Section 14 (Water Distribution Systems)

SECTION 14 - WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
14.1 INTRODUCTION
The water distribution system consists of transmission, distribution and reticulation pipelines,
balancing and service reservoirs and, where required, booster pumping stations.
Balancing and service reservoirs are dealt with under Section 15 - Storage Tanks and
Reservoirs.
TransmissiWl pipelines, as described in this Section, carry treated water from a treatment plant
or a pumping station to a reservoir as well as treated waier from a reservoir to another
reservoir. Reticulation pipelines are the pipelines that distribute treated water within the water
demand areas. blstiTbution RlRelines are pipelines that distribute water to the reiiculation
pipeline from the service reservoir, a treatment plant or booster s'atton.
c 14.2 OBJECTIVE
The objective of a water distribution system is to supply potable water, at sufficient pressure
and quantity, to the consumers.
14.3 TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
A water distribution system may be classified into three types, namely a gravity system, a
direct pumped system and a gravity and pumped combination system. There are many
possible layouts of the gravity and pumped combination system. Figure 14. i gives a
diagramatic representation of three typical systems.
The choice of type of distribution system depends on the topography, location and extent of
the distribution area, elevation and site conditions.
(
Where adequate elevation of the supply is available and other site conditions permit, the
gravity system shall be the most preferred type of distribution. Where the gravity type of
system is not feasible, the gravity and pumped combination shall then be considered. The
gravity and pumped combination system is the most commonly used system. The direct
pumped system is least preferred and may only be used in certain circumstances.
1 A 11 _
T
I
Supply Source
W
~~reatment Plant
Service
G Reservoi r
~ Service Area
Gravity
/
flowL----7~111111
a. GRAVITY SYSTEM
Service Area ~
c
Treatment Plant Pump
~-- ~/ ...
Supp lry_S_O_u_rc~e_ _ _--,t<.-__ Pumped Fl ow /
~ b. DIRECT PUMPED SYSTEM
Service Reservoir
Service Area
Trea tment Pl ant
Pump
c Supp ly ~I-----j~~/ '---1--' Gravity

Flow
~ourc~ump t,
V 6---l<<---pumped Flow
C. GRAVITY AND PUMPED COMBINATION
FIGURE 14.1 - DlAGRAMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE TYPICAL

TYPES OF DISfRmUTION SYSTEMS.
_ 1An
Table 14.1 gives a summary of the advantages and disadvantages of the three types of
distribution systems.
TABLE 14.1 - ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

THE THREE TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
System Advantages Disadvantages

,
1. Gravity • Most reliable
• Low operational costs
2. Pumped and Gravity • Least cost option under • Problems associated

c Combination certain topographical
conditions
with operation and
maintenance of
pumping systems
3. Direct pumped • Pressure and flow can
be easily regulated • Problems associated
with operation and
• Remedial action can be maintenance of
speedily taken. pumping systems.
14.4 DISTRIBUTION AND RETICULATION LAYOUT
General considerations to be taken during the planning of distribution and reticulation layouts
are:-
(a) The service reservoir shall be as close and central as possible to the water demand area.
The pipeline shall be as short as possible, thus providing the least capital and operating
costs.
(b) Where the service reservoir cannot be sited close to the demand area, a twin pipeline
layout shall be considered.
(c) The reticulation pipes shall ge laid so as to form a network system. Dead ends shall be
discouraged.
(d) Where extreme topographical conditions prevail in demand areas, such as greater than
40 metres difference in elevation, pressure zoning of service areas according to ground
elevations may be necessary. This can be achieved by using pressure reducing valves
or break pressure tanks.
(e) Pipelines shall preferably be laid adjacent to roads so as provide easy access for
maintenance.
- 14/3 -
14.5 PIPES
14.5.1 PIPE MATERIALS
This section discusses the commonly used types of pipes. A brief description of each type of
pipe, its characteristics and available sizes are given. Table 14.2 lists principal advantages and
limitations of selected pipe materials. Further details can be obtained from the GUIDE TO
PIPE Ml\.TERIALS SELECTION FOR WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS published by the
Malays,an Water Association.
(a) Cast Iron (C-I.) or Grey Iron Pipes.
CJ. pipes shaH conform to MS 708: 198 i. The pipe is strong but brittle. It usually otTers a
long service life and is reasonably maintenance free.
c Because C.l. pipes have relatively good resistance to corrosion, the JKR Standard
Specifications only require an internal and external coating of either hot applied coal tar or hot
dipped bitumen.
C.l. pipes are manufactured in standard lengths of 3.0, 4.0 and 5.5 metres. C.1. pipes to this
Malaysian Standard have outer diameters which are the same as ductile iron pipes and as such
ailow the use of ductile iron fittings. Current available sizes are of 100mm to 250mm nominal
diameters, though the JKR Standard Specification allows nominal diameters up to 600mm, as
given in Table 14.3.
The cast iron pipes usually used are of spigot and socket or flanged ends. No screwed-on type
of flanged pipes shall be used. C.l. pipes are less used nowadays in preference to other pipe
materials.
(b) Ductile Iron (D.l.) Pipes

( Ductile Iron (D.I) pipes shall conform to BS 4772:1988 or ISO 2531. D.l. pipes resemble c.l.
pipes in appearance and have many of the same characteristics. However, D.l. pipes are
stronger and tougher than C.l. pipes.
All D.L pipes shall have an external zinc coating before coal tar epoxy or bitumen is applied on
its external surface. The internal surface shall be cement mortar lined.
Standard lengths of D.L pipes vary from 4.0 metres to 6.0 metres. Nominal diameters range
from 80mm to 1600mm. Table 14.4 gives the standard JKR specification for thickness and
diameter ofD.I. pipes.
The ductile iron pipes usually used are also of the spigot and socket or flanged ends. D.l.
pipes with screwed~on flanges shall not be used.
1 A JA
TABLE 14.2 - PRINCIPAL ADVANTAGES AND LIMITA nONS OF SELECTED
WATER SUPPLY PIPE MATERIALS
Pipe material Advantages Disadvantages
1Asbestos Cement (A. C.) • Strength and rigidity • Susceptible to impact damage
• Corrosion resistant to most f) Lmv beam strength (0
soils and water <200nml)
• Ease of jointing • Susceptible to corrosion in
• Flexible joints tolerate Some certain soils and conveyed
deflection. waters.
• Permeable to certain organic
contanlinants when dry
• Relatively high number Qf
joints per unit length.
c • Retrospective installation of
fittings Irepair complicateJ
• Need for precautions against
asbestos dust risk during
machining
• Pipe location difticuli
• Leakage detection
complicated
Copper Cu. • High pressure capability • Susceptible to corrosion in

• Good formability certain conveyed waters
• Good general corrosion • Requires external protection in
resistance aggressive soils
• High strength and ductility
• Ease of jointing
• Easy to trace.
• Ease ofleak location
c 'Ductile Iron (D.!.) • High mechanical strength • Heavy
and toughness • Susceptible to corrosion if
• High fatigue resistance internal or external protecti'J."
• Ease of jointing systems danlaged
• Flexible joints tolerate some • Potential high pH problems
deflection when conveying soft waters
• F\pe impernleable to gas and • Retrospective installrlcion of'
organic contanlinants fittings may be complicated on
• Easy to trace ungauged pipes (y} >350mm)
• Leakage detection and
location straightforward
• Well established methods of
repaIr
- 14/5 -
Glass Fibre Reinforced Plastic • Corrosion resistant • Susceptible to impact damage
(GRP) • Relatively light-weight • May suffer strain corrosion
• Ease of jointing attack in soils/water oflow pH
• Flexible joints tolerate some • Reliant on stable support from
deflection soil4
• Pipe location difficult
• Leakage detection complicated
• Retrospective installation of
fittingslrepair complicated
• Susceptible to
permeation!structural
degradation by certain organic
contaminants
Polyethylene (MDPEIHDPE) • Corrosion resistant • Fusion jointing requires skilled

• Relatively light-weight installers and special equipment
• Flexible • Reliant on stable support from
c • Alternative installation
techniques possible (moling,
soil 4
• Need to pressure derate where
etc) risk of long-term fracture exists
• Can be welded to form leak- (nominal sizes <: 315).
free, system that will resist • Susceptible to permeation!
end load degradation on prolonged
• Out-of-trench jointing exposure to direct sunlight
possible • Pipe location difficult
fittings/repair complicated in
large dia.meters (nominal sizes
>335 nml)
Prestressed Concrete (PSC) • Strength and rigidity • Heavy

• High fatigue resistance • Retrospective inclusion of
c • Corrosion resistant in most
soils and waters
fittings difficult
• Poor ability of joint to
• Cylinder types im-permeable withstand ground
to organic contamination movement/subsidence
• Susceptible to corrosion in
• certain soils and conveyed
waters
, • Non-cylinder types permeable
to certain organic contaminants
when dry
• Repair difficult
- 14/6 -
'Steel • High mechanical strength • Welded joints require skilled
and toughness installers and special equipment
• High fatigue resistance • Susceptible to corrosion if
• Flexible protection systems damaged
• Available in long lengths (up • Welded joints nomlally
to 13.5 m) required reinstatement of
• Can be welded to form a protection systems on site
leak-free system that will • Cathodic protection requires
resist end load regular monitoring!
• Easy to trace maintenance
• Pipe impermeable to gas and • Potential high pH problems
organic contaminants when conveying soft waters
• Leakage detection and • Reliant on stable support from
location straightforwad soil 4
fittings/repair may be
problematical if non-standard
c pipe size used
Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride • Corrosion resistant • Susceptible to impact damage

(uPVC) • Relatively light-weight • Susceptible to poor installation
• Ease of jointing practice
• Reliant on stable support from
soil 4
• Ultraviolet degradation on
prolonged exposure to direct
sunlight
• Susceptible to permeation!
degradation by certain organic
contaminants
• Pipe location difficult
c
•
I. Bitumen dipped
2. PE sheathed/cement mortar lined internally
3. Coated & cathodically protected. C~ment mortar lined internally
4. Dependent on pipe stiffiless .
- 1417 -
TABLE 14.3 - THICKNESS AND DIAMETER OF CAST IRON PIPES
Nominal Diameter External Diameter Wall Thickness

(mm) (mm) (mm)
80 98 8.6
100 118 9.0
150 170 10.0
200 222 11.0
250 274 12.0
300 326 13.0
, 350 378 14.0
400 429 15.0
c 450 480 16.0
500 532 17.0
600 635 19.0
(c) Asbestos Cement (A.C.) Pipes
A.C. pipes shall conform to MS 712:1981. The minimum class of A.C. pipes used shall be of
class 20.
Almost all A.C. pipes are used without any further coatings.
A.C. pipes are manufactured in standard lengths of 4.0 metres. Nominal diameters range from
80mm to 600mm. The thickness and diameter of A.C. pipes is given in Table 14.S.
c. A.C. pipes shall not be used in marine or corrosive soils .
(d) Steel Pipes •

Steel pipes are widely used in the water industry. The pipes shall conform to the requirements
ofBS 534:1990, with the exception of their , external diameter and thickness, as indicated in
Table 14.6. .
Steel pipes are larger than 900 mm diameter may be designed to AWWA Manual M 11 in
accordance with the pressure ratings and installation requirement such as external load due to
soil pressure, etc. Pipe shell may be designed to API SL or API SLS.
- 14/8-
TABLE 14.4 - THICKNESS AND DIAMETER OF DUCTILE IRON PIPES
Pipe Diameter (mm) Pipe Shell Thickness (mm)
Nominal Outside Pipe With Flexible Pipe With Cast-

Diameter Diameter Joints And On Flanges
Welded-On (K12)
Flanges (K9)
80 98 6.0 7.0
100 118 6.1 7.2
150 170 6.3 7.8
200 222 6.4 8.4
c 250 274 6.8 9.0
300 326 7.2 9.6
350 378 7.7 10.2
400 429 8.1 10.8
450 480 8.6 11.4
500 532 9.0 12.0
600 635 9.9 13.2
700 738 10.8 14.4
800 842 11.7 15.6
900 945 12.6 16.8
1000 1048 13.5 18.0
1100 1152 14.4 19.2
c 1200
1400
1255 • 15.3
•
I 20.4
1462 17.1 22.8
1600 1668 18.9 25.2
- 14/9-
r
I
The external coating shall consist of a layer of bitwnen containing a mineral filler. It is
reinforced with an inner and outer wrapping of glass fibre resin bounded tissue and reinforced
in the longitudinal direction with parallel glass threads. The internal lining for the steel pipes
shall be cement lined. Steel pipes which are to be used above ground shall not be coated but
painted with zinc chromate and aluminium paint
Steel pipes may be as large as 2.0 metres diameter but steel pipes used in general usually range
from 100mm to 900mm diameter. In this country for steel pipe diameters up to 600mm, the
external diameter is the same as that of asbestos cement pipes.
Pipes having 450mm diameter and above have a standard length of 9.0 metres while those of
450mm diameter and below are 6.0 metres long. However, steel pipe manufacturers can easily
porduce pipes to various specified lengths.
TABLE 14.5 - THICKNESS AND DIAMETER OF ASBESTOS CEMENT PIPES

c
Nominal Class 20 Class 25
Size of
Pipe Min. Ext. Int. Min. Ext. Int.
Thickness Dia Dia Thickness Dia. Dia.
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
80 9.8 95.6 76.0

100 10.2 121.9 101.5 12.5 121.9 96.9
150 13.1 177.3 151.1 16.1 177.3 145.1
200 17.2 232.2 197.8 21.0 232.2 190.2
250 18.3 286.0 249.4 22.5 286.0 241.0
c 300
350
22.1
25.5
345.4
399.3
301.2
348.3
27.2
31.4
345.4
399.3
291.0
336.5
400 29.0 453.1 395.1 35.6 453.0 381.9
450 32.4 507.0 442.2 39.9 507.0 427.2
500 35.8 560.3 488.7 44.0 560.3 472.3
600 42.6 667.0 581.8 52.4 '667.0 562.2
- 14/10 -
TABLE 14.6 - THICKNESS AND DIAMETER OF STEEL PIPES
Nominal Internal Finished Concrete Finished

Diameter Diameter Minimum Steel Lining External
Shell Thickness Thickness Diameter
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
100 93.7 4.1 10 121.9
150 149.1 4.1 10 177.3
200 204.0 4.1 10 232.2
250 257.8 4.1 10 286.0
300 313.8 5.8 10 345.4
'e 350 361.7 5.8 13 399.3
400 415.5 5.8 13 453.1
450 469.4 5.8 13 5.7.0
500 522.7 5.8 13 560.3
600 628.0 6.5 13 667.0
650 651.2 7.4 13 692.0
700 701.2 7.4 19 754.0
75!l 751.2 7.4 19 804.0
800 801.2 7A' 19 854.0
850 851.2 7.4 19 904.0
900 901.2 7.4 19 954.0
- 14/11 -
T
(e) Polyethylene Pipes.
Polyethyelene pipes (PE) are manufactured in Malaysia and conform to MS 1058: 1994. The
previous MS 1058: 1986 edition has been revised to take into consideration development of
new resin materials. Under the revised edition of MS 1058: 1994 materials for the
manufacture of PE pipes are designated as PE63, PE80 and PE 100. The level of minimum
required strength (MRS) and the corresponding maximum allowable hydrostatic design stress
(0-) are as follows:-
Minimum required 'Maximum allowable

Material type strength (MRS) design stress (a)
MPa MPa «(a) 20°C)
PE 100 10 8
PE 80 8 6.3
c
PE63 6.3 5
* 0- = MRS Factor of Safety (F.S) = 1.25

F.S
Dimensions for wall thickness and pipe diameter are given in Table 14.7(1), Table 14.7(2) and
Table 14.7(3) for PE63, PE80 and PEI00 pipes respectively.
The recommended maximum working pressures at 30°C are given below:-
Nominal Recommended
Material type Pressure (PN) Pipe Series Maximum Working
(bar) S Pressure
(bar)
c PE 100 16.0
12.5
S-5
S-6.3
12.8
10.0
10.0 S-8 8.0
PE80 16.0 S-4 12.8

12.5 S-5 10.0
10.0 S-6.3 8.0
8.0 S-8 6.4
6.0 S-IO 4.8
PE63 10.0 S-5 8.0

8.0 S-8.3 6.4
6.0 S-12.S 4.8
4.0 S-16 3.2
- 14112 -
TABLE 14.7(1) - WALL THICKNESS FOR PE 63 PIPES
Wailihickness lor PE G3 pipes
PE 63 • = 5.0 MPa
~<UI PN32 PN ~ PNG PN 10
()Ao< 5-16 5-12.5 5-8.3 5-5
D'amdo< "Wall Thickness (mm)
d.. (mm) c,._ C.._. c...o _ cr ..... I!r.-- Cr ._. cr ...... e r......
20
25 2.3 2.8
32 2.9 3.~
~ 2.3 2.8 3.7 ~.3
SO 2.3 2.8 2.9 3.~ ~.6 5.3

63 2.3 2.8 2.~ 2.9 3.6 ~2 5.8 6.6
75 2.3 2.8 2.9 3A ~.3 5.0 6.8 7.7
90 2.8 3.3 3.5 ~.1 5.1 5.9 82 9.3
110 3.~ ~.O ~2 4.9 6.3 72 10.0 11.3

125 3.9 ~.5 ~.8 5.5 7.1 8.1 11.4 12.8·
140 ~.3 5.0 5A 6.2 8.0 9.1 12.7 H2
160 ~.9 ~.6 62 7.1 9.1 10.3 14.6 16.3
180 5.5 6.3 6.S 7.8 10.3 11.6 16A 19.1
200 62 7.1 7.7 8.7 11.4 12.8 182 212
225 6.9 7.8 8.5 9.7 12.8 ,.,3 20.5 23.8
250 7.7 8.7 9.6 10.8 1~2 15.9 22.7 26.'
280 8.6 9.7 10.7 12.{) 15.9 17.7 25.4 29.5
315 9.7 10.9 12.1 13.6 17.9 20.8 28.6 33.1
355 10.9 12.2 13.6 15.2 20.2 23.5 32.2 37.3
400 12.3 13.8 15.3 17.1 22.8 26.5 36.3 42.0
4SO 13.8 15.~ 182 21.2 25.6 29.7 40.9 47.3
SOO 15.3 17.1 19.1 22.2 2~A 32.9 45.' 52.5
c 560
63:)
17.2
19.3
20.0
22 .•
21.4
2~.1
24.9
28.0
31.9
35.8
36.9
41.4
SO.8
57.2
58.7
66.0
710 21.8 25.3 27.2 . 31.5 40.4 46.7

6CXl 24.5 28.4 33.6 35.' 45.5 52.6
SOO 27.6 32.0 34.7 40.2 51.2 59.1
1000 30.6 35.4 38.5 44.5 56.9 65.7
The calculation for walilhickncss tolerance is:-
r-or c < 16.0 mm. i x = 0.10 c i 0.2 mm

For e ~ 16.0 mm. i X = 0.15 c ,. 0.2 mm
1 A 111:
T
!
Walilhickness for PE 80 pipes
PE 80 • = 6.3 MPa
N<;>minaJ PN 6 PN 8 PN 10 PN 12.5 PN 16
{).rtD< 5-10 s-a $.{;.3 5-5 S--<
():amctd 'Wall Th;c!<n= (mm)

.
d.. (mm) (!,.-... e,._ e,._ .. e,._. e,.._ .. e,._. e, ...... e,._. e,._.e,._.
16 2.3 2.8
c 20
25
32 2.3 2.8
2.3
2,4
2.8
2.9
2.3
2.9
2.8
3.~
2.3
2.8
3.6
2.8
3.3
4.2
40 2.3 2.8 2.4 2.9 3.0 3.6 3.7 4.3 4.5 5.2
50 2.4 2.9 3.0 3.6 3.7 4.3 U 5.3 5.6 6.4
53 3.0 3.6 3.8 4.~ 4.7 5.4 5.8 6.6 7.1 8.1
75 3.6 ~.2 4.5 5.2 5.5 6.3 6.8 7.7 8.~ 9.5
90 4.3 5.0 5.4 6.2 6.6 7.5 8.2 9.3 10.1 11.4
110 5.3 6.1 6.6 7.5 8.1 9.2 10.0 11.3 12.3 13.8
125 6.0 6.9 7.~ 8.4 9.2 10.~ 11.4 12.8 H.O 15.7
140 6.7 7.6 8.3 9.4 10.3 11.6 12.7 H.2 15.7 17.5
160 7.7 8.7 9.5 10.7 11.8 13.2 14.6 16.3 17.9 20.8
180 8.6 9.7 10.7 12.0 13.3 14.9 16.4 19.1 20.1 23,4
200 9.6 10.8 11.9 13.3 14.7 16.4 18.2 21.2 22.~ 25.0
22S 10.8 12.1 13.4 15.0 16.6 19.3 20.5 23.8 25.1 29.1
250 11.9 13.3 14.8 16.5 18.4 21.4 22.7 26.~ 27.9 32.3
2BO 13.4 15.0 16.6 19.3 20.6 23.9 25.4 29.5 31.3 35.2
315 15.0 16.8 18.7 21.8 23.2 25.9 28.6 33.1 35.2 40.7
3SS 16.9 19.7 21.1 24.5 26.1 30.3 32.2 37.3 39.7 45.9
4CO 19.1' 22.2 23.7 27.5 29.4 3'.1 36.3 42.0 44.5 51.<
450 21.5 25.0 26.7 31.0 33.1 38.3 <0.9 47.3 SO.3 58.1
c 500
560
23.9
25.7
27.7
31.0
29.6
33.2
34.3
38,4
36.8
41.2
42.6
47.6
45.4
50.8
52.5
58.7
55.8 64.4
530 30.0 34.8 37.3 43.1 46.3 53.5 57.2 66.0
710 33.9 39.2 42.1 48.7 52.2 60.3

800 38.1 44.1 47.~ 54.8 59.8 67.9
900 '2.9 49.6 53.5 61.8
1000 47.7 55.1 59.3 68.4
The calculation for wall thickness tolerance is:·
For e < 16.0 mm, -IX = 0.10 e + 0.2 mm

For c t 16.0 mm, +X = 0.15 e + 0.2 mm
1 A I. A
WalJ lhickness for PE 100 pipes
,PE 100 o = 8.0 MPa

~ PH 10 PH 12..5 PH 16
C>.no< S-8 %.3 S-5
c:>:amcu>< "Wall Th;c!<n= (mm)
d.. (mm) e, .... ~ e,._. e,.-._ e,. ___ e,~ e,._.
15
20
25 2.3 2.8 2.3 2.8
32 2.3 2.8 204 2.9 2.9 3.~
<0 2,4 2..9 3.0 3.5 3.7 ~.3
50 3.0 3.5 3.7 ~.3 ~:5 5.3

63 3.8 ~o4 4.7 5.~ 5.8 5.5
75 ~5 52 5.5 5.3 5.8 7.7
00 5.~ 52 5.5 ·7.5 82 9.3
110 5.5 75 8.1 9.2 10.0 11.3

125 7.~ 8.~ 9.2 lOA 11.4 12..6
140 6.3 9.4 10.3 11.5 12..7 142
150 9.5 10.7 11.8 13.2 14.5 16.3
180 10.7 12.0 13.3 14.9 15.4 19.1
200 11.9 13.3 1~.7 15.~ 18.2 21.2
225 13.~ 15.0 15.5 19.3 20.5 23.6
250 14.8 15.5 18.~ 21.4 22.7 25.4
280 15.5 19.3 20.5 23.9 25.4 29.5

315 16.7 21.8 23.2 25.9 28.5 33.1
35s 21.1 24.5 25.1 30.3 32.2 37.3
= 23.7 27.5 29.4 ~.1 35.3 ~2.0
c 500
550
~SO 25.7
29.5
33.2
31.0
~.3
35.4
33.1
35.8
412
38.3
~2.5
47.5
40.9
"5.'"
SO.6
~7.3
52.5
58.7
530 37.3 43.1 46.3 53.5 572 65.0
710 42..1 ~8.7 52.2 50.3

500 ~7.4 54.6 58.8 57.9
000 535 61.8
1000 59.3 65.4
The calculalion for walilhickne5s lolerance is:-
For (! < 16.0 mm, +x = 0.10 e + 0.2 mm

for (! ~ 16.0 mm, +x = 0.15 e + 0.2 mm
(I) Unplasticised Polyvinyl Chloride (uPVC) Pipes
uPVC pipes are semiorigid pipes. They are required to comply with MS 628: 1982.
The standard length for uPVC pipes is 6 metres. Nominal diameters can range from 80mm to
575mm, but pipes larger than 300mm have yet to be used extensively in the water supply
system in this country.
Table 14.8 gives the thickness and diameter ofuPVC pipes.
TABLE 14.8 - THICKNESS AND DIAMETER OF UNPLASTICISED

POLYVINYL CHLORIDE PIPES (uPVC)
c Nominal
Size
Mean Outside
Diameter
Maximum of Average Wall
Thickness (mm)
Min. Max. Class C Class D Class E
(mm) (mm) (mm) 7.2 bar 9.6 bar 12.0 bar
80 88.7 89.1 4.1 5.3 6.5

100 114.1 114.5 5.2 6.8 8.3
125 140.0 14Q.4 6.3 8.3 10.1
155 168.0 168.5 7.5 9.9 12.1
175 193.5 194.0 8.7 11.4 13.9
200 218.8 219.4 8.8 11.6 14.1
225 244.1 244.8 9.8 12.9 15.8
250 272.6 273.4 10.9 14.3 17.5
( 300 323.4 324.3 12.9 17.0 20.8
350 355.0 356.0 14.1 18.6 22.8
375 405.9 406.9 16.2 21.1 26.0
400 456.7 457.7 18.2 23.8 ·
450 507.5 508.5 20.2 · ·
500 558.3 559.3 22.1 · ·
575 609.1 610.1 24.1 · ·
.Id/I".
(g) Glassfibre Reinforced Plastics (GRP) Pipes
GRP pipes are relatively new and have not been used widely in Malaysia. GRP pipes shall
conform to BS 5480: 1990. No coating has been specified for GRP pipes.
The GRP pipe manufacturer shall design the pipe wall thickness based on various parameters
as spelt out in the British Standard. Standard lengths of pipes are 3.0,5.0 and 6.0 metres.
Since GRP pipes are easily deformed and there is little experience on the use of these pipes,
nominal diameters shall be limited to a maximum of 1600mm though BS 5480 allows for much
larger diameters.
14.5.2 PIPE CLASSIFICATION
The values of maximum permissible working pressure for the variolls classes of pipes, made to
C the above-mentioned standards, are as given in Table 14.9.
TABLE 14.9 - MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE WORKING PRESSURE

(Table for A.C., PE, uPVC, Steel and GRP Pipes)
Maximum
Pipe Material Class/Series Permissible
of Pipe Working Pressure
(Bar)
Asbestos Class 20 10.0

Cement Class 25 12.5
Polyethylene Series 5 to Series 16 Depends on pipe series
I
c
.
Unplasticised Class C 7.2
Polyvinyl Class D 9.6
Chloride Class E 12.0
Steel *16.0
Glassfibre 6.0 - 12.5

Reinforced
Plastics
I
* Maximum permissible
(Table for c.r. and D.l. Pipes)
Maximum Pemlissible Working Pressure

Nominal
Size Pipelines incorporating flanges to Pipelines without any
DN flanged joints
Ductile PNIO PN 16 PN 25
Iron bar bar bar bar
Pipe (Gauge) (Gauge) (Gauge) (Gauge)
80 to 300 10 16 25 40
350 to 700 10 16 25 25
Cast
Iron
Pipe
c 80 to 700 12.5
80 to 300 12.5
350 to 600 10.0
The pipes shall be selected such that the maximum operating pressure or the internal design
pressure, including surge pressure, shall not exceed the maximum permissible working
pressure rating of the pipe. Where there is a substantial amount of surge pressure, protective
surge devices shall be installed to ensure that pressures do not exceed the maximum
permissible working pressure rating of the pipes.
14.5.3 SELECTION OF TYPE OF PIPE
The major factors to be considered when selecting the type of pipe are:-
(
'-(a) Working and test pressures, including surge pressure.
(b) Strength of pipe to withstand designed internal and external loads.
(c) Durability of the pipe.
(d) Suitability and workability for laying and operating requirements.
(e) Capital, operation and maintenance costs.
(f) Extent of possible leakage.
Having considered the above factors, recommendations on the use of the various pipes are as
given in Table 14.10. These recommendations serve only as a guide and the above-mentioned
factors, as well as other pertinent factors, may well determine the type of pipe to be used.
- 14/18 -
TABLE 14.10 - PIPES AND THEIR RECOMMENDED USE
Pipe Material C.l. D.l. A.C. Steel PE uPVC GRP

Usage
Within pumping
stations, •• •• X •• • X X
reservOIr
sites.
Built into water

retaining
•• •• X X X X X
structures ,
c Under crossing,
road crossing
•• •• X •• • X X
Over crossing,
overhead bridge • • X •• X X X
and culvert
crossmg
Transmission • • X •• • X X
pipelines
Reticulation
pipelines • • • • •• ** X
Distribution
pipelines • • • • •• • X
c Submarine X X X • •• X X
pipelines
Cross-country
pipelines • • X • •• X X
Corrosive
environment,
coastal areas • • X X •• • •
** Highly recommended
* Recommended
x - Not recommended
14.6 JOINTS
A particular type of the pipe can be joined with one or more types of joint to suit the
circumstances in which the pipeline is laid and has to operate. Table 14.11 gives the types of
joints which are commonly available for pipes and specials. Typical sections for the various
joints are given in Figure 14.2(a) & Figure 14.2(b). Many other less commonly used joints are
available but not described below.
(a) :Fillnged Joint.
Flanged joints are used for exposed pipework, in booster pumping stations, spanning overhead
crossing and where rigid pipework is required.
Flanges can be cast-on as an integral part of the pipe or special, or welded-on to the pipe or
special. The thickness of the flanges, their diameters, the number and size of bolts are
determined by the duty the pipeline has to perform. Further details on these can be found in
( BS 4504 and BS 4772.
For maximum permissible working pressures of 16 bar and below, steel flanges shall conform
to Table 16/3 - BS 4504: 1969, whereas cast iron flanges shall conform to Table 16/11 of the
same B.S .. All other flange types shall be dimensionally similar to that of Table 16/11.
(b) Welded Joint
Welded joints are commonly used for steel pipes. They are suitable for all pressures and can
be used on pipelines above and below ground.
The socket and spigot welded joint is usually used when jointing long lengths of pipeline. This
joint Cf.ll be deviated up to 2 degrees, so that the pipeline can be laid on a gentle curve. Collar
joints are also sometimes used for short lengths of exposed pipelines. Pipes having outside
diameters greater than 700mm shall be welded internally and externally to enable testing of the
C joint.
Butt-welded joints are least preferred and are used on small pipes up to 150mm.
(c) Gibllult Joint.
A gibault joint is a flexible, cast iron detachable joint. It is used extensively when connecting
asbestos cement pipe with plain-ended pipes and specials of the same external diameter such as
steel pipes.
Available gibault joints are made to maximum permissible working pressures of 10.0 and 12.5
bar.
(d) Flexible Mechanical Coupling.
A flexible mechanical coupling will join plain-ended pipes and fittings of the same external
diameter and can be made to specified external diameters. The coupling is suitable for pipes
liable to be subjected to ground movement and settlement, thermal expansion and contraction
and along vertical pipelines. The Viking Johnson coupling is one such exan1ple.
(e) Butt Fusion.lElectrofusion
The butt fusion technique involves heat welding the pipe, either as two butt ends or as a
socket fitting, using a heating plate. This joint enables long lengths of flexible P.E. pipelines to
be formed and are suitable where there is ground movement or when the pipeline must be laid
on a curve.With electrofusion socket jointing, an electrical resistance element is incorporated in
the socket of the fitting which when connected to a appropriate power source,melts and fuses
the material of the pipe and fitting together.Electrofusion fittings are available in the size range
16mm to 355mm in Malaysia.
·c (f) Sleeve Coupling.
Sleeve couplings join plain-ended pipes of the same diameter. The material for the sleeve is
usually of the same material as the main pipe. Sleeve couplings of the solvent type are used
for uPVC pipes not exceeding 155mm nominal diameter. The more common sleeve couplirlgs
use the rubber ring, as in UPVC coupler, A.C. sleeve and the G.R.P. pipe joints.
The sleeve couplings of the rubber ring type are flexible which allow varying degrees of
deflection, depending on the type of the sleeve coupling used; A.C. joints for exan1ple, allow
4 to 8 degrees deflection for pipes up to 250mm diameter, while pipe diameters larger than
250mm allow 1.5 to 3.5 degrees.
(g) Push-on Spigot and Socket.
( These joints are formed by a rubber ring, forced into a sealing position by the entry of the
spigot end into the socket end of the pipe. These joints are also flexible and permit some
degree of deflection. Many ductile iron pipelines use this push-on type (sometimes called T-
type) of joint. T-type joints allow deflection of 4 to 10 degrees. Other types of spigot and
socket joints are also used in jointing uPVC as well as G.R.P. pipes.
(h) Single Gland - Mechanical Joint.
The joint is sometimes referred to as the K-type mechanical joint and is also commonly used
with spigot and socket ductile iron pipes. This type of joint is also flexible and permits varying
degrees of deflection (3 degrees to 10 degrees), depending on the diameter of the pipe.
-14/21-
(i) Stepped Coupling.
Stepped couplings are used to fonn joints of plain-ended pipes of small differences in external
diameters. A V.A. dresser joint, which connects a uPVC and an A.C. pipe, is a typical
example.
TABLE 14.11 - COMMONLY AVAILABLE JOINTS
Type of Joint
* * Flexible Push- Single
Pipe Flange Weld Gibault Mecha- Sleeve on Gland
Mate- nical Butt Coupling Spigot
rial Coupl- Fusion! Solvent Rubber & Mecha-
c ing Electro
fusion
Cement Ring Socket nical
C.L A A
D.L A A A A
A.C. A A A
Steel A A A A
PE A A
UPVC A A A
G.R.P. A A A
c
* Note:- Flange joints include cast-on and welded flanges.
Weld joints include butt weld, collar and welded slip joints
A - Available.
-14(22-
FLANGED JOINT A.C. SLEEVE COUPLING
~ 'r= iii diU
~~ELDED SLIP ON JOINT
~~----m'h-;~:f
GIBAULT JOINT PUSH OH SPIGOT AHO SOCKET
,n
~ ~
IIII
Il-
c VIKING JOHNSON COUPLING MECHAHICAL SIHGLE GLAND ( K TYPE)
STEPP EO COUPLIHG
FIGURE 14.2(a) - TYPICAL SECTIONS OF JOINTS
·14/23 -
c
ELECTRO FUSION JOINT
c
I
,
}. !
'IJ_~~~
BUTT FUSION JOINT
FIGURE 14.2(b) - TYPICAL SECTIONS OF JOINTS
-14124-
14.7 FITTINGS AND SPECIALS
A wide range of pipe fittings and specials is available to facilitate a change in pipe diameters
and joints, change in pipeline direction and the installation of miscellaneous items in the water
distribution system. Only the commonly used types of fittings and specials are discussed
below. Figure ·14.3(a) shows various typical flanged fittings and specials and Figure 14.3(b)
standard fittings and specials for use with PE pipes.
(a) Tapers
Tapers, whether concentric or flat/eccentric, are used to connect pipes and fittings of different
diameters. Concentric tapers are widely used in most pipelines whereas flat tapers are widely
used at suction pipes. Tapers can be made from c.r., D.l., uPVC, PE, GRP or steel and may
be plain-ended, double flanged, or one end flanged and the other plain-ended.
(b) Flange Adaptors
When transferring from a flexible to a rigid jointing system, for example incorporating a
double flanged sluice valve in a plain-ended pipe, flanged adaptors are used. These specials
are available in C.r., D.I, steel and also PE ..
(c) Bends
Bends are used when allowable pipe deflections are insufficient to complete the change in
pipeline direction. Bends are usually of the standard 11.25, 22.5, 45 and 90 degree
deflections. However, mild steel bends may be fabricated for any deflection angle. Short-
radius bends are used in confined spaces such as within a booster station. Medium and long
radius bends are more commonly used, when space permits. Tht:se specials are available in
C.l., DJ., PE, uPVC, GRP or steel. They may be plain-ended, double flanged, or one end
flanged and the other plain-ended, or one end socket and one spigot.
C Duckfoot bends are used where the change in direction involves a long vertical pipe. They are
made ofC.L or D.L and are usually double flanged.
(d) Tees
There is a wide range of tee sizes that are available to permit changes in direction. Such tees
have the centre line of the branch outlet coinciding with the centre line of the main pipe. The
specials are available in C.L, D.L, PE, uPVC, GRP or steel, and may be plain-ended, double
flanged, or having a combination of flange and plain-ends.
Level invert tees are used for scouring purposes. They are usually all flanged or having a
flanged offtake with a plain-ended main body.
- 14/25 -
(e) Angle Branches and Crosses.
Angle branches and crosses can be used in special situations. They can be fabricated from
steel or to special castings of c.l. or D.l. They can be plain-ended, all flanged or having a
combination of flange and plain-ends.
(I) Puddle Flanges
Puddle flanges shall be used to provide a water bar, where a pipe passes through a wall, as
well as for anchorage purposes. They are attached to the main body by welding or cast-on to
the main pipe body. Materials used are of steel, c.l. or D.l.
(g) Bellmouth
Bellmouths shall be used at the scour, inlet and overflow pipes. They are usually made of C.l.
or D.l., and are flanged.
c (h) Rose Strainer
Rose strainers shall be used at outlets, and are made of cast iron, aluminium or stainless steel.
The strainers shall be flanged.
(i) Blank Flanges
A blank flange shall be used when a temporary or permanent end cap is required. Materials
available are C.l., D.l. and steel. Since blank flanges are used together with a flanged pipe or
fitting, the bolt holes shall be dimensionally simi:ar to BS 4504 Table 16/11, unless a higher
pressure class is required.
14.8 VALVES
c A wide range of valves are available to stop, isolate, start or regulate water flow in a water
distribution system. Only commonly used valves <;re disr.ussed below. Figure 14.4(A) gives
typical sections for the valves discussed. All flanged v~l lies shall have flanges which are
dimensionally similar to BS 4504 : 1969 Table 16/11, ulless a higher pressure class is
specified.
(a) Sluice Valves/Gate Valves
Sluice valves shall be used to stop the flow of water and to isolate a section of the water main.
Flanged sluice valves have very wide applications but plain· ~nded valves shall be limited to
Felda reticulation networks. Flanged sluice valves (up to 600m.1l) shall conform toBS 5163 :
1974, while plain-ended sluice valves (up to 10 inches) shall c\lnform to BS 1218 : 1946.
Standard flanged sluice valves used shall have a maximum permissible working pressure of 16
bar. All sluice valves shall be of the non-rising stem and cap type and clockwise closing.
- 14126 -
~
r--=r-.
flAT TAPER
90 DEGREES BEND
CONCENTRIC TAPER
I
c I
I
FLANGE ADAPTOR ANGLE BRANCH
I
CROSS LEVEL lNVERT TEE
;fu
1:._.i
(
TEE
1 'W
PUDDLE FLANGE
i
.......... .
BELL !<JUTH ROSE STRAINER
FIGURE 14.3(a) - TYPICAL FLANGED SECTIONS OF

FITTINGS AND SPECIALS
- 14127 -
r
FIGURE 14.3(b) - ELECTROFUSION FITTINGS
COUPLER REDUCING COUPLER
c
o
ELBOW 90 Deg. EQUAL TEE
TAPPING TEE BRANCH SADDLE
o o
TRANSITION COUPLER STUB FLANGE
- 14128 -
Sluice valves of 600mm diameter and above shall be supplied complete with a built-in bypass.
For valves of 600mm to 900mm diameter, the bypass diameter shall range from 75mm to
100mm, while for valves 900mm to 1200mm diameter, the bypass diameter shall be 100mm to
150mm.
300mm diameter sl\lice valves and above shall be supplied with spur gearing for operation by
one man under an unbalanced pressure of 5 kg. £fcm. sq. Handwheel-type shall be provided for
installation within booster stations.
The normally recommended interval for the spacing of the sluice valves shall be 1.5 km on
most transmission and distribution pipelines. However, the interval can be increased to 3 km
on pumping lines. At junctions, the number of sluice valves shall be such that it allows
flexibility and ease of operation. Sluice valves shall always be placed downstream of scour
chambers.
c (b) Scour Valves
Sluice valves are used as scour valves. They shall be flanged and conform to BS 5163 : 1974.
The maximum permissible working pressure shall be 16 bar.
Scour valves shall be installed at the low points and at points where scouring may be required
so as to drain sediments from the pipeline.
The recommended size of the valves shall be about 1/3 the size of the pipelines.
(c) Air Valves
Two types of air valves are used, namely the single orifice and double orifice air valve. The
single orifice air valve shall be of the small orifice type. The purpose of this valve is to
discharge air which may accumulate in sections of a pipeline under working conditions. The
( double orifice air valve is of the combined small and large orifice pattern. The large orifice
serves to discharge air during the filling of the pipeline and to admit air while the pipelines are
emptied. Both types of air valves shall be designed for operation at a maximum permissible
working pressure of 16 bar.
Air valves shall be positioned in accordance to the following criteria with reference to Figure
Fig. 14.4(B).
• Single large orifice air valves should be located just downstream of the pump delivery
valves (Location A).
• Dual orifice air valves are required at all peak points (Location B). These high points are
defined relative to the hydraulic gradient and not necessarily to the horizontal. A peak
may be considered as any pipe section which slopes up towards the hydraulic gradient or
runs parallel to it.
• When the pipe section runs parallel to the hydraulic gradient the minimum requirement is
a dual orifice air valve at each end of the section (Location B).
• Additional intermediate single large orifice air valves are required on longer lengths at
approximately 800 m intervals (Location C).
• Longer pipeline sections of uniform profile also require ventilating and dual orifice air
valves should be installed at approximately 800 m intervals on these sections (Location
E).
• Single small orifice air valves or dual orifice air valves on lines above 450 mm diameter
are required at major changes in pipeline gradient (Location D).
• At small up over culvert crossings, a single small orifice air valve should be installed. On
larger stream and river crossings double orifice air valves should be used.
(
• Where the above conditions give rise to the situation where a single or double air valve
could be used, a double air valve should always be installed.
• The above distances between air valves (800 m) are given as a general guideline only.
The pipeline engineer/designer should review each case individually and come up with the
optimUI;n design. Some distances may be slightly more, some slightly less.
• Additional air valves may be required after detailed surge analysis.
(
SLUICE VALVE BUTTERFLY VALVE HYDRANT VALVE
SINGLE AIR VALVE DOUBLE AIR VALVE REFLUX VALVE
c
PRESSURE SUSTAINING PRESSURE" REDUCING CONSTANT FLO~ VALVE
VALVE
VALVE
BALL VALVE AL T!TUDE VALVE
FIGURE 14.4(A) - TYPICAL VALVES

- 14/3I -
,
ill
[
-u
0
..+l
#,
,
,1 OJ
1
tf)
0
,1
OJ
[
,1
.~
~
~
0- w I)
1 LL
,1
,1
-I-l,
1 \ -d
,1
w
~1
c
i5
o ,
(~ 1
-~I
u,
1"\ \
]1
G'
~
!:!I
ill'
J'
-b'
\
~I
:n,
w
:tl, 0
II
,
1
,I
OJ \ OJ
~I
+>
~
rn
EI w ~\
,1
.~
J J
..+l ..+l
0 IJ ()
0 0
C .~
r.:l
0
\ ,1
+>
crl 1 ill
I
C.l
.-0 \
(l) ,1
:>-
.-< \
crl
:> <
I u
.....J...r
,1
- CIS
crl
.....
CL
E
I
\
1
ltl
C.l
J
(l
II OJ
E-<I
FIGURE 14.4(B) - Am VALVE LOCATION POINTS

T. 14/32 •
Flanged double orifice air valves shall be installed with an isolating sluice valve to facilitate
maintenance of the air valve. Single orifice air valves used shall be complete with an isolating
stop valve for the same purpose.
Table 14.13 gives the recommended air valve sizes for a particular range of pipe diameter.
TABLE 14.13 - AIR VALVE SIZES
Air Valve Size (mm) Pipe Size (mm)
25 up to 200
50 200 - 400
c 75
100
400 - 600
600 - 750
150 750 - 900
200 900 and above
(d) Butterfly Valve
Butterfly valves are generally not designed to be leak tight. As such, butterfly valves in the
water distribution system are used mainly for flow regulation. The valves shall be made to BS
5155: 1984 .Standard valves shall have a maximum permissible working pressure of 16 bar.
All butterfly valves to be used in water distribution systems shall be flanged and of the metal
seated type. Butterfly valves smaller than 300mm shall have single disc spindles while larger
( valves can have two piece studded spindles.
When inlet pipes to reservoirs are greater than 450mm, and where electrical supply is
available, butterfly valves with electrical actuators and level control systems can be used to
regulate water inflow to reservoirs.
(e) Reflux Valves
Reflux valves are also sometimes called non-return valves or check valves. They are valves
through which flow can proceed in one direction only. Reflux valves to be used in distribution
systems shall be of the rapid but non-slam closure under high velocities and surge conditions.
Only reflux valves used within pumping stations shall incorporate a bypass complete with an
isolating valve for priming purposes. All reflux valves shall be flanged.
The reflux valves shall be of a maximum permissible working pressure of 16 bar.
- 14!33 -
(I) Ball or Float Valves
The float valve is used at the end of the inlet pipe to a suction tank or reservoir when flow into
the reservoir or tank is by gravity. The function is to allow water to flow until a
predetermined level is reached. The design of the float valve shall be such that the valve is
closed when the water level coincides with the centre of the float ball.
The float valve shall be designed to BS 1968. Only standard valves up to 450mm diameter
can be used. The maximum permissible working pressure shall be 10 bar. For thin walled
tanks such as FRP and pressed steel tanks, the maximum size of float valve used shall be
300mm.
A sluice valve shall always be installed at the inlet pipe so as to enable the pipeline to be shut
when the float valve is being maintained.
c (g) Altitude Valves
Single-acting altitude valves are used in JKR distribution systems since a separate outlet pipe
from the reservoir is required. The altitude valves are used to control the level of water in
elevated reservoirs. They may also be installed at ground reservoir inlet pipes greater than
450mm diameter. Double acting altitude valves allow the flow of water to and from a tank
and are seldom used because terminal reserovirs are not preferred.
Altitude valves shall be installed in chambers and shall be provided with a bypass pipe
arrangement so that disruption to the supply of water is minimised when the valve is being
maintained.
(h) Pressure Reducing Valves
The function of the pressure reducing valve is to reduce the upstream pressure to a constant
c: downstream pressure. As such the type of valve to be used need not be of the zero outlet flow
type. The valve shall be used only after consideration has been given to other methods of
pressure reduction in view of the valve cost and associated maintenance problems.
Pressure reducing valves shall also be housed in chambers and shall be provided with a bypass
pipe arrangement.
(i) Pressure Sustaining Valves
A pressure sustaining valve sustains a pre-determined pressure immediately upstream of its

position in a pipeline. It is a modified form of the pressure reducing valve.
Pressure sustaining valves shall be used only after careful considerations have been given to
other means of meeting the desired objective. The valve is also costly and may pose problems
associated with its maintenance. The pressure sustaining valves shall also be housed in
chambers and shall be provided with a bypass arrangement.
- 14/34 -
U) Constant Flow Valves
A constant flow valve is used to maintain a constant rate of flow of water. It may be used in
domestic connections where the demand is estimated to be more than 45 cubic metres of water
per day. The valve shall be set such that the demand is met in 20 hours.
(k) Hydrants
Fire hydrants provide the main means of drawing water from the pipeline for firefighting. It
may also be used as additional points for scouring the pipeline.
The hydrants can be of either the wedge gate type conforming to BS 750 or the pillar hydrant
type as detailed in JKR Drawing No. PBA Hl3101l5. All fire hydrants shall have a maximum
permissible working pressure of 16 bar.
:C Hydrants shall be placed at intersections, branches and generally at a spacing interval of not
more than 180 metres. High fire risk installations shall have hydrants placed not more than 90
metres walking distance from the installations.
14.9 PIPE DIAMETER SELECTION
14.9.1 GENERAL
The selection of pipe diameter depends on the following general factors:-
(a) For gravity systems, the difference in elevation between the source and the point of
discharge.
(b) For pumping systems, in general, the cost of power needed to deliver the water.
c (c) The major frictional losses in transmission, distribution and reticulation pipelines
caused by the pi pe.
(d) The minor frictional losses in transmISSIon, distribution and reticulation pipelines
through valves and fittings. Generally, these losses are usually minimal as compared to
major friction losses.
14.9.2 CRITERIA FOR SIZING PIPES
The criteria for determining pipe sizes shall be discussed under the following categories:-
(a) Transmission pipes- (i) Gravity flow.

(ii) Pumped system.
(b) DistributionlReticulation pipes.
- 14/35 -
(a) Transmission Pipe - Gravity Flow
r
,
The gravity pipeline shall be designed to suit the head available, taking into consideration the
designed flow, residual head requirements and the hydraulic gradient.
(b) Transmission Pipe - Pumped System
For projects with an estimated capital outlay of less than $1.0 million, as a rule of thumb, the
diameter of the pipe shall be such that the total head loss is approximately 30 percent of the
total static head.
For projects with an estimated capital outlay of more than $1.0 million, the optimum diameter
of the pipe shall be selected based on the least capital and operation costs of the pumps and
pipelines. The comparison shall be made over a period of30 years.
c (c) DistributionlReticulation Pipes
All distribution/reticulation network pipes, except Felda reticulation pipe network, shall be
designed to meet peak demand requirements as well as fire demand requirements, according to
the relevant risk category, with average demand taken at all other points in the network. For
both requirements, the minimum residual heads required shall be met. Felda reticulation
pipelines shall be designed based on peak demand requirements only.
14.9.3 DESIGN OF DISTRIBUTION NETWORKS
(a) Flow in Pipes
In analysing a water supply distribution networks, it is very important to obtain the most
accurate analysis possible within the constraints imposed by time, available staff and
computing facilities. Two formulae widely used to calculate flow in pipes are the Hazen
( Williams Formula and the Colebrook-White Formula.
The Hazen-Williams Formula is much simpler to use on pressure pipes than the Colebrook
White Formula, and is readily adaptable to use with programmable hand calculators.
However, it does have some limitations on its range of accuracy.
The more accurate Colebrook-White Formula must essentially be used in its graphical or
tabular form as it is not readily suited to hand calculation techniques. This formula, due to its
accuracy, is the usual method of solution used by computer analysis programmes.
Either one of these two formulae shall be used for the design of water supply networks.
Designers will need to make their own choice a's to which of the two formulae they wish to
adopt. However, it is recommended that for preliminary planning, the Hazen-Williams
Formula be used as by the use of a programmable calculator or just two nomogram charts a
wide range of solutions may be quickly obtained.
All analyses should include an allowance for head losses at bends and fittings.
- 14/36 -
These formulae will be discussed in detail in the following subsections.
(b) Hazen-Williams Formula
The Hazen-Williams Formula is generally not considered to be suitable for pipe diameters less
than 50 mm or flow velocities greater than 3m/s. It is also considered that the formula is not
entirely accurate for values of the roughness coefficients which are substantially less than 100.
The formula for circular pipes may be stated in metric units as follows:-
v= 0.355 CDO.63 S 0.54
and
Q= 0.279 CD2.63 S 0.54
c where, V =
Q=
Velocity of flow in m/s = QI A
Flow rate in m'/s
A= Internal cross sectional area of conduit, in m2
C = Roughness coefficient taken as 100 for planning purposes to allow for
operation of pipes in poor condition.
D= Internal diameter of pipe considered, in m
S = Hydraulic gradient in m/m
and: S HI fL
where: Hl= the loss in head due to frictional resistance of fluid flow, in m
L = length of main, in m
The formula for Q may be rearranged to give the following convenient expression for head
loss:
c = 6.78L rvll. 85
D1.l65 lcJ
Nomograms for the use of the Hazen-Williams formula are contained in Figures 14.5(A) and
14.5(B)
(c) Colebrook-White Formula
The Colebrook-White Formula is suitable for all pipe sizes and flow ranges. However because
its solution is presented in graphical form its use is limited to graphs prepared for specific
values of roughness coefficient ks.
- 14/37 -
The formula is stated in metric units as follows:-
V= 2-Y2gDS log r_k!L-> 2.51 V 1

l3 7D D-Y2gDSJ
where: ks = Colebrook-White roughness values, in mm

V= velocity, in metres per second
S = hydraulic gradient, in metres per metre
g = gravitational acceleration = 9.81 mis'
V= kinematic viscosity of water,
1. 0 II x 10-6 mls at 20°C
D= pipe internal diameter, in metres
Charts for the use of the Colebrook-White Formula are contained in Figures 14.S(C) to
14.S(M)
( A guide to the choice of roughness coefficients and fitting losses is contained in Section (d)
and Section 14.9.4.
(d) Roughness Values and Coefficients
TABLE 14.14 - ROUGHNESS VALUES AND COEFFICIENTS
Type of Pipe Colebrook-White Hazen-Williams

ko in mm C
Asbestos-cement - all ages 0.15 140
Cast iron - new OJ 130
(good condition) - 10 years old 1.5 100
- 20 years old 3.0 90
( Cast iron coated - good condition old ages OJ 135
Welded steel - uncoated - new 0.6 125
- old 1.5 100
Coal tar enamel coated steel - new 0.15 100
Concrete lining centrifugally spun
- all ages 0.15 140
Galvanised iron - new OJ 130
Polyethylene / ABS - all ages 0.015 155
uPVC - all ages 0.015 155
The above coefficients are considered appropriate for normal installation conditions. Slime
can occur under certain conditions. A heavy build up of slime can significantly reduce the
capacity of pipes.
- 14/38 -
14.9.4 ESTIMATION OF MINOR FRICTION LOSS
The head loss through valves and fittings can be expressed as the loss through an equivalent
length of straight pipe or as a function of the velocity head as given below. Table 14.15 lists
the KI and K2 values for various types of valves and fittings.
Equivalent length of straight pipe = KI . d

Minor Head Loss = K2 . V2/2g
where,
KI &K2 = constants
d = fitting diameter (m)
V= Velocity (m/sec.)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/sec.sq.)
c Calculations for such minor losses are only made for station losses, such as within a booster
station.
. 14139 -
TABLE 14.15 - MINOR PIPELINE LOSSES
Types Of Fittings Types Of Fittings

And Valves Kl K2 And Valves· Kl K2
Entry Losses Intermediate losses

Sharp-edged entrance 22 0.50 Angle Branches
Re-entrant entrance 36 0.80 Flow in line 16 0.35
Sl i ghtly rounded Line to branch or
entrance 11 0.25 branch to line:-
Dell-mouthed entrance 2 0.05 30 degrees angle 18 0.40
Footv"lve &strainer 113 2.50 45 degrees angle 27 0.60
90 degrees angle 36 0.80
I ntermedi a te Losses
El bows Sudden Enlargement'
( R/D = 0.5 approx. ) Inlet ~ Outlet 6
9 0.29 4 : 5 7 0.15
22.5 degrees g
18 0.40 3 : 4 0.20
45 degrees
( 90 degrees 45 l.00 2 : 3 16 0.35
1 : 2 27 0.60
Close Radius Bends 1 : 3 36 0.80
( R/D = 1 approx. ) 1 : 5 & over 45 1.00
22.5 degrees 7 0.15
45 degrees 14 0.30 Sudden Contractions'
90 degrees 34 0.75 Inlet 6 Outlet 6
5 : 4 7 0.15
Long Radius. Bends 4 : 3 9 0.20
( R/D = 2 to 7 ) 3 : 2 14 0.30
22.5 degrees 5 0.10 2 : 1 16 0.35
45 degrees 9 0.20 3 : 1 20 0.45
90 degrees 18 0.40 5 : 1 & over 22 0.50
Sweeps Tapers'
( RID = 8 to 5D ) Flow'to small ends negligible
22.5 degrees 2 0.05 Flow to large end
45 degrees 5 0.10 (Inlet to Outlet Dia.)
90 degrees 9 0.20 4 : 5 1.5 0.03
c Hi tre E1 bows
22.5 degrees - 2 piece 7 0.15
3
1
:
:
4
2
2.0
6.0
0.04
0.12
30 degrees - 2 piece 9 0.20 Valves
45 degrees - 2 or Gate - fully open 5 0.12
3 pieces 14 0.30 _ 1/4 closed 45 1. 00
60 degrees - 2 pes. 29 0.65 _ 1/2 closed 270 6.00
- 3 pcs 11 0.25 ._ 3/4 closed 1080 24.00
90 degrees - 2 pcs 56 1.25 Globe 450 10.00
- 3 pes 22 0.50 Dutterfly - fully opcn 16 0.30
-4pcs 14 0.30 Reflux 45 1.00
Tees
16 0.35 Exit Losses
Flow in line
Sud·jen en 1arycmcn t 45 1.00
Line to branch or
Bellmouthed outlet 9 0.20
branch to line :-
Sha rp-edged 54 1.20
Radiused 30 0.00
figures for enlargernent. contraction and tapers apply to

smaller diameter.
- 14/40 -
~"
,., "., •
"" -,=
~ ," ""
~,
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..
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""
'"
,<X>
",.
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,
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:1--- r
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."
.,
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---- ---- -..............
tJ
--...--..... '" 'A
.. ---------
r . ,..
'.'
UJ
-1
m
100
'" ~ '" 0
:s "" ~
r-
a: E
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."
'"
OJ"
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,.. ~ 0.7'
( < E -" '" E ~ EO.'

>
". ~
r--------- ,.- '.'

---
c; 0' u '.
0.1_ " ~ e_
-1:
100
. ~
O.S
C a: ~ -.2 a. ,-
•u
- "'"a: .,
_________ ~
~
'"w
-
~
~
u '""" r- o.~
Ii
...- '''' ~ ::> '" 0 "--.z t
~
>: :c
Z OJ
~
a ." u
a'"
~
w
>
Q.~-
- ' "~1:.. .,
~ '.' a: "
"t-
. 0.(,
'" u ,."
~ ,.~
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u •• ''''
~
,., ~,
'1a: ,.
,.e '" "'l:- O.IS
'" "" '.'

'.' .. ,.,
,..•.
'.J
..
,.~
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,. ,
,..
,..
O,IS "."
0.07
,..,.
J.' ,., ~'"
0.10
..,,'
C
'"
'.l
".J
...
O.C1·
"Al
~"
•
l '" ."
O.OlS
o.~
Non:: For values of C oUicr than 100, use inverted scale on left o(chart. The corn:spond.ng value
of hydraU"lic gradient (or C - 100 is found on the scale of hydraulic gradient at right of chan by
drawing a straight line through the required value of C on the small central scale.
ExAwu:s :
1. Given: C .. 100: Q ... 97.0 LIs; Hydr.lUlic gr.t.dient - I percent
Find: D - 300 mm; Y - 1.38 m/s..
2. Given: C - 80: Q - )2.8 lis; HydnuJic g:r.adiem "" 0.5 pc..ro:nt
Find: D - 230 nun; V - 0.67 mls.
.NOMOGRAM - HAZEN AND WILLIAMS FORMULA-

c -.50 to 160; 0
-.SO mm to sao mm
(Based on Huen ,nd WIIII.m, formul. for pipes flowing full)
FIGURE 14.5(A) - HAZEN-WILLIAMS NOMOGRAM

(FOR D = 50 mm to 500 mm)
- 14/41-
NoTt: For values of C other than 100, us.: inverted scale on left of chart. the corropontling value
of hydraulic g.r.ldieol (or C ICC IGO is (ound 00 the scale of hydraulic gradient .t right or ch:ut by
drawing a straight line through the required value o( C on the small central scale.
EXAMrus:
1. Given: C - 100; Q.o:::z 240 LIs; Hydraulic gradient 0.18 percent
ICl
Find: D - 602 mm; Y _ 0.85 m/s.

2. Given: C - 120; Q - 1170 LIs; Hydraulic gri-dien! _ 0.10 percent
Find; D - 1000 mm; V - 1.49 mI•.
NOMOGRAM:'" HAZEN AND WILLIAMS FORMULA-
c
= 50 to 160; D ~ 300 mm to 2500 mm
(B><cd on Hucn .nd Williams (ormul. (or plpcs flowing (ull)
FIGURE 14.5(B) - HAZEN-WILLIAMS NOMOGRAM

(FOR D = 300 mm to 2500 mm)
- 14/42 -
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT, percent
E
'"
-.. E
--'
0 a
w a:
(.9 w
a: I-
~
w
I :2
~
0
U) a
a 160
1<0
VELOCITY V m/s
HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF PIPES - COLEBROOK-WHITE FORMULA - k,= O.OOJ mm

(Based on Colebrook-White formul, for pipes fiowing full with water" 20'C)
FIGURE 14,5(C) - COLEBROOK-WHITE (Ks = 0.003 mm)

- 14/43 -
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT, percenl
o 0
o~ 0-b
C
-.U> E
-' E
0 Cl
w a:-
(') w
a: I-
<{ w
I L
0 <{
ff)
0
0
c
60
so
La
)0
M N
VELOCITY V, m/s
HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF PIPES - COLEBROOK-WHITE FORMULA - k,= 0.006 mm

(Bued on Colebrook-White formu!> for pipes fiowlng full with water at 20°C) -
FIGURE 14,5(D) - COLEBROOK-WHITE (Ks = 0.006 mm)

- 14/44 -
HYDRAULIC GRADIENT. percent
o 0 0 0 o o o
"0-£'0 'q, ''tt, '?o % %
c "Xl
E
'"
'-
-' E
JOO
0 a
w a:
l? w
a: I-
<{ w
I 200 L
<{
0
<JJ .80 0
0 >60
1<0
.20
.00
90
80
(
'"
60
SO
'0
JO
VELOCITY V. m/s
HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF PIPES - COLEBROOK-WHITE FORMULA - <.s= 0.015 mm

(Based on Colebrook-Whit. formula for pipes nowing fell with water at 20'C)
FIGURE 14.5(E) - COLEBROOK-WHITE (Ks = 0.015 mm)

- 14/45 -
C
E
--'"
...J
a
E
a
ill
a:
ill
Cl f-
a: w
« ::;:
:r:
()
<:
en 100 0
0 '060
,,0
110
100
90
C ao
70
60
SO
<0
VELOCITY V. m/s
HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF PIPES - COLEBROOK-WHITE FORMULA - ks = 0.03 mm

(Based on Colebrook-White formula for pipes flowing full with w>ter at 20 0 q
FIGURE 14.5(F) - COLEBROOK-WHITE (Ks =0.03 mm)
- 14/46 -
r I
00 0 0 o
"t."'!?"oJ' "c o
00'<> 'b '!;,
c
<00
E
-...'"
..J E
0 300 a
w a:
w
"
a:
<{
I
I-
w
::!
<{
() 200
(/) 0
160
0
" 160
1<0
120
I 100
Ie 90
.0
70
60
50
<0
30
VELOCITY V, m/s
HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF PIPES - COLEBROOK-WHITE FORMULA - ~~ 0.06 mm

(Based on Colebrook-White formula for pipes Oowing full with woe.r at 20'C)
FIGURE 14.5(G) - COLEBROOK-WHITE (Ks = 0.06 mm)
- 14/47 -
C
E
-..
<f)
E
-'
0 C
w e:
(.9 w
e: l-
UJ
« ::t
I «
0
en c
0
VELOCITY V. m/s
HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF PIPES -- COLEBROOK-WHITE FORMULA - k.s- 0.15 mm

(S>sed on Colebrook-White formul. for pipe, flowing full with W>ter >t 20·q
FIGURE i4.S(H) - COLEBROOK-WHITE (Ks = 0.15 mm)

- 14/48-
HYDRAULIC GRAPIENT. percent
C
E
"'
~
.J E
0 Cl
w a:
ill
CJ f-
a: ill
<: :z
I <:
0
(fJ 0
0
VELOCITY V. mis
HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF PIPES - COLEBROOK-WHITE FORMULA - k,= 0.30 mm

(Based on Colebrook-White formul. (or pipes nowing (uli with water at 20'C)
FIGURE 14.5(1) - COLEBROOK-WHITE (Ks = 0.30 mm)
- 14/49 -
o
%
C
., E
..... E
.oJ
a
0 a:
w w
(? f-
a: w
« ::;
I
()
«
0
(j)
~~~~~~~~~~~~vP7i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~?d'OO
90
c 60
>0
)0
o_ ~
0
~
0 0
VELOCITY V. m/s
HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF PIPES - COLEBROOK-WHITE FORMULA - k = 0.60 mm

s
(S .. ed on Colebrook-White (ormul. (or pipes flowing (ull with w>ter >t 20·q
FIGURE 14.5(J) - COLEBROOK-WHITE (Ks = 0.06 mm)
- 14/50 -
I
o
%
c
"Xl
E
'"
~
-' E
)00
0 a
W a:
W'
(')
a: I-
« w
I :?:
0
100 «
Cf) '60 0
0 >50
.<0
.10
.00
90
C "
'"
GO
SO
'0
)0
a_ ~ ~
, 1\
0 0 0 a a a
VELOCITY V. m/s
HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF PIPES - COLEBROOK-WHITE FORMULA - k = 1.50 mm

s
(Based on Colebrook-White ·(ormul. (or pipe, flowi"g (ull with w"er " 20 0 q
FIGURE 14.5(K) - COLEBROOK-WHITE (Ks = 1.5 mm)
- 14/51 -
I
c
E
....."' E
--'
0 a
w n:
w
Cl l-
n: w
<{ ::;:
I <{
0
CfJ 0
0 160
"0
100
'0
C 00
'"
60
SO
.0
VELOCITY V. m/s
HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF PIPES - COLEBROOK-WHilE FORMULA - k = 3.00 mm

s
(B.,d on Colebrook-White [ormul, for pipes flowing full with water >t 20°C)
FIGURE 14.S(L) - COLEBROOK-WHITE (Ks = 3.00 mIll)
- 14/52-
/
.~
o
.~
0
'/
000000
'/"""0'0'0'0'0'0
0 0 0
'0
'b"O "">0 0o-IQ <.to ~ d(, -& '0 '&
C
E
'"
"-
-' E
0 a
w a:
(') w
J-
et LU
<{
I :2
<{
0
(J) 160 0
0 160
1<0
120
100
90
C .0
70
6(l
SO
'0
'0
q ~
25
o 0 o o
VELOCITY V, m/s
HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF PIPES - COLEBROOK-WHITE FORMULA _ k = 6.00 mm

(Based On Colebrook-White formula for pipes nowing full with water" 20 q 0
..
FIGURE 14.5(M) - COLEBROOK-WHITE (Ks = 6.00 mm)
- 14/53 -
14.9.5 ESTIMATION OF PUMP OPERATION COST
The total dynamic head, H is expressed by the following equation:-
H = Hs + HI + Y' + 10000 (Pd - Ps)

2g p
where,
Hs total static head (m)

HI = total frictional head loss (m)
C Y'l2g = discharge velocity head (m)
Pd pressure exerted on discharge water surface (kg. £I cm. sq.)
Ps pressure exerted on suction water surface (kg.£Icm.sq.)
p = density of water (kg./m.cubic)
The input power, P required to run the pump is given by:-
P = p . g. Q. H (Watts)
Tf p . Tfm
where,
p = density of water (kg./m.cubic)

g = acceleration due to gravity (m/sec.sq.)
Q = discharge quantity (m.cubic/sec.)
C H = total dynamic head (m)
Tfp = efficiency of pump
Tfm = efficiency of motor
The excess rated power is not considered in the cost calculations.
The approximate pump efficiencies, for the designed discharge and head, shall be obtained
from pump catalogues. Approximate motor efficiencies to be used shall be as given in Table
14.l6.
The total pump operation cost, over 30 years, shall be obtained by multiplying the power (kW)
by the number of hours of operation per month (hours), the electrical tariff or generating
power cost (per kW hr.) and the number of months (360 months).
- 14/54 -
TABLE 14.16 - APPROXIMATE MOTOR EFFICIENCIES
Motor Type Motor Size
Below 37 kW Above 37 kW
a. Squirrel cage 80% 85 - 90%
b. Slip ring 85% 85 - 92%
14.9.6 ANALYSIS OF RETICULATION NETWORK
Where not more than 4 loops are present in a reticulation network, manual calculations using
the Hardy-Cross method can be allowed. Corrections to the assumed flows in the network
shall be carried out until the summation of head loss around each loop is near zero.
A range of computer software programs are availablefor hydraulic network analyses. Programs
will handle a very large number of pipes and nodes,pump stations,reservoirs and control
valves.
The methodology for a large network analysis is:
a) Compile data in the form of pipe size and length ,pipe roughness characteristics,pump
characteristics,reservoirs dimensions, topographical levels etc
b) Establish a representative network model
c) Determine water consumption data including flow variability
c d) Model of the network basically in two ways:

(i) single runs (ii) time simulation runs
e) Validation of results
For an existing network,flow and pressure measurements should be obtained from field
measurements and adjustments made to the model to replicate field measurements
- 14/55 -
This step is essential to obtain confidence in the analysis results
f) Present the results
Network analysis software includes graphical packages for presentation of
Residual pressure and hydraulic grade line contours
Pump and Reservoir operation
Node pressure with time
Output tables also include head loss,hydraulic grade at nodes, pipe velocities
pump,reservoir and valve status
Software available for large projects include: LRETIC available from JKR Computer
Center;WATNET; WESNET;WATSYS and many others.
14,9,7 DESIGN FACTORS IN PIPE SIZING
(a) Flow Velocity
The maximum flow velocity used in the water distribution system shall generally be 2.6 metres
per second. This is to prevent erosion due to turbulence at high velocities. The suction side
of a pumped pipeline shall not have a velocity more than 1.2 metres per second to reduce
problems of cavitation.
C (b) Peak Demand
Hourly variations in water demand result in the use of peak factors in the design of pipelines.
Average demand in a water distribution system is the total daily demand requirement divided
by 24 hours. Peak demand is obtained by multiplying the average demand by the peak factor.
Table 14.17 gives recommended values of peak factors to be used in design.
- 14/56 -
TABLE 14.17 - VALUES OF PEAK FACTORS
Peak Factor
Area In Distribution! In Gravityrrransmission

Reticulation Network Pipelines
Urban and Rural areas

excluding Felda schemes 2.5 I.2
Felda Schemes 3.0 I.2
(c) Fire Flow
Table 14.18 gives the required quantity of water to meet fire demand requirements during
c reticulation network design.
TABLE 14.18 - FIRE FLOW REQUIREMENTS
Average Total Flow Maximum No. Of Hydrant

( Litres ) Spanning Outlets Used
(Per Minute) (Metres) Simultaneously
Class A Risk
Large buildings,
shopping complexes,
high rise buildings,
large industrial estate, 4100 90 3 @ 1370 Ipm
warehouse and ports.
ClassB Risk
( Congested areas with

buildings up to 2700 90 2 @ 1370 Ipm
5 storeys
ClassC Risk
Shophouse up to 3
storey, light industry 1370 90 I
Class D Risk
Residential terrace l20·terrace

house, detached, 1140 150-detached I I
semi detached semi detached
Class E Risk
Others 680 180 I
- 14/57 -
T,
(d) Recommended Residual Pressure
The minimum and maximum recommended residual pressures in a reticulation pipe shall be as
in Table 14.19.
TABLE 14.19 - RECOMMENDED RESIDUAL PRESSURES
Residual Pressure Rural Urban Felda
Minimum 10 metres 22 metres 10 metres

Maximum 60 metres 60 metres 40 metres
c (e) Minimum Pipe Diameter
The minimum pipe diameter in the distribution system shall be 100mm. For housing schemes,
the minimum pipe diameter shall be 150mm.
14.10 DESIGN OF PIPE PROFILE
Pipe profile design follows after the completion of pipe hydraulic design. The following are
common considerations given to pipe profile design.
14.10.1 COVER REQUIREMENTS
(a) Minimum Cover
c The depth of cover shall be measured from the ground to the crown of the pipe and the depth
shall satisfy the following requirements.
(i) 1200mm below the ground level for pipes buried at the side and under the road.
tii) 900mm for pipes buried in ground, away from roads.
Pipes shall be protected by concrete haunches or special beddings under the following
circumstances: -
(i) a 150mm surround where the cover of the pipe is less than the minimum requirement.
(ii) a 150mm surround where the pipe is under streams or ditches.
(iii) a 150mm bed and half haunch where the pipeline is in made-up ground and where the
cover is over 2000mm deep.
- 14/58-
(b) Maximum Cover
Generally, it is not desirable to exceed 2 metres. However, it can be deeper to suit location of
valves.
14.10.2 GRADIENTS
All pipes shall be laid to a smooth grade. The minimum gradient shall be I : 500. !
The danger of pipe sliding shall be taken into consideration when pipes are laid on a gradient
greater than 20 percent for a pipeline laid on the ground, and 25 percent for a buried pipeline.
In such cases, concrete anchor blocks shall be constructed. For slope which are 20% or
smaller the general rule practised by the JKR is:-
1 12 slope - one in every 3 pipe lengths.

I 8 slope - one in every 2 pipe lengths.
'C I 5 slope - one in every pipe length.
14.10.3 DEAD ENDS
The reticulation network shall be designed such that it will have as few dead ends as possible.
All dead ends at housing estates shall be by the hydrant or scour valve arrangement. For Felda
reticulation network, the scour valve arrangement is used on dead ends for pipe diameters
150mm and above, while pipe diameters smaller than 150mm shall be of the end cap
arrangement.
14.10.4 VALVE CHAMBERS
All valves which are to be placed underground shall be housed in chambers. There are three
common types of valve chambers, namely precast concrete, brick and reinforced concrete
chambers. Table' 14.20 lists the recommended use of the different types of valve chamber
( materials. Figure 14.6 gives typical sections of valve chambers.
Brick and reinforced concrete valve chambers shall have the following general features:-
(i) the internal dimensions of the chamber shall depend on the size of valves, fittings and
joints to be placed in the chamber. The distance between the wall and the edge of the
joint shall be at least 150mm for pipes not exceeding 450mm while pipes greater than
450mm shall have a distance of at least 300mm. The chamber width or length shall not
be smaller than 750mm,
(ii) the base shall have a minimum thickness of 150mm,
(iii) valves shall be installed on mass concrete supports,
(iv) chambers deeper than 1.0 metre shall be provided with 20mm diameter wrought iron
steps spaced at300mm interval,
- 14/59 -
r
,
(v) valve chambers are provided with covers, either of reinforced concrete, mild steel or
cast iron. Covers shall b,e supplied with lifting facilities. Mild steel and cast iron
covers shall be hinged and shall be designed for heavy duty,
(vi) scour valve chambers shall be provided with an outlet pipe to the same size as the
scour valve, and is piped to the nearest stream or manhole. Energy dissipation
measures shall be allowed for,
(vii) the nearest pipe joint outside the chamber shall have a flexible mechanical coupling to
allow for differential settlement between the pipe and the chamber,
(viii) conventional flanged adaptors which are larger than 300mm diameter shall not be used.
Instead special flanged adaptors shall be used.
Precast concrete valve chambers used shall be of 2 standard sizes, one having external
dimensions of 480mm by 560mm and the other 760mm by 840mm. Small precast chambers
( shall only be used where the sluice valve is smaller than 150mm or the air valve is of the single
orifice type. Scour valve chambers shall also have an outlet pipe connected to the nearest
stream or manhole and energy dissipation measures shall be allowed for.
TABLE 14.20 - RECOMMENDED USE FOR DIFFERENT TYPES

OF VALVE CHAMBERS
Type Of Chamber Recommended Use

Material
Precast Concrete i) Transmission pipelines, in rural and Felda area, which are less
than 250mm diameter.
ii) Distribution and reticulation pipelines in rural and Felda areas.
Brick i) All urban transmission pipelines as well as rural and Felda

transmission pipelines greater than 250mm diameter.
ii) All urban distribution and reticulation pipelines.
Reinforced Concrete i) Depth of valve chamber greater than 3 metres.
ii) Greater than 600mm diameter pipe in chambers.
- 14/60-
ClSt Iron or
Steel Plate
or Precast
ConcrHe Cover
/.1-_ erick
Concrete
1-_ _ _ B.R.C.
L _ _ _ _ _ Screed
BRICK CHAMBER
Ie Cast Iron or
, - - - - - Steel Plate Cover
1 Top Section
..
··~~;';h~w-
:..:~::.~ _ _ Intermediate
~.'~/ Sections
.:~::':
-r.';
:#~:;: - 8ottom Section
• ,.y.:.
Sand Or
Selected
Material
PRECAST CONCRETE CHAHBER
Cast Iron or
Steel P.hte or
Precast Concrete
( Cover
-.,:
..
o'
....
.... '+--- Concrete
-. ';~'.
• .., ~ Puddle Collar
-?---- ---A-
Screed
REINFORCED CONCRETE CHAMBER
FIGURE 14.6 . TYPICAL SECTIONS OF VALVE CHAMBERS
1(EJURUTER/<':\i~
- 14/61 -
14.10.5 CULVERT CROSSINGS
Where the pipe has to cross culverts, three types of crossing shall be used. Straight pipes shall
be laid in the ground, but above the culvert, provided that the cover requirement for pipes can
be met and that the pipe is also at least 300mm above the culvert.
Straight pipes may also be laid below the culvert. The minimum distance between the pipe
crown and the culvert bed shall be at least 300mm. This type of crossing is, however, least
preferable.
The pipe can also be laid over the culvert, but with a portion of it protruding above the
ground.
Figure 14.7 shows the three typical types of culvert crossing.
C 14.10.6 STREAM AND RIVER CROSSINGS
Where a bridge is present, the pipe shall preferably be laid on the bridge, where possible, or
held on to the bridge along its side. To hold the pipe at the side of the bridge, bridge supports
or hangers are used to support the pipe and shall preferably be on the downstream side of the
river. A minimum of two supports per pipe length shall be installed for ease of maintenance.
The invert level of the pipe shall not be laid lower than the soffit level of the edge beam.
Where the span of the river crossing is large, movement joints shall be placed to cater for
appreciable changes in length due to temperature variations. When attaching a pipe to any
bridge, the Bridge Section of the JKR Headquarters shall be consulted.
Another method to cross rivers and streams is by the use of reinforced concrete piers. When
piling is required, the piles can be extended to take the place of piers as another method of
overcrossing. When using this method of crossing, DID shall be consulted with regards to
river reserve and future plans for river improvement. The pipes shall be designed as a
( structure beam as well as to be able to withstand longitudinal stress due to internal water
pressure. The pipes shall be constructed such that it is situated above a flood level of a 1 in 50
year frequency or in the absence of data, above the level of flood experienced. Crossings
using trussed frames shall be used if intermediate piers are not allowed.
Underwater or submarine crossing technique is the least preferable method of crossing and is
only used where preliminary investigations show that the above two types of crossings are not
feasible. This technique shall be carried out by using the settling method or the propelling
method. The method to be selected will depend on preliminary survey results, such as soil
conditions, obstacles and local authority requirements. It is recommended that underwater or
submarine crossings shall have a twin pipeline system and laid at some distance from one
another.
Spike guards shall be provided to prevent unauthorised usage of the pipe on both ends of the
crossing.
Figure 14.8 shows some typical stream and river crossings.
- 14/62 -
;hW/M1 )/$/P//
C H.S Pipe ~ Flexible Coupling
==:::::::::----I=S-.
EI.
1..
. ~ ~.
300 nm in.
'l
Culvert
a. STRAIGHT - ASOVE CULVERT
//~~---- Culvert
H.S Pipe
Flexible Coupling
Concrete Surround
b. STRAIGHT - BELOW CULVERT
/ (\TI~E~~~;::=·'T' For Air Valve

Hild Steel P.ipe
(
.~
I •
b.:.;~::t----- Anchor Block'------t:S:;.:.:J
c. RAISED
FIGURE 14.7 - TYPICAL CULVERT CROSSING TYPES
- 14/63 -
14.10.7 ROAD AND RAILWAY TRACK CROSSINGS
Where the pipe has to cross under highways and roads within local authorities, approval from
the Malaysian Highway Authority and the relevant Local Authority shall be sought. The
method oflaying shall be by pipe jacking. For other types of roads, pipe jacking shall also be
preferred. However, open trench excavation may also be considered for the other types of
road crossings, provided that only half the width of the road is closed at anyone time.
The approval from Malayan Railway shall be sought when the pipeline has to cross under
railway tracks. Pipes laid under railway tracks shall be encased in protective casings to
prevent direct impact of railway load and vibrations. Alternatively, a culvert shall be
constructed so as to minimise impact loads.
Figure 14.9 shows typical sections of road and railway track crossing.
c 14.10.8 THRUST BLOCKS
(a) Thrust forces
Thrust forces in water mains are created when the pipeline changes direction (at bends and
tees), stops .(at dead ends), or changes in size (tapers). Table 14.21 gives the formulae to
determine the magnitude of thrust forces.
(b) Resistance to thrust
Pipelines having welded and butt fusion joints can be allowed to withstand part of the thrust
forces. In such a case, the thrust block shall be designed to resist only half of the thrust forces
as obtained from Table 14.21. In all other pipelines, the block shall be designed to fully
withstand the calculated thrust forces.
(c) Design of concrete block to resist horizontal thrust

c For horizontal thrust, the concrete block shall generally satisfy the following condition,
For cohesionless soils, P < JiW+Es
For cohesive soils, P < Bc+Ec
where,
P = Resultant thrust force.

Ji = Friction coefficient between soil and concrete. (0.75 tan 0)
W = Total weight at bottom of block.
Es = Passive earth pressure force due to cohesion less soil.
Ec = Passive earth pressure force due to cohesive soil.
Be = Cohesion at base of block.
-14/64-
~
, - - - M.S. Strap
_((_ ~~1F- ~Her Plp~
H.S.Str.p
l\--".ter Pipe
, I
tac t
,.c.
" " p",., --r1
'
1,J-
LAID 0" TH( BRIDG( USING EXTENDEO PILES
M.S.
H.S. 'Pipe
Tru.ssed Fra.m!!
c Contact
S.ddler-_ _ = '~~@
"
\.later Pipe
H.S. Senp
Contact Saddle
LAtC ON THE SlOt OF BRfO(,£ USING TRUSS
water Level
c
River Bed J
HOPE Or St'l'el
Pip~
USING PIERS UNO(RUAT[R OR SUOMARIN( CRO$S[Nr.

( ~(TTlING :1(THQO )
FIGURE 14.8 - TYPICAL STREAM AND RIVER CROSSINGS
- 14/65 -
ROAD PAVEMENT
E
N
Sand
·~ater Pipe
ROAD PAVEMENT I RAILWAY TRACK
c Sleeve
Water Pipe
Concrete Support
FIGURE 14.9 - TYPICAL ROAD AND RAILWAY TRACK CROSSING
- 14/66 -
Buoyancy effects shall be taken into consideration when designing any concrete blocks under
water.
TABLE 14.21 - DETERMINATION OF THRUST FORCES
Fitting Direction Of Force Thrust Formul!le
Bend
tp I
p = 2.p.A.Sin fJ/2
I
p = Thrust force.
~
A = Sectional area
of pipe.
p = Designed internal
pressure.
B-= Degree of bend.
tp
Tee n I
f----.,
(
I
p =. p. a
I
~
a = ,Sectional area·
of branched
pipe.
\::: l-
c Taper/
Reducer
FEp, s I
A-a
p = p. (A-a)
= Changed
I
sectional
area.
= p.A
~~
P
Dead End ~ I I
A = Sectional area
of pipe .
• 14/67 -
For a. horizontal bend as shown in the diagram below, and where hl/H < 0.5 (for all soil
types) and l/H < 2.5, (for cohesive soils) or l/H < 1.5 (for cohesionless soils), the simplified
equations are as follows:-
t~·------------------------------------~
I,
,I
\
f
i
l
I.
I
i
(
I
·~~------------------ ____ ~ __________________________4
Es = 1/2. r .H' .l.tan' (45° + 0/2)

Ec = (1/2. r.R' + 2.c.H) I
Bc = 3/4 c. B . L
where,
r = Unit weight of soil.
H = Depth of block from ground surface
I Projection length of block
0 = Internal friction angle of soil.
(
c = Cohesion of soil.
B = Width of block.
A detailed analysis for thrust block design shall be carried out where the conditions for. hllH
and IIH cannot be met.
For a simplified design of thrust blocks, the angle of friction for cohesionless soils can be taken
as 30°. JKR probes are required to estimate the allowable bp.aring capacities and to estimate
cohesion. Table 14.22 relates cohesion values to the number of blows in a JKR probe. The
unit weight of soil is as given in Table 14.23.
- 14/68 -
TABLE 14.22 - SOIL COHESION ESTIlVIATES
JKR Probe Cohesion, C

(No. Of Blows) (kg.flm' )
10 500
11 - 20 1500
21 - 30 2500
31 and above 3600
( TABLE 14.2:: - UNIT WEIGHT OF SOIL
Materials Unit Weight Of Soil

(kgJ/ m3 )
Cohesionless Soil
Gravel 1950
Coarse and medium sands 1850
Fine and silty sands 1800
Cohesive Soil
Stiff clay 2000
Firm clay 1900
(
Soft clay 1700
(d) Design of a concrete block to resist vertical thrust
i) Upward force.
For an upward force, resistance shall be checked for the horizontal and vertical components of
the resultant force.
- 14/69 -
.P?t:; I
4
I I
.c
..
- - ' I: w': I,:.
P?:
.
r .c
N ..
{, ~~>'~ T...,!;:-~
-·L - "
.. '...... -:.WI>
C ..:.
,~,
'
'.
,
.C
.
£ B
for cohesionless soils,

( PI = P.sin 0/2 < J1 (W - P2) + Esv
P2 = P.cos 0/2 < W + Fs
For cohesive soils,

PI = P.sin 0/2 < Ecv + 3/4.c.B.L
P2 = P.cos 0/2 < W + Fc
where,
force at sides of block caused by cohesionless soils,
Fs = p. Y:. H'. (B+I) . Ko
force at sides of block caused by cohesive soils,
( Fc = 2(B+ 1) .H.3/4.c
Ko = coefficient of lateral pressure at rest. (can be taken as 0.6)

Esv = 1/2. 'f. H'. B .tan' (45 0 + 012)
Ecv = (112. 'f.H' + 2.c.H.) B
(ii) Downward force.
For the downward force, resistance shall also be checked for the horizontal and vertical
components of the resultant force.
- W70-
For cohesionless soils,
PI = P.sin 0/2 < fI (W + P2) + Esv
For cohesive soils,
PI = P.sin 0/2 < 3/4.c.B.L + Ecv
The ground shall also be checked for required bearing capacity,

BFR= W + P2 < BFA
B . I
where, P2 = P.cos 0/2
Required bearing force of ground
Allowable bearing force of ground
(e) Factor of safety
To accomodate for non-homogenity of soils, and to ensure limitation to movement as well to

provide a sufficient margin of safety, a design factor of safety shall be applied. The
( recommended factor of safety of all computed resistance forces over the resultant thrust force
shall be not less than 1.5.
14.11 OTHER RELATED PIPELINE DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
14.1 1.1 WATER HAMMER
Checks shall be made against pressure increase and decrease, during surge, in a pipeline. The
minimum pressure at any point along the pipeline shall be the saturated vapour pressure of
water while the maximum pressure at any point of the pipeline shall be its maximum
permissible working pressure.
To overcome the above mentioned problem, surge vessels are most preferred. A surge
anticipator valve can be used only when surge calculations indicate problems in the maximum
pressure and not of the minimum pressure.
. 1417l -
i) Simplified method of water hammer calculation, caused by rapid opening or closing of
a valve (T < 2L1a).
In this method, the following formula is used,
H - Ho = - aJg (V - Vol
where,
T = Time for forward pressure wave and return (sec)
L = Length of pipe (m)
Ho Water head in constant flowing situation (m)
Vo Flow velocity in constant flowing situation (m/sec.)
H = Water head at a given time after the valve is operated (m)
V Flow velocity at a given time after the valve is operated (m/sec.)
C a = Pressure wave velocity (m/sec.)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (m/sec.sq.)
When the valve is fully closed, V = 0,

H - Ho = aJg (Vo)
(H - Ho) is then the maximum additional head caused by water hammer.
The pressure wave velocity, a is given by the foliowing equation,

a 1
"f rig [11K + D/(E.I.)]

( where,
r Unit weight of water ( 1 tonflm cube)

K = Bulk modulus of water compressibility (2.07 x 105 tonf/m.sq.)
D Diameter of pipe
E Youngs' modulus of elasticity for pipe material. (tonflmlsq.)
t = Pipe wall thickness (m)
ii) The method of water hammer calculations for pumped pipelines is as described in
Section 12 Mechanical Equipment and Installation.
- 14172 -
14.11.2 SERVICE CONNECTIONS
For connections to service pipes up to 25mm diameter, tapping of the reticulation pipe is
allowed. Dry tapping can only be allowed during the installation of a new reticulation pipe.
Wet tapping shall be carried out for connections to existing reticulation pipes as pressure in
the pipelines tends to expel foreign matter which results from the tapping job as well as cause
no interruption to supply. Saddles shall be used when tapping on A.C., uPVC, PE or GRP
reticulation pipes. A typical ferrule connection is as indicated on Figure 14.10.
For connection to service pipes greater than 25mm diameter, a tee fitting is used. The
standard tee can be used during the installation of a new reticulation pipe. Where the
interruption of water service is extensive, connections shall be made with a tapping sleeve
which will allow an under pressure connection to be made. Figure 14.10 gives a typical
diagram of a tapping sleeve.
14.12 BOOSTER STATIONS

'C
14.12.1 BOOSTER SYSTEMS
In general, there are two types of booster systems, namely the booster with suction well type
and the in-line booster type.
Booster stations shall preferably be of the booster with suction well type. In this system,
water is first collected into a suction well before being pumped to the service reservoir or
distribution pipelines.
In the in-line booster type, water is pumped directly from the pipeline to a service reservoir or
distribution pipelines. This method is less preferred in JKR because skilled operators are
required to operate and maintain the system. Figure 14.11 gives a typical arrangement of the
in-line booster and the booster with suction well system.
;"
,-. 14.12.2 LOCATION OF BOOSTER STATIONS
The selection of site location shall be based on the following:-
(a) The ground level of the booster stations satisfies the hydraulic design of the distribution
system.
(b) The booster station shall be located at above a flood level of a 1 in 50 years return
frequency or where there is lack of data, above the highest level of flood experienced.
(c) It is accessible and as close as possible to a community or settlement.
(d) It is preferable to site the booster station on Government land as time required to
acquire the land is shorter. Land acquisition of private property shall be completed first
before the design is finalised.
. 14/73 .
r
TAPPING SLEEVE
FERRULE·CONNECTION
FIGURE 14.10 - TYPICAL FERRULE CONNECTION AND TAPPING SLEEVE
- 14174 -
,1 '7 I, Spare
II 'Out let
II Delivery
Pipe I,
II
M
". V>
II 0.
Suction
II .Pipe ......
I, ------<~I Suction
~ell
II N
II
II ~ Suction
0. II _ _<'1 Pipe
II II
II II
,I
II
I, '" . "
II 0.
" _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ...lI,
'L
C L __ _____ ____ J
BDO~TER ~ITH SUCTION ~ELL

Control Features
Suction De Ii very
1. Level sensing & control 1. Flow detection & control
2. For a positive suction -
Hotorised valve & control
-r+,"
lI 'L _____ _ -...r-,- __ _ _ _ _ J"l-_ -- __ _ J'~ _ _ _ _ _ ---' "I
I r- - - - - -""'-_r- - - - - - - __ r - - - -----.- - --. - --(I
I , 07" very I'
I I Pl pe , '
"
II .--.-.- -._.. -_._- --+-
,I I I
I I I I
I ,,
I I
c I
I ,
I L
II
..r",- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ "':"'- __ . _ _ _ _ _ ...r ......... _ _. _ _ _ _ _ J I
,,
I -------- _ _ ______ _ _______ -,
L.r-- - - - - - I . . . r - - - - - i...r- -,...~ -'oJ..
IN LI HE BOOSTER
Control Features
Suction Delivery
\. 'Flow detection & control 1. Flow detection & control
2. Pressure switch control 2. Pressure indicator &~ontrol
3. Hotorised valve with its 3. Temperature sensing &control
control. 4. Motorised valve &control
FIGURE 14.11 - TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT OF BOOSTER WITH SUCTION

WELL AND IN-LINE BOOSTER SYSTEMS
- 14175 -
14.12.3 BOOSTER STATION COMPONENTS
(a) Suction Well
In general, the criteria and standards for ground reservoirs and tanks, as discussed under
Section 15 Storage Tanks and Reservoirs, are applicable to suction wells.
All suction tanks shall be designed according to mass balance calculations. However, the
minimum size of a suction well shall be of 2 hours storage. All suction tanks shall be provided
with a low-level cut-off and an alarm system.
(b) Booster Pumphouse
The booster pump house shall be located as close as possible to the suction well so that the
length of the suction pipe is kept to the minimum. A minimum of two suction pipes is
C· recommended. Wherever possible, the pumphouse shall be so sited such that the pump will
have a positive suction head so as to minimise priming problems.
Centrifugal pumps shall be the preferred type in booster stations. The design of the pumping
system and other pump criteria and standard shall be as discussed under Section 12 -
Mechanical Equipment and Installation. Generally the number of hours of pumping operation
shall not exceed 16 hours. In remote areas, the pumping hours shall best be kept to not more
than 8 hours operation, especially for supplies smaller than 230 cubic metres per day.
Switchboard and instrument panels shall be raised at least 100mm above the floor and shall
also be at least 0.6 metres from the pumphouse wall. Water level indicators for indicating
water levels at the suction well and reservoir shall be provided. A water level recorder shall
also be provided. A flow measuring device shall be provided to record the quantity of
discharge.
All pipes in the pumphouse shall be laid in trenches. All trenches shall be provided complete
C with steel chequered plate covers and drainage or dewatering systems. The minimum width of
the trench shall be the diameter of the pipe plus 150mm space on each side of the pipe. It is
preferable to have a trench deep enough such that the valve is below the top of the trench.
A preliminary surge analysis shall be carried out to determine whether a surge vessel or other
anti-surge measures is required. When providing surge vessels, a minimum of two numbers of
compressor units will be needed.
Secondary chlorination shall be provided at the booster station where residual chlorine at the
proposed booster site falls below O.lOppm. Space considerations shall include at least 2
numbers of chlorinators, a month storage of chlorine cylinders, and the required pipework.
One of the two chlorinators shall act as a standby facility. Chlorination facilities shall be housed
separately with separate access.
- 14/76 -
Lifting equipments shall be provided for pump or other heavy items in the pumphouse. A one
way travelling crane or a gantry crane shall be provided. The height of the building shall take
into consideration the height for installation and operation of the pump and the lifting
equipment.
Space shall also be provided for the operators room and toilet facilities. Chlorine testing
equipments shall also be provided when secondary chlorination is involved.
The pumphouse shall preferably be of reinforced concrete construction. Details of the building
requirements such as finishes shall be as described for the treated water pumping station in
Section II - Treatment Plant Layout.
(c) Generator House
Where electrical power is not available, generators shall be used at the booster station. The
house shall be placed at some distance away from the pumphouse so as to reduce noise
c problems.
The generator house shall be sized to accomodate 2 main generating sets, an auxiliary
generator set, main switchboard and a fuel supply day tank. A bulk tank, of a three weeks fuel
storage capacity, shall be provided near to the generator house.
Lifting equipment shall be provided to facilitate lifting of the generator set during maintenance
works. All cables and lines shall be in trenches.
(d) Quarters
The decision as to whether quarters are needed at the booster station shall be decided by the
district water engineer. Where required, one number of class H quarter, to standard JKR
design, shall be provided for every one shift operation.
( (e) Access road and Hardstanding
The site for a booster station shall be accessible by road. Access roads shall be 3.5 metres
wide minimum and metalled with a premix wearing surface. The hardstanding and service
roads shall also be of premix wearing surface and have a minimum width of3.5 metres. In the
design of the access road, internal service road and hardstanding, consideration shall be given
to the turning radius of the various vehicles anticipated at the booster station.
(I) Fencing and Compund Lighting
The booster station shall be fenced using the 2.9 metres high security fencing, with a 4.9
metres wide main gate and a 1.0 metre wide service gate. Where quarters are provided
adjacent to the booster station, a separate fencing arrangement shall be provided at the
quarters. Adequate compound lighting shall be provided for the booster station.
- 14177 -
1
I
i
I
LIST OF REFERENCES
1. Twort, Law F.M., and Crowley F.M. Water Supply.

3rd ed. Hong Kong: Allion Printing Co. Ltd, 1985.
2. Frederick S. Meritt ed. Standard Handbook for Civil Engineers.

3rd. ed. New York: Mc Graw Hill Book Co., 1983.
3. Steel E.W. & T.1. Mc Ghee. Water Supply and Sewerage.

5th ed. New York: Mc Graw Hill Book Co., 1979.
c
4. Japan Waterworks Association. Water Supply Engineering.
Tokyo: JICA, 1984.
5. American Water Works Association. Introduction to Water Distribution

- Principles and Practices of Water Supply Operations.
Denver: AWWA, 1986.
6. Bernard J. Dangerfield ed. Water Supply and Sanitation In Developing Countries.

London: The Institution of Water Engineers and Scientists, 1983.
(. 7. Unit Makmal, Institute Latihan dan Penyelidikan JKR Malaysia.

Report on Thrust Block. ILP, 1989.
8. Guide to Pipe Materials Selection for Water Supply Systems

The Malaysian Water Association
- 14/78 -
APPENDIX
EXAMPLE 1 PIPE SIZE FOR A GRAVITY PIPELINE.
Ie
EXAMPLE 2 OPTIMUM PIPE SIZE FOR A PUMP DELIVERY
PIPELINE.
EXAMPLE 3 RETICULATION ANALYSIS USING MANUAL

CALCULATIONS.
EXAMPLE 4 SIZING HORIZONTAL THRUST BLOCKS.
. 14/79·
EXAMPLE 1 - PIPE SIZE FOR A GRA VITY PIPELINE
Determine the diameter of the steel pipe required to deliver 4000 cubic metres of water per
day from a balancing reservoir to a service reservoir. The distance between the two reservoirs
is 10 km. The depth of the balancing reservoir and service reservoir is 6.0 metres and 8.0
metres respectively while the top water levels are 300m OD and 270m OD respectively.
Balancing Reservoir
T.W.L 300m 00
Depth
6. Om
I -'-_--'......
Service Reservoir
T.W.L 270m 00
0·4000 cu. m/day
c .....-'_,-.1. Ta am
ePth
8.
Total Len th Of Pipe 10.0 km
Solution:
T.W.L. of balancing reservoir = 300m
Bottom water level = 294m
Available static head between the 2 reservoirs = 294m - 270m
24m
Consider residual head at outlet Um
c Available head =
=
24m - 1.5m
22.5m
To incorporate effects of minor losses,

the pipe length is increased by 2%, length = 10,200m
Available head/l000m length = 2.206m
Consider a peak factor of 1.2,

From Hazen-Williams nomogram
For a peak flow of 4,800 cubic metres/day,(55.5 Vs)
C = 110, hfllOOOm = 2.21 (0.22 percent)
The pipe diameter required is 350mm.
The next step is to draw the hydraulic gradient to ensure that all the pipe elevations are lower
than the hydraulic profile.
" 14/80 -
EXAMPLE 2 - OPTIMUM PIPE SIZE FOR A PUMP DELIVERY PIPELINE
Determine the diameter of the steel delivery main required to carry 2,000 cubic metres of
water per day. The top and bottom water levels at the suction tank are 90.0m and 8S.0m
respectively. The top water level of the reservoir is 140.0m. The distance between the pump
and the reservoir is 9.8 km.
Reservoi r
T.W.La 140m
Suction Tank
T-_W.L 90m
B:W.L B5m'
Pump
c Q " 2000 cu. m./day
L" 9.B I:m
Solution:
Select v = l.Omlsec., assuming 20 hours pumping.

Q = AxV
2x 1()3 = nD2 x l.0

3600 x 20 4
D = 0.188m
= 188mm
Ie Select an initial diameter of200mm. From Hazen-Williams nomogram, where Q = 2MLD and
I diameter = 200mm
Head loss = 3.9m11000m
Incorporating effects of minor losses, the planar length is in.creased by 2%, :. total length =
10 km.
Total major friction loss = 39m
Next calculate the loss due to in-plant fittings. For purpose of this example say the total minor
losses = 1m.
Total pumping lift = (140 - 87.5) + 39 + 1

= 92.5m
- 14/81 -
Select a typical pump and motor from available cataloques,
Say, pump 17 = 0.7 motor 17 ,: 0.9
Input power required = P • g • Q • H (Watts)

7JPxTJIll
= 1000 x 9.81 x 0.028 x 92.5 (Watts)

0.7 x 0.9
= 40.3 kW
Consider;
a) Cost of200mm pipelaying = $60.00/m length of pipe.

(
b) Cost of electricity = $0.20/kW hr.
c) Annual charge on capital = 8%
Cost of pipelaying = $600,000.00
Cost of electricity (over I year) = $0.20 x (40.3 x 20) x 365

= $58,838.00
P.resent worth of power cost

(for a 30 years period) = 11.2578 x $53,838.00
= $662,386.00
Total present worth for

( laying a 200mm dia. pipe = $600,000.00 + $662,386.00
= $1,262,386.00
The same procedure is then applied to a 250mm, 300mm and 350mm dia. pipe to determine
their total cost of pipelaying.
Considering the cost of pipelaying to be as follows,
250mm dia. = $63.0/m length
300mm dia. = $66.0/m length
350mrn dia. = $81. O/m length
and that the in-plant minor losses are insignificant.
" 14/82 "

The total present worth for laying a 250mm, 300mm and 350mm diameter are $1,134,597,
$1,085,475 and $1,209,404 respectively.
The most economic pipe size is the 300mm diameter pipe as indicated by the graph as
follows:-
1·3
C :z:
~
-'
--'
:E
:J:
J;:
1·2
0
;e
>-
:z:
U1
'"
U1
'"
"- 1·1
.J
...«
...
0
1·0
200 250 300 350
c PIPE DIAMETER I mm)
- 14/83 -
EXAMPLE 3 - RETICULATION NETWORK ANALYSIS USING MANUAL
CALCULATIONS
A simplified reticulation network is as shown below. At point G, a fire plus average flow
requires 14.0 m3/min. At all other points, the average flow are indicated. Determine the flow
through the pipe network for the given diameters of pipe. Consider the Hazen-Williams
coefficient, C to be 100.
2.2m 3/min 30Smm A 1nfl ow

IOOOm 2Sm 3/min
C
~ E
~ E
'"
00
000
0
~
CD '"0 '"0
~ N
~
H
2S0mm
2.Sm 3/min
~ E
-
'" 0
0'"
00 N
sa
"'0
'"00 '"
G 30Smm F
IOOOm
2.3m 3/min
Solution:
When using the Hazen-William formula, the correction factor is determined as follows.
I'l = -
1.85 L hlQ
A tabulation of the steps to compute the correction factors are as shown below. Three
corrections are made as follows.
- 14/84 -
First Correctioo
loop I
flok' • Die, LenQt'h b. h/O
Line W Imin = m
• • tI/lI l1 Imin
AB 13 0.40 1250 0.0110 13.75 1.058

BH 2 0.25 llOO 0.0033 3.63 1.815
HI -9.8 0.30 1000 -0.0260 -26.00 2.653
IA -12 0.30 1000 -0.0380 -31.80 3.150
-{6.42 8.676
A , ·- - .6..-42
------------
1.85(8.676)
• 2.9
loop II
FloW, Dia, Length b. h/O
Line H'/min
"
m • • r./~lI/min
BE 7.5 0.35 400 0.0075 3.00 0.-400

EF 7.0 0.35 600 0.0066 3.96 0.566
FG 4.7 0.30 1000 0.0067 6.68 l.423
GH -9.3 0.30 1"250 -0.0236 -29.54 3.177
HB -2.0 0.25 1100 -0.0033 -3.63 1.815
-19.53 7.381
- 19.53
C An · - ------------
1.85(7.381)
.. 1.4.
loop III
Flow, Dia, Length b. h/O
Line H1 /lIIin m = • • .,,/=' 1=1n
Be 1.5 0.20 500 0.0058 2.91 1.937
CD 1.0 0.20 400 0.0028 1.10 1.110
DE -0.5 0.20 500 -0.0008 -0.38 0.762
EB -7.5 0.35 400 -0.0075 -3,00
-0.63 -
0.400
4.209
A II r · - ------------
0.63
1.85<4.209)
0.1
Second Correctioo
loop I
Flqw. Dia. Length h. htO

Line ~/min m m • m mimi/min
AS 15.9 0.4.0 1250 0.0157 19.65 1.236
BH 3.5 0.25 1100 0.0094 10.34 2.954
HI -6.9 0.30 1000 -0.0136 -13.60 1.971
IA -9.1 0.30 1000 -0.0221 -22.70 2.495
( , -6.31 8.656
loop II
A
· 0.4
Flow, Dia. Length h. htQ

Line H'/min m • • m m/m'/min
BE 9.0 0.35 400 0.0105 4020 0.467
Ef 8.4 0.35 600 0.0093 5.58 0.664
FG 6.1 0.30 1000 -0:0~08 10.80 1. 770
GH -7.9 0.30 1250 -0.0175 -21. 88 2.769
HB -3.5 0.25 1100 -0.0094 -10.34 2.954
11.64 8.624
A
" · 0.7
lix?PIII flow. Dia. Len9tl} h. htO

Line W/l'1Iin m m
• • m/m'/min
8e 1.4 0.20 500 0.0051 2.55 1. 821
CD 1.9 0.20 400 0.0023 0.92 1.022
DE -0.6 0.20 500 -0.0011 -0.55 0.917
En -9.0 0.J5 400 -0.0)05 -4. 20 0.4G7
-1.28 40227
A III 0.2
- 14/85 -
Third Correction
Loop I
flo",. Oia, Len9 th h. hfQ
Line H' /1II1n • • • • rn/rn'/pin
1. 265
"e"
III
16. J
).2
-6.5
0.40
0.25
O.JO
1250
1100
1000
0.0165
0,0080
-0.0122
20,6)
8.80
-12.20
2.750
1.877
I~ -8.1 O.JO 10aO -0.0209 -20.90 2.402
-).67 8.294
• · , 0.2
Loop II
Flow, Dia. LenQ th h. hfQ
Line H' fmin m • s ~ lII/fliJ/min
eE 9.5 0.35 400 a.OllG 4.64 0.4.88

Ef 9.1 O. J 5 600 0.0107 6.42 0.105
fG 6 •• 0.)0 1000 0.0132 D.20 1.9<1
GM -1.2 0.)0 1250 -0.0147 -18.38 2.552
He -J.2 0.25 1100 -0.0080 -8.80 2.750
-2.92 8.06
Co Loop III
•" · 0.2
Flo ..... Oia, Length h. hfQ

Line H"'/Illin
• • • • ml.m' /Illin
ee 1.6 0.20 500 0.0066 3.30 2.06)

eo 1.1 0.20 400 0.00)3 1.)2 1. 200
DE -0, (, 0.20 500 -0.0005 -0.25 0.625
Ee -9.5 0.J5 400 -0.0116 -4.64 0,488
-0.27 4.316
• , " · O,OJ
A StrnMry of corrected fl""" is as shown bel""
2.2 A
( ~
25
U.O III
t.1 III
I.r IJl
',"1'1
==3~ =3=~
........ I ::~~~
I
H
2.5
0.5
~.O.
:==3=:
:.::.::::: I 1.1 hI
I.' hi 1.5
===~ •• 4hi
."-" I I.' hi
--
..,:.,;:..:..:
G F
14 uUI
1.1 lEI
... IJI
2.3
7.(1 (41
• 14/86 -
EXAMPLE 4 - SIZING OF HORIZONTAL THRUST BLOCKS
Design a concrete block for a 45 degree plain-ended horizontal bend, given the following
design data:-
Nominal pipe diameter = 600mm

Maximum designed pressure = 10 kg.£lcm'. (about 100 metre head)
Depth of earth cover = I.02m
Unit weight of concrete = 2.3 ton £lm'
Friction coefficient between concrete and soil = 0.5
Internal friction angle of soil = 30°
N
'"
-
.c
·:~·;:'I \13 ::
N
:c
,
-,
'"
.N
.c
:.....
~
'~;..
0.:.
·I?r·t,r -r-
:' .. L -
...··
..
.:.:. \"~' ~. :....
---- I
}4W 8-1.30
.
I
Unit • metre
c
Solution:
Thrust force at bend:
P = 2 x P x A x sin fr
2
= 2 x 10 x 11 X 60.0' x sin (45°)
4 2
= 21,640.2 kg f
= 21.640 ton f
- 14/87 -
Weight of filled soil on the block = WI
WI = TxhlxLxB
1.6 x 102 x 2.20 x 130
= 4.668 ton f
Weight of pipe and water in the pipe = W2

Say weight of pipe is 0.488 ton f,
W2 = 0.488 + 0.678
= 1.166 ton f
Weight of concrete block = WJ

WJ = B.h2.L. - (rr/4.D' .L) . Tc
= [(1.30 x 1.5 x 2.20) - (rr/4 x 0.60' x 2.20)] 2.3
= 8.436 ton f
c Total weight at the block bottom = W
W = WI + W2 + W3
= 4.668 + 1.166 + 8.436
= 14.27 ton f
Frictional resistance of the concrete block = F

F =J1xW
= 0.75 x tan 30 0 x 14.27
6.17 ton f
Resistance by passive earth pressure at back of the block = E

E = 112 T H' . 1 . tan' (45 0 + <D/2)
c = 112 x 1.6 x 2.53 x 2.522 x 3

= 38.56 ton f
Resistability of the block
F + E= 6.17 + 38.56
= 44.73 ton f
(F + E) is larger than the force 21.640 ton f, by a safety margin of2.06
Required bearing capacity = W = 14.27

B.L 1.3 x 2.2
= 4.99 ton flm sq.
If the bearing capacity of the ground is smaller than the required bearing capacity, then the
dimensions of the block bottom shall be enlarged.
- 14/88 -

Section 14 (Water Distribution Systems)

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Section 14 (Water Distribution Systems)

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SECTION 14 - WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

14.3 TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

c Supp ly ~I-----j~~/ '---1--' Gravity

C. GRAVITY AND PUMPED COMBINATION

FIGURE 14.1 - DlAGRAMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE TYPICAL

TABLE 14.1 - ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

System Advantages Disadvantages

1. Gravity • Most reliable

• Low operational costs

2. Pumped and Gravity • Least cost option under • Problems associated

14.4 DISTRIBUTION AND RETICULATION LAYOUT

14.5.1 PIPE MATERIALS

(a) Cast Iron (C-I.) or Grey Iron Pipes.

(b) Ductile Iron (D.l.) Pipes

Pipe material Advantages Disadvantages

Copper Cu. • High pressure capability • Susceptible to corrosion in

Polyethylene (MDPEIHDPE) • Corrosion resistant • Fusion jointing requires skilled

Prestressed Concrete (PSC) • Strength and rigidity • Heavy

Unplasticized Polyvinyl Chloride • Corrosion resistant • Susceptible to impact damage

Nominal Diameter External Diameter Wall Thickness

(c) Asbestos Cement (A.C.) Pipes

(d) Steel Pipes •

Pipe Diameter (mm) Pipe Shell Thickness (mm)

Nominal Outside Pipe With Flexible Pipe With Cast-

TABLE 14.5 - THICKNESS AND DIAMETER OF ASBESTOS CEMENT PIPES

80 9.8 95.6 76.0

Nominal Internal Finished Concrete Finished

(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)

100 93.7 4.1 10 121.9

150 149.1 4.1 10 177.3

200 204.0 4.1 10 232.2

250 257.8 4.1 10 286.0

300 313.8 5.8 10 345.4

'e 350 361.7 5.8 13 399.3

400 415.5 5.8 13 453.1

450 469.4 5.8 13 5.7.0

500 522.7 5.8 13 560.3

600 628.0 6.5 13 667.0

650 651.2 7.4 13 692.0

700 701.2 7.4 19 754.0

75!l 751.2 7.4 19 804.0

800 801.2 7A' 19 854.0

850 851.2 7.4 19 904.0

900 901.2 7.4 19 954.0

Minimum required 'Maximum allowable

* 0- = MRS Factor of Safety (F.S) = 1.25

The recommended maximum working pressures at 30°C are given below:-

PE80 16.0 S-4 12.8

PE63 10.0 S-5 8.0

Wailihickness lor PE G3 pipes

()Ao< 5-16 5-12.5 5-8.3 5-5

D'amdo< "Wall Thickness (mm)

~ 2.3 2.8 3.7 ~.3

SO 2.3 2.8 2.9 3.~ ~.6 5.3

110 3.~ ~.O ~2 4.9 6.3 72 10.0 11.3

710 21.8 25.3 27.2 . 31.5 40.4 46.7

The calculation for walilhickncss tolerance is:-

r-or c < 16.0 mm. i x = 0.10 c i 0.2 mm

TABLE 14.7(2) - WALL THICKNESS FOR PE 80 PIPES

Walilhickness for PE 80 pipes

{).rtD< 5-10 s-a $.{;.3 5-5 S--<

():amctd 'Wall Th;c!<n= (mm)

530 30.0 34.8 37.3 43.1 46.3 53.5 57.2 66.0

710 33.9 39.2 42.1 48.7 52.2 60.3