3.

20801BUSINESS RESEARCH
SEMESTER 2, 2019

LECTURE 3: DEALING WITH CONCEPTUAL ISSUES

(Collis & Hussey 2009, Ch. 3)

Course Lecturer: Mr. Nawi Yawa

Main lecture topics
1. Theoretical underpinnings of research
2. The two main research paradigms
3. Philosophical assumptions
Topic 1: Theoretical Underpinnings of Research
1. Introduction
2. Brief definition of theory
3. Two categories of research theories
4. Definition of research paradigm
5. Two main types of research paradigms - positivism and interpretivism
6. Deductive and inductive theory
7. Conclusion
Lecture Outcomes
By the end of this lecture, business research students should be able to:
 Understand theories related to research
 Understand and define the term ‘research paradigm’
 Identify and explain the two main research paradigms (positivistic and phenomenological or
interpretivistic)
 Understand the key assumptions of the two main research paradigms
 Understand and apply philosophical beliefs related to differing research approaches (science
and social science)
 Understand and apply the beliefs and knowledge of science and social science approaches to
research appropriately.
Introduction
 This lecture basically discusses the basic philosophy (beliefs) of research and why it is important to
consider when thinking about conducting research.
 Characterising the nature of the link between theory and research is by no means a straightforward
matter. There are several issues at stake, but two stand out:
1. The question of what form of theory one is talking about.
2. The matter of whether data are collected to test or to build theories.
Brief definition of theory
 The term ‘theory’ is used in a variety of different ways, but its most common meaning is an
explanation of observed regularities.
 For example, why sufferers of HIV/AIDS are more likely to come from working-class than
middle-class backgrounds, or why work division varies by technology (application level).

 There is a distinction between theories at the abstract level and application .

Two categories of research theories
1) “Grand theories”
 categories of theories which operates at a more abstract ideas and or relationships between
factors (at general level).
 Often the researcher would find it difficult to make the necessary links with the real world.

2) “Theories of the Middle Range” (Merton, 1967)

 category of theories which deals with a more limited context
 Middle-range theories are much more likely to be the focus of empirical enquiry (scientific
process of enquiry).
Empiricism - What is empiricism?
 Term ‘empiricism’ is used in number of different ways, but two stand out:
1. It used to denote a general approach to the study of reality that suggests that only knowledge
gained through experience and the senses is acceptable.
 This position means that ideas must be subjected to the rigours of testing before they can
be considered knowledge.

2. The term refers to a belief that accumulation of ‘facts’ is a legitimate goal in its own right can
be considered knowledge .
 Sometimes referred to as “naïve empiricism”
Definition of ‘research paradigm’
 Research paradigm is used quite loosely in academic research and means different things to different
people. For this course,
 ‘research paradigm’ refers to the progress of scientific practices based on people’s philosophies
and assumptions about the world and the nature of knowledge’ (Collis & Hussey, 2003:46)
 Philosophy is the use of reason and argument in seeking truth and knowledge, esp., of general
ultimate reality or general causes and principles.
 Morgan (1979) suggests term research paradigm can be used in three (3) different levels:
 Philosophical level – where it is used to reflect basis beliefs about the world
 Social level – where it used to provide guidelines about how the researcher should conduct his or
her endeavours
 Technical level – where it used to specify the methods and techniques which ideally should be
adopted when conducting research.
 Thus ‘research paradigm‘ offers a framework comprising an accepted set of theories, methods and ways
of how research should be conducted.
 Your perceptions, assumption, and beliefs about the world (your personal paradigm) will be influence
and determine how you will conduct your research.
The two main research paradigms
 Traditionally, there was only one research paradigm.
 Today we refer to that ‘one source’ as the natural sciences to distinguish them from the
‘social sciences’.
 Scientific approach to research that for a time provide model problems and solutions to a
community of practitioners. The systematic methods used by scientists involved
observation and experiment.
 People’s idea about reality and knowledge have changed over time and therefore, new
research paradigm emerge in response to the perceived inadequacies of earlier paradigm.
 The emergence of social sciences led to the development of a second research paradigm.
Continue..
 The two main research paradigms or philosophies are:
1. Positivistic
2. Interpretivistic (phenomenological)
 Most authors used terms like quantitative and qualitative, and some use the term
interpretivistic or interpretivism rather than phenomenological. For example, Creswell
(1994) refers to positivistic as ‘quantitative’ and phenomenological as ‘qualitative’.
 Below, is a some of the common terms used under each paradigm which are not
necessarily interchangeable.

Positivistic Research Paradigm Interpretivistic Research Paradigm

Quantitative Qualitative

Objectivist Subjectivist

Scientific Humanistic

Experimentalist Interpretivist

Traditionalist
Positivism research paradigm
 Paradigm that originated in the natural science.
 Historically, the positivistic paradigm in the social sciences is based on the approach used in the
natural science, such as in biology, botany, physics.
 It rest on the assumption that social reality is singular and objective, and is not affected by the act of
investigating it.
 The positivistic approach seeks the facts or causes of social phenomena, with little regard to the
subject state of the individual.
 The research involves a deductive process with a view to providing explanatory theories to understand
social phenomena.
 According to positivists, laws provide the basis of explanation, permit the anticipation of
phenomena, predict their occurrence and therefore allow them to be controlled. Thus, social and
natural worlds are both regarded as being bound by certain fixed laws in a sequence of cause and
effect. Explanation consists of establishing causal relationship between variables by establishing
causal laws and linking them to available theory
 Phenomenology is the science of phenomena. A phenomenon is a ‘a fact or occurrence that appears or
is perceived, especially one of which the cause is in question (Allen, 1990: 893).
Interpretivism research paradigm
 Paradigm that emerged in response to criticisms of positivism.
 It rest on the assumption that social reality is in our minds, and is subjective and multiple.
 Some social scientists argues against positivist that the physical sciences deal with objects which are
outside us, whereas the social sciences deal with action and behaviour which are generated from
within the human mind.
 Therefore social reality is affected by the of investigating it.
 It is concerned with understanding human behaviour from the participant’s own frame of reference
(Collis & Hussey, 2003: 53)
 The approach stresses the subjective aspects of human activity by focusing on the meaning, rather
than the measurement of social phenomena.
 The research involves an inductive process with a view to providing interpretive understanding
of social phenomena within a particular context.
 Deductive and inductive theories
DEDUCTIVE APPROACH INDUCTIVE APPROACH
Conclusion
 We will conclude this lecture topic when we cover philosophical assumptions of the two
research paradigms, which are:
 Epistemological considerations
 Ontological considerations
 Axiological assumptions
 Rhetorical assumptions
 Methodological assumptions