CHAPTER 8

SUMMARY, REFUTATION OF OBJECTIONS, AND A GENERAL VIEW

8.1 Summary of the Unified Utilitarian Theory

In this chapter I shall present a summary of the unified utilitarian

theory, refute the main objections to utilitarianism, take a general
look at the prospect of moral philosophy, and reemphasize my scientific
approach to utilitarianism, from the modern point of view of general
systems theory.
In spite of the appealing of utilitarianism to systematic and
quantitative analysis, there are still many objections to it, some of
which are quite serious. It is my hope and belief that the unified
utilitarian theory is an improvement over the classical and existing
utilitarian theories, to the extent that it should be possible to find
grounds and elaborated explanations, from the unified utilitarian
theory, to refute the arguments supporting these objections. After
presenting a summary of the unified utilitarian theory, I shall be in a
good position to confirm this. So in Section 8.2, a number of these
objections to utilitarianism are answered. In Section 8.3, the most
serious objection that utilitarianism is incompatible with the principle
of justice is discussed and confuted in detail.
Then a general look at the prospect of moral philosophy, i. e., the
tendency of its possible development and its position in the whole realm
of philosophy, is taken in Section 8.4. Finally, in Section 8.5, the
topic of scientific approach is picked up and emphasized again, from the
viewpoint of methodology, in relation to the modern trend of development
and wide application of the general systems theory.
In the previous chapters, there has been presented a comprehensive
ethical theory compriSing an explanation of approach, an interpretation
of utilitarianism, the basic principles, a theory of value, decision
analysis, and moral judgments as separate parts. Now, in this section,
these parts will be threaded together to form a coherent and consistent
system - a summary of the unified utili tarian theory.
A summary of the unified utilitarian theory can most readily be
presented along the main I ines of logical reasoning in the theory.
Utilitarianism is teleological in nature. Instead of adopting a priori
basic principles, it starts from the ultimate objective of human beings,
from which the principle of utility is established. Once the principle
of utility is established, all other basic principles, moral principles,
virtues, moral duties and moral rules are deducible from it.
In order that the principle of utility may give an ultimate criterion
of maximal utility in the form of aggregate utility, or to take care of
the distribution problem as well, the criterion has to be a function of
value. Thus, the unified utilitarian theory is partly based on a
quanti tative theory of value. In this theory, a starting point is the

C. L. Sheng, A New Approach to Utilitarianism

© Kluwer Academic Publishers 1991
284 A Unified Utilitarian Theory

assertion that value has a general property of subjectiveness, from

which many proposi tions can be logically inferred. Finally, a social
welfare function, which represents aggregate utility and is a function
of value, can be established to be the ultimate criterion. A social
welfare function is the composi tion of personal utili ty or welfare
functions of all members of society. A well-accepted form is a simple or
weighted sum of personal welfare functions. It can be used as a
cri terion for distributive justice, because at ideal distribution the
magnitude of the social welfare function is a maximum. It can also be
used as a quantitative criterion for the principle of utility in
personal ethics, because any personal action that produces maximal total
utility for others also maximizes the aggregate or social utility
expressed by the social welfare function insofar as all the alternative
actions affect the utilities for others. Social welfare function will be
discussed in detail in Part II of this book. It is touched on here
because of its appearance in Fig. 8.1-1.
These lines of logical reasoning can best be illustrated in a diagram-
matic form, as shown in Fig. 8.1-1. In Fig. 8.1-1 the propositions are
put in blocks, which are graphically threaded together by implication
symbols of double arrows, to form what I call "chains of logical impli-
cation." The chapter(s) number(s) in which the proposition is defined,
discussed, shown or developed is (are) also put in the same block. A
justification or existing argument as side support for a proposition, if
any, is put under the block, and any particular question answered or any
important problem solved by a proposition is placed above or beside the
block indicated by a single arrow.
Fig. 8.1-1 consists of two parts: one is a quantitative theory of
value starting from the definitions of utility and value, and the other
is the unified utilitarian theory starting from the general ultimate
objective of human beings. I shall now go along these two chains of
implication, and the propositions in the blocks will be used as the
headings.

I. A Theory of Value

(1) Value is subjective

Value is expressed inversely in terms of utility, and utility is
defined as follows: An object 0 is said to have a utility U for a
subject S if and only if S prefers using, possessing, enjoying and/or
experiencing 0 to not using, not possessing, not enjoying and/or not
experiencing O. S is said to take an interest in 0 if and only if 0 has
a utility for S. Since value is ultimately defined in terms of personal
preference, naturally and logically it has to be considered subjective.
(2) Comparable and commensurable subjectively
Values are comparable and commensurable subjectively, in the sense
that, in decision-making, one has to make a comparison of, and a choice
between, values, even if the values involved are of completely different
natures.