Soil& Tillage Research, !9 (199!

~ 275-256 275
Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

A method to predict the mechanical strength of

agricultural soils

Matthias Lebert and Raiaer Horn

Christian-Albrechts-Univelsitiit, Institut JrdrPflanzenernii,~rung und Bodenkunde,
Olshausenstrasse 40-60, 2300 l:iel I (F.R.G.)
(Accepted for publication 2 April 1990)

ABSTRACT

Lebert, M. an~ ![-lorn, R, ! 091. A metb,:d to predict the mechanical strength of agricultural soils. Soi/
Tillage Res., '19: 275-2.36.

During a 3-.~ear pe~-ic,d ii~e physical and mechanical pro~rtdes of 37 typical, differently textured
and struct~tred agricvlt-ra~ soils in Bavaria were determined in order to predict '~he~ ~-ec:ha~,icalcom-
pressibility and trafficability. The soil physical properties (bulk density, par~ s~ze ,2istdbution, satu-
rated hydrauiic conauctivity, air permeabiF.:y and penetration resistance) and the soil mechanical
properties (pre..consolidation load and the shear strength paramc:c:~ angle of internal fri=tion and
cohesion ), were determined on undisturbed, differently pro-dried soil samples (60 and 300 hPa water
tension). In order to qaantify the changes in soil physical properties affected by loading, all soil phys-
ical parameters were measured before and after loading by the confined compression test (load range
10-800 kPa). It was found tiiat in homogeneous, non-structured soils, such as sands and silts with
low cla~ conlem ( < I 5%, w/w), the shear para~neters are mainly texture-dependent. However, ia
.~truetured soils (clay content > 15%, w/w), stability increased with increasing degree of aggregation
(coherent < prismatic < blocky < subangular blocky), due to higher values of the angle of internal fric-
tion between the ~ggregates and higher vah~es ft,.r ~.hecohesion within the dense, stable a~regatcg. The
mechanical soi~ streagth, which is determined as the value of the ore-consolidation load, could be
p ":dicted by multiple regression analysis with a high degree of significance, when !he shear parame-
ters angle o*"int~:mal friction aizd cohesion (load range 0-400 kPa) were included as indc~endent
va,'Jables.

INTRODUCTION

increasing weights of agdcul,~.ural machinery cause deeper stress transmis-

sion in scils, even at the same or lower contact pre.qsures (Lebert et al., 1989).
Thus, higher stresses induce not only a more intensive soil compaction in the
topsoi,~, but also in the untilled :mbsoil layers.
In the literature;, a large number of papers describe the resp3nse of plants
to soil corr,,paction (H~kansson et al., 1988; Boone, 1988).
Soil response to compressive and tensile forces, however, has not yet been
quantified to a sufficient extent. The compression behaviour of soils is a func-

0167-1987/91/$03.50 @ 1991 - - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

276 M. LEBEPI7 AND R. HORN

tion of external and internal soil factors (Horn, 1988). While soil exteraal
factors are characterized by the kind of loading (vehicle weight, tyre size, tyre
inflation pressure, numb~'r of loading events, etc.), soil internal forces are
influenced by soil texture, structure, water content and different kinds of bonds
between the soil particles (Horn, 1981; Koolen and Kuipers, 1983 )~
Whenever the external forces exceed the internal soil strength, soil stroc-
ture is deformed to attain a new equilibrium. Therefore, it is necessary to
determine the internal soil strength, in order to prevent damage to soil struc-
ture by traffic.
The investigations reported here were carried out to quantify the soil
strength of typical Bavarian agricultural ~oils and to predict soil strength by
we!l-defined phys~cai and mechanical parameters.

THEORY

In soil foundation mechanics, the parameter "pro-consolidation load" is

used to characterize soil strength of saturated, nor-structured soils (K6zdi,
1969). Horn ( 1981 ) showed, that the value of the pre-consolidation load de-
termined according to tht, method of Casagrande (1936) is also suitable for
unsaturated, st:mctured soil conditions.
If the soil is 7.tressed with loads smaller than the pre-consolidation load, soil
deformation is only small, elastic and reversible (Fig. 1, re-compression
curve). However, if the str,zsses exceed the pre-consolidation load, a plastic
and therefore irreversible deformation takes place (Fig. !, virgin compres-
sion line). Thus, additional compaction only occurs in the virgin compres-
sion load range. In the re-compression state, normal force and shear r~sis-.
tance are large enough to compensate for the applied forces, while in lhe virgin

~I..rmnl stress log On

i\: t~re-consolidation load

re-compression curve

\,
virgilJ compression line
\
Fig. 1. Compression behaviour of structured soils in the recompression and the virgin compres-
sion stress state. The maximum acceptable stress without plastic deformation is characterized
by the pre-ccr:.3cligetio:, load.
PREDICTION O F MECHANICAL STRENGTH OF SOiL 277

compression state both normal force and shear resistan~-¢ have to =ncrease up
to a higher level of strength. The relation b,;tween norma~ ~tress, o-n, ar~ shc,ar
resistance, z, is ~iven by the Mohr-Coulomb failure line, which follows the
general linear eqtlation:
r = c + t a n ~.trn (1)
where c is cohesion and ¢ is the angle of internal friction.

SOILS AND METHODS

The investigations were carded out on 37 typical Bavarian agricultural soils,

with different types of texture and structure. The measming procedure is
shown in Fig. 2.
Apart from the determination of the stress transnfission under in-situ con-
ditions, the following soil mechanical properties were determined on undis-
turbed soil samples under laboratory conditions, to predict the possible
changes in physical properties due to loading: ( 1 ) pre-consolidation load ac-
cordir~g to Casagrande (1936) by the confined compression test (load range
10-800 kPa); (2) shear parameters by the trans!a6onal shear test under con-
solidated and drained conditions (load range 0-400 kPa). The measure-
ments were made under two moisture conditions, i.e. a water tension of 60
hPa (pF 1.8) which occurs in early spring and in late autumn when soil struc-
ture is weak, and a water tension of 300 hPa (pF 2.5) which prevails during
the vegetation period, when the level of structuzal stabilky is higher.
Multiple regression analysis was then applied to the data to formulate eq ti?~..

in situ

,)

!ond~ctivitT

:)
5~
leters
e (MPa)

ml
Fig. 2. Measuring procedure.
278 ~;:.LEBERTAND R. HORN

tions tbr the prediction of soil strength, character/zed by the pre-consolida-

tion load. For more deCailed information about soils and methods reference
is made ~o Lebert (1989) and Burger et al° (1988).

SOIL S T R U C T U R E RESPONSE TO VERTICAL STRESS

Figures 3 and 4 show some examples of the relationships between normal

stress and void ratio and between normal stress and air capacity for various
textured ~nd structured soils with different aggregate stability.
When the applied stresses are lower than the pre-consolidation load, only
sr;l~ll ~angez in soil physical properti~ can be observea. When, however,
the stresses exceed the pre-consolidation load, a stronger deformation is re-
corded due to plastic strain. For similar textured ,~;oils,Fig. 4 shows that the
higher the aggregate strength~ the longer the air capaciw remains at a high
level, even in the virgin compression state.
In Figs. 5 and 6 the curves of the stress/void ratio and the stress/air capac-
.......
ity relationships ;- ~'-..... for all inves-
,h= virgin compression load range m-e ,~,.ow,,
tigated sites. Generally, in the virgin compression load ran~e~ the ve~ical
stresz/strain relationship follows the general logarithmic equation:
e=b+ m.log.trn (2)
where e is the normal strain, an is the normal stress, and m and b zre constants

09
;u 3 --..~

0.8

0.7

05 \
' ' " i .... ! ' , ' :'"' .] • • • i ~ 1
10 100 1000
Normal stres~ ~n (kPa)

Fig. 3. Alteration o f the void r~:tio due to normal stress in a sandy loam (Ls3) and a silty clay
(Tu3). Water tension: 60 hPa. - - virgin compression line; - - re-compression curve, ~-, pre-
consolidation load.
PREDICTIONOF MFCHANiCALSTRENGTHOF SOIL 279

I
" " ' .... t'o ' " " ''"~lo'o " ~ " looo
Normal stress dn (Idea)

Fig. 4. Al.'.eration of ihe oir capacity due to ~,'o:[~al st:'z,s~ in clay ioams (Lt2) with different
aggregate strcnoth.,., (20, 70 and 100 k P a ) . Water tension: ~0 hFa. - - v i r g i a compression line,
- - - re-compression curve, - , pre-coasoiidation load.

1.4"1

.o 9-
"~ 0.8- : - ~ 4 . .L ~ ....... ~ , ,
~ 07-
OB.
05
0.~-
03
1o IDO 1ooo
Normal .qress o n (kPa)
Fig. 5. Relationship between normal stress ,~nd void ratio (virgin comprcssioa line) for sevez~
different texture groups. For e,~planot,oB, see text and Table 1. Water tension: 300 hPa.

which depe:zd on soil texture (Fig. 5 and Table 1 ) and soil structure (Figure
6 and "-'-'-
JL dOa~ "L ].'
It can be seen, that under smal~ stresses the ,:oid ratio and the air capacity
280 M. LEBERTAND R. HORN

~0

/ L--<. "-o.

o~ ....... "1c . . . . . "~oo-- '~~r'~o

Normal stress d n (kPa)

Fig. 6. Relationship between normal stress and air capacity (virgin compression line) for six
groups of clays and clay foams (clay content < 35%, w / w ) with different aggregate strength. For
explanation, see text and Table 2. Water tension: 60 and 300 hPa.

TABLE 1

Relationship between normal stress (on) and void ratio (c) i. the virgin compression state, for dif-
ferent texture groups (cf. Fig. 5 )

No. Texture group n of Formula r

samples
1 Clay ~,~d clay loam 32 ~ = - 0 . 1 3 1 ln(an)-t- 1.35 -0.834 **~"
( _>35%, w/w, clay)
2 Clay and clay loam 52 ¢= -0.113 I n ( a n ) + 1.'9 -0.668***
( <:35%, w/w, cl~./)
3 Sandy loam 53 ~ = - 0 . 1 0 2 I n ( a n ) + i.14 -0.723***
4 Sand 35 ~= -0.060 intern) +0.96 -0.473**
( >i 1.0%, w/w, organic matter)
5 Sand 26 ~= -0.063 In(an) +0.9I - 0.382*
( < 1.0%, w/w, organic matter)
6 Silt 99 ¢= -0.073 ln(Gn),~0.96 -0.7!4"**
7 Clay, loam and silt with platy 10 ~= -0.056 In (an) +0.80 -0.647*
structure (plow-pan)
I ' P = 0.05, **P= 0.01, ***P= 0.001.

are larger for higher day contents and aggregate strengths. However, with in-
creasing stresses, the decrease in void ratio and air capacity is more pro-
nounced for higher clay contents and aggregate strengths, in the plow-pan
layer, (Fig. 5, line 7) owing to the higher degree of compactness, the void
ratio changes only slightly with increased loading.
PREDICTIONOF MECHANICALSTRENGTHOi" SOIL 28 ]

TABLE 2

Relationship between normal stress ~rn and air capacity Lk in the virgin compression state, for clay
and clay loam soils (clay content < 35%, w/w) wi',h different aggregate :~'.rength (of. Fig. 6 ) '

No. CaCO3 Aggregate pF Number Formula r

(%, w/w) strength of
(kPa) samples

I >/10 100 2.5 4 L K = - 6 . 6 5 In(an) +45.7 -0.951"*

2 >t10 t00 1.8 3 L K = - 5.34 ln(trn) + 36.0 -0.988**
3 0 100 2.5 !5 L K = - 4 . 9 0 In(tin) +32.4 -0.961"**
4 0 100 1.8 18 L K = - 2 . S I !n(an) + 17.7 -0.607**
5 0 60 2.5 4 L K = - 2 . 3 7 ln(~m) + 13.8 -0.902*
6 0 60 1.8 6 L K = - 1.79 In(an) + 11.5 -0.827*
'*P= 0.05, * * P : 0 . 9 I, *** 0=0.OOi.

EFFECTS O F SOIL S T R U C T U R E ON SOIL S T R E N G T H

Soil strength is a function of the number of particle contacts, single particle

strength al~d the shear resistance between the particles. While the number of
part:,cle contacts is characterized by parameters such as pore size distribution
and bulk density, single particle strength and shear resistance are r,roperties
of the soil material as a system consisting of the solid, liquid an(l gaseous;
phases.
Hgure 7 shows the Mohr-Coulomb failure lines at 60 hPa water tension for
non~-structured or weakly aggregated soils. The shear parameters, angle of in-
ternai friction and cohesion, are determined by textural properties. The angle
of internal friction remains constant for the entire load range. Thus, at a given
texture, soil strength can caiy be increased by higher normal stresses resulting
in higher bulk densities (el. eqn. ( 1 ) ).
In stronger aggregated soils, however, the shear parameters, angle of inter-
nal friction and c,~hesion, mainly depend on soil structure (Fig. 8). Similar
to the results of Horn ( 198 ! ), shear resistance increased with increasing de-.
gree of aggregation (coherent < prismatic < blocky < subangular blocky).
The Mohr-Coulomb failure line of structured soils can be partitioned into
two linear ~arts with difterent slopes within the load range 0-400 kPa. The
first paint has a steep slope and the second pat;., at higher normal stresses, has
a gentler slope. In 85% of all _investigated structured soils, the vertical stress
~ ~.hebceakpoirtt between the two parts corresponded exactly to the value of
the ag/~-~,gatcstrength, a,~ shown in Fig. 9 for one si~e. Single aggregate ~trength
was determined ~=cording to the method of Lebert et al. (1987).
During the shear test, under stresses smaller than the value of the aggreg:~,::,e
strength, the aggregates remain stable. Friction angle and cohesion are de.t~;r.-
mined by inter-aggregate properties. Owing to the hard and rough ~.urface f f
the aggregates, the intero.aggrega'~efriction angle is high (Fig. 9). The inter-
282 M. LEBERT AND R. HORN

5~]0-~
I
1.00 J ,,,-" SI2, singlegrain
, . " /•' " J Ut4, coherent
300[ ," , , ~ ~ ~ " S!:'btn°:elekTgrain

o !oo 2o0 3oo ~oo

N o r m a l stress c~n (kPa)

Fig. 7. Mohr-Coulomb failure lines o f non- or weakly structured soils. Water tension: 60 kPa.

500"

~ 1 ,L~2,blocky

200-
~ , ....... L~, ,nrlsmatic

o !oo 200 3oo ~oo

Normal stre~s ~ n (kPa)

Fig. 8. Mohr-Co~lom._b failure lines of strongly stcuc'w:red,aggregated soils. Water tension: 60

hPm.

aggregate cohesion, however, i~ low, due to the large secondary pore space and
the small number of particle contacts between the aggregates (Fig. 9).
When the applied stresses are larger than the ag.gregate strength, the aggre-
gates are crushed and, therefore, the soil material is homogeifizeci. In this case
soil strength is determined by textural properties. ¢~,,,~,~,.,,~..~.4,-,,.~the reduced
roughness of the smaller sin$~le grairls, the texture-dependent friction angle is
smaller than the inter-agscegate friction angle (Fig. 9). The high cohesion of
the texture-dependent failure line can be called intra-aggregate cohesion (Fig.
9 ), because ~ts magnitude is affec,ed by the aggregate strength.
As long as soil st~cture is built up from intact aggregates, high stability can
PREDICTION OF MECHANICALSTRENGTH OF SOIL 283

t,O0 I ~t inter-
1 ~ aggregate ~f__~bulksoil
300 s S" " , - " ' ~ - ~" " ~ - -

200 .,,
I 2 /" ~"

0 100 200 300 t.O0

Normal stress (~n (kPa)

Fig. 9. Partitioa of the Mohr-Coulomb failure lille iatu i,icr-aggrcgateand texture-dependent

failure lines and tim',bulksoil failure line (load range 0-400 kPa) of .aclay loam. ¢Vatertensi,~n:
300 hPa. Black ~tots show measured values, 1.-=intra-aggregalecohesion; 2 = cohesion of the
,~ulksoil. ~:-:,nter-~ggregatecohesion.

occur even at .,. low bulk density, which means better growing conditions for
plants.
For more detailed informatio~i about the magnitude 9f~he inter- and intra-
aggregate shear parameters, dependent on size, strength and geometry, of the
aggregates, ~. well as on texture, bulk density and water suction~ refere;ace is
made to Lebert (1989).
Generally, for the water tension range pF 1.8-2.5, the aggregate strer, gth of
the investigated structured soils varied between 5 and 200 kF'a. Therefore,
the shear components for the whole Joad range of 0-400 kPa represent the
effect of structure and texture on soil strength (Fig. 9 ).

PREDICTWQN ,.'3F SOJ, L S T R E N G T H BY ML!L'IIPLE R E G R E S S I O N A N A L Y S I S

In order to predict soil strength (=pre-consolidation load) by multiple

regression analysis, the following soil physical and soil mechanical properties
were available as independent variables: angle of internal friction (bulk soil )
q~ ( ° ); cohesion (bulk soil) c (kPa); bulk density da (g c m - 3 ) ; air capacity
Lk (%, v / v ); available water capacity nFk (%, v / v ); non-available water ca-
pacity TW (%, v / v ) ; saturated hydraulic conductivity kf ( 103 cm s-~); or-
ganic matter content org (%, w / w ) .
For different texture groups (according to the scheme of the AG Boden-
kunde, 1982), equations for the prediction of the pre-consolidation load Pv
(kPa) were obtained by multiple Jcgressien analysis for two water tensions
(pF 1.8 and pF 2.5 ). The results are shown in Table 3
Not all of the available independent variables were used for every texture
group to determine the pre-consolidation load. In the group of sand soils,
284 M. LEBERTAND R. HORN

TABLE 3

Multiple regression analysis of pre-consolidation load Pv (kPa)

Texture group pl- Fo~:u!a

Sand 1.8 ,', L8= 438.10 d a - 0.0008 (0Ls) 3 - 3.14 r l -=0.'.'78
T W - 0 . 1 i (nFkLs)2-465.60
2.5 Pv25=410.75 da-0.0007 (02.5)3-3.41 r2=0.710
T W - 0 . 3 5 (nFk2~,)2-384.71
Sandy loam 1.8 Pth.8 = 169.30 dB-- 29.03 {org)°5.+ 6.45 r 2= 0.828
kf+ 32.18 log(cl.s) - 9 . 4 4 0it ~27.25
sir~(TW) -I- I 19.74 log( nFk~.s ) + " o 51
2.5 Pv_,5= 89.50 da-- 23.99 ( org )o5_ 2.89 r2=0.874
kf+ 125.76 1og(c2.5) - 1.14 02.5+26.90
sin (TW) - 5 !.46 log( nFk2.5 ) - 77.25
Silt !.8 Pvl.s=37~.15dB-4.10org+3.38Lk~-l.58 r2=t?.765
(kf)- u.5+ !.79 c,.8+ 1.09 T W - 6 . 3 7
( 0i.8 )°67 --~-0.088 (nkFLs)2-472.77
2.5 Pvz.5=460.71 d ~ - 20.33 org+ 9.08 ra=0.847
Lk2.~--2.38 (kf)-°5+2.86 c2.~+4.50
T1¥- 20.96 (¢p2.5)°67+0.304
(nF~.5)z-610.62
Clay and clay loam 1.8 log Pv:.s--0.843 d a - 0 . 5 4 4 (kt.)°33- 0.022 r2 =0.808
( <35%, w/w, clay) TW+7.03 (cLs)-~ +0.024 0Ls-0.015
nFkLs+0.725
2.5 IogPvzs=O.844dn-0.456 (kr)° 33-0.026 r-"= 0.804
T W + 12.88 (c2.5)- ~+0.003
0,,.5--0.016 nFk2.5+ 1.419
Clay an~ clay Iovrn Ix PvL~=4.59 riB-- 1.02 org-- 16 43 r2=0.774
( >/35%, w/w, cla~, t/q)" " + 0 . 3 1 FI4,'- 1.57 ni"t%s+3.55
cl.s + 1.18 0~.s - 18.C3
2.5 Pv2.5= 70.65 d ~ - 0 . 5 5 o r g - 7.01 r2=0.763
(kf)°33+ 1.32 T W - 1.08 nFk2.5-: 1.72
c2.5+ 1.05 025-100.94

which do not have strong cohesive bonds between the single particles, inclu-
sion of the cohesion did not improve the degree of significance. Owing to the
general relationship between bulk density ?.nd the volume of coarse pores as
shown in Fig. 6, the air capacity v;a,; excluded as an independent variable
when the bulk density was included, except tbr the silt soil group. Owing to
the stnall total amount of coarse pore,,; in silt soils, bulk density mainly affects
the volume of the medium pores (Lebert, 1989). Therefore, in silt soils the
air capacity is only slightly influenced by bulk density but is more strongly
affected by soil structural properties.
The muitipie regression analysis of the pre-consolidation load for different
texture groups shows that the influence of the bulk density as an independent
variable decreases with increasing clay content and, therefore, with increasing
aggregation, Table 4 shows the comparison between the degree of significance
PREDICTIONOl: MECHANICALSTRENGTHOF SOIL 285

TABLE ~t

Comparison t~fthe degree of significance (r2) between the equation with and without inclusion of the
shear parameters 0 and c as independent variables

Texture group With ¢ and c Without ¢ and c

pF 1.8 pF 2.5 pF 1.8 pF 2.5

Sand 0.78 0.71 0.72 C 69

Sandy loam 0.83 0.87 0.73 0.75
Silt 0.77 0.85 0.51 0.59
Clay and clay loam 0.81 0.80 0.37 0.48
( <35%, w/w, clay)
Clay and clay loam G.77 0.76 0.4~ 0.62
( >135%, w/w, cla))

(r 2) of the equations presented in Table 3 and equations that were drawn ~zp
without ,,~.tsingthe shear parameters angle of internal friction and cohesion
(for the latter equations, see Lebert, 1989). It is clearly to be seen, that with
increasing c~ay content the degree of significance decreases when the shear
parameters are not used as independent variables.

CONCLUSIONS

If the value of the pre-consolidation load is not exceeded by the applied

external forces, the soil physical properties remain constant. If the external
forces are higher than the pre-consolidation load, soil physical properties
change considerably due to the plastic deformation of the soil.
The high degree of significance of the equations for the pre-consolidation
load for representative soils in Bavaria, show that soil strength can be pre-
dicted by multiple regression analysis. Thus, if ,*he soil physical properties
used as independent variables are known and if the stresses caused by agri-
cultural machines at the contact area and in differe.nt depths down the soil
profile are known, soil compaction can ~:e predicted for the water tension
range pF 1.8-2.5. In order to transfer the results obt~'ined for typical soils in
Bavaria to other soils, the shear strength properties (ioad range 0-400 kPa)
have to be determined. The inclusion of the shear parameters in the equations
as independent variables is necessary, because soil strength is not only deter-
mined by the bulk density but is strongly affected by structure-dependent val-
ues for the angle of internal friction and cohesion.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are highly indebted to the "Bayerisches Staatsministerium f'tir

Landesentwick!ung ui~d Umweltfragen" (StMLU) in Munic~ for financial
support.
286 M. LEBERTANDR. HORN

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AG Bodenku~,de, 1982. Bodenkundliche Kartieranleitung. 3. Aufl., Hannovcr, pp. 80-83.

Boone, F.R., 1988. Weather and other environmental factors 2, fluencing crop responses to til-
lage and traffic. Soil Tillage Res., I 1: 283-324.
Burger, N., Lebert, M. and Horn, R., 1988. Prediction of the compressibility of arable land. In:
J. Drescher, R. Horn and M. de Boodt (Editors), Impact of Water and External Forces on
Soil Structure. Catena Suppl. 1 i, pp. 141-151.
Casagrande, A., 1936. The determination ofpreconsolidation load and its practical significance.
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Hfikansson, I., Voorhees, W.t3. and Riley, H., 1988. Vehicle and wheel factors influencing soil
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Horn. R., 1988. Compressibility of arable land. in: J. Drescher, R. Horn and M. de Boodt (Ed-
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Kd.zdi, A.. 1969. Handbuch der Bodenmechanik. VEB-Verlag, Bauwesen, Berlin, pp. 207-214.
Koolen, A.J. and Kuipers, H., 1983. Agricultural Soil Mechanics. Springer Verlag, Berlin, pp.
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Lebert, M., 1989. Beurteilung und Vorhersage der mechanischen Belastbarkeit von Acke~
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Lebert, M., Burger, N. and Horn, R., 1987. Welche Bedeutung komrnt der Aggregatstabilit~it
w/ihrend des 5chervorganges zu? Mitt. Dtsch. Bodenkd. Ges., 53: 427-432.
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