COMSOL Natural Convection Cooling

COMSOL Multiphysics Training
≷⋗ờ Ệ῭ᵙ⋘
ࢄࠤ෮ঃଡਏ࢘ߑଲ঵෇‫׆‬଍෉ୢր୨ଡCOMSOL Multiphysics
ֻ޹වॷ૳ୀ଴ഉൾଲਆ (6*
ࠜଲ૳෇઱ਓ਌଍சߦ஼ෘ෍‫ۗۍ‬
INDEX
1. Introduction/ 01
2. Natural Convection Cooling of a Vacuum Flask / 07
3. Droplet Breakup in a T-Junction / 48
4. Cooling of an Injection Mold / 69
5. Electroosmotic Micromixer / 97
6. Fluid-Structure Interaction / 125

Introduction
1
COMSOLV5.0ProductSuite
HeatTransferModule
• &RQGXFWLRQFRQYHFWLRQDQGUDGLDWLRQ
• 5DGLDWLRQ
6XUIDFHWRVXUIDFH6XUIDFHWRDPELHQW
([WHUQDO5DGLDWLRQ6RXUFH
6XQ5DGLDWLRQ
0XOWL:DYHOHQJWK+HDW5DGLDWLRQ
• (DV\WRXVHIRUPRGHOLQJDSKDVHFKDQJH
RIPDWHULDOV
• $GG0RLVWDLUIOXLGW\SH
• %LRKHDW
• 7KHUPDOFRQWDFW
• (DV\WRHYDOXDWHIRUKHDWDQGHQHUJ\
EDODQFH
2
CFDModule
• 0RGHOODPLQDUDQGWXUEXOHQWIORZVLQVLQJOHRUPXOWL
SKDVHV
• 6LPXODWLRQLQWKHIUHHDQGSRURXVPHGLDIORZ
• 5HDG\FRXSOLQJRIKHDWDQGPDVVWUDQVSRUWWRIOXLG
IORZ
KHDWH[FKDQJHUVWXUELQHVVHSDUDWLRQVXQLWVDQG
YHQWLODWLRQV\VWHPV
• 7KLQILOPIORZIRUFDYLWDWLRQ
• &UHHSLQJIORZDWVPDOO5H\QROGVQXPEHUVLQYHU\
VPDOOFKDQQHOV
• ,QWHULRU:DOO
• :DOO5RXJKQHVVNƃNZPRGHO
Comparisionofturbulencemodels
low Re k-epsilon, 32 min 16 sec

• Algebraic yPlus and L-VEL
• Spalart-Allmaras
• k-epsilon
k-epsilon, 9 min 13 sec
• k-omega
• low Re k-epsilon
Algebraic yPlus, 2 min 44 sec • SST
+PETGCKPI%QORWVCVKQPCNEQUV
3
MixerModule
• Impeller and a vessel in containing
machinery-based mixers
• Used in many industrial processes, such

as the production of consumer products,
pharmaceuticals, food, and fine chemicals.
• Free surface
• Add-on to the CFD Module
MicrofluidicsModule
• Easy-to-use tools for the study

microfluidic devices and rarefied gas
flows.
• Set up to coupled electrokinetic and
magnetodynamic simulations easily
including electrophoresis,
magnetophoresis, dielectrophoresis,
electroosmosis, and electrowetting.
• Slip flow Analysis
4
SubsurfaceFlowModule
• Model single and coupled processes
related to subsurface flow
• Oil and gas flow in porous media, the

modeling of groundwater flow, and
the spread of pollution through soil
PipeFlowModule
• Flow, heat, and mass transport in pipe
networks.
• Two-Phase Flow(JDVOLTXLGPL[WXUHV
in Pipes
• 9HORFLW\SUHVVXUHYDULDWLRQ
WHPSHUDWXUH
• 'OLQHVRUFXUYHVHPEHGGHGLQ'
RU'Podel.
• Pipe connection node
• 3LSLQJFRPSRQHQWVVXFKDV%HQG
9DOYHV3XPSV7MXQFWLRQV
5
MolecularModule
• $SSOLHVWRWKHWUDQVLWLRQDOIORZDQGIUHH
PROHFXODUIORZUHJLPHV.
• )DVWFRPSXWDWLRQVRIVWHDG\VWDWHIUHH
PROHFXODUIORZZLWK$QJXODU&RHIILFLHQW
0HWKRG
• 'HVLJQDQGVLPXODWLRQRIYDFXXP
V\VWHPV
• $GVRUSWLRQGHVRUSWLRQDQGGHSRVLWLRQ
ParticleTracingModule
• Compute trajectories of particles in a fluid or

an electromagnetic field.
- Including particle-field interactions, particle-

particle interaction force. Mixinginastaticmixer
• Predefined force: Electric, Magnetic, Drag,

Brownian, gravity, Dielectrophoretic,
Magnetoph-oretic, and so on.
• Wall boundary condition: Freeze, Stick,

Bounce, Disappear, Diffuse reflection, and
General reflection.
6
Natural Convection Cooling of a Vacuum Flask
7
NaturalConvectionCoolingofaVacuumFlask
3UHYLHZ
FluidFlow
Porous Free
Smallpores Largepores Laminar Turbulent

«Brinkman» «NavierͲStokes» «RANS»
Saturated Unsaturated
Newtonian NonͲNewtonian
«Darcy» «Richards»
8
3UHYLHZ
• Inlet/Outlet
3UHYLHZ
• Inlet/OutletCondition– Inflow,Outflow
9
3UHYLHZ
• Incompressibleflow/Compressibleflow
• Newtonianfluid/NonͲNewtonianfluid
3UHYLHZ
• Interiorwall
nothickness
10
3UHYLHZ
• Heattransferinsolid/fluid
Ͳ Conduction/Convection߾ ଥкଜЕ Domain۶ࢽ
• HeatSourceͲ Domain/Boundary/Line/Point
• Temperature
• Outflow– Convectionଥ۱ ‫ ݤ‬outlet࣏ʢࡳԻ ‫ࡈی‬

• Initialvalues– ‫ݤ‬ɾ ଥ۱ ‫ ݤ‬ট̛ ࠟѦ ʅ ۶ࢽ ࣸࡁ
3UHYLHZ
• HeatFlux
11
• ThinLayer
Highlyconductivelayer ThinThermallyResistiveLayer
3UHYLHZ
• Surfacetoradiation/Surfacetoambient
• RadiationGroup
12
3UHYLHZ
• HeatBalance(Globalvariables)
dEiInt ntfluxInt QInt WnsInt
• EnergyBalance(Globalvariables)
dEi0Int ntefluxInt QInt WInt
13
Model
Firstapproach Secondapproach
Convectionheattransfercoefficient(h) Convectiveflowofair
Flask withoutlaminarorturbulentflow
Physics
1.Heattransferinsolid
HeatTransferequation
Convectiveheattransfercoefficientfornaturalconvectioninaironaverticalheatedwalland
inclinedandhorizontalplane(RaL andPr areRayleighandPrandtl dimensionlessnumber)
Nusselt number
2.Conjugateheattransfer=Laminarflow+Heattransferinsolid
NavierͲstokesequation
Rayleighnumber Volumeforcedefinedbybuoyancyforce
g:gravity(m/s^2)
g:gravity(m/s^2)
N:thermaldiffusivity(m^2/s)
ʌ:density
೚T:temperature(K)
ʌ:referencedensityatatmosphere
h:heightofaconvectionobject(m)
ɲ:coefficientofthermalexpansion(1/K) pressureand25C
ʆ:kinematicviscosity(m^2/s)
14
Material/Boundarycondition
Conductivity(W/(mͼK) Density(Kg/m^3) HeatCapacityJ/(kgͼK)
Form 0.03 60 200
Nylon 0.26 1150 1700
Steel AISI4340 44.5 7850 475
Assumption:Noconnectiveflowincoffeeandithasaconstanttemperatureof90C
Boundarycondition
Wetsurfaceofastainlesssteelshell:90C
Bottomarea:insulated(zeroflux)
Ambienttemperature:25C
5HVXOW
15
Solved with COMSOL Multiphysics 5.0
Natural Convection Cooling of a

Vacuum Flask
Introduction
This example solves a pure conduction problem and a free-convection problem in which
a vacuum flask holding hot coffee dissipates thermal energy. The main interest is to
calculate the flask’s cooling power; that is, how much heat it loses per unit time.
Figure 1: Schematic picture of the flask (left) and velocity streamlines in the flask model
including flow simulation.
This example uses two different approaches to model natural convection cooling:
• Using heat transfer coefficients to describe the thermal dissipation

• Modeling the convective flow of air outside the flask to describe the thermal dissipation
The first approach describes the outside heat flux using a heat transfer coefficient function
from the Heat Transfer Coefficients library included with the Heat Transfer Module. This
results in a rather simple model that predicts the stationary cooling well and produces
accurate results for temperature distribution and cooling power.
1 | NATURAL CONVECTION COOLING OF A VACUUM FLASK

16
The second approach solves for both the total energy balance and the flow equations of
the outside cooling air. This model version produces detailed results for the flow field
around the flask as well as for the temperature distribution and cooling power. However,
it is more complex and requires more computational resources than the first version.
Model Definition
Figure 2 shows the model geometry.
Figure 2: A 3D cut-away drawing (inset) of the flask with coffee; a stainless-steel shell (light
gray) that can be filled with an insulating material such as foam; an insulating ring around
the flask neck (black); and a screw stopper (dark gray). The 2D-axisymmetric representation
appears on the right.
C O N T R O L VO L U M E
For the first approach, the model does not include a control volume around the flask to
represent the domain of the surrounding air. Instead, it uses a heat transfer coefficient
correlation to simulate the surrounding air in the vertical and horizontal plates.
For the second approach, the model uses a control volume around the flask to represent
the domain of the surrounding air. Choosing an appropriate control volume for natural
convection models is difficult. Your choice strongly influences the model, the mesh, the
convergence, and especially the flow behavior. The real-world air domain surrounding the
2 | N A T U R A L C O NVE C T I O N C O O L I N G O F A VA C U U M F L A S K
17
flask is the entire room or atmosphere in which the flask is placed. Making the rectangle
as large as the external room would result in a very large model requiring a supercomputer
to solve. At the other extreme, if you make the control volume too small, the solution is
affected by the imposed artificial boundary conditions, and there can also be a truncation
of flow eddies, making convergence difficult.
An appropriate truncation should resolve the flow field around the flask but avoid
modeling a large surrounding. One way to approach this task is to start with a small control
volume, set up and solve the model, then expand the control volume, solve the model
again, and see if the results change. This example uses a sufficiently large control volume
by truncating the air domain at r 0.1 m and z 0.5 m. The boundary condition at the
boundaries that are open to large volumes can handle both entering and leaving fluid. The
entering fluid has the temperature of the surroundings whereas the leaving fluid has an
unknown temperature that results from the cooling effects of the flow field.
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Next consider the materials that make up the flask model. The screw stopper and
insulation ring are made of nylon. The flask bottle consists of stainless steel, and the filling
material between the inner and outer walls is a plastic foam. The material library includes
all materials used in this model except the foam, which you specify manually. Table 1
provides a list of standard foam’s thermal properties.
TABLE 1: FOAM MATERIAL PROPERTIES
PROPERTY VALUE
Conductivity 0.03 W/(m·K)

Density 60 kg/m3
Heat Capacity 200 J/(kg·K)
H E A T TR A N S F E R P H Y S I C S
This example neglects the convective flow in the hot liquid (coffee). The thermal
conductivity in the liquid is large enough to make the temperature gradients rather small.
The study assumes that the flask is thermally stationary, although a real flask continuously
loses heat and cools down. Because the heat-loss process in the hot liquid is slow compared
to the convective flow, a quasi-stationary model assuming that the coffee has a constant
temperature of 90 °C (363.15 K) is applicable. Such a model reveals the temperature
gradients and cooling power. The model results show where the main losses appear, and
thus where improvements are possible—which is what a flask designer is really interested
in.

18
Approach 1—Loading a Heat Transfer Coefficient Function

This model version uses a simplified approach and solves the stationary
thermal-conduction equation making use of a heat transfer coefficient, h, to describe the
natural convection cooling on the outside surfaces of the flask. This approach is very
powerful in many situations, especially if the main interest is not the flow behavior but
rather its cooling power. By using the appropriate h correlations, you can generally arrive
at accurate results at a very low computational cost. In addition, many correlations are
valid for the entire flow regime, from laminar to turbulent flow. This makes it possible to
approach the problem directly without predicting whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Vertical boundaries along the axis of symmetry have a symmetry condition (zero gradients,
set by COMSOL Multiphysics automatically); the wet surface of the stainless-steel shell is
held at a constant temperature of 90 °C; the bottom is modeled as perfectly insulated (zero
flux). The flask surfaces are exposed to air and are cooled by convection. The use of a
highly conductive layer feature models the thickness of the steel shell.
The only remaining energy-balance boundary condition is for the flask surface. In the first
approach a convective heat-transfer coefficient together with the ambient temperature,
25 °C, describes the heat flux.
C O NVE C T I VE H E A T TR A N S F E R C O E F F I C I E N T
The outer surfaces dissipate heat via natural convection. This loss is characterized by the
convective heat transfer coefficient, h, which in practice you often determine with
empirical handbook correlations. Because these correlations depend on the surface
temperature, Tsurface, engineers must estimate Tsurface and then iterate between h and
Tsurface to obtain a converged value for h. Most of these correlations require tedious
computations and property interpolations that make this iterative process quite unpleasant
and labor intensive.
A typical handbook correlation (see Ref. 1) for h for the case of natural convection in air
on a vertical heated wall RaLd109 is
k Nu L
h = -------------------
L
0.670Ra L1 / 4
NuL = 0.68 + -----------------------------------------------------
-
0.492 9 / 16 4 / 9
1 + §© ---------------·¹
Pr
19
where RaL and Pr are the Rayleigh and Prandtl dimensionless numbers. A similar relation
involving Nusselt numbers holds for inclined and horizontal planes (see The Heat Transfer
Coefficients for details).
COMSOL Multiphysics handles these types of nonlinearities internally and adds much
convenience to such computations, so there is no need to iterate.
The Heat Transfer Module provides heat transfer coefficient functions that you can access
easily in the Convective Heat Flux feature.
Approach 2—Modeling the External Flow

Another approach for simulating the cooled flask is to produce a model that computes the
convective velocity field around the flask in detail. Before proceeding with a simulation of
this kind, it is a good idea to try to estimate the Rayleigh number because that number
influences the choice between assuming laminar flow and applying a turbulence model.
The Rayleigh number describes the ratio between buoyancy and viscous forces in free
convection problems. It is defined as
3
gD'Th
Ra = ----------------------
NQ
with g as the gravity (SI unit: m/s2), Nthe thermal diffusivity (SI unit: m2/s), 'T the
Temperature difference (SI unit: K), h the height of the convective object (SI unit: m), D
the coefficient of thermal expansion (SI unit: 1/K), and Q the kinematic viscosity (SI unit:
m2/s).
The model’s length scale is the length of the heated fluid’s flow path, in this example
0.5 m. Notice that this value increases if the modeled flow domain is extended in the
direction of the flow. 'T is about 15 K (assuming that the flask surface temperature is
15 °C above the ambient temperature). Together with the material properties of air at
atmospheric pressure and T about 25 °C the result is below 1·109, which indicates that
the flow is still laminar rather than turbulent. Thus, it makes sense to model the flow using
a physics interface for laminar flow.
BUOYANCY-DRIVEN FLOW
To model non-isothermal buoyancy-driven flow, the following example uses COMSOL
Multiphysics’ Conjugate Heat Transfer interface. It provides a generalized Navier-Stokes
formulation that takes varying density into account as well as the energy equation.
The buoyancy forces are included by specifying a volume force in this way

20
F = U – U ref g
with grz 09.81 m/s2, Uthe density and Uref the reference density at atmospheric
pressure and 25 °C.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
When solving flow problems numerically, your engineering intuition is crucial in setting
good boundary conditions. In this problem, the warm flask drives vertical air currents
along its walls, and they eventually join in a thermal plume above the top of the flask. Air
is pulled from the surroundings toward the flask where it eventually feeds into the vertical
flow.
The open boundary condition is a boundary condition for the heat and flow equation and
can handle incoming flow with ambient temperature and leaving flow with a-priori
unknown temperature.
You would expect this flow to be quite weak and therefore do not anticipate any significant
changes in dynamic pressure.
Flow Boundary Conditions

• On the top and right boundaries, the normal stress is zero as an open boundary with
ambient temperature of 25 °C.
• On the upper-left boundary, the flow domain coincides with the axis of symmetry where
the Axial Symmetry condition is applied automatically.
• All other boundaries (the flask surface and the bottom horizontal line) are walls where
you use the No slip condition.
Thermal Boundary Conditions

• The top and right boundaries are the exit and entrance of the flow domain respectively
where convection dominates; accordingly, use an open boundary condition.
• Again, the top left is described by axial symmetry, which is set by default.
• Assume that the bottom is perfectly insulated.
All other boundaries (the flask surface) have continuity in temperature and flux by default.
21
Results and Discussion

Figure 3 shows the temperature distribution in both the flask and the surrounding air.
However, the temperature results in the solid parts are close to identical for the case of
modeling with a heat transfer coefficient.
Figure 3: Temperature results for the model including the fluid flow.
The main interest with the model is to calculate the integral cooling power, which indicates
how long the coffee stays hot. Both approaches give a total cooling power of about
6 W±1 W. Focusing on this value the first approach provides accurate results.

22
A second question concerns how the cooling power is distributed on the flask surface. The
heat transfer coefficient represents this property. Figure 4 shows a comparison of the
predicted distribution of h along the height of the flask between the two models.
Figure 4: Heat transfer coefficient along the vertical flask walls. Blue line: modeling approach
using the heat transfer coefficient library, green line: modeling approach including the fluid
flow.
Figure 5 depicts the flow of air around the flask calculated from the flow model. This fluid
flow model does a better job at describing local cooling power.
23
One interesting result is the vortex formed above the lid. It reduces the cooling in this
region.
Figure 5: Fluid velocity for air around the flask.
CONCLUSIONS
Using the Convective Heat Flux feature you can easily obtain simulation results. The
predicted heat transfer coefficient is in the same range as the results from the model that
includes the correlations, and the total cooling power is almost identical.
However, the predefined heat transfer coefficients do not predict the local effects of air
flow surrounding the flask. For this purpose, a flow model is more accurate. This means
that you can use this type of model to create and calibrate functions for heat transfer
coefficients for your geometries. Once calibrated, the functions allow you to use the first
approach when solving large-scale and time-dependent models.
Model Library path: Heat_Transfer_Module/

Tutorial_Models,_Forced_and_Natural_Convection/vacuum_flask

24
Reference
1. F. Incropera, D. Dewitt, T. Bergman, and A. Lavine, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass
Transfer, 6th ed., John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
Modeling Instructions
From the File menu, choose New.
NEW
1 In the New window, click Model Wizard.
MODEL WIZARD
1 In the Model Wizard window, click 2D Axisymmetric.
2 In the Select physics tree, select Heat Transfer>Heat Transfer in Solids (ht).
3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
5 In the Select study tree, select Preset Studies>Stationary.
6 Click Done.
GEOMETRY 1
The geometry sequence for the model is available in a file. If you want to create it from
scratch yourself, you can follow the instructions in the Geometry Modeling Instructions
section. Otherwise, insert the geometry sequence as follows:
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Insert Sequence.

2 Browse to the model’s Model Library folder and double-click the file
vacuum_flask_geom_sequence.mph.
3 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) right-click Geometry 1 and
choose Build All Objects.
You should now see the geometry shown in Figure 2.
DEFINITIONS
In the following section you define a few selections which will be needed during the model
set up, for example the boundaries that represent the steel shell of the flask, the boundaries
surrounding the hot coffee and the boundaries that are convectively cooled by the
surrounding air.
25
Explicit 1
1 On the Definitions toolbar, click Explicit.
2 In the Settings window for Explicit, locate the Input Entities section.
3 From the Geometric entity level list, choose Boundary.
4 Select Boundaries 8–11, 13, and 16–21 only.
5 In the Label text field, type Shell.
Explicit 2
4 Select Boundaries 4, 13, 17, and 20 only.

26
5 In the Label text field, type Coffee boundaries.
Explicit 3
4 Select Boundaries 14–16 and 21 only.
27
5 In the Label text field, type Flask, vertical wall.
Parameters
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Definitions node, then click Parameters.
2 In the Settings window for Parameters, locate the Parameters section.
3 In the table, enter the following settings:
Name Expression Value Description

T_amb 25[degC] 298.2 K Temperature of
surrounding air
T_coffee 90[degC] 363.2 K Coffee temperature
d_shell 0.5[mm] 5.000E-4 m Steel-shell thickness
p_amb 1[atm] 1.013E5 Pa Ambient pressure
ADD MATERIAL
1 On the Model toolbar, click Add Material to open the Add Material window.
2 Go to the Add Material window.
3 In the tree, select Built-In>Air.
4 Click Add to Component in the window toolbar.

28
MATERIALS
Air (mat1)
Leave the default geometric entity selection; subsequent materials that you add will
override air as the material for the domains where it does not apply.
ADD MATERIAL
2 In the tree, select Built-In>Nylon.
MATERIALS
Nylon (mat2)
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Nylon (mat2).
2 Select Domains 3 and 4 only.
ADD MATERIAL
2 In the tree, select Built-In>Steel AISI 4340.
4 On the Model toolbar, click Add Material to close the Add Material window.
MATERIALS
Steel AISI 4340 (mat3)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Steel AISI 4340
(mat3).
2 In the Settings window for Material, locate the Geometric Entity Selection section.
4 From the Selection list, choose Shell.
Material 4 (mat4)
1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Materials and choose Blank Material.
2 Select Domain 1 only.
3 In the Settings window for Material, locate the Material Contents section.
29
Property Name Value Unit Property group

Thermal conductivity k 0.03 W/ Basic
(m·K)
Density rho 60 kg/m³ Basic
Heat capacity at constant Cp 200 J/ Basic
pressure (kg·K)
5 In the Label text field, type Foam.
H E A T TR A N S F E R I N S O L I D S ( H T )
The steel walls of the flask are represented by a special boundary condition for highly
conductive layers:
Thin Layer 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Thin Layer.
2 In the Settings window for Thin Layer, locate the Boundary Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Shell.
4 Locate the Thin Layer section. From the Layer type list, choose Conductive.
5 In the ds text field, type d_shell.
Temperature 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Temperature.
2 In the Settings window for Temperature, locate the Boundary Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Coffee boundaries.
4 Locate the Temperature section. In the T0 text field, type T_coffee.
This boundary condition partially overwrites the Thin Layer boundary condition. This is
intentional because the conductivity of steel is high compared to the other materials in the
model. The temperature can be assumed to be at coffee temperature throughout the steel
layer in that part of the model.
Heat Flux 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Heat Flux.
2 In the Settings window for Heat Flux, locate the Boundary Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Flask, vertical wall.
4 Locate the Heat Flux section. Click the Convective heat flux button.
5 From the Heat transfer coefficient list, choose External natural convection.

30
6 In the L text field, type height.

7 In the Text text field, type T_amb.
Heat Flux 2
2 Select Boundary 7 only.
3 In the Settings window for Heat Flux, locate the Heat Flux section.
4 Click the Convective heat flux button.
5 From the Heat transfer coefficient list, choose External natural convection.
6 From the list, choose Horizontal plate, upside.
7 In the L text field, type radius.
8 In the Text text field, type T_amb.
MESH 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Mesh 1.
2 In the Settings window for Mesh, locate the Mesh Settings section.
3 From the Element size list, choose Extra fine.
4 Click the Build All button.
STUDY 1
On the Model toolbar, click Compute.
RESULTS
Temperature, 3D (ht)
A 3D temperature plot and an isothermal contour plot are produced by default. To display
the temperatures in Celsius degrees, you can edit these existing plots:
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Temperature, 3D (ht) node, then click Surface 1.
2 In the Settings window for Surface, locate the Expression section.
3 From the Unit list, choose degC.
4 On the 3D plot group toolbar, click Plot.
Isothermal Contours (ht)

1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Isothermal Contours (ht) node, then click
Contour 1.
2 In the Settings window for Contour, locate the Expression section.
31

Approach 2 - Modeling the External Flow

The second modeling approach can be done within the same MPH-file. Add a second
model as follows:
ROOT
On the Model toolbar, click Add Component and choose 2D Axisymmetric.
ADD PHYSICS
1 On the Model toolbar, click Add Physics to open the Add Physics window.
2 Go to the Add Physics window.
3 In the Add physics tree, select Heat Transfer>Conjugate Heat Transfer>Laminar Flow.
4 Find the Physics interfaces in study subsection. In the table, enter the following settings:
Studies Solve
Study 1 ×

6 On the Model toolbar, click Add Physics to close the Add Physics window.
ADD STUDY
1 On the Model toolbar, click Add Study to open the Add Study window.
2 Go to the Add Study window.
3 Find the Studies subsection. In the Select study tree, select Preset Studies>Stationary.
4 Find the Physics interfaces in study subsection. In the table, enter the following settings:
Physics Solve
Heat Transfer in Solids (ht) ×
This way, the new Study solves for the Conjugate Heat Transfer multiphysics interface
only. Moreover, because the Deactivate added physics in other studies check-box is enabled,
the Conjugate Heat Transfer multiphysics interface is disabled for Study 1.
5 Click Add Study in the window toolbar.

6 On the Model toolbar, click Add Study to close the Add Study window.

32
Add a parameter that you will later use to ramp down the viscosity of air.
DEFINITIONS
Parameters
1 In the Model Builder window, under Global>Definitions click Parameters.

mu_factor 1 1.000 Factor for the air
viscosity
GEOMETRY 2
Import the geometry sequence defined for Component 1 as follows:
Import 1 (imp1)
1 On the Model toolbar, click Import.
2 In the Settings window for Import, locate the Import section.
3 From the Geometry import list, choose Geometry sequence.
4 From the Source list, choose Geometry 1.
5 Click Import.
In this approach, you model the fluid flow explicitly, so you need to add a flow domain to
the model.
Rectangle 1 (r1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Primitives and choose Rectangle.
2 In the Settings window for Rectangle, locate the Size section.
3 In the Width text field, type 0.1[m].
4 In the Height text field, type 0.5[m].
5 Right-click Component 2 (comp2)>Geometry 2>Rectangle 1 (r1) and choose Build
Selected.
6 Click the Zoom Extents button on the Graphics toolbar.
Union 1 (uni1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Booleans and Partitions and choose Union.
2 Click in the Graphics window and then press Ctrl+A to select all objects.
33
Split 1 (spl1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Conversions and choose Split.
2 Select the object uni1 only.
Delete Entities 1 (del1)

1 In the Model Builder window, right-click Geometry 2 and choose Delete Entities.
2 In the Settings window for Delete Entities, locate the Entities or Objects to Delete
section.
3 From the Geometric entity level list, choose Domain.
4 On the object spl1(2), select Domain 1 only.
5 Click the Build All Objects button.
DEFINITIONS
Again, define selections which you can use during the model setup and for comparing the
results of this approach to the first one.
Explicit 4
4 Select Boundaries 10–13, 15, 18, and 21–25 only.
Explicit 5
5 In the Label text field, type Coffee boundaries.
Explicit 6
4 Select Boundaries 16–18 and 25 only.
5 In the Label text field, type Flask vertical walls.

34
MATERIALS
You have added the materials in Model 1 already, you can now choose them from the
Recent Materials folder in the Add Material window easily.
ADD MATERIAL
3 In the tree, select Recent Materials>Air.
ADD MATERIAL
2 In the tree, select Recent Materials>Nylon.
MATERIALS
Nylon (2) (mat6)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 2 (comp2)>Materials click Nylon (2)
(mat6).
2 Select Domains 3 and 5 only.
ADD MATERIAL
2 In the tree, select Recent Materials>Steel AISI 4340.
MATERIALS
Steel AISI 4340 (2) (mat7)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 2 (comp2)>Materials click Steel AISI 4340
(2) (mat7).
4 From the Selection list, choose Explicit 4.
35
Material 8 (mat8)

(m·K)
pressure (kg·K)
5 In the Label text field, type Foam.
LAMINAR FLOW (SPF)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 2 (comp2) click Laminar Flow (spf).
3 In the Settings window for Laminar Flow, locate the Domain Selection section.
4 Click Create Selection.
5 In the Create Selection dialog box, type Air in the Selection name text field.
6 Click OK.
H E A T TR A N S F E R 2 ( H T 2 )
On the Physics toolbar, click Laminar Flow (spf) and choose Heat Transfer 2 (ht2).
Heat Transfer in Fluids 1

The interface provides nodes for the solid and fluid domain by default and the remaining
step is to assign the air domain to the Fluid node. Because the density depends on the
temperature and the pressure, choose the calculated pressure as input for this material
property.
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 2 (comp2)>Heat Transfer 2 (ht2) click
Heat Transfer in Fluids 1.
2 In the Settings window for Heat Transfer in Fluids, locate the Domain Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Air.
To get a good initial guess for the solver, set the initial value for the temperature to the
ambient temperature.

36
Initial Values 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 2 (comp2)>Heat Transfer 2 (ht2) click
Initial Values 1.
2 In the Settings window for Initial Values, locate the Initial Values section.
3 In the T2 text field, type T_amb.
LAMINAR FLOW (SPF)

On the Physics toolbar, click Heat Transfer 2 (ht2) and choose Laminar Flow (spf).
Volume Force 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Domains and choose Volume Force.
3 In the Settings window for Volume Force, locate the Volume Force section.
4 Specify the F vector as
0 r
-g_const*(nitf1.rho-rho_ref) z
The above steps define the buoyancy force acting on the air due to a density difference
between the actual density nitf.rho and a reference density rho_ref, which is initially
unknown and will be defined in the next step.
DEFINITIONS
Variables 1a
1 On the Model toolbar, click Variables and choose Local Variables.
2 In the Settings window for Variables, locate the Variables section.
Name Expression Unit Description

rho_ref mat5.def.rho(p_amb[ kg/m³ Reference density for
1/Pa],T_amb[1/ buoyancy force
K])[kg/m^3]
The above expression calls the density function of Material 5, which is air. The density
depends on the temperature and pressure. Here the density will be evaluated for T =
T_amb and p = p_amb, which are defined under the Global Definitions node.
37
H E A T TR A N S F E R 2 ( H T 2 )
Thin Layer 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Thin Layer.
2 In the Settings window for Thin Layer, locate the Boundary Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Explicit 4.
4 Locate the Thin Layer section. From the Layer type list, choose Conductive.
5 In the ds text field, type d_shell.
Temperature 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Temperature.
2 In the Settings window for Temperature, locate the Boundary Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose Coffee boundaries.
4 Locate the Temperature section. In the T0 text field, type T_coffee.
Open Boundary 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Open Boundary.
2 Select Boundaries 9 and 20 only.
3 In the Settings window for Open Boundary, locate the Open Boundary section.
4 In the T0 text field, type T_amb.
LAMINAR FLOW (SPF)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 2 (comp2) right-click Laminar Flow (spf)
and choose Open Boundary.
MESH 2
Use finer meshes to get a good resolution of the flow field.
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 2 (comp2) click Mesh 2.

2 In the Settings window for Mesh, locate the Mesh Settings section.
3 From the Element size list, choose Finer.

38
STUDY 2
Computing the flow for the fluid with low viscosity may introduce eddies in the flow field.
Start computation using high viscosity to improve convergence. Use continuation feature
to ramp down the viscosity.
Step 1: Stationary
1 In the Model Builder window, under Study 2 click Step 1: Stationary.
2 In the Settings window for Stationary, click to expand the Study extensions section.
3 Locate the Study Extensions section. Select the Auxiliary sweep check box.
4 Click Add.
Parameter name Parameter value list Parameter unit

mu_factor 100 10 1
This factor must be multiplied with the air viscosity.
MATERIALS
Air (2) (mat5)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 2 (comp2)>Materials click Air (2) (mat5).

Dynamic viscosity mu eta(T[ Pa·s Basic
1/
K])[Pa
*s]*mu
_facto
r
STUDY 2
On the Model toolbar, click Compute.
RESULTS
Temperature, 3D (ht2)
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Temperature, 3D (ht2) node, then click Surface
1.
39

Isothermal Contours (ht2)

This default plot shows the isothermal contours.
Velocity (spf)
This default plot shows the velocity magnitude in a 2D slice of the axisymmetric geometry.
Pressure (spf)
This default plot shows the pressure field in a 2D contour plot.
2D Plot Group 8
1 On the Model toolbar, click Add Plot Group and choose 2D Plot Group.
2 In the Settings window for 2D Plot Group, type Velocity, Streamlines in the Label
text field.
3 Locate the Data section. From the Data set list, choose Study 2/Solution 2 (3).
Velocity, Streamlines
1 Right-click Results>Velocity, Streamlines and choose Streamline.
2 In the Settings window for Streamline, click Replace Expression in the upper-right corner
of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component 2>Laminar Flow>u,w -
Velocity field.
3 Locate the Streamline Positioning section. From the Positioning list, choose Magnitude
controlled.
4 Right-click Results>Velocity, Streamlines>Streamline 1 and choose Color Expression.
5 In the Settings window for Color Expression, click Replace Expression in the upper-right
corner of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component 2>Laminar
Flow>spf.U - Velocity magnitude.
For the comparison of temperatures along the outer vertical walls of the vacuum flask
(Figure 6), plot the solutions of approach 1 and 2 in one plot group. The solutions are
stored under the Data Sets node and for each plot one can choose which Data Set should
be used.
1D Plot Group 9
2 On the 1D plot group toolbar, click Line Graph.

40
3 In the Settings window for Line Graph, locate the Selection section.
5 Locate the y-Axis Data section. From the Unit list, choose degC.
6 Locate the x-Axis Data section. From the Parameter list, choose Expression.
7 In the Expression text field, type z.
8 Click to expand the Legends section. Select the Show legends check box.
9 From the Legends list, choose Manual.
Legends
No flow

12 In the Settings window for Line Graph, locate the Data section.
13 From the Data set list, choose Study 2/Solution 2 (3).
14 From the Parameter selection (mu_factor) list, choose Last.
15 Locate the Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Flask vertical walls.
16 Locate the y-Axis Data section. In the Expression text field, type T2.
20 Locate the Legends section. Select the Show legends check box.
Legends
With flow
24 In the Model Builder window, click 1D Plot Group 9.

25 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Temperature vacuum flask in the
Label text field.
41
The plot should look like that shown in the figure below.
Figure 6: Temperature distribution along the outer vertical walls of the flask. Blue line:
modeling approach using the heat transfer coefficient library. Green line: modeling approach
including the fluid flow.
To compare the heat transfer coefficients for the two modeling approaches (Figure 4), do
the following:
1D Plot Group 10
3 In the Settings window for Line Graph, locate the Selection section.
5 Locate the y-Axis Data section. In the Expression text field, type ht.hf1.h.

42
Legends
Heat transfer coefficient, no flow

12 In the Settings window for Line Graph, locate the Data section.
15 Locate the Selection section. From the Selection list, choose Flask vertical walls.
16 Locate the y-Axis Data section. In the Expression text field, type abs(ht2.ntflux)/
(T2-T_amb).
Legends
Calculated heat transfer coefficient, with flow

23 In the Settings window for 1D Plot Group, type Heat transfer coefficient in the
Label text field.
Derived Values
Finally, calculate the integral cooling power.
1 On the Results toolbar, click More Derived Values and choose Integration>Line
Integration.
2 Select Boundaries 7, 14–16, and 21 only.
3 In the Settings window for Line Integration, click Replace Expression in the upper-right
corner of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Heat Transfer in
Solids>Boundary fluxes>ht.ntflux - Normal total heat flux.
4 Locate the Integration Settings section. Select the Compute surface integral check box.
5 Click the Evaluate button.
43
6 On the Results toolbar, click More Derived Values and choose Integration>Line
Integration.
7 In the Settings window for Line Integration, locate the Data section.
10 Select Boundaries 8, 16–18, and 25 only.
11 Locate the Expression section. In the Expression text field, type ht2.ntflux.
12 Locate the Integration Settings section. Select the Compute surface integral check box.
TABL E
1 Go to the Table window.
The results are displayed in the Table window below the Graphics window.
Geometry Modeling Instructions

If you wish to create the geometry yourself, follow these steps.
On the Model toolbar, click Add Component and choose 2D Axisymmetric.
DEFINITIONS
Parameters
1 On the Model toolbar, click Parameters.

height 380[mm] 0.38000 m Flask height
radius 40[mm] 0.040000 m Bottleneck radius
GEOMETRY 1
Bézier Polygon 1 (b1)

1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Primitives and choose Bézier Polygon.
2 In the Settings window for Bézier Polygon, locate the Polygon Segments section.
3 Find the Added segments subsection. Click Add Linear.
4 Find the Control points subsection. In row 2, set r to 1.5*radius.

44

6 Find the Control points subsection. In row 2, set z to 0.68*height.
7 Find the Added segments subsection. Click Add Quadratic.
9 In row 3, set r to 1.04*radius, and z to 0.80*height.
12 In row 2, set z to 0.82*height.
13 In row 3, set r to 0.66*radius and z to 0.84*height.
34 In row 3, set r to 0*radius and z to 0.036*height.
45
35 Right-click Component 1 (comp1)>Geometry 1>Bézier Polygon 1 (b1) and choose Build

Selected.
Rectangle 1 (r1)
3 In the Width text field, type 1.04*radius.
4 In the Height text field, type 0.16*height.
5 Locate the Position section. In the z text field, type 0.83*height.
Rectangle 2 (r2)
3 In the Width text field, type 0.74*radius.
4 In the Height text field, type 0.13*height.
5 Locate the Position section. In the r text field, type 0.3*radius.
6 In the z text field, type 0.83*height.
Difference 1 (dif1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Booleans and Partitions and choose Difference.
2 Select the object r1 only.
3 In the Settings window for Difference, locate the Difference section.
4 Find the Objects to subtract subsection. Select the Active toggle button.
5 Select the object r2 only.


46


12 Find the Control points subsection. In row 2, set r to 0*radius.
47
Droplet Breakup in a T-Junction
48
'URSOHW%UHDNXSLQD7-XQFWLRQ
3UHYLHZ
• LevelSetandPhaseField
Ͳ Basefluid:fluid1,Settingfluid:fluid2
• Wettedwall
Ͳ Levelset:Dynamiccontactangle(staticcontactangle+sliplength)
Ͳ Phasefield:Staticcontactangle
Ͳ Movingwettedwall:Onlyphasefield.
49
3UHYLHZ
• Fluid1˕ Fluid2ট̛ ࠒࠇ ۶ࢽ – InitialValues,Initialinterface
0RGHO Inlet2
Fluid2
Inlet1
Fluid1
Outlet
50
3K\VLFV
LaminarTwoͲPhaseFlow,LevelSet
Momentumtransportequation
Levelsetequation
Densityandviscosity
Effectivedropletdiameter
0RGHOLQJ FRQGLWLRQ
Fluid2
Symmetry
Fluid1
Inlet1 0.4eͲ6/3600*step1(t[1/s])[m^3/s]
Inlet2 0.2eͲ6/3600*step1(t[1/s])[m^3/s]
Outlet Pressure,noviscousstress
Wall condition Wettedwall
Surfacetensioncoefficient 5eͲ3[N/m]
51
5HVXOW
52
D r o ple t Br e a k up i n a T- Ju n ct i on
Introduction
Emulsions consist of small liquid droplets immersed in another liquid, typically oil in
water or water in oil. Emulsions find wide application in the production of food,
cosmetics, and pharmaceutical products. The properties and quality of an emulsion
typically depend on the size and the distribution of the droplets. This model studies in
detail how to create uniform droplets in a microchannel T-junction.
Setting up the model you can make use of the Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set
interface. The model uses the predefined wetted wall boundary condition at the solid
walls, with a contact angle of 135°. From the results, you can determine the size of the
created droplets and the rate with which they are produced.
Model Definition
Figure 1 shows the geometry of the T-shaped microchannel with a rectangular cross
section. For the separated fluid elements to correspond to droplets, the geometry is
modeled in 3D. Due to symmetry, it is sufficient to model only half of the junction
geometry. The modeling domain is shown in Figure 1. The fluid to be dispersed into
1 | D R O P L E T B R E A K U P I N A T- J U N C T I O N
53
small droplets, Fluid 2, enters through the vertical channel. The other fluid, Fluid 1,
flows from the right to left through the horizontal channel.
Inlet, fluid 2
Initial fluid interface

Inlet, fluid 1
Outlet
Figure 1: The modeling domain of the T-junction.
The problem described is straight forward to set up with the Laminar Two-Phase Flow,
Level Set interface. The interface sets up a momentum transport equation, a continuity
equation, and a level set equation for the level set variable. The fluid interface is defined
by the 0.5 contour of the level set function.
The interface uses the following equations:
∂u T
ρ + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – p I + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) ] + F st
∂t
∇⋅u = 0
∂φ ∇φ-
------ + u ⋅ ∇φ = γ∇ ⋅ § – φ ( 1 – φ ) --------- + ε∇φ·
∂t © ∇φ ¹
In the equations above, ρ denotes density (kg/m3), u velocity (m/s), t time (s), μ
dynamic viscosity (Pa·s), p pressure (Pa), and Fst the surface tension force (N/m3).
Furthermore, φ is the level set function, and γ and ε are numerical stabilization
parameters. The density and viscosity are calculated from
54
ρ = ρ 1 + ( ρ 2 – ρ 1 )φ
μ = μ 1 + ( μ 2 – μ 1 )φ
where ρ1, ρ2, μ1, and μ2 are the densities and viscosities of Fluid 1 and Fluid 2.
PHYSICAL PARAMETERS
The two liquids have the following physical properties:
QUANTITY VALUE, FLUID 1 VALUE, FLUID 2
Density (kg/m3) 1000 1000

Dynamic viscosity (Pa·s) 0.00195 0.00671
The surface tension coefficient is 5·10−3 N/m.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
At both inlets, Laminar inflow conditions with prescribed volume flows are used. At
the outflow boundary, the Pressure, no viscous stress condition is set. The Wetted wall
boundary condition applies to all solid boundaries with the contact angle specified as
135° and a slip length equal to the mesh size parameter, h. The contact angle is the
angle between the fluid interface and the solid wall at points where the fluid interface
attaches to the wall. The slip length is the distance to the position outside the wall
where the extrapolated tangential velocity component is zero (see Figure 2).
Fluid 1
u Wall
Wall
θ
Fluid 2
β
Figure 2: The contact angle, θ, and the slip length, β.
55

Figure 3 shows the fluid interface (the level set function φ = 0.5 ) and velocity
streamlines at various times. The first droplet is formed after approximately 0.03 s.
Figure 3: Velocity streamlines, velocity on the symmetry plane, and the phase boundary at
t = 0.02 s, 0.04 s, 0.06 s, and 0.08 s.
You can calculate the effective diameter, deff—that is, the diameter of a spherical
droplet with the same volume as the formed droplet—using the following expression:
3
d eff = 2 ⋅ 3 ------ ³Ω ( φ > 0.5 ) dΩ (1)
4π
Here, Ω represents the leftmost part of the horizontal channel, where x < −0.2 mm. In
this case, the results show that deff is about 0.12 mm. The results are in fair agreement
with those presented in Ref. 1.
Reference
1. S. van der Graaf, et al., “Lattice Boltzmann Simulations of Droplet Formation in a
T-Shaped Microchannel,” Langmuir, vol. 22, pp. 4144–4152, 2006.
56
Model Library path: Microfluidics_Module/Two-Phase_Flow/

droplet_breakup
NEW
MODEL WIZARD
1 In the Model Wizard window, click 3D.
2 In the Select physics tree, select Fluid Flow>Multiphase Flow>Two-Phase Flow, Level
Set>Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set (tpf).
3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
5 In the Select study tree, select Preset Studies>Transient with Phase Initialization.
6 Click Done.
GEOMETRY 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Geometry 1.
2 In the Settings window for Geometry, locate the Units section.
3 From the Length unit list, choose mm.
Work Plane 1 (wp1)

1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Work Plane.
2 In the Settings window for Work Plane, locate the Plane Definition section.
3 From the Plane list, choose xz-plane.
Rectangle 1 (r1)
1 On the Work plane toolbar, click Primitives and choose Rectangle.
3 In the Width text field, type 0.1.
4 In the Height text field, type 0.4.
57
5 Locate the Position section. In the yw text field, type 0.1.
Rectangle 2 (r2)
1 On the Work plane toolbar, click Primitives and choose Rectangle.
3 In the Width text field, type 1.
5 Locate the Position section. In the xw text field, type -0.7.
Plane Geometry
1 On the Work plane toolbar, click Build All.
Polygon 1 (pol1)
1 On the Work plane toolbar, click Primitives and choose Polygon.
2 In the Settings window for Polygon, locate the Object Type section.
3 From the Type list, choose Open curve.
4 Locate the Coordinates section. In the xw text field, type 0 0.1.
5 In the yw text field, type 0.2 0.2.
6 Click the Build Selected button.
Polygon 2 (pol2)
1 On the Work plane toolbar, click Primitives and choose Polygon.
2 In the Settings window for Polygon, locate the Coordinates section.
3 In the xw text field, type 0.1 0.1.
4 In the yw text field, type 0 0.1.
Extrude 1 (ext1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Extrude.
2 In the Settings window for Extrude, locate the Distances from Plane section.
Distances (mm)
0.05
58
Form Union (fin)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Geometry 1 right-click
Form Union (fin) and choose Build Selected.
The geometry should look like in Figure 1.
MATERIALS
Material 1 (mat1)
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) right-click Materials and
choose Blank Material.
2 Right-click Material 1 (mat1) and choose Rename.
3 In the Rename Material dialog box, type Fluid 1 in the New label text field.
4 Click OK.

Density rho 1e3[kg kg/m³ Basic
/m^3]
Dynamic viscosity mu 1.95e- Pa·s Basic
3[Pa*s
]
Material 2 (mat2)
2 Right-click Material 2 (mat2) and choose Rename.
3 In the Rename Material dialog box, type Fluid 2 in the New label text field.
4 Click OK.
5 In the Settings window for Material, click to expand the Material properties section.
6 Locate the Material Properties section. In the Material properties tree, select Basic
Properties>Density.
7 Click Add to Material.
8 In the Material properties tree, select Basic Properties>Dynamic Viscosity.
9 Click Add to Material.
59
10 Locate the Material Contents section. In the table, enter the following settings:

Density rho 1e3[kg kg/m³ Basic
/m^3]
Dynamic viscosity mu 6.71e- Pa·s Basic
3[Pa*s
]
DEFINITIONS
Step 1 (step1)
1 On the Model toolbar, click Functions and choose Local>Step.
2 In the Settings window for Step, locate the Parameters section.
3 In the Location text field, type 1e-3.
4 Click to expand the Smoothing section. In the Size of transition zone text field, type
2e-3.
Add an integration operator that you will use to calculate the effective droplet diameter
according to Equation 1 in the Model Definition section.
Integration 1 (intop1)
1 On the Definitions toolbar, click Component Couplings and choose Integration.
2 In the Settings window for Integration, locate the Source Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose All domains.
Variables 1
1 On the Definitions toolbar, click Local Variables.

V1 0.4e-6/ m³/s Volume flow, inlet 1
3600*step1(t[1/
s])[m^3/s]
V2 0.2e-6/ m³/s Volume flow, inlet 2
3600*step1(t[1/
s])[m^3/s]
d_eff 2*(intop1((phils>0. m Effective droplet
5)*(x<-0.2[mm]))*3/ diameter
(4*pi))^(1/3)
60
L A M I N A R TW O - P H A S E F L O W, L E V E L S E T ( T P F )
The mesh can be controlled very well in this model, which makes it possible to use a
lower element order without reducing the accuracy.
1 In the Model Builder window’s toolbar, click the Show button and select Discretization
in the menu.
2 In the Model Builder window, expand the Component 1 (comp1)>Laminar Two-Phase
Flow, Level Set (tpf) node, then click Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set (tpf).
3 In the Settings window for Laminar Two-Phase Flow, Level Set, click to expand the
Discretization section.
4 From the Discretization of fluids list, choose P1 + P1.
Fluid Properties 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Laminar Two-Phase Flow,
Level Set (tpf) click Fluid Properties 1.
2 In the Settings window for Fluid Properties, locate the Fluid 1 Properties section.
3 From the Fluid 1 list, choose Fluid 1 (mat1).
4 Locate the Fluid 2 Properties section. From the Fluid 2 list, choose Fluid 2 (mat2).
5 Locate the Surface Tension section. From the Surface tension coefficient list, choose
User defined. In the σ text field, type 5e-3[N/m].
6 Locate the Level Set Parameters section. In the γ text field, type 0.05[m/s].
7 In the εls text field, type 5e-6[m].
Wall 1
Because this is the default boundary condition node, you cannot modify the selection
explicitly. Instead, you override the default condition where it is not applicable by
adding other boundary conditions.

Level Set (tpf) click Wall 1.
2 In the Settings window for Wall, locate the Boundary Condition section.
3 From the Boundary condition list, choose Wetted wall.
4 In the θw text field, type 3*pi/4[rad].
5 In the β text field, type 5e-6[m].
Initial Interface 1
Level Set (tpf) click Initial Interface 1.
61
Initial Values 2
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Domains and choose Initial Values.
4 Click the Fluid 2 button.
For Domains 1 and 2, the default initial value settings apply.
Inlet 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Inlet.
3 In the Settings window for Inlet, locate the Boundary Condition section.
4 From the list, choose Laminar inflow.
5 Locate the Laminar Inflow section. Click the Flow rate button.
6 In the V0 text field, type V1.
7 In the Lentr text field, type 0.01[m].
Inlet 2
3 In the Settings window for Inlet, locate the Level Set Condition section.
4 In the Vf text field, type 1.
5 Locate the Boundary Condition section. From the list, choose Laminar inflow.
6 Locate the Laminar Inflow section. Click the Flow rate button.
8 In the Lentr text field, type 0.01[m].
Outlet 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Outlet.
Symmetry 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Symmetry.
62
MESH 1
Mapped 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) right-click Mesh 1 and
choose More Operations>Mapped.
Distribution 1
1 Right-click Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1>Mapped 1 and choose Distribution.
2 Select Edge 3 only.
3 In the Settings window for Distribution, locate the Distribution section.
4 In the Number of elements text field, type 160.
Distribution 2
1 Right-click Mapped 1 and choose Distribution.
2 Select Edges 1 and 9 only.
Distribution 3
4 From the Distribution properties list, choose Predefined distribution type.
6 In the Element ratio text field, type 4.
Distribution 4
4 From the Distribution properties list, choose Predefined distribution type.
6 In the Element ratio text field, type 3.
7 Select the Reverse direction check box.
63
Mapped 1
Right-click Mapped 1 and choose Build Selected.
Swept 1
1 Right-click Mesh 1 and choose Swept.
2 In the Settings window for Swept, click to expand the Source faces section.
3 Locate the Source Faces section. Select the Active toggle button.
4 Select Boundaries 2, 7, and 10 only.
Distribution 1
1 Right-click Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1>Swept 1 and choose Distribution.
STUDY 1
Step 2: Time Dependent

1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Study 1 node, then click Step 2: Time
Dependent.
2 In the Settings window for Time Dependent, locate the Study Settings section.
3 In the Times text field, type range(0,5e-3,0.08).
64
4 Click to expand the Results while solving section. Locate the Results While Solving
section. Select the Plot check box.
5 From the Plot group list, choose Default.
This choice means that the Graphics window will show a surface plot of the volume
fraction of Fluid 1 while solving, and this plot will be updated at each 5 ms output
time step.
Manually tune the solver sequence for optimal performance and accuracy.
Solution 1
1 On the Study toolbar, click Show Default Solver.
2 In the Model Builder window, expand the Solution 1 node, then click Time-Dependent
Solver 1.
3 In the Settings window for Time-Dependent Solver, click to expand the Time
stepping section.
4 Locate the Time Stepping section. From the Method list, choose Generalized alpha.
5 Select the Time step increase delay check box.
6 In the associated text field, type 3.
7 In the Amplification for high frequency text field, type 0.3.
8 From the Predictor list, choose Constant.
9 In the Model Builder window, expand the Study 1>Solver Configurations>Solution
1>Time-Dependent Solver 1 node.
10 Right-click Study 1>Solver Configurations>Solution 1>Time-Dependent Solver 1 and
choose Iterative.
11 In the Settings window for Iterative, locate the Error section.
12 In the Factor in error estimate text field, type 20.
13 In the Maximum number of iterations text field, type 200.
14 Right-click Study 1>Solver Configurations>Solution 1>Time-Dependent Solver
1>Iterative 1 and choose Multigrid.
1>Time-Dependent Solver 1>Iterative 1>Multigrid 1 node.
16 Right-click Presmoother and choose SCGS.
17 In the Settings window for SCGS, locate the Main section.
18 Select the Vanka check box.
65
19 Under Variables, click Add.

20 In the Add dialog box, In the Variables list, choose comp1.tpf.Pinlinl1 and
comp1.tpf.Pinlinl2.
21 Click OK.
1>Time-Dependent Solver 1>Iterative 1>Multigrid 1>Postsmoother node.
23 Right-click Study 1>Solver Configurations>Solution 1>Time-Dependent Solver
1>Iterative 1>Multigrid 1>Postsmoother and choose SCGS.
24 In the Settings window for SCGS, locate the Main section.
25 Select the Vanka check box.
26 Under Variables, click Add.
27 In the Add dialog box, In the Variables list, choose comp1.tpf.Pinlinl1 and
comp1.tpf.Pinlinl2.
28 Click OK.
1>Time-Dependent Solver 1>Iterative 1>Multigrid 1>Coarse Solver node, then click
Direct.
30 In the Settings window for Direct, locate the General section.
31 From the Solver list, choose PARDISO.
32 In the Model Builder window, collapse the Study 1>Solver Configurations>Solution
STUDY 1
Solution 1
1 In the Model Builder window, collapse the Study 1>Solver Configurations>Solution
2 In the Model Builder window, collapse the Solution 1 node.
3 On the Study toolbar, click Compute.
RESULTS
The first default plot group shows the volume fraction of fluid 1 as slice plot, and the
second plot group shows a slice plot of the velocity combined with a contour plot of
the volume fraction of fluid 1. Follow these steps to reproduce the series of velocity
field plots shown in Figure 3.
66
3D Plot Group 3
2 In the Model Builder window, under Results right-click 3D Plot Group 3 and choose
Slice.
3 In the Settings window for Slice, click Replace Expression in the upper-right corner
of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Laminar Two-Phase
Flow, Level Set>tpf.U - Velocity magnitude.
4 Locate the Plane Data section. From the Plane list, choose zx-planes.
5 From the Entry method list, choose Coordinates.
7 In the Model Builder window, right-click 3D Plot Group 3 and choose Isosurface.
8 In the Settings window for Isosurface, locate the Levels section.
9 From the Entry method list, choose Levels.
10 In the Levels text field, type 0.5.
11 Locate the Coloring and Style section. From the Coloring list, choose Uniform.
12 From the Color list, choose Green.
13 Right-click 3D Plot Group 3 and choose Streamline.
14 In the Settings window for Streamline, locate the Streamline Positioning section.
15 From the Positioning list, choose Uniform density.
16 In the Separating distance text field, type 0.05.
17 Locate the Coloring and Style section. From the Line type list, choose Tube.
18 Select the Radius scale factor check box.
19 In the associated text field, type 2e-3.
20 From the Color list, choose Yellow.
22 In the Settings window for 3D Plot Group, locate the Data section.
23 From the Time (s) list, choose 0.02000.
25 Click the Go to Default 3D View button on the Graphics toolbar.
Compare the resulting plot with the upper-left plot in Figure 3.
26 To reproduce the remaining three plots, plot the solution for the time values 0.04,
0.06, and 0.08 s.
67
Next, evaluate the effective droplet diameter computed according to Equation 1.
Derived Values
1 On the Results toolbar, click Global Evaluation.
2 In the Settings window for Global Evaluation, click Replace Expression in the
upper-right corner of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component
1>Definitions>Variables>d_eff - Effective droplet diameter.
TABLE
1 Go to the Table window.
The result, roughly 0.12 mm, is displayed in the table in the Table window.
Finally, generate a movie of the moving fluid interface and the velocity streamlines.
RESULTS
Export
Player. COMSOL Multiphysics generates the movie and then plays it.
2 To replay the movie, click the Play button on the Graphics toolbar.
If you want to export a movie in GIF, Flash, or AVI format, right-click Export and
create an Animation feature.
68
Cooling of an Injection Mold
69
CoolingofanInjectionMold
3UHYLHZ
• Simulationsoffluidflow,heatandmasstransfer,hydraulictransients,andacousticsinthe1Dgeometry.
• FluidModel– Newtonian,Powerlaw,Bingham
• Pipeshape– Round,Square,Rectangle,Userdefined(hydraulicdiameter)
• Inlet/Outlet– Massflowrate,Velocity,Volumetricflowrate,SCCM
70
3UHYLHZ
• Frictionmodel
Ͳ Newtonianfluids
Churchill:FullrangeofRe(laminar,transitionandturbulent)ande/d
Stokes:Laminarregime(Re<2000)
Wood:4*103 <Re<1*107 and1*10Ͳ5 <e/d<4*10Ͳ2
Haaland :Commonlyusedforoilpipelinesandwells,Re(4*103 <Re<1*108)
Colebrook:Verylowrelativeroughnesse/d,SimpleHaaland model
VonKarman:Verylargerelativeroughnesse/d,SimpleHaaland model
SwameeͲJain:AlternativemethodofHaaland model
10Ͳ6 <e/d<10Ͳ2 andforRe(5*103 <Re<108)
Ͳ NonͲNewtonianfluids
Irvine(Powerlaw):FullrangeofRe(laminar,transitionandturbulent)ande/d
Stokes(Powerlaw):Laminarregime(Re<2000)
Darby(Bingham):FullrangeofRe(laminar,transitionandturbulent)ande/d
3UHYLHZ
• LossCoefficients
71
3UHYLHZ
• WallHeatTransfer
0RGHO
Steel AISI4340 Polyurethane

Thermalconductivity 44.5[W/(m*K)] 0.32[W/(m*K)]
Density 7850[kg/ี@ 1250[kg/ี@
Heatcapacity 475[J/(kg*K)] 1540[J/(kg*K)]
72
3K\VLFV
PipeFlow+HeatTransferinPipes=NonͲIsothermalPipeFlow
+
HeatTransferinSolid
ContinuityandMomentumEquations
ChurchillModel
EnergyEquation
0RGHOLQJ FRQGLWLRQ
Pipediameter:1cm
Inlet 10[Liter/min]
Outlet 1[atm]
Initialtemperatureof mold 473.15K
Surfaceroughness Commercialsteel(0.046mm)
73
5HVXOW
MoldMaterial Waterflowrate Surface averageTafter Linecolor

(l/min) roughness(mm) 10min(K)
Steel 10 0.046 333 Blue
Steel 20 0.046 325 Green
Steel 10 0.46 328 Red
Aluminium 10 0.046 301 Magenta
74
Cooling of an Injection Mold

Introduction
Cooling is an important process in the production of injection molded plastics. First
of all, the cooling time may well represent more than half of the production cycle time.
Second, a homogeneous cooling process is desired to avoid defects in the
manufactured parts. If plastic materials in the injection molding die are cooled down
uniformly and slowly, residual stresses can be avoided, and thereby the risk of warps
and cracks in the end product can be minimized.
As a consequence, the positioning and properties of the cooling channels become

important aspects when designing the mold.
The simulation of heat transfer in molds of relatively complex geometries requires a 3D

representation. Simulation of 3D flow and heat transfer inside the cooling channels are
computationally expensive. An efficient short-cut alternative is to model the flow and
heat transfer in the cooling channels with 1D pipe flow equations, and still model the
surrounding mold and product in 3D.
This example shows how you can use the Non-Isothermal Pipe Flow interface together
with the Heat Transfer in Solids interface to model a mold cooling process. The
equations describing the cooling channels are fully coupled to the heat transfer
equations of the mold and the polyurethane part.
Figure 1: The steering wheel of a car, made from polyurethane.
1 | COOLING OF AN INJECTION MOLD

75
Model Definition
MODEL GEOMETRY AND PROCESS CONDITIONS

The polyurethane material used for a steering wheel is produced by several different
molds. The part considered in this model is the top half of the wheel grip, shown in
gray in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Polyurethane parts for a steering wheel. The top half of the grip is modeled in this
example.

76
The mold consists of a 50-by-50-by-15 cm steel block. Two cooling channels, 1 cm in

diameter, are machined into the block as illustrated in Figure 3.
Water inlets
Figure 3: Mold block and cooling channels.
The after injection of the polyurethane, the average temperature of the mold a the
plastic material is 473 K. Water at room temperature is used as cooling fluid and flows
through the channels at a rate of 10 liters/min. The model simulates a 10 min cooling
process.
For numerical stability reasons, the model is set up with an initial water temperature of
473 K, which is ramped down to 288 K during the first few seconds.
PIPE FLOW EQUATIONS

The momentum and mass conservation equations below describe the flow in the
cooling channels:
∂u ρ
ρ ------- = – ∇p – f D ---------- u u (1)
∂t 2d h
∂Aρ
----------- + ∇ ⋅ ( Aρu ) = 0 (2)
∂t

77
Above, u is the cross section averaged fluid velocity (m/s) along the tangent of the
center line of a pipe. A (m2) is the cross section area of the pipe, ρ (kg/m3) is the
density, and p (N/m2) is the pressure. For more information, refer to the section
Theory for the Pipe Flow Interface in the Pipe Flow Module User’s Guide.
Expressions for the Darcy Friction Factor

The second term on the right hand side of Equation 2 accounts for pressure drop due
to viscous shear. The Pipe Flow physics uses the Churchill friction model (Ref. 1) to
calculate fD. It is valid for laminar flow, turbulent flow, and the transitional region in
between. The Churchill friction model is predefined in the Non-Isothermal Pipe Flow
interface and is given by:
8 12 -1.5 1 ⁄ 12
f D = 8 § ------· + ( A + B ) (3)
© Re¹
where
7 0.9 16
A = -2.457ln § § ------· + 0.27 ( e ⁄ d )· (4)
© © Re¹ ¹
37530 16
B = §© ----------------·¹ (5)
Re

78
As seen from the equations above, the friction factor depends on the surface roughness
divided by diameter of the pipe, e/d. Surface roughness values can be selected from a
list in the Pipe Properties feature or be entered as user-defined values.
Figure 4: The Friction model and Surface roughness settings are found in the Pipe
Properties feature.
In the Churchill equation, fD is also a function of the fluid properties, flow velocity and
geometry, through the Reynolds number:
ρud
Re = ----------- (6)
μ
The physical properties of water as function of temperature are directly available from
the software’s built-in material library.
H E A T TR A N S F E R E Q U A T I O N S
Cooling Channels
The energy equation for the cooling water inside the pipe is:
∂T ρA 3
ρAC p ------- + ρAC p u ⋅ ∇T = ∇ ⋅ Ak ∇T + f D ---------- u + Q wall (7)
∂t 2d h
where Cp (J/(kg·K)) is the heat capacity at constant pressure, T is the cooling water
temperature (K), and k (W/(m·K)) is the thermal conductivity. The second term on
the right hand side corresponds to heat dissipated due to internal friction in the fluid.
It is negligible for the short channels considered here. Qwall (W/m) is a source term
that accounts for the heat exchange with the surrounding mold block.

79
Mold Block and Polyurethane Part

Heat transfer in the solid steel mold block as well as the molded polyurethane part is
governed by conduction:
∂T 2
ρC p ---------- = ∇ ⋅ k ∇T 2 (8)
∂t
Above, T2 is the temperature in the solids. The source term Qwall comes into play for
the heat balance in Equation 8 through a line heat source where the pipe is situated.
This coupling is automatically done by the Wall Heat Transfer feature in the
Non-Isothermal Pipe Flow interface.
Heat Exchange
The heat exchange term Qwall (W/m) couple the two energy balances given by
Equation 7 and Equation 8:
The heat transfer through the pipe wall is given by
Q wall = hZ ( T ext – T ) (9)
In Equation 9 Z (m) is the perimeter of the pipe, h (W/(m2·K)) a heat transfer

coefficient and Text (K) the external temperature outside of the pipe. Qwall appears as
a source term in the pipe heat transfer equation.
The Wall heat transfer feature requires the external temperature and at least an internal
film resistance.
Text can be a constant, parameter, expression, or given by a temperature field

computed by another physics interface, typically a 3D Heat Transfer interface. h is
automatically calculated through film resistances and wall layers that are added as
subnodes. For details, refer to the section Theory for the Heat Transfer in Pipes
Interface in the Pipe Flow Module User’s Guide.
In this model example, Text is given as the temperature field computed by a 3D heat
transfer interface, and automatic heat transfer coupling is done to the 3D physics side
as a line source. The temperature coupling between the pipe and the surrounding
domain is implemented as a line heat source in the 3D domain. The source strength is
proportional to the temperature difference between the pipe fluid and the surrounding
domain.

80
The Wall Heat Transfer feature is added to the Non-Isothermal Pipe Flow interface,
and the External temperature is set to the temperature of the Heat Transfer in solids
interface.
Figure 5: In the Wall Heat Transfer feature, set the External temperature to the
temperature field computed by the Heat Transfer in Solids interface.
The heat transfer coefficient, h, depends on the physical properties of water and the
nature of the flow and is calculated from the Nusselt number:
k
h = Nu ------ (9-6)
dh
where k is the thermal conductivity of the material, and Nu is the Nusselt number. dh
is the hydraulic diameter of the pipe.
COMSOL detects if the flow is laminar or turbulent. For the laminar flow regime, an
analytic solution is available that gives Nu = 3.66 for circular tubes (Ref. 2). For
turbulent flow inside channels of circular cross sections the following Nusselt
correlation is used (Ref. 3):
( f D ⁄ 8 ) ( Re – 1000 )Pr
Nu int = ------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1⁄2 2⁄3
(10)
1 + 12.7 ( f D ⁄ 8 ) ( Pr – 1)
where Pr is the Prandtl number:
Cp μ
Pr = ----------- (11)
k
Note that Equation 10 is a function of the friction factor, fD, and therefore that the
radial heat transfer will increase with the surface roughness of the channels.
Note: All the correlations discussed above are automatically used by the Wall Heat
Transfer feature in the Pipe Flow Module, and it detects if the flow is laminar or
turbulent for automatic selection of the correct correlation.

81

The steel mold and polyurethane part, initially at 473 K, are cooled for 10 minutes by
water at room temperature. Figures below show sample results when flow rate of the
cooling water is 10 liters/minute and the surface roughness of the channels is 46 μm.
After two minutes of cooling, the hottest and coldest parts of the polyurethane part
differ by approximately 40 K (Figure 7).
Figure 7: Temperature distribution in the polyurethane part and the cooling channels
after 2 minutes of cooling.

82
Figure 8 shows the temperature distribution in the steel mold after 2 minutes. The
temperature footprint of the cooling channels is clearly visible.
Figure 8: Temperature distribution in the steel mold block after 2 minutes of cooling.

83
After 10 minutes of cooling, the temperature in the mold block is more uniform, with
a temperature at the center of approximately 333 K (Figure 9). Still, the faces with
cooling channel inlets and outlets are more than 20 K hotter.
Figure 9: Temperature distribution in the steel mold block after 10 minutes of cooling.
The blue line in Figure 10 shows the average temperature of the polyurethane part as
function of the cooling time. The temperature is 333 K after 10 minutes of cooling.
To evaluate the influence of factors affecting the cooling time, additional simulations
can be run, varying the flow rate of the cooling water, the surface roughness of the
cooling channels, and the mold material. The conditions are summarized in the table
below.
TABLE 1: COOLING CONDITIONS
MOLD WATER FLOW SURFACE AVERAGE T LINE COLOR

MATERIAL RATE (L/MIN) ROUGHNESS (MM) AFTER 10 MIN (K)
Steel 10 0.046 333 Blue

Steel 20 0.046 325 Green
Steel 10 0.46 328 Red
Aluminum 10 0.046 301 Magenta

84
Figure 10: Average temperature of the polyurethane part as function of time and cooling
conditions.
Clearly, the thermal conductivity of the mold material is the most important factor in
this comparison, followed by flow rate and surface roughness of the cooling channels.
Assuming that 340 K is an acceptable temperature at the end of the production cycle,
it can be found that changing the mold material reduces the cooling time by 67%,
increasing the flow rate reduces the cooling time by 17%, and increasing surface
roughness reduces the cooling time by 11%.
References
1. S.W. Churchill, “Friction factor equations span all fluid-flow regimes,” Chem. Eng.,
vol. 84, no. 24, p.91, 1997.
2. F.P. Incropera, D.P. DeWitt. Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 5th ed.,
John Wiley & Sons, pp. 486–487, 2002.
3. V. Gnielinski, “New Equation for Heat and Mass Transfer in Turbulent Pipe and
Channel Flow,” Int. Chem. Eng. vol. 16, p. 359, 1976.

85
Model Library path: Pipe_Flow_Module/Heat_Transfer/mold_cooling
NEW
MODEL WIZARD
2 In the Select physics tree, select Fluid Flow>Non-Isothermal Flow>Non-Isothermal Pipe
Flow (nipfl).
3 Click Add.
4 In the Select physics tree, select Heat Transfer>Heat Transfer in Solids (ht).
5 Click Add.
6 Click Study.
7 In the Select study tree, select Preset Studies for Selected Physics Interfaces>Time
Dependent.
8 Click Done.
DEFINITIONS
Parameters

T_init_mo 473.15[K] 473.15 K Initial temperature,
ld mold
T_coolant 288.15[K] 288.15 K Steady-state inlet
temperature, coolant

86
Step 1 (step1)
Create a smooth step function to decrease the coolant temperature at the beginning of
the process.
1 On the Model toolbar, click Functions and choose Global>Step.

2 In the Settings window for Step, locate the Parameters section.
3 In the Location text field, type 2.5.
4 In the From text field, type 1.
5 In the To text field, type 0.
6 Click to expand the Smoothing section. In the Size of transition zone text field, type 5.
Optionally, you can inspect the shape of the step function:
7 Click the Plot button.
Variables 1
1 On the Model toolbar, click Variables and choose Global Variables.

87

T_inlet T_coolant+(T_init_m K Ramped inlet
old-T_coolant)*step temperature, coolant
1(t[1/s])
GEOMETRY 1
First, import the steering wheel part from a CAD design file.
Import 1 (imp1)
1 On the Model toolbar, click Import.
2 In the Settings window for Import, locate the Import section.
3 Click Browse.
mold_cooling_top.mphbin.
5 Click Import.
Second, draw the mold and cooling channels. To simplify this step, insert a prepared
geometry sequence from file. After insertion you can study each geometry step in the
sequence.
7 On the Geometry toolbar, click Insert Sequence.

mold_cooling_geom_sequence.mph.
Block 1 (blk1)
Block 1 (blk1) and choose Build All Objects.
3 Click the Transparency button on the Graphics toolbar.
DEFINITIONS
Create the selections to simplify the model specification.
Explicit 1

88
3 From the Geometric entity level list, choose Edge.
Select one segment of the upper channel and one segment of the lower.

5 Select the Group by continuous tangent check box to select entire channels.
6 Right-click Component 1 (comp1)>Definitions>Explicit 1 and choose Rename.

7 In the Rename Explicit dialog box, type Cooling channels in the New label text
field.
8 Click OK.
MATERIALS
The next step is to specify material properties for the model. Select water and steel from
the built-in materials database.
ADD MATERIAL
3 In the tree, select Built-In>Water, liquid.
MATERIALS
Water, liquid (mat1)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Water,
liquid (mat1).

89
3 From the Geometric entity level list, choose Edge.

4 From the Selection list, choose Cooling channels.
ADD MATERIAL
2 In the tree, select Built-In>Steel AISI 4340.
MATERIALS
Steel AISI 4340 (mat2)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Materials click Steel AISI
4340 (mat2).
Material 3 (mat3)
Next, create a material with the properties of polyurethane.

(m·K)
pressure (kg·K)
5 Right-click Component 1 (comp1)>Materials>Material 3 (mat3) and choose Rename.

6 In the Rename Material dialog box, type Polyurethane in the New label text field.
7 Click OK.
NON-ISOTHERMAL PIPE FLOW (NIPFL)

1 In the Settings window for Non-Isothermal Pipe Flow, locate the Edge Selection
section.

90
Pipe Properties 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Non-Isothermal Pipe Flow
(nipfl) click Pipe Properties 1.
2 In the Settings window for Pipe Properties, locate the Pipe Shape section.
3 From the list, choose Round.
4 In the di text field, type 1[cm].
5 Locate the Flow Resistance section. From the Surface roughness list, choose
Commercial steel (0.046 mm).
Temperature 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Non-Isothermal Pipe Flow
(nipfl) click Temperature 1.
2 In the Settings window for Temperature, locate the Temperature section.
3 In the Tin text field, type T_inlet.
Inlet 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Points and choose Inlet.
2 Select Points 3 and 4 only.
3 In the Settings window for Inlet, locate the Inlet Specification section.
4 From the Specification list, choose Volumetric flow rate.
5 In the qv,0 text field, type 10[l/min].
Heat Outflow 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Points and choose Heat Outflow.
2 Select Points 269 and 270 only.
Wall Heat Transfer 1

1 On the Physics toolbar, click Edges and choose Wall Heat Transfer.
2 In the Settings window for Wall Heat Transfer, locate the Edge Selection section.
4 Locate the Heat Transfer Model section. From the Text list, choose Temperature (ht).
Initial Values 1
1 Right-click Component 1 (comp1)>Non-Isothermal Pipe Flow (nipfl)>Wall Heat
Transfer 1 and choose Internal Film Resistance.

91
3 In the u text field, type 0.1.

4 In the T text field, type T_init_mold.
H E A T TR A N S F E R I N S O L I D S ( H T )
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Component 1 (comp1)>Heat Transfer in
Solids (ht) node, then click Initial Values 1.
3 In the T2 text field, type T_init_mold.
Heat Flux 1
2 In the Settings window for Heat Flux, locate the Boundary Selection section.
3 From the Selection list, choose All boundaries.
4 Locate the Heat Flux section. Click the Convective heat flux button.
5 In the h text field, type 2.
MESH 1
Edge 1
choose More Operations>Edge.
2 In the Settings window for Edge, locate the Edge Selection section.
Size 1
1 Right-click Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1>Edge 1 and choose Size.
2 In the Settings window for Size, locate the Element Size section.
3 From the Predefined list, choose Extra fine.
4 In the Model Builder window, right-click Mesh 1 and choose Free Tetrahedral.
Size
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1 click Size.
3 Click the Custom button.
4 Locate the Element Size Parameters section. In the Minimum element size text field,
type 0.003.
5 In the Model Builder window, right-click Mesh 1 and choose Build All.

92
STUDY 1

Dependent.
3 In the Times text field, type range(0,30,600).
4 On the Model toolbar, click Compute.
RESULTS
Data Sets
1 On the Results toolbar, click More Data Sets and choose Solution.
2 On the Results toolbar, click Selection.
3 In the Settings window for Selection, locate the Geometric Entity Selection section.
Temperature (nipfl)
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Results>Temperature (nipfl) node, then
click Line 1.1.
2 In the Settings window for Line, locate the Coloring and Style section.
5 Clear the Color legend check box.
6 Locate the Data section. From the Data set list, choose Study 1/Solution 1 (1).
8 In the Model Builder window, right-click Temperature (nipfl) and choose Surface.
9 In the Settings window for Surface, locate the Data section.

93

12 Click Replace Expression in the upper-right corner of the Expression section. From
the menu, choose Model>Component 1>Heat Transfer in Solids>Temperature>T2 -
Temperature.
Temperature (ht)
1 In the Model Builder window, under Results click Temperature (ht).
5 Click the Transparency button on the Graphics toolbar.
6 In the Model Builder window, expand the Temperature (ht) node, then click Surface 1.
7 In the Settings window for Surface, locate the Coloring and Style section.
8 From the Color table list, choose Rainbow.
3D Plot Group 6
Surface.
Temperature.
6 In the Model Builder window, right-click 3D Plot Group 6 and choose Slice.
7 In the Settings window for Slice, locate the Plane Data section.
8 In the Planes text field, type 4.
9 Click to expand the Inherit style section. Locate the Inherit Style section. From the
Plot list, choose Surface 1.
Temperature.

94
11 Right-click 3D Plot Group 6 and choose Surface.

14 Locate the Expression section. In the Expression text field, type 0.
16 From the Color list, choose Gray.
17 Right-click 3D Plot Group 6 and choose Line.
18 In the Settings window for Line, click Replace Expression in the upper-right corner
of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Model>Component
1>Non-Isothermal Pipe Flow (Heat Transfer in Pipes)>T - Temperature.
19 Locate the Coloring and Style section. From the Line type list, choose Tube.
20 In the Tube radius expression text field, type 0.5*nipfl.dh.
22 From the Coloring list, choose Uniform.
23 From the Color list, choose Blue.
Derived Values
1 On the Results toolbar, click More Derived Values and choose Average>Volume
Average.
2 In the Settings window for Volume Average, locate the Selection section.
3 Click Paste Selection.
4 In the Paste Selection dialog box, type 2 in the Selection text field.
5 Click OK.
6 In the Settings window for Volume Average, click Replace Expression in the
upper-right corner of the Expression section. From the menu, choose
Model>Component 1>Heat Transfer in Solids>Temperature>T2 - Temperature.

95

96
Electroosmotic Micromixer
97
(OHFWURRVPRWLF 0LFURPL[HU
3UHYLHZ
• Particlerelease(Inlet,Release)– Meshbased(refine^dimension)
Refinementfactor=1 Refinementfactor=3
98
3UHYLHZ
• Particlerelease(Inlet,Release)– Density
Theresultingdistributionwilllookabitrandom,anditwilldependontheorderin
whichthemeshelementsarenumbered.
Expression=1 Expression=x+y2
3UHYLHZ
• Particlerelease– Grid(Releaseofgrid),uniformdensity(inlet)
Releaseuniformlyfrom0.3to0.7 Uniformreleaseonaboundary
99
3UHYLHZ
• Bounce
Ͳ Thisoptionspecularly reflectsfromthewallsuchthattheparticlemomentumisconserved.
Ͳ ThisoptionisnotavailableforMassless particletracing
Ͳ Thisoptionistypicallyusedwhentracingmicroscopicparticlesinafluid.
• Freeze
Ͳ Thisoption(default)fixestheparticlepositionandvelocityattheinstantawallisstruck.
Ͳ Thisisusefultorecoverthevelocityandenergydistributionfunctionofparticleswhentheystrikethewall
Ͳ Usedtocomputetheionenergydistributionfunctioninplasmamodels
• Stick
Ͳ Thisoptionfixestheparticlepositionattheinstantthewallisstruck.
Ͳ Thiscanbeusedifthevelocityorenergyoftheparticlesstrikingawallisnotofinterest.
3UHYLHZ
• Disappear
Ͳ Thisoptionmeansthattheparticleisnotdisplayedonceithasmadecontactwiththewall.
Ͳ Thisoptionshouldbeusedifdisplayoftheparticlelocationaftercontactwiththewallisnotofinterest.
•Diffusereflection
Ͳ ParticlesbounceoffsurfacesaccordingtoKnudsen’scosinelaw
•Generalreflection
Ͳ Specifyanarbitraryexpressionforthepostcollisionparticlevelocity
Ͳ Intheexampletotherightparticleswillbespecularly reflectedoffawallwithhalfoftheirincidentvelocity
Ͳ Thisoptiongivescompletefreedomover
100
0RGHO
Mixing
Inlet Outlet
Electroosmotic velocity Property Name Value

Density rho 1e3[kg/m^3]
Dynamicviscosity mu 1eͲ3[Pa*s]
Electricconductivity sigma 0.11845[S/m]
Relativepermittivity epsilonr 80.2
3K\VLFV
ElectricCurrents+LaminarFlow+TransportofDilutedSpecies
NavierͲstokesequation
(Compressibleflow)
Ohm’slaw
ConvectionͲdiffusionequation
101
0RGHOLQJ FRQGLWLRQ
1[mol/ี]
0[mol/ี]
Inlet 0.1[mm/s]
Outlet Normalstressiszero
Wall condition Electroosmotic velcity
5HVXOW
102
Electroosmotic Micromixer 1
Introduction
Microlaboratories for biochemical applications often require rapid mixing of different
fluid streams. At the microscale, flow is usually highly ordered laminar flow, and the
lack of turbulence makes diffusion the primary mechanism for mixing. While
diffusional mixing of small molecules (and therefore of rapidly diffusing species) can
occur in a matter of seconds over distances of tens of micrometers, mixing of larger
molecules such as peptides, proteins, and high molecular-weight nucleic acids can
require equilibration times from minutes to hours over comparable distances. Such
delays are impractically long for many chemical analyses. These problems have led to
an intense search for more efficient mixers for microfluidic systems.
Most microscale mixing devices are either passive mixers that use geometrical stirring,
or active mixers that use moving parts or external forces, such as pressure or electric
field.
In a passive mixer, one way of increasing the mixing is by “shredding” two or several
fluids into very thin alternating layers, which decreases the average diffusion length for
the molecules between the different fluids. However, these mixers often require very
long mixing channels because the different fluids often run in parallel. Another way of
improving mixing efficiency is to use active mixers with moving parts that stir the
fluids. At the microscale level moving parts in an active mixer are very fragile. One
alternative is to use electroosmotic effects to achieve a mixing effect that is
perpendicular to the main direction of the flow.
This model takes advantage of electroosmosis to mix fluids. The system applies a
time-dependent electric field, and the resulting electroosmosis perturbs the parallel
streamlines in the otherwise highly ordered laminar flow.
Model Definition
This example of a rather simple micromixer geometry (Figure 1) combines two fluids
entering from different inlets into a single 10 μm wide channel. The fluids then enter
a ring-shaped mixing chamber that has four microelectrodes placed on the outer wall
at angular positions of 45, 135, −45, and −135 degrees, respectively. Assume that the
1. This model is courtesy of H. Chen, Y. T. Zhang, I. Mezic, C. D. Meinhart, and L. Petzold of the University
of California, Santa Barbara (Ref. 1 and Ref. 2).
1 | ELECTROOSMOTIC MICROMIXER
103
aspect ratio (channel depth to width) is large enough that you can model the mixer
using a 2D cross-sectional geometry. The material parameters relevant for the model
are given in Table 1.
V0sin(ωt) −V0sin(ωt)
1 2
10 μm
4 3
−V0sin(ωt) V0sin(ωt)
Figure 1: Geometry of the micromixer with four symmetric electrodes on the wall of the
mixing chamber. This example does not model the two inlet channels. Here you assume a
parabolic inflow at the beginning of the computational domain (the gray area).
The Navier-Stokes equations for incompressible flow describe the flow in the channels:
∂u T
ρ – ∇ ⋅ η ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) + ρu ⋅ ∇ u + ∇p = 0
∂t
∇⋅u = 0
Here η denotes the dynamic viscosity (kg/(m·s)), u is the velocity (m/s), ρ equals the
fluid density (kg/m3), and p refers to the pressure (Pa).
Because you do not model the two inlet channels, assume that the entrance channel
starts at a position where the flow has a fully developed laminar profile. The mixed fluid
flows freely out of the right end boundary, where you specify vanishing total stress
components normal to the boundary:
T
n ⋅ [ – pI + η ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) ] = 0
When brought into contact with an electrolyte, most solid surfaces acquire a surface
charge. In response to the spontaneously formed surface charge, a charged solution
forms close to the liquid-solid interface. Known as an electric double layer, it forms
because of the charged groups located on the surface that faces the solution. When the
operator applies an electric field, the electric field generating the electroosmotic flow
displaces the charged liquid in the electric double layer. This scheme imposes a force
on the positively charged solution close to the wall surface, and the fluid starts to flow
104
in the direction of the electric field. The velocity gradients perpendicular to the wall
give rise to viscous transport in this direction. In the absence of other forces, the
velocity profile eventually becomes almost uniform in the cross section perpendicular
to the wall.
This model replaces the thin electric double layer with the Helmholtz-Smoluchowski
relation between the electroosmotic velocity and the tangential component of the
applied electric field:
εw ζ0
u = ------------ ∇TV
η
In this equation, εw = ε0εr denotes the fluid’s electric permittivity (F/m), ζ0 represents
the zeta potential at the channel wall (V), and V equals the potential (V). This equation
applies on all boundaries except for the entrance and the outlet.
Assuming that there are no concentration gradients in the ions that carry the current,
you can express the current balance in the channel with Ohm’s law and the balance
equation for current density
∇ ⋅ ( – σ∇V ) = 0
where σ denotes conductivity (S/m) and the expression within parentheses represents
the current density (A/m2).
The electric potentials on the four electrodes are sinusoidal in time with the same
maximum value (V0 = 0.1 V) and the same frequency (8 Hz), but they alternate in
polarity. The potentials on electrodes 1 and 3 are V0sin(2πft), whereas those on
electrodes 2 and 4 are −V0sin(2πft) (see Figure 1).
Assume all other boundaries are insulated. The insulation boundary condition
– σ∇ V ⋅ n = 0
sets the normal component of the electric field to zero.
At the upper half of the inlet (see Figure 1) the solute has a given concentration, c0; at
the lower half the concentration is zero. Thus, assume that the concentration changes
abruptly from zero to c0 at the middle of the inlet boundary. The mixed solution flows
out from the right outlet by convection, and all other boundaries are assumed
insulated.
Inside the mixer, the following convection-diffusion equation describes the

concentration of the dissolved substances in the fluid:
105
∂c
----- + ∇ ⋅ ( – D∇c ) = R – u ⋅ ∇c (1)
∂t
Here c is the concentration, D represents the diffusion coefficient, R denotes the

reaction rate, and u equals the flow velocity. In this model R = 0 because the
concentration is not affected by any reactions.
TABLE 1: MODEL INPUT DATA
PARAMETER VALUE DESCRIPTION
ρ 1000 kg/m3 Density of the fluid

η 10-3 Pa·s Dynamic viscosity of the fluid
U0 0.1 mm/s Average velocity through the inlet
εr 80.2 Relative electric permittivity of the fluid
ζ -0.1 V Zeta potential on the wall-fluid boundary
σ 0.11845 S/m Conductivity of the ionic solution
D 10-11 m2/s Diffusion coefficient
c0 1 mol/m3 Initial concentration

Figure 2 shows a typical instantaneous streamline pattern. It reveals that
electroosmotic recirculation of the fluid vigorously stirs the flow, typically in the form
of two rotating vortices near the electrodes.
The fundamental processes of effective mixing involve a combination of repeated

stretching and folding of fluid elements in combination with diffusion at small scales.
As the system applies the AC field (Figure 3), the resulting electroosmotic flow
perturbs the laminar pressure-driven flow such that it pushes the combined stream
pattern up and down at the beginning of the mixing chamber, causing extensive
folding and stretching of material lines.
106
Figure 2: Fluid streamlines in an electroosmotic micromixer at t = 0.0375 s.
Figure 3: Electric potential lines for an electroosmotic micromixer. The contour lines show
the shape when the device uses maximal potentials (±V0).
107
The following plots further exemplify how the mixer operates. Figure 4 shows the
concentration at steady state when the electric field is not applied. The flow is laminar
and the diffusion coefficient is very small, so the two fluids are well separated also at
the outlet. When the alternating electric field is applied, the mixing increases
considerably owing to the alternating swirls in the flow. Figure 5 depicts the system at
the instant when the electric field and the electroosmotic velocity have their largest
magnitudes during the cycle (that is, when |sin ωt| = 1). From the plot you can
estimate that the concentration at the output fluctuates with the same frequency as the
electric field. Thus, this mixer should be further improved to get a steadier output.
Figure 4: Steady-state solution in the absence of an electric field.
108
Figure 5: Time-dependent solution at the time when the alternating electric field has its
largest magnitude.
This example demonstrates a rather simple and effective use of electrokinetic forces for
mixing. The scheme is easy to implement, and you can easily control both the
amplitude and the frequency. At low Reynold numbers the inertial forces are small,
which makes it possible to calculate stationary streamlines patterns using the
parametric solver to control amplitude.
Notes About the COMSOL Implementation

Cummings and others (Ref. 3) have shown that in order to use the
Helmholtz-Smoluchowski equation at the fluid-solid boundaries, the electric field
must be at least quasi-static to neglect transient effects. In other words, the time scale
of the unsteady electric field must be much larger than that of the transient flow. Y. T.
Zhang and others (Ref. 1) estimated that the time scale of the transient effect in the
modeled micromixer (with a channel width of 10 microns) is roughly 0.0127 s. In this
simulation the frequency of the applied electric potential is 8 Hz, which corresponds
to a time scale of the electric field 10 times larger than that of the flow.
109
Because you can model the time-dependent electric field as a product of a stationary
electric field and a time-dependent phase factor (sinωt), it is possible to reduce the
simulation time and memory requirements by dividing the solution into two stages. In
the first, calculate the amplitude of the electric potential field and the initial state for
the time-dependent flow model using a stationary solver. In the second stage, you
deactivate the Electric Currents interface and calculate the transient solution for the
Laminar Flow and the Transport of Diluted Species interfaces. You obtain the
tangential electric field components used in the electroosmotic velocity boundary
condition by multiplying the stationary DC solution by sin(ωt). This approach is
permissible because there is only a one-way coupling between the electric field and the
fluid fields.
References
1. H. Chen, Y.T. Zhang, I. Mezic, C.D. Meinhart, and L. Petzold, “Numerical
Simulation of an Electroosmotic Micromixer,” Proc Microfluidics 2003 (ASME
IMECE), 2003.
2. Y.T. Zhang, H. Chen, I. Mezic, C.D. Meinhart, L. Petzold, and N.C. MacDonald,
“SOI Processing of a Ring Electrokinetic Chaotic Micromixer,” Proc NSTI
Nanotechnology Conference and Trade Show (Nanotech 2004), vol. 1, pp. 292–295,
2004.
3. E. Cummings, S. Griffiths, R. Nilson, and P. Paul, “Conditions for Similitude

Between the Fluid Velocity and the Electric Field in Electroosmotic Flow,” Anal.
Chem., vol. 72, pp. 2526–2532, 2000.
Model Library path: Microfluidics_Module/Micromixers/

electroosmotic_mixer
NEW
110
MODEL WIZARD
2 In the Select physics tree, select Fluid Flow>Single-Phase Flow>Laminar Flow (spf).
3 Click Add.
4 In the Select physics tree, select AC/DC>Electric Currents (ec).
5 Click Add.
6 In the Select physics tree, select Chemical Species Transport>Transport of Diluted
Species (tds).
7 Click Add.
8 Click Study.
9 In the Select study tree, select Preset Studies for Selected Physics Interfaces>Stationary.
10 Click Done.
DEFINITIONS
Parameters
111

U0 0.1[mm/s] 1.0000E-4 m/s Mean inflow velocity
sigma_w 0.11845[S/m] 0.11845 S/m Conductivity of the
ionic solution
eps_r 80.2 80.200 Relative permittivity
of the fluid
zeta -0.1[V] -0.10000 V Zeta potential
V0 0.1[V] 0.10000 V Maximum value of the AC
potential
omega 2*pi[rad]*8[Hz 50.265 Hz Angular frequency of
] the AC potential
t 0[s] 0.0000 s Start time
D 1e-11[m^2/s] 1.0000E-11 m²/s Diffusion coefficient
of the solution
c0 1[mol/m^3] 1.0000 mol/m³ Initial concentration
You need the constant t (used in the scalar expressions below) when first solving the
model using a stationary solver. In the time-dependent simulation, the internal time
variable, t, overwrites this constant (the red color is just a warning signaling that t is
an internal variable).
Now define a smoothed step function that you will later use to impose a step in the
concentration in the middle of the channel entrance.
Step 1 (step1)
1 On the Model toolbar, click Functions and choose Global>Step.
2 In the Settings window for Step, click to expand the Smoothing section.
3 In the Size of transition zone text field, type 0.1e-6.
GEOMETRY 1
3 From the Length unit list, choose μm.
Rectangle 1 (r1)
112
4 In the Height text field, type 10.

5 Locate the Position section. From the Base list, choose Center.
Circle 1 (c1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Primitives and choose Circle.
2 In the Settings window for Circle, locate the Size and Shape section.
3 In the Radius text field, type 15.
Circle 2 (c2)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Primitives and choose Circle.
2 In the Settings window for Circle, locate the Size and Shape section.
3 In the Radius text field, type 5.
Compose 1 (co1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Booleans and Partitions and choose Compose.
2 Click in the Graphics window and then press Ctrl+A to select all objects.
3 In the Settings window for Compose, locate the Compose section.
4 In the Set formula text field, type (r1+c1)-c2.
5 Clear the Keep interior boundaries check box.
To add vertices for the electrode endpoints on the outer boundary, first add a square
whose boundaries intersect the outer circle at the desired locations.
Square 1 (sq1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Primitives and choose Square.
2 In the Settings window for Square, locate the Size section.
3 In the Side length text field, type 22.27.
4 Locate the Position section. From the Base list, choose Center.
113
Next, remove the parts of the square not contained inside the mixer geometry.
Compose 2 (co2)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Booleans and Partitions and choose Compose.
2 Select both objects (co1 and sq1).
3 In the Settings window for Compose, locate the Compose section.
4 In the Set formula text field, type co1*sq1+co1.
Here, co1*sq1 is the intersection of co1 and sq1.
5 Clear the Keep interior boundaries check box.
To see the effects of these operations, switch to point selection mode.
114
7 Click the Select Points button on the Graphics toolbar.
The model geometry is now essentially complete. However, before proceeding to

the Materials branch, add an auxiliary vertex midway along the inlet boundary for
use when creating the mesh.
Point 1 (pt1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Primitives and choose Point.
2 In the Settings window for Point, locate the Point section.
3 In the x text field, type -40.
115
Form Union (fin)

Form Union (fin) and choose Build Selected.
MATERIALS
Material 1 (mat1)

Density rho 1e3[kg/m^3] kg/m³ Basic
Dynamic viscosity mu 1e-3[Pa*s] Pa·s Basic
Electrical conductivity sigma sigma_w S/m Basic
Relative permittivity epsilonr eps_r 1 Basic
LAMINAR FLOW (SPF)

1 In the Model Builder window’s toolbar, click the Show button and select Discretization
in the menu.
116
2 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Laminar Flow (spf).
3 In the Settings window for Laminar Flow, click to expand the Discretization section.
4 From the Discretization of fluids list, choose P2+P1.
Using higher-order elements can improve the accuracy of the solution significantly
for low Reynolds number flows such as those in this model.
Inlet 1
An alternative to left clicking to select these boundaries is to click the Paste Selection
button in the Boundary Selection section of the Settings window and enter the
boundary numbers in the dialog box that appears. Another possibility is to copy the
text '1 and 3' from this document, click in the Selection box, and then press Ctrl+V.
3 In the Settings window for Inlet, locate the Boundary Condition section.
4 From the list, choose Laminar inflow.
5 Locate the Laminar Inflow section. In the Uav text field, type U0.
6 Select the Constrain outer edges to zero check box.
Outlet 1
Wall 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Laminar Flow (spf) click
Wall 1.
2 In the Settings window for Wall, locate the Boundary Condition section.
3 From the Boundary condition list, choose Electroosmotic velocity.
4 Specify the E vector as
ec.Ex*sin(omega*t) x
ec.Ey*sin(omega*t) y
5 From the Electroosmotic mobility list, choose Built-in expression.

6 In the ζ text field, type zeta.
7 In the εr text field, type eps_r.
117
ELECTRIC CURRENTS (EC)

On the Physics toolbar, click Laminar Flow (spf) and choose Electric Currents (ec).
Electric Potential 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Electric Potential.
3 In the Settings window for Electric Potential, locate the Electric Potential section.
4 In the V0 text field, type -V0.
Electric Potential 2
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Electric Potential.
118
3 In the Settings window for Electric Potential, locate the Electric Potential section.
TR A N S P O R T O F D I L U T E D S P E C I E S ( T D S )
Raise the element order to match that of the Laminar Flow interface.
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Transport of Diluted
Species (tds).
2 In the Settings window for Transport of Diluted Species, click to expand the
Discretization section.
3 From the Concentration list, choose Quadratic.
Transport Properties 1
1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Transport of Diluted Species (tds) node, then
click Transport Properties 1.
2 In the Settings window for Transport Properties, locate the Diffusion section.
3 In the Dc text field, type D.
4 Locate the Model Inputs section. From the u list, choose Velocity field (spf).
119
Concentration 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Concentration.
3 In the Settings window for Concentration, locate the Concentration section.
4 Select the Species c check box.
5 In the c0,c text field, type c0*step1(y[1/m]).
The concentration condition on Boundaries 1 and 3 gives a sharp but smooth
concentration gradient in the middle of the channel entrance.
Outflow 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Outflow.
MESH 1
Size
choose Free Triangular.
3 From the Predefined list, choose Extra fine.
Size 1
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1 right-click Free
Triangular 1 and choose Size.
2 In the Settings window for Size, locate the Geometric Entity Selection section.
5 Locate the Element Size section. Click the Custom button.
6 Locate the Element Size Parameters section. Select the Maximum element size check
box.
7 In the associated text field, type 0.2.
8 Select the Maximum element growth rate check box.
Size 2
1 Right-click Free Triangular 1 and choose Size.
120
2 In the Settings window for Size, locate the Geometric Entity Selection section.
3 From the Geometric entity level list, choose Point.
4 Select Point 2 only.
5 Locate the Element Size section. Click the Custom button.
6 Locate the Element Size Parameters section. Select the Maximum element size check
box.
8 Select the Maximum element growth rate check box.
STUDY 1
Set up the study to start by computing the stationary solution for velocity, pressure,
concentration, and electric potential. Then, add a transient simulation stage that solves
only for the variables of the Laminar Flow and Transport of Diluted Species interfaces.
Begin by adding a study step for the transient part.

1 On the Study toolbar, click Study Steps and choose Time Dependent>Time Dependent.
121
3 In the Times text field, type range(0,0.125/60,0.5).
4 Locate the Physics and Variables Selection section. In the table, enter the following
settings:
Physics interface Solve for Discretization

Electric Currents × physics
5 In the Model Builder window, click Study 1.

6 In the Settings window for Study, locate the Study Settings section.
7 Clear the Generate default plots check box.
This is convenient if you want to create specialized plots while keeping the number
of plot groups down.
8 On the Study toolbar, click Compute.
RESULTS
The following instructions show how to reproduce the plots in the Results and
Discussion section.
2D Plot Group 1
4 Right-click Results>2D Plot Group 1 and choose Streamline.
10 Click the Zoom In button on the Graphics toolbar.
Compare the result with Figure 2.
2D Plot Group 2
122
4 Right-click Results>2D Plot Group 2 and choose Contour.

5 In the Settings window for Contour, click Replace Expression in the upper-right
corner of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Electric
Currents>Electric>V - Electric potential.
2D Plot Group 3
Surface.
3 In the Settings window for Surface, click Replace Expression in the upper-right corner
of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Component 1>Transport of Diluted
Species>c - Concentration.
4 In the Model Builder window, right-click 2D Plot Group 3 and choose Streamline.
13 Click the Zoom In button on the Graphics toolbar.
123
124
Fluid-Structure Interaction
125
)OXLG6WUXFWXUH,QWHUDFWLRQ
0RGHO
Fluid
Flow
Solid
126
3K\VLFV
SolidMechnics +LaminarFlow+MovingMesh=FluidͲStructureInteraction
NavierͲStokesequations
Inletvelocity
FluidͲsolidinterface
0RGHOLQJ FRQGLWLRQ
Flow
Fluid
Fixed Solid
Inlet U*t^2/sqrt(t^4Ͳ0.07[s^2]*t^2+0.0016[s^4])[m/s]
Outlet 0[Pa]
127
5HVXOW
128
Fluid-Structure Interaction
Introduction
The following example demonstrates techniques for modeling fluid-structure
interactions in COMSOL Multiphysics. It illustrates how fluid flow can deform
structures and how to solve for the flow in a continuously deforming geometry using
the arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) technique.
The model geometry consists of a horizontal flow channel in the middle of which is an
obstacle, a narrow vertical structure (Figure 1). The fluid flows from left to right,
except where the obstacle forces it into a narrow path in the upper part of the channel,
and it imposes a force on the structure’s walls resulting from the viscous drag and fluid
pressure. The structure, being made of a deformable material, bends under the applied
load. Consequently, the fluid flow also follows a new path, so solving the flow in the
original geometry would generate incorrect results.
The ALE method handles the dynamics of the deforming geometry and the moving
boundaries with a moving grid. COMSOL Multiphysics computes new mesh
coordinates on the channel area based on the movement of the structure’s boundaries
and mesh smoothing. The Navier-Stokes equations that solve the flow are formulated
for these moving coordinates.
The structural mechanics portion of the model does not require the ALE method, and
COMSOL Multiphysics solves it in a fixed coordinate system as usual. However, the
strains the model computes in this way are the only source for computing the
deformed coordinates with ALE.
1 | FLUID-STRUCTURE INTERACTION
129
Figure 1: Fluid flows into this horizontal flow channel from the left, and it enters with a
parabolic velocity profile. A narrow vertical structure in the channel (the straight vertical
structure) forces the flow into a narrow path. Due to fluid pressure and viscous drag, the
originally vertical structure bends. This simulation models the fluid flow in a deformed,
moving mesh that follows the movement of the bending structure.
Model Definition
In this example the flow channel is 100 μm high and 300 μm long. The vertical
structure—5 μm wide, 50 μm high, and with a semicircular top—sits 100 μm away
from the channel’s left boundary. Assume that the structure is long in the direction
perpendicular to the image.
The fluid is a water-like substance with a density ρ = 1000 kg/m3 and dynamic
viscosity η = 0.001 Pa·s. To demonstrate the desired techniques, assume the structure
consists of a flexible material with a density ρ = 7850 kg/m3 and Young’s modulus
E = 200 kPa.
130
FLUID FLOW
The fluid flow in the channel is described by the incompressible Navier-Stokes
equations for the velocity field, u = (u, v), and the pressure, p, in the spatial
(deformed) moving coordinate system:
∂u T
ρ – ∇ ⋅ [ – p I + η ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) ] + ρ ( ( u – um ) ⋅ ∇ )u = F
∂t (1)
–∇ ⋅ u = 0
In these equations, I denotes the unit diagonal matrix and F is the volume force
affecting the fluid. Assume that no gravitation or other volume forces affect the fluid,
so that F = 0. The coordinate system velocity is um = (um, vm).
At the channel entrance on the left, the flow has fully developed laminar characteristics
with a parabolic velocity profile but its amplitude changes with time. At first flow
increases rapidly, reaching its peak value at 0.215 s; thereafter it gradually decreases to
a steady-state value of 5 cm/s. The centerline velocity in the x direction, uin (see
Figure 4), with the steady-state amplitude U comes from the equation
2
U⋅t
u in = ----------------------------------------------------------- (2)
2 2 2
( 0.04 – t ) + ( 0.1t )
where t must be expressed in seconds.
At the outflow (right-hand boundary), the condition is p = 0. On the solid

(nondeforming) walls, no-slip conditions are imposed, u = 0, v = 0, while on the
deforming interface the velocities equal the deformation rate, u0 = ut and v0 = vt (the
default condition; note that u and v on the right-hand sides refer to the displacement
components).
STRUCTURAL MECHANICS
The structural deformations are solved for using an elastic formulation and a nonlinear
geometry formulation to allow large deformations.
The obstacle is fixed to the bottom of the fluid channel. All other object boundaries
experience a load from the fluid, given by
T
F T = – n ⋅ ( – p I + η ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) ) (3)
where n is the normal vector to the boundary. This load represents a sum of pressure
and viscous forces.
131
MOVING MESH
The Navier-Stokes equations are solved on a freely moving deformed mesh, which
constitutes the fluid domain. The deformation of this mesh relative to the initial shape
of the domain is computed using Winslow smoothing. This is the default smoothing
when using the Fluid-Structure Interaction interface. For more information, please
refer to the Fluid-Structure Interaction interface in the MEMS Module User’s Guide.
Inside the obstacle, the moving mesh follows the deformations of the obstacle. At the
exterior boundaries of the flow domain, the deformation is set to zero in all directions.

Figure 2 shows the geometry deformation and flow at t = 4 s when the system is close
to its steady state. Due to the channel’s small dimensions, the Reynolds number of the
flow is small (Re << 100), and the flow stays laminar in most of the area. The swirls are
restricted to a small area behind the structure. The amount of deformation as well as
the size and location of the swirls depend on the magnitude of the inflow velocity.
Figure 2: Flow velocity and geometry deformation at t = 4 s. The streamlines indicate the
flow direction and the color indicates flow-velocity magnitude.
Figure 3 shows the mesh velocity at t = 0.15 s. The boundaries of the narrow structure
are the only moving boundaries of the flow channel. Therefore the mesh velocity also
132
has its largest values near the structure. Depending on the current state of the
deformation—whether it is increasing, decreasing or stationary—the mesh velocity can
have a very different distribution. Figure 4 further illustrates this point; it compares the
average inflow velocity to the horizontal mesh velocity and the horizontal mesh
displacement just beside the top of the structure. Most of the time the deformation
follows the inflow velocity quite closely. Whenever the inflow velocity starts to
decrease, the deformation also decreases, which you can observe as the negative values
on the horizontal mesh velocity. Toward the end of the simulation, when inflow and
structure deformation approach their steady-state values, the mesh velocity also
decreases to zero.
Figure 3: Mesh velocity (arrows) and mesh and geometry deformation at t = 0.15 s.
133
Figure 4: Inflow velocity, horizontal mesh velocity, and mesh deformation. The blue curve
shows the average x direction velocity at the inflow boundary (m/s); the green shows
104× mesh displacement in the x direction (dx_ale; m) at the geometry point
(1.05·10-4, 0.5·10-4); and the red curve shows 103× mesh velocity in the x direction (xt; m/
s), also at the point (1.05·10-4, 0.5·10-4).
Figure 5 compares the meshes at different times. The first image shows the initial
mesh, which you generate prior to solving the model. This mesh is equally distributed
around the top of the structure. The second image shows the mesh in its deformed
form. Because the structure deforms more in the horizontal direction, the mesh also
134
changes more in this direction: On the left, the mesh elements are stretched; on the
right, they are compressed in the x direction.
Figure 5: Geometry and mesh near the top of the structure at t = 0 s and 2 s.
Notes About the COMSOL Implementation

This example implements the model using Fluid-Structure Interaction interface. By
default the Fluid-Structure Interaction interface treats all domains as fluid. Activate
solid material model node in the area of the narrow structure. To get a more accurate
computation of the large strains, large deformation analysis is the default setting. The
interface automatically identifies the fluid-solid interaction boundaries and assigns the
boundary condition to those boundaries.
Model Library path: MEMS_Module/Microfluidics/

fluid_structure_interaction
NEW
MODEL WIZARD
2 In the Select physics tree, select Fluid Flow>Fluid-Structure Interaction (fsi).
135
3 Click Add.
4 Click Study.
5 In the Select study tree, select Preset Studies>Time Dependent.
6 Click Done.
DEFINITIONS
Parameters

U 3.33[cm/s] 0.033300 m/s Inlet mean velocity at
steady state
H 100[um] 1.0000E-4 m Channel height
Variables 1
1 On the Model toolbar, click Variables and choose Global Variables.

u_mean U*t^2/ m/s Inlet mean velocity
sqrt(t^4-0.07[s^2]*
t^2+0.0016[s^4])
GEOMETRY 1
3 From the Length unit list, choose μm.
Rectangle 1 (r1)
4 In the Height text field, type H.
136
Rectangle 2 (r2)
5 Locate the Position section. In the x text field, type 100.
Fillet 1 (fil1)
1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Fillet.
2 On the object r2, select Points 3 and 4 only.
3 In the Settings window for Fillet, locate the Radius section.
4 In the Radius text field, type 2.5.
The geometry should look like that in the figure below.
By default the Fluid-Structure Interaction interface treats all domains as fluid. Add
the appropriate domain selection to the default node for the solid domain and
proceed to the material specification.
137
FLUID-STRUCTURE INTERACTION (FSI)
Linear Elastic Material 1

1 In the Model Builder window, expand the Component 1 (comp1)>Fluid-Structure
Interaction (fsi) node, then click Linear Elastic Material 1.
MATERIALS
Material 1 (mat1)

Density rho 1e3 kg/m³ Basic
Dynamic viscosity mu 1e-3 Pa·s Basic
Material 2 (mat2)

Young's modulus E 2e5 Pa Basic
Poisson's ratio nu 0.33 1 Basic
FLUID-STRUCTURE INTERACTION (FSI)

1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1) click Fluid-Structure
Interaction (fsi).
2 In the Settings window for Fluid-Structure Interaction, locate the Physical Model
section.
3 From the Compressibility list, choose Incompressible flow.
138
4 Locate the Free Deformation Settings section. From the Mesh smoothing type list,
choose Hyperelastic.
Inlet 1
3 In the Settings window for Inlet, locate the Velocity section.
4 In the U0 text field, type u_mean*6*(H-Y)*Y/H^2.
This gives a parabolic velocity profile with the specified mean velocity appropriate
for laminar inflow. If you have a license for the CFD Module or Microfluidics
Module, you can use the predefined Laminar inflow boundary condition with
average velocity u_mean a boundary condition that works for general inlet shapes.
Outlet 1
Fixed Constraint 1
1 On the Physics toolbar, click Boundaries and choose Fixed Constraint.
MESH 1
Free Triangular 1
choose Free Triangular.
2 In the Settings window for Free Triangular, locate the Domain Selection section.
3 From the Geometric entity level list, choose Entire geometry.
Size
1 In the Model Builder window, under Component 1 (comp1)>Mesh 1 click Size.
3 From the Predefined list, choose Fine.
4 From the Calibrate for list, choose Fluid dynamics.
139
STUDY 1

Dependent.
3 In the Times text field, type range(0,0.005,0.75) range(1,0.25,4).
4 Select the Relative tolerance check box.
6 On the Model toolbar, click Compute.
RESULTS
Flow and Stress (fsi)

You can ignore the non-ideal constraints related warning shown in the log.
The first default plot shows the velocity field together with the von Mises stress.

Proceed to reproduce Figure 2, which shows the streamlines instead of the arrows.
3 In the Model Builder window, expand the Flow and Stress (fsi) node.
4 Right-click Arrow Surface 1 and choose Disable.
5 Right-click Flow and Stress (fsi) and choose Streamline.
6 In the Settings window for Streamline, click Replace Expression in the upper-right
corner of the Expression section. From the menu, choose Model>Component
1>Fluid-Structure Interaction (Laminar Flow)>u_fluid,v_fluid - Velocity field (Spatial).
7 Locate the Streamline Positioning section. From the Positioning list, choose Start
point controlled.
8 From the Entry method list, choose Coordinates.
9 In the x text field, type 0^(range(1,15)) 125*1^(range(1,2)).
10 In the y text field, type range(0,100/14,100) 20 5.
11 Locate the Coloring and Style section. From the Color list, choose Red.
To animate flow around the structure, do the following:
140
Export
1 On the Results toolbar, click Player.
2 In the Settings window for Player, locate the Animation Editing section.
3 From the Time selection list, choose Interpolated.
4 In the Times (s) text field, type range(0.025,0.025,0.5).
5 Right-click Results>Export>Player 1 and choose Play.
To inspect the deformed geometry and deformed mesh near the top of the structure
(Figure 5), proceed with the following steps.
Data Sets
2D Plot Group 3
1 On the Results toolbar, click 2D Plot Group.
2 In the Settings window for 2D Plot Group, locate the Plot Settings section.
3 From the Frame list, choose Spatial (x, y, z).
4 Locate the Data section. From the Time (s) list, choose 0.0000.
5 Right-click Results>2D Plot Group 3 and choose Surface.
7 In the Expression text field, type 1.
9 From the Color list, choose Blue.
10 Select the Wireframe check box.
11 Click to expand the Quality section. On the 2D plot group toolbar, click Plot.
12 In the Model Builder window, right-click 2D Plot Group 3 and choose Surface.
16 Locate the Expression section. In the Expression text field, type 1.
141
Click the Zoom Box button on the Graphics toolbar and then use the mouse to zoom
in on the obstacle.
1 In the Model Builder window, under Results click 2D Plot Group 3.

4 In the Model Builder window, under Results>2D Plot Group 3 click Surface 2.
Add the arrow plot, to reproduce Figure 3.
11 In the Model Builder window, under Results>2D Plot Group 3 click Surface 2.
14 In the Model Builder window, right-click 2D Plot Group 3 and choose Arrow Surface.
15 In the Settings window for Arrow Surface, locate the Expression section.
16 In the x component text field, type xt.
17 In the y component text field, type yt.
18 Locate the Coloring and Style section. Select the Scale factor check box.
Finally, plot the horizontal mesh velocity, the mesh deformation at the point beside
the top of the structure, and inflow velocity (Figure 4).
1D Plot Group 4
2 On the 1D plot group toolbar, click Global.
3 In the Settings window for Global, click Replace Expression in the upper-right corner
of the y-axis data section. From the menu, choose Model>Global
Definitions>Variables>u_mean - Inlet mean velocity.
142
Data Sets
1 On the Results toolbar, click Cut Point 2D.
2 In the Settings window for Cut Point 2D, locate the Point Data section.
3 In the x text field, type 105.
4 In the y text field, type 50.
1D Plot Group 4
1 On the 1D plot group toolbar, click Point Graph.
2 In the Settings window for Point Graph, locate the Data section.
3 From the Data set list, choose Cut Point 2D 1.
4 Locate the y-Axis Data section. In the Expression text field, type xt.
5 From the Unit list, choose mm/s.
6 Click to expand the Legends section. Select the Show legends check box.
Legends
Mesh velocity in the x direction (mm/s)
9 Right-click Results>1D Plot Group 4>Point Graph 1 and choose Duplicate.

10 In the Settings window for Point Graph, locate the y-Axis Data section.
11 In the Expression text field, type x-X.
12 From the Unit list, choose mm.
13 Locate the Legends section. In the table, enter the following settings:
Legends
Mesh displacement in the x direction (mm)
143
144
ၔ༯ሂ๺ታሂ
๕ྱ৭ଌ੖ඬ࿚ัಠ઄ู๢௕ལ࿬ትಁເኁྮເᄸ
7 ( FRPVRO#DOWVRIWFRNU : ZZZDOWVRIWFRNU

COMSOL Natural Convection Cooling

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

COMSOL Natural Convection Cooling

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

COMSOL Multiphysics Training

2. Natural Convection Cooling of a Vacuum Flask / 07

3. Droplet Breakup in a T-Junction / 48

4. Cooling of an Injection Mold / 69

6. Fluid-Structure Interaction / 125

low Re k-epsilon, 32 min 16 sec

Algebraic yPlus, 2 min 44 sec • SST

• Used in many industrial processes, such

• Add-on to the CFD Module

• Easy-to-use tools for the study

• Oil and gas flow in porous media, the

• Pipe connection node

• Compute trajectories of particles in a fluid or

- Including particle-field interactions, particle-

• Predefined force: Electric, Magnetic, Drag,

• Wall boundary condition: Freeze, Stick,

Smallpores Largepores Laminar Turbulent

• Outflow– Convectionଥ۱ ‫ ݤ‬outlet࣏ʢࡳԻ ‫ࡈی‬

dEiInt ntfluxInt QInt WnsInt

dEi0Int ntefluxInt QInt WInt

Form 0.03 60 200

Nylon 0.26 1150 1700

Steel AISI4340 44.5 7850 475

Natural Convection Cooling of a

• Using heat transfer coefficients to describe the thermal dissipation

1 | NATURAL CONVECTION COOLING OF A VACUUM FLASK

Conductivity 0.03 W/(m·K)

3 | NATURAL CONVECTION COOLING OF A VACUUM FLASK

Approach 1—Loading a Heat Transfer Coefficient Function

Approach 2—Modeling the External Flow

5 | NATURAL CONVECTION COOLING OF A VACUUM FLASK

Flow Boundary Conditions

Thermal Boundary Conditions

Results and Discussion

7 | NATURAL CONVECTION COOLING OF A VACUUM FLASK

Figure 5: Fluid velocity for air around the flask.

Model Library path: Heat_Transfer_Module/

9 | NATURAL CONVECTION COOLING OF A VACUUM FLASK

1 On the Geometry toolbar, click Insert Sequence.

5 In the Label text field, type Shell.

11 | NATURAL CONVECTION COOLING OF A VACUUM FLASK

5 In the Label text field, type Coffee boundaries.

5 In the Label text field, type Flask, vertical wall.

Name Expression Value Description

13 | NATURAL CONVECTION COOLING OF A VACUUM FLASK

Steel AISI 4340 (mat3)

4 In the table, enter the following settings:

Property Name Value Unit Property group

5 In the Label text field, type Foam.

15 | NATURAL CONVECTION COOLING OF A VACUUM FLASK

6 In the L text field, type height.

Isothermal Contours (ht)

3 From the Unit list, choose degC.

Approach 2 - Modeling the External Flow

5 Click Add to Component in the window toolbar.

5 Click Add Study in the window toolbar.

17 | NATURAL CONVECTION COOLING OF A VACUUM FLASK

Name Expression Value Description

Delete Entities 1 (del1)

19 | NATURAL CONVECTION COOLING OF A VACUUM FLASK

Nylon (2) (mat6)

Steel AISI 4340 (2) (mat7)

Property Name Value Unit Property group

5 In the Label text field, type Foam.