RECENT THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES IN SOCIOLOGY

UNIT – 1

INTRODUCTION
The beginning stages of theory were related to theory of a simpler society, when the
problems were not very serious, the beginning of human society depended upon
people’s co-operation and understanding of each other and their relationship with
nature. Earlier to Sociology framing its theory, it was the Anthropologists who
formulated theories related to the simple life of human beings and their growth from
simple to complex society.

The theoretical formation in Sociology begins with the founding father August Comte
and his followers. That is Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim and Max Weber. The
theoretical perspectives in Sociology were developed on the basis of Social events,
interactions and societal patterns. Every theory formulated will explain these patterns of
society at different levels, that is Micro and Macro levels. The Structural Functionalism
and Conflict theory are at the Macro level and Symbolic Interactionalism is at Micro
level.

The 3 major perspectives in Sociology

Sociologists analyze the social phenomenon at different levels and from different
perspectives. Anything which is concrete or not understood in its real sense can be
understood by a social theory. A Sociologist researches, a Micro level concept to that
of a Macro level understanding which gives us clarity about a social phenomenon. The
European Sociologist has a broader Conceptualization about the fundamentals of
society and it’s working. The concept and the paradigm provide a Sociologist a
philosophical explanation regarding the questions about the society and its people.

Sociologist adopts the 3 perspectives in order to explain how society influences people
and Vice-versa, each perspective conceptualizes the society, the social forces and
human behavior.

The 3 perspectives are shown below:

Sl. Sociological Perspective Level of Focus

No.
1 Symbolic Interactionalism
2 Functionalism
Analysis
Micro Level Uses symbols & face-face
interactions
Macro Level The relationship between the
parts of society & how the parts
function and adopt of the
 available societal environment.
3 Conflict Theory Macro Level Competition for scares
resources & how the Elite
control the poor & the weak.

What is theory? What are the elements of theory? Or Building blocks

of theory.
Theory is a mental activity which is a process of developing ideas than can allow us to
explain how and why events occur. A theory is constructed with basic elements or
building blocks which are as follows.

1. Concepts.
2. Variables.
3. Statements.
4. Formats.

1. Concepts: It is the basis of the theory. It denotes a phenomenon and they isolate
or separate the features of the world which are considered important. Example: The
concepts of atom or neutron are considered to be isolated for some analytical purpose.

 Some of the Sociological concepts are norms, status, socialization and others.
Each is a concept considered as a block.

 Concepts are constructed from definitions.

A Definition is a system of terms which seen in the form of language, symbols or
mathematical terms. Example: The concept “Conflict” will have a meaning when it is
defined otherwise it is just a term without real meaning.

 Concepts are useful in building theory and they have a specific characteristic
which they communicate with a uniform meaning to the user.

 Concepts are expressed through a language which is either technical or subject

oriented.

 Concepts of theory reveal a specific characteristic with its abstractness or not

much concrete.

 Concepts are related to the phenomena on a concrete basis only when it

depends on the time and location.

A concrete concept refers to the interaction of individuals of a particular group,

whereas an abstract concept would refer to those general properties of face to face
group, which are not related to a particular individual at a particular time or location.
  A Concept is equally critical from the view point of the researcher or a social
scientist. Since the utility of a concept which is abstract can be made relevant
and utilize it for the purpose of investigation.

2. Variables: Variables are considered essential for building a theory while Concepts
denote a phenomenon.

 Variables gives a choice for the researcher to investigate in depth to consider

various causes for a reason, situation which is considered problematic.
Concepts sometimes are translated into Variables that is the things which vary.

 Variables have different sizes, properties, intensity and so forth.

 To understand Variables we may consider an example of the aggregate of

people in a group which does not indicate what type of a group it is and so we
need to consider the different Variables available within the society.

 To understand the event, we need to understand the Variables related to it.

 Variables can also be translated into a Concept depending upon its usage.

3. Concept theories are interrelated and such connection can become a

Statement

 These Statements specify the way in which events denoted by Concepts are
interrelated and also provide interpretation of how and why events should be
connected to each other.

 A group of Statements constitute a theoretical format.

 A Statement in Sociological theory cannot be specifically formed since it takes

different meaning at different circumstances.

 In Sociology the structure of theoretical Statements keep changing according to

the expectation of Sociologist.

4. Format: Format in Sociological theories is considered general and can describe

many different ways to organize theoretical Statement.

 A Theoretical Statements are grouped together into a Format based on one’s use
of social science to conduct research.

 The 4 basic approaches for generating theoretical Statement and format are as
follows.
a. Meta theoretical Scheme – It is an activity which is complex in
theory.

b. Analytical Scheme – A typology or classification of schemes.

c. Propositional Scheme – A theoretical Statement which specify the

connection between 2 or more Variables.

d. Modeling Scheme - A model meant for drawing a picture of a social

event.

The format which results in a particular theory will also contain the principles proposition
which work towards the construction of a theory. The advantages from such theoretical
constructions are as follows.

a. Highly abstract Concepts, comprising of a range of relative phenomenon can be

employed.
b. The abstract Concepts do not have direct measurable elements since they are
logically tied to some measurable propositions.

c. The use of logical system to derive propositions from Axiom can generate
additional propositions.

THEORY AND RESEARCH

Research is the careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or

research problem using scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl
Robert Babbie, “research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and
control the observed phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.”

They are 2 inseparable terms and in spite of this, there exists a difference. Theory and
Research are regularly used in all the disciplines for various purposes and in various
methods. Theory is a generalized thinking or a conclusion of something which is the
result of an analysis. Whereas a research is the way of expanding the existing
knowledge based on creating new knowledge. The difference between the Theory and
Research can be written in the following ways.

THEORY
1 Theory is generalized thinking
2 Theory is defined as the end result of an
analysis
3 Theories answers question arising at a
particular period and also to be rejected
at later period and vice-versa
RESEARCH
Research is the expansion of the existing
Research commencing the formulation of
hypothesis
Research arises whenever a problem
arises and used various methods to
solve such a problem
4 Theory is a conceptual frame work and
Research is a creative work that
it is used to explain things generates new knowledge
5 Theory does not include practical Research is a practical approach. Here
elements. But it is based on the results
the researcher takes up activities of
of the practical activities which was
various types which he can experiment
undertaken by research and visualize
6 Theory is the result of the research
Research is the reason of outcome of
theory
7 Theories answer question which are Research answers to all the hidden and
hypothetical unknown problems in a society.

What is Paradigm (Pattern / Model)

 A Paradigm is a broad view of ordering and simplified the complex situations

which look very confusing to us which makes it for us to understand certain
fundamental imaginations about the nature.

 Paradigm are norms to the viewer which makes him to understand which is
important and unimportant, reasonable and unreasonable, legitimate and non-
legitimate, possible and impossible and what to attend and what to ignore.

 A Paradigm process to be constructive and it constitutes all scientific activities.

 All the theories are generated and based on Paradigm.

The 4 dimensions of Paradigm

1. Functional Paradigm - It is a dominant Paradigm which seeks to give a

rational explanation. Relationship is a concrete concept which can be identified, studied
and questioned.

2. Interpretive Paradigm - It explains the stability of behavior from the individuals

view point. They are interested in understanding the world which is created and
understood by the individuals and explained to others as it is, that is related to the
spiritual world.

3. Radical Humanist Paradigm - The consciousness of man is dominated by a

powerful ideology with which he interacts, this is going to create a gap between himself
and his true consciousness, thereby stopping him to fulfill his needs.

The theorist is concerned about understanding the social constraints that stops an
individual from attaining that fulfillment.
4. Radical Structuralist Paradigm - The followers of this Paradigm
understands that the Radical change is built on the natural social structure. The present
society is about the conflicts which being him a radical change due to Political and
Economic crisis.

LEVELS OF THEORISATION

1. Meta Theory
2. Grand Theory
3. Middle Range Theory

Their focus and how they are used.

Sl. LEVELS FOCUS HOW THEY ARE USED

No.
1. Meta Theory The focus of Meta theory is They are the informers about
to deal with the nature of what is possible to know and
knowledge or the nature of how do we start a research. Ex:
reality. They are the world As a scientific realist a
view and look realities. Sociologist may argue that
human ideas are as real as a
natural thing and that is what is
possible to be proved by the
research, every human behavior
may not be equally important for
a scientist until and unless he
converts the behavior into a
realistic action or event.
2. Grand Theory Grand theories are These theories are not very
concerned with broader useful for a researcher. Since it
area of human society. It covers the aspects of a society
speaks about how human in general, the users of this
social structures and grand theory were Karl Marx
processes in general work and Weber. However they were
or evolve. These are not able to decide about what
theories which are learnt were the impact deriving forces
through perspectives than in the development of society.
it being a working theory. However in general on a
everyday basis, we understand
that every society consist of the
key deriving forces like race,
class and social network as the
important corner stone’s in
social science.
 3. Middle Range These theories deal with These theories are used in the
Theory the specific aspects of majority social research and
human behavior especially most of them gave clarity to the
social conflict or social researches which were not
network. They do not deal completed under grand theory.
with a specific topic, but Ex: When George Simmel used
various other theories the term ‘Social Network’, the
related to the behavior of theorist who came after him took
man or his conflict can be this idea of social network and
taken to prove a particular developed a whole set of
action. theories called ‘Exchange
Ex: Alcoholism can be theory’, which explored the role
used as a topic for of social exchange as a
research for which a fundamental component of
researcher adopts other human interaction. These
theories which can explain ‘Middle Range Theories’
the causes for alcoholism. however, still had features of
Grand Theory, but the
researchers applied these
(Middle theory) to a specific
problem.
Ex: The health worker used
Exchange theory to understand
health behavior and fashion as
intervention to change that
behavior, they focused on the
role of social networks and
social support in health
behavior.

MIDDDLE RANGE THEORY

The term Sociological theory refers to the logically interconnected sets of propositions
from which empirical uniformities can be derived. Middle Range Theory is principally
cited in sociological guide empirical enquiry. It is intermediate to general theories of
social system which are too remote from particular classes of social behavior and
change to account for what is observed and to those detailed orderly description of
particulars that are not generalized at all. Middle Range Theory involves abstractions of
course, but they are close enough to observed data to be incorporated in propositions
that permit empirical testing.

Just as Parsons was beginning to embrace a form of requisite functionalism, Merton

launched a critique of Parsons functional strategy for building sociological theory.

For Merton, such Grand theoretical system is premature, because theoretical and
empirical ground work is necessary for their completion has not been performed. Just
as Einsteinian theory did not emerge without a long cumulative research foundation.
Thus sociological theory will have to wait for its Einstein.

Merton says in Middle Range theory that the term is not still developed to construct
Grand theory. It’s because sociologists have not done the fundamental research as
social being a small research area / subject matter to think of Grand theories.
Intellectual and natural scientists are successful in this field. The reason for this is the
wok of them for centuries. But still no such work is done in sociology.

GRAND THEORY

A Grand theory is a broad conceptual scheme with systems of interrelated propositions

that provide a general frame of reference for the study of social processes and
institutions. It differs from the speculative theory [Refers to an abstract impressionistic
rooted in the philosophical system]. Only in that its propositions are somewhat
anchored although not solidly in the empirical world, whereas the propositions
emancipating from the speculative theories are essentially assumptions rooted in the
philosophical system. The difference is only a matter of degree not of kind. A Grand
theory is a comprehensive formulation of generating a host of propositions and it
provides a master scheme of general social orientations. Grand theories abound in
jargon, tendency statements and intuitive generalizations. Parsons general system
theory is example of Grand theories.

According to Parson – A social system may be defined as a plurality of individual

interacting with each other according to shared cultural norms and meanings.

A system presupposes not only a structure, but also certain functions which its structure
is supposed to perform. Parsons has given a four function paradigm. This paradigm
explains that every social system must continue and solve 4 sets of organized
proposition. In abbreviated form the 4 functions paradigm is refereed as AGIL.

1. Adaptation – The problem of adapting the social system to its physical and
social environment. The most important problem in this respect is procuring
resources needed for its activities, providing for protections of physical and social
threats and developing information relating to these.

2. Goal Attainment – The organizational problem of effecting coordination in any

collective tasks directed outside the system itself.

3. Integration – The internal problem of maintaining satisfying relations among the

interacting members and avoiding disrupting conflicts. For small groups, these
concerns inter personal relations. For larger organization, it concerns with inter
group relations.
 4. Latent Pattern Maintenance – The internal organizational problem of ordering
activity patterns of the system and also of adjusting the role demands on
members, so that these are compatible with their other role commitments.

The first 2 organizational problems concerns the external relations of the social system
with its environment including its physical habitat, the bodily needs of its members and
other social systems with which it comes in contact. The second pair of problems
concerns the internal organization of the social system as a human group of socialized
and interacting persons with cultural commitments.

The society sets up various institutions which are a constellation of socially significant
customs collected around some function / set of functions such as ruling, fighting and
worshipping. We many identify these great social institutions namely family, economic,
political, educational and related institutions which are found in all societies in all eras
and in all parts of the world. These institutional centres upon getting food and other
items of wealth, procreation, worship and ruling, the societal institution are all closed
inter related and they form a complex whole that is why institutions are referred to as a
cluster of institutions, one impinging upon others.

Nature and Characteristics of Sociological Theories

Nature: Man living in a Society needs a social life, which is an essential

characteristic of a social group. He is guided by the culture and the values designed by
that culture. The law makes him discipline and adhere to the norms of the society,
failing which he will be punished. Every social relationship undergoes a change in
various dimensions which is leading to a study and research in these changed areas,
which can be considered as a social thought.

The beginning of a social thought was philosophical in nature, since man was highly
religious which make them to think from philosophical perspective towards a new
thought as the society became modern. This journey of social thought form ancient
modern and medieval can be best understood from the view of various social thinkers
who made a scientific study on the issues that existed in the society.

A Sociological theory or Sociological thought is concerned with the discovery of

universal principle which exists in a human society. It is an attempt to understand the
social phenomena by using scientific method which is objective in nature. A
Sociological thought or theory is the product of a combination between philosophy and
science.

A Sociological thought, the connection of the theories with the subject of Sociology, the
emergence of Sociological thought began in the 18 th Century with the founding fathers
and their theories as a contribution to the subject of Sociology. The French Revolution
and the Industrial Revolution caused the Sociologist to have a separate discipline to
think about the various social issues in the society during 18 th C. The Industrial
Revolution gave a new vision to the social thinkers in order to understand the
adjustability issues of the people towards a new Industrial society.

The French Revolution also created a new thought process in the minds of the
Sociologist, since the French wars in the 18th C left the members of the society
dislocated and homeless. This is the major point towards which Sociology as discipline
was created by August Comte.

The beginning of modern times is dominated by the doctrine of Social contract. This
method was assigned to the churchmen and viewed by various Social thinkers in
different dimensions in order to solve the problems in the society. The emergence of
the middle class ‘due to the commercial revolution’ became a conflicting situation,
wherein the kings of the nation had to think about a new tax system for the middle class
to pay. In this kind of a situation the life of the man was at a confused state due to
which the new government had to be established in every society in order to eliminate
the difference in the treatment of the 3 classes, that is., the rich, the middle and poor
classes. During the creation of a new government all the states in that particular society
brought in a system of election through which the leader shall be chosen by the citizens
and a government shall reform.

The Sociological Theory: The clarity of social phenomena that exists and occurs in
any society. Theories do not involve in any particularization, but it’s about the whole
categories of events.

It is judged by its explanatory power and potential to describe a phenomenon in a give

social event. It helps in describing the phenomena, constructing and testing of
hypotheses, conceptualizing about phenomena and deriving of a certain prediction.

Sociological theory is a statement of a correlation between a class or group of people

and the actions involved in them. It consists of a logically connected set of propositions,
which explains the interconnections of concepts of variables which represents social
phenomena.

A Sociological theory is also a set of ideas, which provides explanation for a human
society. It is defined by Merton as logically inter-connected set of propositions from
which empirical uniformities can be derived. Sociological theory can also be logical
deductive inductive system of concepts, definitions and proposition which speaks about
a state of relationship between 2 or more selected aspects of phenomenon from which
are testable hypothesis can be derived.

The essence of Sociological theory is to study the problems of individuals in the society
and to explain the various social phenomena from all dimensions of any Sociological
incident. A Sociological perspective can become a theory only if it is logically related to
each other.
The Sociological enquiries are the aspects of social order or social change, while
theorizing these issues are taken into consideration, while formulating a theory. For Ex:
August Comte’s explanation about Social Statics and Social Dynamics,
Durkheim’s explanation of Collective ideas versus individual choices. These
examples which are Sociological concerns deal with problem of order and change.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES

It deals with variety and diversity of the models in social realities. According to
Ferner.J, majority of the Sociological theories can be classified into informal,
descriptive, ideological deductive, specific or less specific and logically perfect or
logically inconsistent. These varieties could be because of the theorist viewing social
events in their own perspective and hence all of these can be put together as theoretical
perspective.

Helmat Wagner is of the opinion that there is no systematic theory which co-ordinates
and integrates Sociological knowledge and he gives a classificationary system for
distinguishing on Sociological theory from other, according to which there are 3
classifications.

1. Positive Sociological Theories - Considers Sociology as a natural

science using objective method of investigation.

2. Interpretative Sociological Theories - Treats Sociology as general science like

symbolic interactional or social actions theory.

3. Evaluative Sociological Theories - Rejects natural science status given to

Sociology and disapprove the value of Sociology and so calls Sociology as non-
scientific theories. Ex: Social philosophical theory or humanitarian reform theory.

The further presentation is about Herman Strasses, who speaks about 2 types of
Sociological theories.

a) Order – Conflict model.

b) Progressive – Conservative model.

According Herman, on the basis of these 2 schemes, the Sociological theories are
classifies into:

a) Conservative Conflict theories, which includes Industrial conflict theory of

Dahrendrof and Lewis Coser and Darwin’s conflict theory.

b) Transitional System Theory, which are identified with progressive dimension.

 c) Radical Conflict Theories, which are based on conflict model and aims at the
transformation of human actions liberated from system constrains.

d) Structural Function Theories, which follow the social order model.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY

Scientific Theories can be referred to Sociological theory.

The beginning of human society was considered unscientific and unorganized.

The Sociology which began with August Comte spoke about scientific Social Laws and
Physical Science based on his positivist principles. In order to solve the societal
problem the Sociological theories were interpreted empirically in order to provide more
or less permanent solution.

1. Synthetic Approach – to study the nature of society. In the words of Raymond

Arom – Sociological theory consider the society in totality. Anything in particular
when under study considers the society in its totality. The Sociological theories
with function perspective adopt itself to the Synthetic approach to explain the
social phenomena. The best example is about Karl Marx, in his Conflict theory
he holds society responsible for the concept of creation of ‘Class Struggle’.

2. Analytical Approach – Analysis of the whole system is the basic theoretical

proposition. It deals with the parts in the society much in detailed there by
discovering the inter-relationship and inter-dependence of every unit in the
society. Ex: Social Psychological theories studies social institution or social
processes from the view point of behavioral aspects and then analyze
sociologically.

3. Ideological in its argument – It is necessary to develop Sociological theories on

the basis of certain unsolved assumptions and concerns. Ex: The views of the
founding father consider specific concern or perspectives of social development
or progress by looking at them using ideology as a basic model.

4. Empirical in its approach – The strength of a Sociological theory is Empiricism,

which is a process of life begins with social interaction and be any conservative
method. The study of social realities becomes the basis in understanding any
social issue practical or factual evidence which are required to support the
theory.

5. Historical in its relevance – Any social thought has historical basis, since the
study of the contemporary social situation needs the base of historical thought.
Ex: Karl Marx’s theory of historical materialism gives importance to history which
 describes the various revolutions in the primitive society during its transformation
in the modern society.

6. Progressive thought towards Sociological theories – The social reality

guides humans towards progressive thought. In this way the gaps between the
real and unreal events can be minimized and a new theory can be formulated.
The goal of all knowledge is development. Hence, the theoretical knowledge
loaded with specific ideology makes it progressive in nature.

7. Transformative – This is considering a social order which is changing the social

phenomena, the direction of social change is seen from the view of social theorist
who looks at the future considering the existing conditions. As and when the
society undergoes change the transformation also occurs in the Sociological
perspectives due to the ideologies of the social thinkers who think about a
progressive society and formulate new theories suitable to the contemporary
society.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOCIOLOGICAL THOUGHT AND SOCIAL

THEORY

The terms Social Thought, Social Theory or Sociological Thought, though not one at the
same yet they are inter connected. The root of Sociology is found in Social thought and
Social Philosophy. The founding fathers were considered as Social thinkers rather than
Sociologists in the initial stages. The difference between Social thought or Sociological
thought can be understood in the following ways.

Social theory Sociological theory

1 Sociological thought of social theory is
the science of society, the purpose is to
study human life and activities and their
relations in scientific manner. Sociology
is an independent science and follows
scientific method for its study.
2 Closer to Philosophy {Subjective}
Sociological theory is nothing but a
societal thought which is in total, the
thought of man and his relationships
with his fellow beings. According to
Bogardess, it is equivalent to that of
social problems and as and when a
social problem evolves at the same
time a social thought takes the shape
of a social theory.
Sociological theory is based on values,
norms and expectations from the
people of a particular unit of a society.
For ex: The belief systems in religion
cannot be considered scientific but it is
seen from the beliefs and values.
 People hold with high regards.
3 Social thought is ancient and it is Sociological theory have limited area,
something which began in human limited to specific context or themes
society and with the social thinkers which are social in nature.
August Comte
4 Prominent social theorists include Sociological theories are little medieval
Habermas, Pierre Bourdieu, Anthony in its existence which came as a theory
Giddens Jacques Derrida only after the population of a country
expanding with diversity. Ex: Multi
religious, languages, birth of sub
cultures, birth of new states etc.
5 Its goals are intensively political Sociological study is more scientific, it
analyzes human society in all aspects
using scientific methods. It is free from
subjectivity and its objective in its
study.
7 Social reformers, Social philosophers or Prominent sociological theorist include
Social revolutionaries can become Talcott Parsons, Rk Merton JS
contributors to Social theories. Coleman, JH turner
8 Social theory focuses on commentary Centered on the attempt to Understand
and critique of modern society rather the society
than explanations