnam Wace, 1:43
family, 2:234 storytelling, 3:489–490 Wadell, L.A., 3:514
Valhalla, 1:38; 2:337, 342, 390, 391; women warriors, 1:17 Wagner, Richard
3:483 Viking Club, 3:457 Faust Overture, A, 1:162
Valkyrie, The (Die Walkure; Wagner), Vikings, mythology, heroes, 2:421 Fliegende Hollander, Der, 1:171
2:387, 388–389 Vili, 2:335, 341; 3:517 Ring Cycle, 1:77, 146, 208;
Valkyrie Rock, 2:390 Villains 2:387–391, 399; 3:484
Valkyries, 1:77; 2:337, 342, 421; European folktales, 1:89 Tannhauser, 2:311
3:483, 484, 484 in fairy tales, 1:xxii Tristan und Isolde, 3:465

Index I-57
Wak. See Illalei Water gods and spirits (continued) Werewolves (loup-garous), 1:113;
Wakah Chan, 3:513 in Jewish mythology, 3:596 2:227, 411; 3:497–500
Wales in Korean mythology, 2:212 West Africa
folktales, 1:36, 119, 120, 133; in Russian mythology, 2:396–397 bards, 1:209–210
3:544–545, 609–610 in Slavic mythology, 2:420; 3:490 folktales, 1:xx, 21; 3:518, 542
literature, 1:159, 199; 2:296; 3:616 in Sumerian mythology, 1:5–6, mythology, 1:2; 3:500–502
mythology 137–138; 3:454–455 Yoruban storytelling, 3:517–518
birds, 2:382, 387; 3:619 in Tibetan mythology, 3:605 See also Africa
curses, 1:159; 3:617–618 in Welsh mythology, 3:616 West Bengal, storytelling in, 2:239
dogs, 3:609–610 in West African mythology, 3:502 Westcar, Henry, 2:357
dragons, 2:280 See also Mermaids; specific water gods Western Culture
giants, 1:199 and spirits mythology
gods and goddesses, 1:33 “Water of Life, The,” 1:97; 3:506 tricksters, 3:463–464
heroes, 1:63, 199; 2:386–387, Water-puppet theater (mua roi nuoc), unicorns, 3:474
422–423; 3:616–620 3:490 symbols, snakes, 2:426
magic and magicians, 2:422–423; Watson, Dr., 1:159 Western Europe
3:616–620 Wayang, 1:183; 2:371; 3:494–495, folk medicine, 1:39
monsters and odd creatures, 495 folktales, 1:xxiii, 22, 69, 69 ;
2:280 Wayang gedog, 3:495 2:215–216, 216, 274–275,
resurrection, 1:159 Wayang golek, 2:371; 3:495 385–386, 431–432
twins, 3:544–545 Wayang klitik, 2:371 literature, 1:65–66, 66
underworld, 1:33, 119 Wayang kulit (shadow puppets), monuments, ancient, 2:431–432,
werewolves, 3:498 1:183; 2:371; 3:494–495 432
wise men and women, 3:544–545 Wayang pura, 2:371 mythology
witches and sorceresses, 2:296 Wayang purwa, 3:494–495 ash trees, 1:39, 39
storytellers, 1:xviii Wayang wong, 3:495 black magic, 1:67–68
See also Great Britain Wayland, 3:503 heroes, 2:422–424
Walker, Alice, 2:230 Weapons, magical insects, 2:243
Walkure, Die (The Valkyrie; Wagner), in British mythology, 1:43; 2:272, magic, 2:296
2:387, 388–389 272, 315, 344, 439, 441 monsters and odd creatures,
Walter von Aquitanien, 1:145 in German mythology, 1:176; 1:203–204
Walton, Izaak, 1:74 2:388–389, 399 villains, 1:69, 69–70
Waltraute, 2:390–391 in Greek mythology, 2:344 witches, hags, and sorceresses,
Wampum, in Iroquois storytelling, in Indian mythology, 3:527, 528, 1:89; 2:213, 316
2:247 532 superstitions, 2:214, 228
Wanderer (Wotan disguise), 2:389 See also Bows; Swords; specific symbols, labyrinths, 2:279–280,
War of the Worlds, The (Wells), 1:xxi; weapons 280
2:404 Weasels See also nations and peoples
Warner, Sam, 1:197–198 immunity to basilisk, 1:56 Western Reserve (ship), 2:363
Warner Pacific Theater, 1:197–198 immunity to cockatrice, 1:95 W.H. Gilcher (ship), 2:363–364
Wart, 3:510 Webber, Andrew Lloyd, 2:349 Whai, 2:434
Washerwoman (Beannighe), 1:54–55 Weber, Carl Maria von, 1:176; 2:341 “When I First Came to This Land”
Washington, George, 1:xx, 103; Welch, Bob, 1:191 (ballad), 1:52
2:325 Welch, John, 1:198 “When I lay me down to sleep,”
Washington, Mary Hellen, 2:230 Welch, Molly, 1:198 2:291
Wasps, The (Aristophanes), 2:401 Wele, 3:495–496 When on High (Enuma Elish), 1:5–6,
Wassailing of trees, 1:31 Well of fate (Urdarbrunnr), 3:516 102, 125; 3:454–455
Wate, 1:210, 211 Well of Mimir, 2:342 Where Flesh Came Forth, 1:101
Water gods and spirits Well of wisdom (Mimisbrunnr), Whirlwind, witches and wizards
in Babylonian mythology, 1:5–6, 3:516 traveling in, 3:571–572
137; 3:454–455 Welles, Orson, 3:488 Whispering Knights, 2:432
in Egyptian mythology, 1:41; 2:266, Welling, Tom, 2:439 Whistlers (imilozi), 3:523
337; 3:454 Wells, H.G., 1:xxi; 2:404 White, T.H., 2:273; 3:478, 510
in Ethiopian mythology, 1:153 Welsh mythology, giants, 2:387 “White Bear, The,” 2:377
in European mythology, 2:305, 308 Wenamun, 3:496–497 “White Bear” stories, 2:376, 377
in Finnish mythology, 1:13 Wentling, Mr., 2:431 White Bone Demon, 2:258
in Flemish mythology, 2:276 Were-creatures, 2:411 White horses of England, 3:502–503
in Greek mythology, 1:6–7, 12, 35, Werefoxes, 2:411 White Lady (Witte Madam), 3:524
146; 2:231, 305, 339–340, 387, Wereseals, 2:411–412 White magic, 1:67; 3:503
416; 3:465 Werewolf, The (1913 film), 3:499 White Noise (2005 film), 1:196
in Indian mythology, 3:531, 532 Werewolf, The (1956 film), 3:499 Whittington, Richard, 3:553

I-58 Index
“Who’s Got My Golden Arm” (The Wise men and women (continued) Wizard of Oz, 3:511
Golden Arm”), 1:82, 104; 2:259 in Japanese mythology, 1:179 Wizard of Oz, The, 1:34; 2:213
“Why Ananse Owns Every Story” in Jewish mythology, 2:275, Wolf Man, The (1941 film), 3:499
(Ashante folktale), 3:542–543 275–276; 3:595–597 Wolf of Manala, 3:482
“Why Mosquitoes Buzz in People’s in modern age, 3:508 Wolf tree (varg treo), 3:498
Ears,” 1:xx in Persian mythology, 2:295–296 Wolfdietrich, 1:145–146
Why (pourquoi) tales, 1:xx; 3:518 quest motif, 2:377 Wolfram von Eschenbach, 1:146,
“Why the Blue Jay is Blue,” 1:xx in Russian folktales, 1:47 207; 2:310–311
Wichita, mythology, ghosts, 1:194 in Sumerian mythology, 1:141–142 Wolfsheads, 3:498
Wicked, Prince, 3:641–643 in Welsh folktales, 3:544–545 Wolf-warriors (ulfedhnar), 3:498
Wicked mothers, 2:262; 3:576–577, Wise men of Chelm, 1:xx, 175; Wollunqua (Rainbow Snake), 2:425
601–602, 616–618 3:508–509 Wolperdinger, 2:250
Wicked stepmothers, 2:216, 261; Wise men of Gotham, 3:509–510, Wolves
3:504, 588–591 552 brides/bridegrooms, 1:21, 22
Wieland, Christoph Martin, 2:341 Wisht Hounds, 1:67 in European folktales, 2:385
“Wife of Bath, The” (Chaucer), 3:508 Witchcraft Act (England), 1:105 in Finnish mythology, 3:482
Wiglaf, 1:64, 129 Witches and sorceresses in German mythology, 2:388;
Wild, Henriette Dorothea as archetype, 1:34 3:498
(Dortchen), 1:75 in Basque mythology, 1:57 helper, 1:22
Wild Edric, 1:67 in Bohemian folktales, 3:571 in American mythology, 2:256
Wilde, Constance, 1:200 in Celtic mythology, 1:48; 2:213 in Russian mythology, 1:22
Wilde, Oscar, 1:53; 2:401 in English mythology, 1:136; 2:224, in Indo-European culture,
Wilder, Thornton, 1:74 273, 432 3:497–498
Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre (Wilhelm in European folktales, 1:89; 2:213, in Norse mythology, 1:46, 119, 163,
Meister’s Years of Travel; Goethe), 316 185; 2:220, 337, 342; 3:483
2:303 in fairy tales, 1:xxii in Russian mythology and tales,
Wilhelm Meister’s Years of Travel in Finnish mythology, 2:288 1:22; 2:248, 333
(Wilhelm Meisters Wanderjahre; in Flemish mythology, 3:523–524 surrogate parent, 1:48
Goethe), 2:303 frogs and toads, 1:179 vampires, 3:486, 487
Wiliwili trees, 3:636 in Greek mythology, 2:343, 345; See also Werewolves
Wiliwilipuha, 3:636–637 3:451 “Woman and Her Paramour, A”
William IX, duke of Aquitaine, husband held by, as theme, (Marie de France), 1:156–157
3:467–468 2:376–377 Women
William of Tudela, 1:144 in Icelandic mythology, 2:329 in Arthurian legends, 2:314–315
William the Conqueror, 1:96 in Italian folktales, 3:571, 588–591 authors, 2:300–301, 404
Will-o’-the-Wisp, 2:319 in Mali mythology, 2:437–438 “kind and unkind girls” tales,
Willow (1988 film), 1:48 in Norse mythology, 3:492–493 2:271–272
Willow trees in Persian mythology, 3:536, 538 in Mesopotamian culture, 1:140
in Babylonian mythology, 1:201 in Roman mythology, 2:353 mothers, wicked, 2:262; 3:576–577,
in Buryat mythology, 3:513 in Russian mythology, 1:47 601–602, 616–618
Winchester Manuscript, 2:299 in Spanish/Portuguese literature, origin myths, 1:153
Wisconsin Idea Theater, 2:225 1:16 prophets
Wisconsin Union Theater, 1:198 in Sumerian mythology, 1:141–142 in Greek mythology, 1:78; 2:346,
Wise creatures in Swiss folktales, 3:571 406
in Chinese mythology, 1:126 in Tibetan mythology, 3:603 in Norse mythology, 2:337;
in Finnish mythology, 1:23 traveling in whirlwind, 3:571 3:492–493
in Japanese mythology, 2:412 in twin brothers folktales, 3:469 in Russian mythology, 2:270
Wise men and women in Welsh mythology, 2:296 spirits
in Arab mythology, 1:92 witch trials in German mythology, 2:288
as archetype, 1:34 Europe, 2:213, 214 in Greek mythology, 1:57;
in Babylonian mythology, 1:7–8 Great Britain, 1:136, 159–160 2:339–340
in Buddhist folktales, 3:642–643 See also Hags; Magic; Magicians, in Scandinavian folktales, 2:329
in Chinese mythology, 1:179 wizards, and sorcerers; specific in Slavic mythology, 2:270–271,
in Christian mythology, 2:275, hags, sorceresses, and witches 420
275–276, 296 Witte Madam (White Lady), 3:524 stepmothers, wicked, 2:216, 261;
dwarves, 3:506 Wives 3:504, 588–591
in Ethiopian mythology, 1:154 abandoned, 3:506 heroes, 3:512
fools, 1:173–174 animal brides, 1:21–22; 2:425–426 treacherous, 1:107
in German folktales, 3:578–579 faithless, 1:159; 3:463, 470–471 tree spirits, 3:461
in Indian mythology, 2:298; 3:529, falsely accused, 3:532–533 tricksters, 3:462–463
532 wronged, 3:463 warriors, 1:16–18, 77; 2:270; 3:512

Index I-59
Women (continued) Ximénez, Francisco, 2:366 Zaloom, Paul, 2:372

See also Amazons; Hags; Mermaids; Xisuthros, 1:170 Zamiel. See Samiel (Zamiel), the
Princesses; Sirens; Sisters; Xmucane, 2:366 Wild Huntsman
Witches and sorceresses; Xochipilli (flower prince), 1:45 Zaramama (Mamazara), 2:238
Wives; specific women Xolotl, 1:45, 46 Zarzynski, Joseph W., 1:88
Wonder tales (Märchen; Xpiyacoc, 2:366 Zaubermärchen (wonder tales), 1:xx,
Zaubermärchen), 1:xx, 109, 187 Xu, 1:13 109, 187
Wonder Woman (Diane Prince), Zekerbaal, prince of Byblos,
3:512 Y 3:496–497
Wonderful Wizard of Oz (Baum), Zen fools, 1:173
3:511 Yaa-loo, 1:80 Zephyrus, 1:30
Wood, Gus, 2:371 Yahweh, 1:170 Zetes (argonaut), 2:216
Wood nymphs. See Hamadryads Yama, 1:114; 2:239 Zeus, 3:520–521, 521
Woodcocks, in Jewish mythology, Yao, emperor of China, 3:477 acts of mercy, 1:87, 115; 2:278;
3:596 Yarbro, Chelsea Quinn, 3:488 3:461
Wooden horse, in Trojan War, 2:232, Yarilo (Jarilo; Yaro), 2:420 children, 1:28, 29, 40, 161; 3:624
286, 343; 3:466, 466–467 Yaro. See Yarilo conflicts with other gods, 1:41,
Woolstone Wells, 3:503 Yata-Garasu, 2:382 125, 199; 2:368
Words of a sky god. See Anansasem Yax Imix Che, 3:513 exploits, 2:339, 406; 3:471,
Working class heroes, 2:255–256 Yeban, 3:501 471–472, 473, 624
Workshop Bestiary, 1:66 Yeh-hsien, 1:22 gods of other cultures, 1:20
World Tree (Tree of Knowledge; Yehwe Zogbanu, 3:500 infidelities of, 2:221
Tree of Life), 3:512–513 Yemaja, 3:502 punishments and rulings, 1:62,
in Norse mythology (Yggdrasil), Yeth Hounds, 1:67 119; 2:368, 368; 3:625
1:39, 161; 2:336, 341–342, 425; Yeti (Abominable Snowman), as reflection of cultural values,
3:513, 516, 516 3:514–515 2:323, 324
in Persian mythology, 2:415; Yetnasteen, 2:433 siblings, 1:114–115
3:512–513 Ygg. See Odin tricks by, 1:86
in West African mythology, 3:500 Yggdrasil, the World Tree, 1:39, 161; Trojan War, 2:231
World War II, and Japanese 2:336, 341–342, 425; 3:513, 516, youth, 1:61
storytelling, 2:252, 254 516 Zew, king of Persia, 3:535
“World’s End” (Gaiman), 2:400 Ymir, 2:323, 335, 337; 3:517 Zhi, 3:478
World-Tree Ash, 2:390 Ynglinga Saga (Sturluson), 2:329 Ziusudra (Atrahasis; Uta-napishti),
Wotan, 2:387–391, 439 Yo (Bambara god), 3:501 3:521–522
Wowee-wowee, 1:80 Yongwang, 1:127 exploits, 1:20, 116, 138, 168–169,
Wu Cheng’en, 2:258 Yoruba people 203
Wuihwa, 2:212 mythology, 2:384; 3:502 role, 1:202
Wulf (wolf), 2:388 storytelling, 2:265; 3:517–518 Zmeyitsas, 3:522
Wuni, 3:501 Yose theater, 2:252 Zmeys, 3:522
Wuruntemu (Ereshkigal), 3:450 Yoshitsune, 3:518 Zohak, king of Persia, 3:534
Wurusemu, 3:450, 513 Yossele, 1:206 Zora Neal Hurston: A Literary
Wych elm, 1:136 Young Wizard (Duane), 3:511 Biography (Hemenway),
Wyrd (destiny), 1:64 Younger brothers/sisters, quests 2:230
Wyvern, 2:303 and, 2:377 Zoroaster, 2:296
Ys (Ker-Ys), 1:107; 2:438; 3:518–519 Zoroastrianism
X Ysbaddaden, 2:387 history, 2:296
Ysengrimus, 2:385 mythology, 1:73; 2:361
Xanth, 1:206 Yseult. See Isolde the Fair Zulu
Xanthos, 2:232 Ysopet fables, 2:301 folklore, 1:2–3
Xbalanque, 2:366 Ysopets (Fables ; Marie de France), mythology, 2:384; 3:523
Xena, Warrior Princess, 1:159 2:300–301 Zuni
Xena, Warrior Princess (TV show), Yudhishthira, 1:51; 2:298, 299 mythology, 2:214; 3:464
1:18 Yuhwa, 1:121; 2:212 sacred clowns, 1:172
X-Files, The (TV show), 1:206; 2:254 Zürich school, 2:260
Xhosa Bushmen of the Transkei, Z Zwarte Madam (Black Lady),
1:13 3:523–524
Xiang shi, 3:487 Zabava, 1:118, 139 Zwarte Madam, De (The Black Lady;
Ximena, 1:148 Zal, 2:415; 3:534–535, 537 comic book), 2:282

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Storytelling

(c) 2011 M.E. Sharpe, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Edited by Josepha Sherman

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M.E. Sharpe, Inc.

© 2008 by M.E. Sharpe, Inc.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Storytelling: an encyclopedia of mythology and folklore/Josepha Sherman, editor.

Cover image: Werner Forman/Art Resource, New York.

Printed and bound in the United States of America

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Baba Yaga (Russian) .......................................47 Centaurs (Greek) ............................................86

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Elf Shot/Elf Arrow (British).........................135 Gambling.......................................................182

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Homer (Greek) .............................................225 King Arthur (British).....................................272

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Minotaur (Greek) ..........................................311 Papyrus Westcar/Papyrus Berlin 3033

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Saxo Grammaticus .......................................402 Talismans.......................................................444

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Wayang (Indonesian) ...................................494 The Cuckoo: A “Fool” Folktale of

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The Story of Gelert: A Welsh Local Balder: A Norse Myth...................................633

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Maria Teresa Agozzino Piret Paar

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Where data was available—wars, other

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Once Upon a Time . . . Storytelling Throughout History

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Folklore Myths are closely related to religious sto-

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of it is in the public domain and free to use. If Collecting Family Stories

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Selecting and Learning a Story Practice Techniques

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Sources tional Sourcebook. Ed. M.R. MacDonald. Chicago:

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Sources See also: Death; West African Mythology.

I n Zulu folkloric tradition, the Abatwa of

I n the mythology of the Eﬁk people in what

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The Abatwa are said to enjoy helping peo-

See also: Elf Shot/Elf Arrow; Leprechauns;

Aboriginal Mythology The Dreaming/The Dreamtime

A ustralia’s Aboriginal mythology is char-

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Abracadabra Rees, Nigel. Cassell’s Dictionary of Word and Phrase Origins.