Magnetic Property

The response of the materials to external magnetic field degree of

response varies, which is measured in terms of their magnetization
(strong or weak)
The parameters used to study the magnetic behaviors of
the materials are as follows:

1.Magnetic dipoles & magnetic moment:

N S
2l
Magnetic dipoles are analogous to electric dipoles ;
consists of a north pole and a south pole of strength
‘m’ each separated by a small distance ‘2l’
Magnetic moment = m x 2l

A circular current loop is equivalent to a magnetic μM

dipole, magnetic moment
I
μM = I x A ( amp. m 2)
Where ‘I’ is the current in the loop
and ‘A’ is the area of the loop
Right hand
Torque on the dipole τ = μM X B Screw rule
2. Magnetisation = dipole moment / volume
M = μ / V ( amp. / met.)

3.Magnetic susceptibility = magnetization / mag. field strength

χ = M / H (no unit)

4.Magnetic permeability = magnetic induction / mag. field strength

μ = B / H (Wb / amp. met. = H/met)
μ =μ0 μr

5.Relative permeability μr = μ / μ0,

μ0 = absolute permeability = 4πX 10 -7 H/m

6.Relation between H, B & M is

B = μ0 (M+H) = μ0 (χH + H) = μ0 (1 + χ) H

7. Relative permeability & Susceptibility

B = μ H = μ0 μr H so μr =(1 + χ)
 Origin of magnetic moment
• The three sources of magnetic moment in an atom of any material are
[1] Orbital motion of the electron
[2] Spin motion of the electron
[3] Nuclear spin
• If the vector sum of all the contribution is zero then net magnetization
is zero :- material is nonmagnetic.
1. Orbital motion of the electron
• Motion of the electron (charged particle)around the nucleus in a
circular orbit (orbital motion) is equivalent to a circular current and
Orbital magnetic
behaves as a magnetic dipole. moment
v Electron
• Associated magnetic moment is motion

μM = Ix A ( amp. m2)
• if ‘T’ is the time period for one rotation + r

& ‘v’ is the velocity of the electron

in the orbit , then T = 2 π r / v Current
• Current I = - q/T
• magnetic moment μM = (- q v / 2 π r ) (A) = - ( q v / 2 π r ) (π r2 )
• qvr/2 = - q/ 2m ( mvr)
• = - (q/ 2m ) L
• Orbital magnetic moment μorb = - (q/ 2m ) L
 Quantum no. associated with ‘L’ is √* l(l+1) ħ+ ,
‘l’ is the orbital quantum no.
• l=0---s shell, l=1---p shell,
• l=2-----d shell, l=3------f shell
μorb = -√l(l+1) (qћ / 2m )

2. Spin motion of the electron

Similarly, the spin motion of the electron around their own axis give
rise to spin magnetic moment

where γ is called spin gyromagnetic ratio. (γ=2)

μspin = -γ (q/ 2m ) S
 Quantum no. associated with ‘S’ is ± ħ/2

3. Nuclear magnetic moment

Due to the spin of nucleus ( protons & neutrons) , a magnetic moment is
associated which is very small as compared to the electronic
contribution as heavy mass is involved (10-3 times) is masked by
electronic mag. mom.

 Total magnetic moment is due to electron motion inside the atom

μM = - g (q/ 2m ) (L+S) = - g (q/ 2m ) J,

‘J’ is the total angular momentum varying from |L+S| to |L- S|

 If magnetic field is applied along z-direction , the component of the
total magnetic moment in that direction is,
μM = - g (qħ/2m) mj
 Where ‘mj ‘is the magnetic quantum no. varying from (J to -J)
 g is called Lande’s g-factor,
 for spin moment g=2
• g = 1  J ( J  1)  S ( S  1)  L( L  1)
2 J ( J  1)

• Calculation rules

 1.If electrons are in the s-orbit, orbital magnetic moment is zero

(l=0)

 2. For completely filled shell, orbital magnetic moment is zero (l=0)

As ml = l to –l (s shell=0, p shell, l=1, d shell, l=2 and f shell, l=3..)

 3.If all electrons are paired, spin magnetic momentum is zero

 4. Only partially filled p, d and f shells contribute to orbital

magnetic moment
 Bohr magnetron
• If there is a single electron it will have spin magnetic moment
only
• μs = -2 (q ħ / 2m) ±1/2 , as g=2 and mj= ±1/2
• ‘μB‘ = q = 9.27x 10-24 Am2
2m

• This is the fundamental magnetic moment, called Bohr

magnetron ‘μB‘—it is the magnetic moment of an isolated
single electron or the magnetic moment of Hydrogen atom
• Usually magnetic moments of materials are expressed in terms
of ‘μB‘
• Spin magnetic moment can be expressed as μ = g μBS
• Hydrogen atom:- One electron in s shell. So l = 0 and s= +1/2 or
-1/2 implies that orbital magnetic mom. is zero and spin mag.
Mom. is same as the Bohr magnetron
2. Helium atom ?...calculate
• Hund’s rule:
• 1. spins of electrons remain parallel to each other to the max.
Extent

• 2. max . Value of L is consistent with the spin S

• 3. if shell is less than half filled J= |L- S| ,

if more than half filled J= |L+ S| &
if exactly half filled then L=0 and J=S
 Classification of magnetic materials
• Diamagnetic material:- Have even no. of electrons, so no permanent
moment. When placed in external magnetic field get slightly
magnetised, in a direction opposite to the applied magnetic field.
• Paramagnetic materials:- Have net moment in the absence of ext.
magnetic field(partially filled p,d,f orbitals and unpaired electrons).
When placed in external magnetic field are magnetised in the
direction of the external magnetic field applied.
• Ferromagnetic materials:- Exhibit spontaneous magnetisation due to
an internal field arising due to mutual interaction between the
domains. When placed in ext. magnetic field acquire very large and
permanent magnetisation in the direction of the field.
 Antiferromagnetic materials:-Individual magnetic dipoles have
magnetic moment, but due to antiparallel arrangement net
magnetisation become zero.
 Ferrimagnetic materials:-Individual magnetic moments are
antiparallel, but having different magnitude do not cancel out
completely.
 Classification of magnetic materials
Diamagnetism
1.Normally referred as non-
magnetic as the response is
very weak
2.In ext. magnetic field
magnetic moment induced
in a direction opposite to
applied field– repelled by
the field
H=0, M=0 H=H→
M= - M←
3. Permeability μ<1
4. susceptibility χ <0
5. Susceptibility does not
depend on temperature
5. Ex; Cu, Ag, Hg, Au, Zn, SC
Paramagnetism Ferromagnetism
1.Normally referred as non- 1.Referred as magnetic as
magnetic as the response is response is strong( due to
weak exchange coupling)
2. Posses permanent magnetic 2. Posses permanent dipoles
moments, which are randomly 3.Show spontaneous
oriented in the absence of ext. magnetization—even in the
magnetic field., so net absence of ext. field,
magnetization is zero. When a magnetization shown is high,
field is applied dipoles get when field is applied, M
aligned in the field direction, increases
giving positive magnetization 4.Permeability μ>1
3. Permeability μ>1 5.susceptibility χ is positive,
large and temp. dependant
χ = C/ T-θ →Curie – Weiss
law
H=0, M=0 H=H→ M= M 6. ferromagnetic domain
4. susceptibility χ is positive, show
small and temp. dependant spontaneous
χ = C/ T →Curie law magnetisation
5.Ex; Al, Cr, Na, Ti, Zr
7. Show hysteresis
 Ferromagnetic theory ( Weiss Theory)

• Weiss predicted that, in ferromagnetic materials Spontaneous

magnetization is observed, which is due to a strong internal field
arising from an exchange interaction between the magnetic
moments in the neighborhood domains

• exchange interaction
between two atoms ‘I’ and ‘j’
• = U= -2 J SiSj
‘J’ is called the exchange integral
• H int = λM , where ‘λ’ is called Weiss constant
• H tot= H appl + Hint
• H tot= H appl + λM
• Ferromagnetic domains( 1-100 μm) :-

Domains in a favorable direction grow in size at the expense of

other domains till saturation is reached; there is only one
domain. Energy involved in the orientation is obtained from
the hysteresis curve.

Domain wall ≈ 10-2 μm

Ferromagnetic hysteresis
Ms= saturation magnetisation

Mr = remanent magnetisation

is the measure of the strength

of the ferromagnetic material
as a permanent magnet (is the
magnetisation in the absence
of the external field).

Hc= coercive field

Ms
Ms(0)

Temp. dependence of Ms
T
Tc
Easy direction:- is the crystallographic direction, along which when magnetic field
is applied, a ferromagnetic single crystal is easily magnetised.(for fairly low field).

SOFT & HARD FERROMAGNETIC HYSTERESIS LOOPS

 Soft and Hard Magnetic materials
Soft ferromagnetic
1. Can be easily magnetized or
demagnetized
2. Thin and long hysteresis loop
3. High permeability and low coercive
field
4. Large susceptibility & low
remanent mag.
5. As area of the loop is small,
magnetic energy loss per volume is
less during magnetisation and
demagnetisation
6. Application: electromagnet, in
motors, generators, dynamos and
switching circuits
7. Ex: Fe-Si alloy , Fe-Co-Mn alloy and
Fe-Ni alloy
Hard ferromagnetic
1. Can not be magnetised or
demagnetised easily
2. Wide hysteresis loop
3. Low permeability and high
coercive field
4. small susceptibility & high
remanent mag.
5. Large area of the loop indicates,
magnetic energy loss per volume is
high during magnetisation and
demagnetisation
6. For permanent magnet in speakers,
clocks
7. Rare earth alloys with Mn, Fe, Co,
Ni
Antiferromagnetism:
• when exchange interaction between adjacent or neighboring
domains give rise to ordered antiparallel spin arrangement,
below a temp. called Neel temp. ex.- MnO,MnS,FeCl2, Co O. Net
moment or magnetisation is Zero

χ= C / (T +TN )

TN T
 Ferrimagnetic & Antiferromagnetic materials
• Ferrimagnetic material are special class of ferromagnetic material
called ‘ ferrites’ with high permeability, saturation
magnetisation and they show hysteresis (square loop)
• They are different from the ferromagnetic materials only in the
way the spin magnetic moments are arranged in them.

• Formula: Me2+O Fe23+O3 :- Me is a divalent atom

(Fe, Mn, Zn,Cd,Cu,Ni,Co,Mg )
 Crystal structure: Inverse spinel
 cubic cell has ‘8’ molecules.

 In the unit cell, 32 O-2 ions ,

16 Fe3+ ions ,
8 Me2+ ions.

Ferrites :- Me2+O Fe3+2O3
Me=
Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Mg, Zn, Cd
8 Me2+ ions and 8- Fe 3+, are
surrounded by 6 oxygen ions :-
Octahedral
8 Fe 3+ ions are surrounded by 4
oxygen ions :- Tetrahedral
• Octahedral site :- 8 Me2+ ions and 8- Fe 3+, are surrounded by
6 oxygen ions and have parallel spins.
• Tetrahedral site :- 8 Fe 3+ ions are surrounded by 4 oxygen ions
and spins antiparallel.

Fe3+ Fe3+ tetrahedral

octahedral
Spin moments in ferrites

Me2+
S = 8 x [μm of S= 5/2
S= 5/2 one Me 2+]

So net magnetic moment of Fe 3+ ions cancel ( 8 up spin and 8 down spin)

Only, 8 Me2+ ions contribute to magnetic moment.
 Magnetisation of a ferrite

• Spin magnetic moment of one Me2+ atom μM = g μBs

• There are 8 Me2+ atoms in a unit cell ,

total moment in unit cell = 8 x μM

• Magnetisation
M = total moment per volume
• So, M = ( 8 x μM ) / a3
where ‘a’ is lattice parameter
 Mn2+= 3d5
M
So,μ = g μBS +Ms

= 2 x 5/2 x μB = 5μB

Fe2+ = 3d6 μ = 4 μB
Co2+= 3d7 μ = 3 μB
Ni 2+= 3d8 μ = 2μB H
Cu2+= 3d9 μ = 1μB
-Ms

Find the spin magnetic moment of Ni3+

Hysteresis curve of ferrites
• Applications: resistivity of ferrites are very high so suitably
applied for high frequency application (eddy current energy
loss less) and in special magnetic devices.
• Ferrites have square hysteresis loop. So used for digital
storage device ( two values of magnetisation +Ms & - Ms; so
1 or 0 )
• Soft ferrites are used for high freq. Transformer core,
computer memory, hard disc, floppy disk audio video
cassette, recorder head
• Hard ferrites are used for permanent magnets in generator,
motor, loud speaker, telephone
• Non-volatile memory called magnetic bubbles(magnetic
domains in thin films)
• Mixed ferrites are produced by combining two different
divalent ions in suitable ratios, to obtain a specific
magnetisation desired.
Magnetic Anisotropy and Magnetostriction