FUNDAMENTALS OF RESEARCH

Shah Ehsan Habib, PhD (UNSW, Australia)

Professor
Department of Sociology
University of Dhaka
E-mail: se_habib@hotmail.com

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 WHAT IS RESEARCH?

 Research is an art of scientific investigation

 A systematized effort to gain new knowledge

 A careful investigation or inquiry specifically through search

for new facts in any branch of knowledge

 Research is a systematic, careful inquiry or examination to

discover new information or relationships and or to expand or
verify existing knowledge for some specific purposes

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 What is Research?
• Research is the systematic process of collecting and
analysing information (data) in order to increase our
understanding of the phenomenon with which we are
concerned or interested.
• Research involves three main stages:
Planning
Data collection
Analysis.
 What is Social Research?
• It is research involving social scientific methods, theories
and concepts, which can enhance our understanding of
the social processes and problems encountered by
individuals and groups in society
• It is conducted by sociologists, psychologists, economists,
political scientists and anthropologists
• It is not just common sense, based on facts without theory,
using personal life experience or perpetuating media myths
 CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH
 The purpose of the research is clearly defined
 Originates with a question or problem (or may be more ques)
 Research method should be defined in a clear manner with
sufficient detail
 Any limitations and assumptions made by the researcher during
the course of the study should be clearly highlighted in the research
 Should have sufficient data to investigate the research topic
 A good research depends a great deal on the integrity and
commitment of the researcher

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 Criteria for Research Problems
 Good research problems must meet three criteria (see Kerlinger,
1973):
 
1.The research problem should describe the relationship between two
or more variables.

2. The research problem should take the form of a question.

question

3. The research problem must be capable of being tested empirically

(i.e., with data derived from direct observation and experimentation).
Data to be collected from field level

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Social research is a scientific process
• It involves the systematic collection of methods to produce
knowledge.
• It is objective (more closer to truth) in nature. Qualitative
research follows subjective approach
• It can tell you things you do not expect.
• It consists of theory and observation.
• Sometimes called ‘soft sciences’ because their subject matter
(humans) are fluid and hard to measure precisely.
• It is an empirical research – i.e. facts are assumed to exist prior
to the theories that explain them.
Social research is a scientific process
Social research is a scientific process. It involves the systematic
collection of methods to produce knowledge.
knowledge It is objective. It can tell
you things you don’t expect – eg divorce and children. Like science it
consists of theory and observation. Because it involves the study of
people, social sciences are sometimes referred to as the soft sciences –
doesn’t mean they’re sloppy but because their subject matter is fluid
and hard to measure precisely. It is an empirical research (facts are
assumed to exist prior to the theories that explain them) and the
scientific manner in which theories are formed or tested produces
objective results. Like science, different social scientists can agree in
observations and conclusions despite different points of view. Social
sciences make an important contribution to our understanding of a wide
variety of social issues. They have generated useful and usable
knowledge on socially relevant topics such as health inequalities,
incidences and causes of family poverty, impact of racial discrimination
etc.
 RESEARCH VS. SCIENTIFIC METHOD
 Scientific knowledge is grounded in both reason and
experience (observation)

 Scientists employ the criteria of logical validity and

empirical validation to evaluate claims for knowledge

 These two criteria are translated into the research activities

of scientist through the research process

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 BASIS OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
• Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge
about the natural world, produced by scientists who emphasize the
observation, explanation, and prediction of real world phenomena.

• Scientific methods are considered to be so fundamental to modern

science that some consider earlier inquiries into nature to be pre-
scientific.

• The dawn of modern science is often traced back to the early modern
period and in particular to the scientific revolution that took place in
16th- and 17th-century Europe (e.g. Roger Bacon born c. 1214)

• Previously, people investigating nature called themselves natural

philosophers.

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

It demands a clear statement of the problem

It requires a plan – it is not aimless “looking” for something in the
hopes that you will come across a solution.
It builds on existing data, using both-positive and negative findings;
and
New data should be collected as required and be organized in such a
way that they answer the original research question(s).

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 AIMS OF RESEARCH

• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights

into it

• To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,

situation or a group

• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables

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 PARADIGM, METHODOLOGY & METHODS
1. Paradigm:
Paradigm
 A set of propositions that explain how the world is perceived/ how the world can be
explained, handled, approached or studied.
 A kind of way of breaking down the complexity of the real world.
 Whole system of thinking/ faculty of thinking.
2. Methodology:
Methodology
 It is a Science of methods (survey, focus group method)
 A methodology is a model, which entails theoretical principles/framework that
provides guidelines about how research is done in the context of a particular
paradigm.
 Methodology translates the principles of a paradigm into a research language.
3. Methods:
Methods
 Refers to the tools or instruments employed by researchers to gather empirical
evidence or to analyze data
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 Methods should never be used as criteria for determining the type of methodology
 THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE IN SOCIAL RESEARCH
1. Positivistic perspective - positivism, neopositivism, methodological
positivism, logical positivism
(It’s application of science. Science is based on strict rules, principles and
procedures, value free). Science talks about impericism, it’s value free,
talks about objectivity
2. Interpretive perspective - symbolic interactionism, phenomenology
[TALKS ABOUT HUMAN EXPERIENCE], hermeneutics, ethnology,
ethnography, sociolinguistics. Each has different theoretical assumptions
(Science is based on understanding, meaning and interpretations)
Reality is always creative, it is done under a social constructions
3. Critical perspective - critical sociology, conflict school of thought,
Marxism (also Neo Marxist theory), Feminism, we talk about social
inequality: Gender based violence as there is absence of Gender
application due to the inequality in the society, no law
(Science relies on sense impressions and values), Ethnic cleansing/ violence
is talked about in this research
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 OBJECTIVITY IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Objectivity means the rule of law. It implies subordination of personal interests and
prejudices to public standards.
1. Value neutrality:
neutrality
 Research is value free – goal is to study what is and not what ought to be
 Social scientists should be value free – out of value judgments
2. Normatism:
Normatism
 Objectivity or value neutrality is unattainable, unnecessary and undesirable
 Social scientists must produce value judgments if they wish to solve problems
 Our general orientation is based on and is constructed with values
3. The middle view:
view
 Complete value neutrality may be unattainable, some degree of value neutrality is
possible.
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Components of Research
(For Q:1 to answer)

Theory

Method

Epistemology
 Components of Research
(For Q:1 to answer)
In research, you need to think about 3 things: (1) Theoretical issues (2) kind of
knowledge that you are producing (epistemology) (3) consider the different
research methods and techniques.
What is a Theory?
Theory Basically, it highlights or explains something that one would
otherwise not see or would find puzzling. Often it is an answer to a ‘why?’
question. Eg: why are so many people unemployed in western capitalist
societies? Theory can be used as an explanation. Usually, we start our research
with a concept or an idea. Theories then arrange a set of concepts to define and
explain some phenomenon – we need theories to understand social phenomena.

Methodology – that is the general approach to studying a research topic. It

establishes how one will go about studying any phenomenon. Two main forms of
social scientific methodologies are quantitative and qualitative Meanings of
theses methodologies are important to social research. Methods – these are the
specific research techniques of empirical data. Methodology links theory and
method and prevents non-theoretical work.
 PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCES AND
KNOWLEDGE Q 1
Epistemology:
Epistemology The term comes from the Greek word episteme (which means what
is the source of our knowledge for our research?). How do we come to know, we
come to know? there is a relationship between EPISTEOLOGY and
METHODOLOGY
• Epistemology is the investigation into the grounds and nature of knowledge itself.
• It is the philosophy of knowledge or of how we come to know.
• The study of epistemology focuses on our means for acquiring knowledge and
how we can differentiate between truth and falsehood.
falsehood Modern epistemology
generally involves a debate between rationalism and empiricism, or the question of
whether knowledge can be acquired a priori or a posteriori:
Methodology:
Methodology Methodology is also concerned with how we come to know, but is
much more practical in nature.
nature What tools, technic or approach we should utilize
• It is a science of studying how research is to be carried out. Essentially, the
procedures by which researchers go about their work of describing, explaining and
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predicting variables or phenomena.
 EPISTEMOLOGY TALKS ABOUT: RATIONALISM VS. EMPIRICISM

Rationalism: About HUMAN MIND, STRUCTURE, INTUITION

• Rationalists believe that knowledge is essentially acquired by a priori process
or is innate, in the form of concepts not necessarily derived from experience.
Such theoretical processes are also known as intuition.

• Knowledge is considered as the concepts being developed by the structure of

the human mind and intuition.

Empiricism: (WHAT IT IS):

• It is the theory of knowledge which emphasizes on the role of experience.

• Empiricism is the theory that the origin of all knowledge is sense experience. It
emphasizes the role of experience and evidence, especially sensory perception,
in the formation of ideas, and argues that the only knowledge humans can have
is a posteriori (i.e. based on experience).
Note: Epistemology is about the way we know things (either RATIONALISM or EMPIRICISM)
whereas ontology is about what things are. Ontology asks what exists (how it exists) and epistemology
asks how we know knowledge is valid. Example of ontology: are numbers physical properties or just
ideas? In ONTOLOGY: it talks about 1,2,3,4 Number is it a physical property or idea, which one to be
given importance?
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 Theory and Research
• Theories can be categorized by:
Direction of reasoning (QUANTITATIVE follows:
deductive logic – From General to particular): Rahim
is a man, he is mortal. From particular to general,
QUALITATIVE follows: inductive logic – From
particular to general. So, every men is mortal
– Level of social reality that it is explaining
(macro/meso/micro)
Whether it is formal (general) or substantive (specific).
 Theory and Research
Theory is important to social research methods as firstly, methods of social
research are linked to the different visions of how social reality should be studied
and secondly, research is produced to address a burning question or theory.
(1) Social Scientific theory and research are linked through the ‘direction of
reasoning’ of theories. Generally, induction and deduction are distinct processes
but can overlap or be used simultaneous in a project. Another form of theory
construction is falsification – pointing out where previous theories failed.
(2) Macro level – deals with large, aggregate entities of society or even whole
societies. So theorist are focusing their attention on society at large or at least on
large portions of it. Eg: international relations among countries, interrelations
among major institutions in society, such as government, religion, and family.
Micro level – deals with issues of social life at the level of individuals and small
groups. Eg: dating behaviour. Focus on social interactions – how people relate to
each other on an individual level. Meso level – relatively rare – links macro and
micro levels or to operate on an intermediate level eg: theories of communities,
social movements.
 Methodological Approaches:
Epistemology
There are three main epistemological perspectives:
• Positivism
– Interested in causes and predicting likelihood of incidences, seeks to
explain, creates social ‘facts’. It is for CAUSE/ PREDICTION finding
• Phenomenology (Quantitative)
– Interested in social meanings, seeks to interpret, uses direct
involvement, creates data on social interactions.
• Critical
– Interested in understanding social phenomena in their social context,
seeks out structural relationships, data is historical, structural and
ideological.
 Methodological Approaches:
Epistemology
After considering the theoretical issues surrounding your particular area of enquiry,
you need to consider different techniques for data collection. But first, you need to
think about the kind of knowledge you are producing, known as epistemology.
Epistemology is concerned with that does and does not count as acceptable
knowledge.
Positivism - view that science can explain the world in terms of what causes the
things and the events that we observe. Positivism is used in natural sciences. It
answers the what? Questions. Phenomenology/ INTERPRETIVE –people are
viewed as not things but actors, i.e. they think and reflect on what they do, thus to
know the social world, it is necessary to find out the meanings of social processes. It
is concerned with what sense people make of the world rather than what the world
appears to be. It answers the how? Questions. Critical – you want to relate the
observable social phenomena to a wider social context. It answers the why?
Questions. It also appears rarely in journals – uses a range of social research
methods but does tend to focus on historical/comparative methods in order to
emphasise change and to uncover underlying structures. Think Durkheim, Weber and
 Ontological Considerations
• Objectivism
– Phenomena independent of social actors.
– Organisations and culture are said to exist as a tangible object, external
to the social actor.
• Constructionism
– Social phenomena and their meanings are continually being
accomplished by social actors.
– Not only produced through social interaction but they are in a constant
state of revision.
 Ontological Considerations
Bryman points out social research can be concerned with the nature of
social entities. Central question is whether social entities can and
should be considered objective entities that have a reality external to
social actors or whether they can and should be considered social
constructions built up from the perceptions and action of social actors.
These positions are referred to as objectivism and constructionism.
Objectivism – organizations can be said to exist as a tangible object,
external to the social actor. Another example is culture. Culture
consists of widely shared values, beliefs and customs into which people
are socialized. It can constrain us because we internalise their beliefs
and values. So social actors have no role in fashioning these external
realities. Constructionism is the opposite – this stance maintains that
social phenomena and their meanings are continually being
accomplished by social actors. Social phenomena are not only produced
through social interaction but that they are in a constant state of
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
Based on the Purpose of a Study
1. Exploratory research:
research Becoming familiar with the basic social
facts, social setting and concerns or formulating and focusing
questions for future research (no work done before, no data) Eg:
vaccine invention of COVID by scientists
2. Descriptive research:
research Providing a detailed, highly accurate picture
or locating new data that contradict past data through comparison
(we want to provide detail picture of social problem or
phenomenon, relating from past data) Jan 2020 & Apr 2020
COVID’s picture in global state and its difference
3. Explanatory research:
research Testing or focusing on a theory’s
predictions or principle or elaborating and enriching a theory’s
explanation, focusing on theory or enhancing the theory.

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 TYPES OF RESEARCH
Based on the Use of Research
•1. Basic research: Basic research advances fundamental knowledge about the
social world. It focuses on refuting or supporting theories that explain how the
social world operates.
•2. Applied research:
research Applied research aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society/group/organisation. (COVID vaccine
finding)
Types of applied research: we want to find some solution to get rid of a
problem
 Action research (involve problem solving and used for improving conditions
or practices)
 Social impact assessment (predicting probable impacts from change
strategies of development projects) Eg: QIP project school construction
may/can reduce Terrorism. Deep tubewell installation
 Evaluation research (for providing useful feedback, e.g. PERT, Critical Path
Method) 27
 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Based on Time Dimension

•1. Cross-sectional research: In cross-sectional research, researchers
observe at one point in time or in a particular time/ moment
•2. Longitudinal research: Researchers examine features of people or
other units at more than one time.
Types of longitudinal research:
 Time-series research:
research The same type of information is collected on
a group of people or other units across multiple time periods. (MY
RESEARCH)
 Panel study:
study Researcher observes exactly the same people, group, or
organisation across time periods.
 Cohort analysis:
analysis Similar to the panel study, but rather than
observing the exact same people, a category of people who share a
similar life experience in a specified time period is studied.
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 Forms of Social Research

• Basic or Pure Research:

– aim is to develop a body of general knowledge for
the understanding of human social behaviour by
means of a combination of empirical enquiry and
application of theory.
• Applied or Policy Oriented Research:
– aim is to provide knowledge and information that can
be used to influence social policy.
 Forms of Social Research
There is a distinction in social research between basic or pure
research and applied or policy oriented research. Constructing,
testing and refining theory is what basic research is all about. Applied
is usually defined in practical or instrumental terms. Not so much
concerned with theory-building as with providing knowledge and
information that can be used to influence social policy by providing an
insight into contemporary social issues. Both forms of research share
the fundamental principles of social scientific investigations, where
they differ is that the basic social researcher is concerned with the
outcomes – i.e. contributing to a body of theoretical knowledge – while
the applied social researcher concentrates on the application of
theoretical knowledge in conducting empirical research to address
specific problems – i.e. concerned with producing knowledge to
inform or direct social change.
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 POLICY RESEARCH AND ITS TYPES
Policy research is defined as the process of conducting research on, or
analysis of, a fundamental social problem in order to provide
policymakers with pragmatic, action-oriented recommendations for
alleviating the problem.

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 WHAT IS THE RELATION BETWEEN RESEARCH & POLICY?

1. Knowledge shapes policy

The first approach focuses on how research can be used “instrumentally” to adjust policy.
2. Politics shapes knowledge
The second set of theories focuses on how politics and policy shape knowledge production and
use.
3. Co-production (Cyclical)
The third set of theories builds on the notion of co-production.
4. Autonomous spheres
The fourth approach, by contrast, posits that science and politics are autonomous systems,
32 each
guided by a distinct logic. 
 Forms of Social Research:
• Basic Research is done by academics.
• Applied Research is conducted by applied social researchers
employed by sponsors.
• Success for basic social researchers is when results are
published in a peer reviewed journal and have an impact on
the scientific community.
• Success for applied social researchers is that their results are
used by their sponsors in decision making.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
Based on Data Collection Technique
1. Quantitative research: Quantitative research is based on the
measurement of quantity or amount or variable. It is applicable to
phenomenon that can be expressed in terms of quantity. We want to
measure the relationship of its variables [Income, no of children],
children
measurable facts, it gives emphasis on causes of behaviour, it gives
emphasis on facts, mathematical or statistical data and processes are
considered here, precision in measure is required, replication is reqd.
Perspective: It’s Positivism (Logical, methodological). (Eg: Poverty of
BD, upper cl lower cl, mid cl, what indicators/ parameter are to be
considered here precision has to be there as per some set standard)
2. Qualitative research: Qualitative research is concerned with non-
quantitative phenomena aiming towards exploration of social relations,
and describes reality as experienced by the respondents. Non
quantitative values to be taken into consideration. Like: conflict is a
qualitative phenomenon, also violence 34
 WHAT IS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
• Quantitative research employ logical positivism to test
hypothetical generalizations
• Quantitative research emphasize the measurement and analysis
of causal relationships between variables
• Quantitative research is supported by the positivist or scientific
paradigm which leads us to regard the world as made up of
observable, measurable facts
• The assumption is that social facts have an objective reality and
variables can be identified and relationships can be measured.

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH

• In quantitative research, the emphasis is on facts and causes of

behaviour
• The information is in the form of numbers that can be
quantified and summarized
• The mathematical process is the norm for analysing the
numeric data and
• The final result is expressed in statistical terminologies.
terminologies

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 PRINCIPLES OF QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH (imp)
• Precision in Measurement. Setting parameters in a standard unit/
factor or indicators
• Replication. Design is possible to replicate
• Validity. Truthfulness in data collection and its study and instruments
• Reliability. Consistence. A questionnaire, if it is prepared so that, it
has to be reliable for reliability of data collection. Population’s
knowledge, belief, or/and attitude (from psychological set scale)
• Objectivity.
• Ethics.
• Representativeness.
BEHAVIOURAL ATTITUDE OF PEOPLE: JIBONER CHEYE
JIBIKAR PRIORITY BESHI, SO they are not much focused about the
devastation of COVID – 19 37
The Deductive Approach in Typical
Quantitative Research
Researcher Tests or Verifies a Theory

Researcher Tests Hypotheses or Research Questions

From the Theory

Researcher Defines and Operationalizes

Variables Derived from the Theory

Researcher Measures or Observes Variables Using an

Instrument to Obtain Scores

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 WHAT IS QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• Qualitative research uses a naturalistic approach that seeks to
understand phenomena in context-specific settings, such as "real world
setting where the researcher does not attempt to manipulate the
phenomenon of interest
• It is a kind of research that produces findings arrived from real-world
settings where the phenomenon of interest unfold naturally
• Unlike quantitative researchers who seek causal determination,
prediction, and generalization of findings, qualitative researchers seek
instead illumination, understanding, and extrapolation to similar
situations

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 RESEARCH PURPOSES FOR WHICH
QUALITATIVE STUDIES SUITED Contd…

1. Understanding meaning
Refers to participants’ perspective on events and actions
How participants make sense and how their understanding
influence their behaviour
2. Understanding the particular context
The influence of contexts on acts
How events, action and meanings are shaped by the unique
circumstances
3. Understanding the process
How events and actions take place
The interest is in process rather than outcome

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 RESEARCH PURPOSES FOR WHICH
QUALITATIVE STUDIES SUITED

4. Developing causal explanations

How X plays a role in causing Y
What is the process that connects X and Y
Case oriented method rather than variable oriented
5. Identifying unanticipated phenomena and generating new
grounded theories
Conducting exploratory studies to help quantitative researchers
design questionnaire
Grounded theory is rooted in observations of specific concrete
details

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 CENTRAL PRINCIPLES OF QUALITATIVE
METHODOLOGY
1. Openness
- Not predetermined by hypothesis. Hypo related to quantitative
research. We say rather RESEARCH Question.
2. Research as communication
- Communication between researcher and respondent, number of
times if require.
3. Process nature of the research and object
- Reality is created and explained in interaction.
4. Flexibility
- Choice of research instruments and research procedures; no strict
guidelines.

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 WHAT IS EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH?
 In experimental research, the aim is to manipulate an independent
variable(s) and then examine the effect that this change has on a
dependent variable(s).

 Since it is possible to manipulate the independent variable(s),

experimental research has the advantage of enabling a researcher to
identify a cause and effect between variables.

 In non-experimental research, the researcher does not manipulate

the independent variable(s).

 This is not to say that it is impossible to do so, but it will either be

impractical or unethical to do so.

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COMPARISION BETWEEN QUALITATIVE & QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
Its purpose is to explain (objectivity) social Its purpose is to understand (judgement)
life social life
Understanding Prediction
Numerical Textual (words)
Aims at theory testing Aims at theory building
Sample size core issue in reliability of data Quality of informant more important than
sample size
Employs and objective approach Employs a subjective approach
It’s a closed approach – is strictly planned Is open and flexible in all aspects

Objective approach is utilised Subjective approach is utilised

Survey/questionnaires Interview/observation
Employs random sampling Employs theoretical sampling 44