CEP Development Management MA Program

ETHIOPIAN CIVIL SERVICE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF FINANCE, MANAGEMENT AND

DEVELOPMENT (CFMD)
DEPARTMENT OF DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS AND
MANAGEMENT
CEP Development Management MA Program
Module Title: Development Research Methods
Course Code: MDM5081
ECTS: 8
Credit Hours: 4.8
Course Instructor:
Summer, 2013 EC
Amanuel Kussia (PhD)
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
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Development Research Methods (MDM5081)
PART I: Research Methods: The basics

PART II: Qualitative Analysis
PART III: Quantitative Analysis
PART IV: Writing Research Report
Some tips: Hypothesis testing

Software Applications
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Development Research Methods (MDM5081)
PART I
Research Methods: The basics
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Contents:
 Introduction: Development Research Methods
 Formulation of Research problem and
Hypothesis
 Literature Review
 Research Design and Methods of Research
 Census and Sample Investigation
 Data Collection Processing and Analysis
 Writing the Research Report for Proposal
and Research Paper
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Section One: - Introduction
1.1. Definition of Research
1.2. Philosophy of Research
1.3. Objective of Research
1.4. Motivation in Research
1.5. Characteristics of Research
1.6. Scientific Approaches
1.7. Classification of Research
1.7. Types of Research
1.8. Research Ethics
1.9 Issues in Development Research
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1.1. Definition of Research
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What is research?
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1.1 Definition of Research
 We all possess the vital instinct of
inquisitiveness.
 When the unknown confronts us, we wonder
and probe to attain full understanding of the
unknown.
 This inquisitiveness is the mother of all
knowledge.
 The method, which we employ for obtaining the
knowledge of whatever the unknown is,
therefore, research.
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 Research is more than a reflection of our opinions
and prejudgments.
 Research is defined as:
a search for knowledge in a scientific manner.
“a careful investigation or inquiry specially
through search for new facts in any branch of
knowledge.”
a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”
a movement from the known to the unknown.
a voyage of discovery.
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 „Research‟ refers to the systematic method
consisting of:
articulating the problem,
formulating a hypothesis,
collecting data,
analyzing the data and
reaching certain conclusions.
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Development research is part of social research.
Social research should also fulfil the following requirements:
1. systematic, i.e. follows precise methods that are
logically consistent, transparent and open to scrutiny
2. non-discriminatory and non-exploitative to its
subjects, i.e. neither directly or indirectly should
discriminate against its subjects, physically or mentally
harm them, nor exploit them for own profit
3. open to criticism, i.e. research should be made public
through publications and be open to scrutiny both for
its procedures and its findings, and
4. independent, i.e. be free from direct or indirect
censorship
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1.2 Philosophy of Research:
Epistemology vs. Ontology
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 Research is about acquiring new knowledge. Our study
of research methods should therefore at least partly be
concerned with study of knowledge and ways of
obtaining it.
 Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies
knowledge. It attempts to answer the basic question:
what distinguishes true (adequate) knowledge from false
(inadequate) knowledge?
History of Epistemology:
Plutonian Epistemology: - Knowledge is merely an
awareness of absolute, universal Ideas or Forms, existing
independently of any subject trying to apprehend to them.
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2. Aristotelian Epistemology: - Puts more emphasis
on logical and empirical methods for gathering
knowledge, yet he still accepts the view that such
knowledge is an apprehension of necessary and
universal principles .
3. Cartesian Rationalist Epistemology: - Sees
knowledge as the product of rational reflection
4. Reflection-Correspondence Theory: Knowledge
results from a kind of mapping or reflection of external
objects, through our sensory organs, possibly aided by
different observation instruments, to our brain or mind.
Though knowledge has no a priori existence, like in
Plato's conception, but has to be developed by
observation, it is still absolute, in the sense that any
piece of proposed knowledge is supposed to either
truly correspond to a part of external reality, or not. 14
5. Kantian Synthesis Theory: - According to Kant,
knowledge results from the organization of perceptual data
on the basis of inborn cognitive structures, which he calls
"categories". This epistemology does accept the subjectivity
of basic concepts, like space and time, and the impossibility
to reach purely objective representations of things-in-
themselves. Yet the a priori categories are still static or given.
6. Pragmatism: - Knowledge consists of models that attempt
to represent the environment in such a way as to simplify
problem-solving. No model can ever hope to capture all
relevant information, and even if such a complete model
would exist, it would be too complicated to use in any
practical way. Therefore we must accept the parallel
existence of different models, even though they may seem
contradictory. The model which is to be chosen depends on
the problems that are to be solved. The basic criterion is that
the model should produce correct (or approximate)
predictions (which may be tested) or problem-solutions, and
be as simple as possible. Further questions about the "Ding
and Sich" or ultimate reality behind the model are
meaningless.
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1.2 Philosophy of Research: EPISTEMOLOGY
 Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that deals
with how knowledge of such phenomena is acquired,
and what counts as knowledge.
 What is (or should be) regarded as acceptable
knowledge in a discipline?
◦ Can (should) the social world be studied according to
the same principles as the natural sciences?
 If the answer is YES, the research follows the
doctrine of the natural science epistemology:
Positivism (and also Realism)
 If the answer is NO, the research follows the
opposite to positivism doctrine: Interpretivism
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Three epistemological positions:
A) Positivism: -
• Positivism refers to the school of thought that the only
„true‟ or valid form of knowledge is that which is „scientific‟.
• The principles and methods of the natural sciences (such as
chemistry or physics) are used to study human behaviour,
which in itself is objective and tangible in nature.
• The researcher can observe human behaviour and measure
„facts‟, and „laws‟ or theories of behaviour can be developed.
• Concepts such as feelings, emotions, beliefs and so on have
no place in research as they cannot be directly observed or
measured, they are unreliable and they are not constant over
time.
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• Measurements should be objective. This approach involves
precise measurements, which can be controlled or manipulated
by the researcher. Others could see the same evidence for
themselves and reach the same conclusions.
• Such exact measurement allows statistical analysis which
provides an impartial and precise answer. Careful research
designs can show causal relationships, for example X causes Y.
The researcher has no influence on the findings, and has no
personal influence on the results.
Research philosophy used by the natural sciences

 The researcher = an objective analyst of the external world;
the end product of the research are law-like generalizations
 Makes detached interpretations about the data that have been
collected in an objective manner
◦ the researcher is independent of the subject of the research:
 the researcher does not affect the subject of the research
 the researcher is not affected by the subject of the research
 Focus on
◦ highly structured methodology and methods (e.g., questionnaires) to
facilitate replication
◦ observations can be quantified; this permits statistical analysis
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• Concepts such as feelings, and emotions form the
basis of the interpretative approach. They are not
measured numerically – such an approach would
argue that these concepts are too complex to be
reduced to numbers.
• Rather, they are „measured‟ using words, statements
and other non-numerical measures, collecting data
from the viewpoint of the participant.
• The data is then interpreted by the researcher, who
attempts to uncover meanings, values, explanations
and so on.
• This approach also avoids any search for „truth‟,
instead seeking understanding.
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B) Realism
 Shares two features with Positivism:

◦ A belief that the natural and social sciences should apply the same
kind of approach to the collection of data and to explanation
◦ A view that there is an external reality which is separate from our
description of it
 Realism is an attempt by some researchers in social
sciences to adjust Positivism to studies of social
phenomena
◦ In particular, it allows for inclusion into their explanations of
theoretical terms that sometimes cannot be observed
◦ It also recognizes that people cannot be studied in the style of
natural sciences; that it is important to understand how people
think and interpret things, to take context (e.g., time and place)
into account
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C) Interpretivism
 Interpretivists suggest that individuals have freedom to
act in particular ways, and that they experience things
differently. Thus, the researcher has to interpret „reality‟
from each individual‟s experiences.
 Opposite to Positivism
 Argues that the social world of business and
management is too complex and unique for the
traditional natural sciences approaches
◦ Therefore, it cannot be generalized; it depends on
particular sets of circumstances and individuals
 It is the role of interpretivists to seek to understand the
subjective reality of those that they study
◦ to understand their motives, actions, and intentions
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1.2 Philosophy of Research: ONTOLOGY: -
 Ontology refers to the philosophy of the existence and nature of

phenomena.
 beliefs about reality. What is truth?
 Can (should) social entities be considered objective entities
◦ If the answer is YES: the research takes a position of
Objectivism (social phenomena confront us as external
– independent and objective – facts)
 or are they social constructions
◦ If the answer is NO: the research takes a position of
Constructionism (Constructivism) –
social phenomena and their meanings are continually being
accomplished by social actors; the phenomena are not only
produced through social interactions, but they are in a constant
state of revision
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(1) Objectivism: an ontological position
that implies that social phenomena confront us
as external facts that are beyond our reach or
influence
◦ For example, an organization has rules and
regulations; standardized procedures for getting
things done; there is a hierarchy; mission statement;
individuals have to conform to these rules; they do
jobs to which they are appointed; they are told what
to do and they tell others what to do; otherwise,
they may be reprimanded or even fired
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(2)Constructionism(Constructivism)
 An ontological position that asserts that social
phenomena and their meanings are continually
being accomplished by social actors
 It implies that social phenomena and categories
are not only produced through social interactions
but they are in a constant state of revision
◦ For example, in some organizations rules are less
extensive and less rigorously imposed than in other
classic organizations
 They are not commands but rather general understandings; the
outcome are agreed-upon patterns of action in different
situations that are the product of negotiations among the
different parties involved
 The social order is in a constant state of change (e.g., in a
hospital, everyday interactions may be more important than the
official rules]
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Links between Epistemology and
Ontology
 Epistemological orientation of Positivism is
most likely linked to Ontological orientation of
Objectivism (and Realism)
 Interpretivism is usually linked to
Constructionism
 Research strategies (emerge from the above):
◦ Quantitative research strategy (usually linked to
Positivism and Objectivism/Realism and to
Deductive Research)
◦ Qualitative research strategy (usually linked to
Interpretivism and Constructionism and to either
Inductive Research or Grounded Theory)
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Positivist Subjectivist (constructivist)
1. World 1. World
 Knowable: mysteries are not  Ambiguous &complex: it
beyond human may not be knowable
comprehension
 The world is not fixed
 Predictable: using laws and (variable): truth depends on
theories the limits of our ability
 Single truth  Multiple realities: what is
true for one person may not
be true for another person
2. Nature of research 2. Nature of research

 Scientific: needs to follow a  Intuitive: it is based on
set of rules and procedures senses and intuitive
 Reductionist: it  Holistic: explore the system
focuses/involves discrete b/c the whole is more than
parts of a system the parts
Con,
3. Researcher 3. Researcher
 Objective: should not be  Subjective: a researcher is
biased value-bounded.
 Expert: expert/qualified  Participatory and
 The purpose of research is collaborative: researcher
to produce knowledge not should work for and with
contingent on the participants
researcher‟s beliefs, desires.  The question is how to
recognize and manage
subjectivity.
Con,
4. Method 4. Method
 Deductive: from general to  Inductive: from specific to
specific general
 Hypothesis-driven: propose  Exploratory
tentative statement
 Dependable: reliability in a
 Reliable: use methods that method may not be possible.
result the same in repeated Uses systemic and rigorous
trials approach
 Reproducible: use methods  Auditable: research is context
that can be repeated by others specific. It may not lend itself
and get similar findings to reproducibility.
1.3 Objectives of Research
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1.3 Objectives of Research
 The purpose of research is to discover answers
to questions through the application of scientific
procedures.
 The main aim of research is to find out the truth
which is hidden and which has not been
discovered as yet.
 Though each research study has its own specific
purpose, we may think of research objectives as
falling into a number of the following broad
groupings:
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Objectives of Research
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to
achieve new insights into it;
2. To describe accurately the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or a group;
3. To determine the frequency with which
something occurs or it‟s associated with
something else;
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship
between variables.
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Motivations in Research
 What makes people to undertake research?
 This is a question of fundamental importance.
 The possible motives for doing research may be
either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its
consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the
unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
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Motivations in Research
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some
creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respect;
6. Curiosity about new things, and
7. Desire to understand causal relationships
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Research is defined as the scientific investigation of phenomena which
includes collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of facts that
lines an individual‟s speculation with reality.
 Characteristics of Research: -
1. Empirical:- Research is based on direct experience or observation
by the researcher.
2. Logical: -Research is based on valid procedures and principles.
3. Cyclical.:-Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a
problem and ends with a problem.
4. Analytical:-Research utilizes proven systematic procedures in
gathering the data, whether historical, descriptive, and experimental
and case study.
5. Critical.: -Research exhibits careful and precise judgment.
6. Methodical: Research is conducted in a disciplined manner
without bias using systematic method and procedures.
7. Replicability: - The research design and procedures are replicated
or repeated to enable the researcher to arrive at valid and
conclusive results.
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Characteristics of the Researcher:
1) Intellectual Curiosity: A researcher

undertakes a deep thinking and inquiry of the
things, and situations around him.
2) Prudence: The researcher is careful to
conduct his research study at the right time and
at the right place wisely, efficiently, and
economically.
3) Healthy Criticism: The researcher is always
doubtful as to the truthfulness of the results.
4) Intellectual Honesty: An intelligent
researcher is honest to collect or gather data
or facts in order to arrive at honest results.
5) Intellectual Creativity: A productive and
resourceful investigator always creates new
researches.
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 Research comes in many shapes and sizes. Before a researcher b
egins to conduct a study, he or she must decide on
a specific type of research.
 Good researchers understand the advantages and
disadvantages of each type, although most end up specializing in
one.
 For classification of research we shall look from four dimensions
1. The purpose of doing research;
2. The intended uses of research;
3. How it treats time i.e. the time dimension in research; and
4. The research (data collection) techniques used in it.
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1) Research Classification by
The purpose of doing research;
A) Exploratory or Formulative
 You may be exploring new topic or issue in order to learn about it. If
the issue was new or the researcher has written little on it, you began at
the beginning. This is called exploratory research.
 Exploratory research may be the first stage in a sequence of studies.
 A researcher may need to know enough to design

and execute a second, more systematic as well as extensive study.
 When a researcher has a limited amount of experience with or

knowledge about a research issue, exploratory research is useful
preliminary step that helps ensure that a more rigorous, more
conclusive future study will not begin with an inadequate understanding
of the nature of the management problem.
 The findings discovered through exploratory research would the

researchers to emphasize learning more about the particulars of the
findings in subsequent conclusive studies.
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Goals of Exploratory Research
1) Become familiar with the basic facts, setting, and concerns;
2) Develop well grounded picture of the situation;
3) Develop tentative theories, generate new ideas, conjectures,
or hypotheses;
4) Determine the feasibility of conducting the study;
5) Formulate questions & refine issues for more systematic inquiry
6) Develop techniques and a sense of direction for future research.
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B) Descriptive Research
 Descriptive research presents a picture of the specific details
of a situation, social setting, or relationship. The major
purpose of descriptive research, as the term implies, is to
describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon.
Descriptive research seeks to determine the answers to who,
what, when, where, and how questions. Labor Force Surveys,
Population Census, and Educational Census are examples of
such research.
 Descriptive study offers to the researcher a profile or
description of relevant aspects of the phenomena of interest.
Look at the class in research methods and try to give its
profile ¬ the characteristics of the students. When we start
to look at the relationship of the variables, then it may help
in diagnosis analysis.
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 Goals of Descriptive Research
1) Describe the situation in terms of its characteristics
2) Give a verbal or numerical picture (%) of the situation;
3) Present background information;
4) Create a set of categories or classify the information;
5) Clarify sequence, set of stages; and
6) Focus on `who,' `what,' `when,' `where,' and `how' but not why?
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C) Explanatory Research
 When we encounter an issue that is already known and
have a description of it, we might begin to wonder why
things are the way they are.
 The desire to know "why," to explain, is the purpose of
explanatory research. It builds on exploratory and
descriptive research and goes on to identify the reasons
for something that occurs. Explanatory research looks
for causes and reasons.
 For example, a descriptive research may discover that
10 percent of the parents abuse their children, whereas
the explanatory researcher is more interested in
learning why parents abuse their children
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Goals of Explanatory Research
1) Explain things not just reporting. Why? Elaborate and enric
h a theory's explanation.
2) Determine which of several explanations is best.
3) Determine the accuracy of the theory;
4) Test a theory's predictions or principle.
5) Advance knowledge about underlying process.
6) Build and elaborate a theory;
7) Elaborate and enrich a theory's predictions or principle.
8) Extend a theory or principle to new areas and new topics:
9) Provide evidence to support or refute
10) Test a theory's predictions or principles
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2) Research classification by USE
A) Basic Research
 Basic research advances fundamental knowledge about
the human world.
 It focuses on refuting or
supporting theories that explain how world operates
what makes things happen, why social
 relations are a certain way, and why society changes.
 Basic research is the source of most new scientific
ideas and ways of thinking about the world.
 It can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory; ho
wever, explanatory research is the most common.
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 Basic research generates new ideas, principles and
theories, which may not be immediately utilized; though
are the foundations of modern progress and development
in different fields.
 A new idea or fundamental knowledge is not generated
only by basic research. Applied research, too, can build
new knowledge. Nonetheless, basic research is essential
for nourishing the expansion of knowledge. Researchers at
the center of the scientific community conduct most of
the basic research
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B) Applied Research
 Applied researchers try to solve specific policy problems or help
practitioners accomplish tasks. Theory is less central to them than
seeking a solution on a specific problem for a limited setting.
 Applied research is frequently a descriptive research, and its main
strength is its immediate practical use. Applied research is
conducted when decision must be made about a specific real-life
problem.
 Applied research encompasses those studies undertaken to answer
questions about specific problems or to make decisions about a
particular course of action or policy.
 For example, an organization contemplating a paperless office and a
networking system for the company's personal computers may
conduct research to learn the amount of time its employees spend
at personal computers in an average week
Types of Applied Research
i) Action research
ii) Impact Assessment Research
iii) Evaluation Research
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C. Basic and Applied Research Compared
 The procedures and techniques utilized by basic and
applied researchers do not differ substantially.
 Both employ the scientific method to answer the
questions at hand.
 The consumers of applied research findings are
practitioners. Often, someone other than the researcher
who conducted the study uses the results of applied
research. This means that applied researchers have an
obligation to translate findings from scientific technical
language into the language of decision makers or
practitioners.
 The results of applied research are less likely to enter
the public domain in publications. Results may be
available only to a small number of decision makers or
practitioners, who decide whether or how to put the
research results into practice and who may or may not
use the results.
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 Applied and basic researchers adopt different orientations
toward research methodology.
 Basic researchers emphasize high standards and try to
conduct near-perfect research.
 Applied researcher make more trade-offs. They may
compromise scientific rigor to get quick, usable results.
Compromise is no excuse for sloppy research, however.
Applied researchers squeeze research into the
constraints of an applied setting and balance rigor against
practical needs.
 Such balancing requires an in-depth knowledge of
research and an awareness of the consequences of
compromising standards
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4) Research by Time Dimension:
1.Cross-Sectional Research
2.Longitudinal Research
3.The panel study
4.A cohort analysis
5)Research (data collection) Techniques Used
 Quantitative: - Experiments, Surveys,
and Content Analysis and Using Existing Statistics
 Qualitative :- Field Research, Case Study and
Focus Group Discussion
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Cross-Sectional Research:
- It focuses on data from a population at one specific
point in time.
- The participants in this type of study are selected
based on particular variables of interest
- Cross-sectional studies are observational in nature
and are known as descriptive research, not causal or
relational, meaning that you can't use them to
determine the cause of something;
- It allows researchers to look at numerous
characteristics at once (age, income, gender, etc.).
- It can provide information about what is happening
in a current population
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Longitudinal Research
- Rresearchers repeatedly examine the same
individuals to detect any changes that might occur
over a period of time.
- Longitudinal studies are a type of correlational
research in which researchers observe and collect
data on a number of variables without trying to
influence those variables.
- While they are most commonly used in medicine,
economics, and epidemiology, longitudinal studies
can also be found in the other social or medical
sciences.
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Cross-Sectional vs Longitudinal Study
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Panel Study
 A study that provides longitudinal data on a group

of people, households, employers, or other social
unit, termed „the panel‟, about whom information
is collected over a period of months, years, or
decades.
 Two of the most common types of panel are age-
cohorts, people within a common age-band, and
groups with some other date-specific common
experience, such as people graduating from
university, having a first child, or migrating to
another country in a given year or band of years.
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A cohort Analysis
 A cohort is a group of people who share a common
characteristic over a certain period of time.
 For example, let's look at a group of students. All of
these students graduated in 2019. This group of
students is a cohort. All of the students graduated in the
same year, and this is their commonality.
 Cohort analysis is a study that focuses on the activities of a
particular cohort.
 If we were to calculate the average income of these students
over the course of a five-year period following their
graduation, we would be conducting a cohort analysis.
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1.6. Scientific Approaches
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1.6 Scientific Approaches
 The general process called the scientific approach is
influenced by the philosophical views.
 The approach can be characterized as having the following
general steps:
◦ Identifying the problem/issue/question.
◦ Defining the research objectives
◦ Develop approaches for achieving the objectives
◦ Conduct the analysis
◦ Interpret the result and draw conclusions.
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Scientific Approaches:
Deductive and Inductive Thinking
 The modern method of science is broadly of two types:
Induction and Deduction.
 Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the
more specific.
◦ Also called a "top-down" approach.
◦ begin with a theory – to specific hypotheses – into
observations.
◦ test the hypotheses with specific data- a confirmation (or
not) of our original theories.
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Deductive Reasoning
61
Scientific Approaches:
Deductive and Inductive Thinking
 Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving from
specific observations to broader generalizations and
theories.
◦ this is a "bottom up" approach.
 We begin with specific observations and measures, begin
to detect patterns and regularities, formulate some
tentative hypotheses, and finally end up developing some
general conclusions or theories.
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Inductive Thinking
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1.7.Types of Research
64
1.7.Types of Research
 The basic types of research are as follows:
(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical:
 Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding
enquiries of different kinds.
 The major purpose of descriptive research is
description of the state of affairs as it exists at
present.
 In social science and business research we quite
often use descriptive research.
 In analytical research, the researcher analyzes
information to make a critical evaluation of the
material.
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Types of Research
(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be
applied (or action) research or fundamental (basic
or pure) research.
 Applied research aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an
industry/organization,
 Fundamental research is mainly concerned with
generalizations and with the formulation of a theory.
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Types of Research
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative:
 Quantitative research is based on the measurement
of quantity or amount.
 It is applicable to phenomena that can be
expressed in terms of quantity.
 Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon whose aim is to discover the
underlying motives of human behaviour.
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If you: Then Use:
• want to conduct statistical analysis
• want to be precise
Quantitative
• know what you want to measure
• want to cover a large group
• want narrative or in-depth information
• are not sure what you are able to measure Qualitative
• do not need to quantify the results

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Types of Research
(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical:
 Conceptual research is that related to some abstract
idea(s) or theory.
 It is used to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones.
 Empirical research relies on experience or
observation alone, often without due regard for
system and theory.
 It is data-based research.
 It comes up with conclusions which are capable
of being verified by observation or experiment.
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1.8. Research Ethics
70
1.8 Research Ethics
Ethics: The established customs, morals, and fundamental
human relationships that exist throughout the world.
Ethical Behavior: Behavior that is morally accepted as good or

right as opposed to bad or wrong. General ethical rules apply
also to the researchers.
 Researchers, subjects, funding bodies and society may have
conflicting incentives.
A. Researchers-researchers
 Researchers may be unethical on researchers
Plagiarism: using words or ideas without proper

acknowledgment
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• Plagiarism is the unauthorized use of someone else's thoughts or
wording either by
o Incorrect documentation, failing to cite your sources altogether, or
o Simply by relying too heavily on external resources.
• Whether intentional or unintended some or all of another author's ideas

become represented as your own.
• Plagiarizing undermines your academic integrity.
o It betrays your own responsibilities,
o As a student writer,
o Your audience, and
o The very research community you were entering by deciding to

write a research paper in the first place.
72
B. Researchers-society
 Falsifying data: Changing data
 Fabrication: Making up data
 Irresponsible policy advise
 Waste of research fund

C. Funding bodies-researchers
 Fund allocations directing research
 i.e. ‘money buying research results’?

73
 Therefore, some important shared values for the responsible
conduct of research include:
HONESTY — conveying information truthfully and

honoring commitments,
ACCURACY — reporting findings precisely and taking

care to avoid errors,
EFFICIENCY — using resources wisely and avoiding

waste, and
OBJECTIVITY — letting the facts speak for

themselves and avoiding improper bias
74
Summary for Chapter One
 Distinctions can also be made between
quantitative and qualitative research. Quantitative
research is based upon numerical measurement
and analysis. Qualitative research is based upon
non-numerical analysis of words, feelings,
emotions and so on.
 Research may follow a deductive or an inductive
process. Deductive research involves the testing
of a predetermined theory, explanation or
hypothesis. Inductive research generates the
explanation from the data collected.
75
Chapter Two: Formulation of
Research Problem and Hypothesis
2.1. Research Problem
2.1.1. Source of Research Problem
2.1.2. Criteria of a good Research Problem
2.1.3. Formulating and testing of the problem
2.2. Research Hypothesis
2.2.1. Characteristics of a usable hypothesis
2.2.2. Difficulties in formulating Hypothesis
2.2.3. Hypothesis Testing
2.2.4. Criteria for Good Hypothesis
76
The Research Process
 Before embarking on the details of research
methodology and techniques, it seems
appropriate to present a brief overview of the
research process.
 Research process consists of series of actions or

steps necessary to effectively carry out research
and the desired sequencing of these steps
77
Design the
Define the Review the Formulate Research
research problem Literature Hypotheses (including
Sampling)
Collect Data
Analyze Data
Interpret and
Report
78
2.1.Souces of Research Problem
A Research problem is a discrepancy
between what one knows and ought to
know to solve a problem. Sources are:
1. Experiences
2. Literatures
3. Theories
4. Reports
5. Technology
6. Inconsistence in past studies
79
2.2. Criteria of good research problem
1. Interests
2. Researchable
3. Feasible/practical
4. Significance
5. Economic
80
2.3. Formulating a Research Process
1. Defining a problem
2. Showing the severity of the problem with data
3. Showing the extent of the problem with data
4. Showing the gap in the previous studies and your
value-added
81
Defining the Research Problem
 Knowing what to research and its purpose is key to the
first step in the research design.
 A good research topic is broad enough to allow you to find
plenty of material, but narrow enough to fit within the size
and time constraints of your paper.
• To do a research a topic or a felt practical or theoretical
difficulty must be identified.
 The problem identification affects the quality, usefulness,
effectiveness and efficiency of the research activity.
 Defining the problem, showing the severity of the
problem, showing the extent of the problem, and showing
the gaps
82
 What does one mean when he/she wants to
define a research problem?
 The answer may be that one wants to state the
problem along with the bounds within which it is
to be studied.
 It involves the task of laying down boundaries
within which a researcher shall study the
problem.
 How to define a research problem is
undoubtedly a herculean/exceptional task.
83
 However, it is a task that must be tackled
intelligently to avoid the confusion encountered in
a research operation.
 Defining a research problem properly and clearly
is a crucial part of a research study and must in
no case be accomplished hurriedly.
 However, in practice this is frequently overlooked,
which causes a lot of problems later on.
 Hence, the research problem should be defined in
a systematic manner, giving due emphasis to all
relating points.
84
The research problem and objectives
 The researcher must know exactly what his/her
problem is before he/she begins working on it.
 A problem clearly defined is a problem half solved.
◦ Problem definition or problem statement is a clear
and precise statement of the question or issue to
be investigated.
 Laying down the boundaries within which a
researcher shall study the problem.
 Helps to narrow the perspectives of the problem
to a set of issues on which new information is
sought.
85
 Defining the problem clearly will help to find
answers to questions like:
◦ What data are to be collected?
◦ What characteristics of data are relevant and
need to be studied?
◦ What relations are to be explored?
◦ What techniques are to be used for the
purpose?
86
 In the formal definition of the problem the
researcher is required
 to describe the background of the study, its
theoretical basis and underlying assumptions in
concrete, specific and workable questions.
 The problem statement should make a
convincing argument that there isn‟t sufficient
knowledge available to explain the problem or
◦ there is, at least, a need to test what is known
and taken as fact.
87
 Some ways to show that you are adding to the knowledge
in your field:
 Gap: A research gap is an area where no or little
research has been carried out.
 The research problem is defined by asking a question to
which the answer is unknown, and which you will
explore in your research.
◦ Counter-claiming: A conflicting claim, theory or
method is put forward.
◦ Continuing a previously developed line of
enquiry: Building on work already done, but taking it
further (by using a new sample, extending the area
studied, taking more factors into consideration, taking
fewer factors into consideration, etc).
88
 The researcher should be focused, and should single out
and clearly state the problem.
 S/He should ask whether the problem is:
Open to empirical investigation or evaluation through
collection and analysis of relevant data
Brief, clear and precise
Researchable in respect to appropriate sources of
data/information that can provide solutions to the
problem identified
Solvable
Fitting itself well to established theories or concepts
89
 In defining the statement of the problem, the following
questions could be helpful:
Who is affected and how?
What is missing and where?
What went wrong and to what extent?
What are the notable effects, where, extent for whom?
Is the problem self-expressive or does it generate other
problems?
What have others to say about it? Establishing the gap!
90
 The problem is very important in the sense that it should
receive considerable and persuasive attention
 Its importance is inevitably subjective and will vary from
researcher to researcher.
Objectivity can be injected by answering questions such
as:
 Is the problem of current interest? Is it topical (up-to-
date)?
 Is the problem likely to continue into the future?
 Would the information about the problem have
practical application?
91
 Will the information about the problem have theoretical
importance?
 How large is the population affected by the problem?
 Would this study substantially revise or extend
existing knowledge?
 Would this study create or improve an instrument of
some utility?
 Would research findings lead to some useful change
in best practice?
 Is there evidence or authoritative opinion from others to
support the need for this research?
92
 The problem statement could close with a question.
 Typically, the question could contain two variables, a
measurable relationship, and some indication of
population.
 A good example of research question:
 "What is the relationship between farm productivity and
farmer use of fertilizer"?
 The information needed is:
◦ Productivity levels
◦ Some measure of fertilizer use.
93
 Hazardous noise is an important occupational health problem
because it leads to hearing loss and may lead to increased
stress and other harmful physiological effects. More than 30
million workers are exposed to hazardous noise on the
job…Use of hearing protection devices, specifically ear plugs is
known to reduce noise exposure and prevent noise – induced
hearing loss… there are, however, relatively few investigators
who have examined factors related to the low use of hearing
protection by workers.
 Start from here!
94
A bad example might be: "What is the best way to train
for use of fertilizer"?
- This is insufficient because:
 What are the variables?
 What will be measured?
 What relationships
95
Steps in defining the research problem:
a) Statement of the problem in a general way
◦ Problem stated in a broad and general way keeping in
mind the practical concern or the scientific or
intellectual interest.
b)Understanding the nature of the problem more
clearly
◦ The next steps is to understand its origin and nature
clearly.
 The best way is to discuss it with other more acquainted
or experienced people.
96
c) Developing the ideas through discussion
◦ Discussion concerning a problem often
produces useful information.
◦ The discussion sharpens the researcher‟s focus
of attentions on specific aspects of the study.
d) Survey of the available literature
 Devote sufficient time to review both the
conceptual and empirical literature.
97
 This exercise enables the researcher to
1. find out what data are available
2. find out whether the existing theory is
applicable to the problem under study.
3. ensure that no one else has already
exhausted the questions that he/she aims
to examine, etc.
e) Rephrasing the research problem:
◦ Researcher rephrases the research problem into
a working proposition.
◦ Rephrasing – putting the research problem in as
specific terms as possible.
98
f) In addition
◦ Technical terms or phrases, with special
meanings should be clearly defined.
◦ Basic assumptions or postulates relating to the
research problem should be clearly stated.
◦ The suitability of the time period and the
sources of data available must be considered in
defining the problem.
◦ The scope of the investigation within which the
problem is to be studied must be mentioned
explicitly in defining a research problem.
99
Objectives of the study:
◦ This is the step of rephrasing the problem into
operational or analytical terms, i.e. to put the
problem in as specific terms as possible.
◦ in this section the specific activities to be achieved
are listed.
 The main purposes of the study must be clearly
enunciated.
 The general objective provides a short statement of
the specific goals pursued by the research.
 The specific objectives are the objectives against
which the success of the whole research will be judged.
100
◦ The specific objectives are operational and indicate
the type of knowledge to be produced, audiences to
be reached, etc.
 An objective should be Specific, Measurable,
Achievable, Realistic and Time-bound – that is,
SMARTER. Extending, Rewarding
◦ It must flow logically and clearly from the purpose,
problem statement and justification already stated.
101
Identification of a Research Topic
 There are three types of research titles:
◦ Indicative title:
 they state the subject of the proposal rather than
expected outcomes.
 Example: The role of agricultural credit in alleviating
poverty in a low-potential area of Ethiopia.
◦ Hanging titles have two parts: a general first part
followed by a more specific second part.
• Example: „Alleviation of poverty in low-potential area
of Ethiopia: the impact of agricultural credit‟.
102
 Question-type titles are used less commonly than
indicative and hanging titles.
 However, they are acceptable where it is possible to
use few words – say less than 15.
◦ Example: „Does agricultural credit alleviate poverty
in low-potential areas of Ethiopia?‟
103
Where do research topics come from?
 A topic must spring from the researcher‟s mind like a
plant springs from its own seed.
◦ It could be generated by the researcher
 The best way to identify a topic is to draw up a
shortlist of possible topics that have emerged from
your reading or from your own experience that look
potentially interesting.
◦ A general area of interest or aspect of a subject
matter (agriculture, industry, social sector, etc.) may
have to be identified at first.
104
A) Professional Experience
 Own professional experience is the most important
source of a research problem.
 Many researchers are directly engaged in program
implementation and come up with a topic based on what
they see happening around them.
◦ Contacts and discussions with others,
◦ attending conferences, seminars, and
◦ listening to learned speakers
 are all helpful in identifying research problems.
105
b) Inferences from the literature
 Another source for research ideas is the theoretical or
empirical literature in your specific field.
 Many researchers get ideas for research by reading the
literature and thinking of ways to extend or refine previous
research.
 Two types of literature can be reviewed.
The conceptual literature
The empirical literature
 Research reports, bibliographies of books, and articles,
periodicals, research abstracts and research guides suggest
areas that need research.
106
C) Provided by a client
◦ Requests For Proposals (RFPs) are published by
government agencies and some companies.
 These RFPs describe some problem that the agency
would like researchers to address -- they are virtually
handing the researcher an idea.
 The RFP describes the problem that needs addressing,
the contexts in which it operates, the approach they
would like you to take to investigate to address the
problem, and the amount they would be willing to pay
for such research.
107
d) Technological and Social Changes
◦ New developments bring forth new development
challenges for research.
e) Other Sources
 Many researchers simply think up their research topic
on their own.
 No one lives in a vacuum, so we would expect that the
ideas you come up with on your own are influenced by
your background, culture, education and experiences.
108
 In any case, the most fundamental rule of good research is

to investigate questions that sincerely interest you.
 i.e. research which a researcher honestly enjoys even if
he/she encounters problems frustrating or
discouraging.
 The following points are important in selecting a research
problem or a subject for research.
 Subject, which is overdone, should be avoided since it
will be difficult to throw any new light in such cases for
the average researcher.
109
 Controversial subjects should not become the choice of the
average researcher.
 Too narrow or too broad or vague problems should be
avoided
 The importance of the subject in terms of:
The qualification and training of researcher,
The cost involved and the time factor, etc.
110
 The choice of a research topic is not made in a vacuum
and is influenced by several factors:
Interest and Values of the Researcher,
Current Debate in the Academic world,
Funding,
The value and power of the subject, etc.
 Many of these involve making tradeoffs between rigor and
practicality.
111
Suppose you want to study in the area of alcoholism
Step 2 Step 4
Dissect Raise questions
Step 3
1. profile of alcoholics 1. what impact has alcoholism
Select
Step 1 2.The causes of alcoholism
The effects of
on marital relations?
2.How does it affect the
3.The process of becoming an
Identify alcoholism on various aspects of children’s
alcoholic
the family lives?
4.The effects of alcoholism on the 3.What are the effects on the
ALCOHOLISM (litrature
family family's finance
review is very
5.Community attitudes towards
important)
alcoholism
Step 5
Formulate Objectives
Step 7 Step 6
Double Check Make Sure Main Objectives
- to find out the effects of alcoholism on
1. that you are really interested assess these objectives in the family
in the study the light of : specific objectives:
2. that you agree with the 1.the work involved -to ascertain the impact of alcoholism on
objectives 2.the time available to you marital relations
3.that you have adequate
3.the financial resources at your - to determine the ways in which alcoholism
disposal affects the different aspects of children's
resources 4.your technical expertise in the lives.
4.that you have the technical area - to find out the effects of alcoholism on the
expertise to undertake the financial situation of the family, etc.
study 112
2.2. Research Hypothesis
 It is a tentative prediction or explanation about
the relationship between variables
 It is simple or complex and directional or non-

directional.
 Purpose of Research Hypothesis
1. Unifying the theory to reality

2. Extends knowledge
3. Give direction to research
113
Hypothesis
We have two types of hypotheses:
A. The null hypothesis (H0) is often established as:
No significant association between two or several items
 No significant difference between two or several items
 No significant influence of one item on another
 No significant treatment effect
 Note: Its mathematical presentation always includes the equality
sign.
b) The alternative hypothesis ( H1 or Ha): is the alternative available
when the null hypothesis has to be rejected.
 In other words, if we have strong evidence against the null
hypothesis, we have to reject it and conclude something else
which we call the alternative hypothesis.
 The sign used in formulating the alternative hypothesis is
inequality.
• To check whether the company’s contention is true or not,
Hypothesis
we may test the following hypotheses:
2.2.1. Characteristics of a usable
hypothesis
1. Specify relationship
2. Testable
3. Justifiable
4. Concise
116
2.2.2. Difficulties in formulating
Hypothesis
The degree of challenges to the hypothesis depends on the
type of a problem and its importance. It can range from just
seeking a good enough solution to a much more rigorous
challenges.
 The terms challenging may include:
1. Verification
2. Justification
3. Refutability
4. Validity
5. Rectification/alteration
6. Repeatability
7. Falsification
117
2.2.3. Criteria for Good Hypothesis
1. Identify Y and X variables
2. Specify the nature of relationship
3. Simple and concise, better to have several hypothesis
that one complicated hypothesis
4. Does not included reference to specific measure
5. Does not refer to specific statistical procedures that
will be used in analysis
6. Implies the population you are going to study
7. Is falsifiable and testable
118
2.2.4. Hypothesis Testing
There are four procedures:
1. Stating the hypothesis
2. Setting the criteria for a decision
3. Collecting data
4. Evaluate the H0
Error: Type I (When Ho is wrongly rejected) and Type II
accept Ho wrongly when it is false in fact)
119
Hypothesis testing
Hypothesis testing
Critical (rejection) regions:
 In order to determine whether Ho should be rejected or not, we
need to compute a test statstic.
 If it falls in the critical (rejection) region then we reject Ho.
 Otherwise ( if it falls in the non-rejection region) then we do not

reject Ho.
 The value that is a border line between the non-rejection and

rejection regions is called the critical value.
 The critical value is obtained from approprate statstical tables such
as the standard normal distribution table, student‟s-t distribution
table and others.
Hypothesis testing
Chapter Three: literature review
3.1. Related literature review

3.1.1Characteristics of Related Literature
3.1.2. Recording of Reading for Literature
3.1.3. Note taking: Reviewing the literature
3.2.3.1. Paraphrasing
3.2.3.2. Incorporating Direct Quotes
3.2.4. Proper Citation Style
123
3.1. Related literature review
 Once the problem is formulated, the researcher should
undertake an extensive literature survey connected with
the problem.
Others have conducted research that is related to
the topic.
The purpose of the literature survey is to provide
the researcher with an understanding of the
literature as it relates to the current project.
The literature survey enables you to learn as much
as you can from the efforts of others.
Like most aspects of research it needs thoughts and
planning.
124
Literature Review
 It “is a written summary of journal articles, books and
other documents that describes the past and current
state of information, organizes the literature into topics
and documents a need for a proposed study.”
 Well-written analytical narrative that brings a reader up-
to-date on what is known on a given topic, but also
provide fresh insights that advance knowledge
Resolve conflicts between studies
Identify new ways to interpret research results
Creating a path for future research
125
Literature Review
 Academic journals, conference proceedings, dissertations,
government reports, policy reports, publications of
international organizations, books, etc. must be tapped
depending on the nature of the problem.
◦ Usually one source leads to the next and the best
place for the survey is the library.
The main goal is:
◦ to familiarize yourself with the issue and prevent
duplication of what had already been done.
126
Literature Review
 Several articles can be summarized in one mention
◦ E.G- There have been numerous studies attempting to
measure the return to education (see Becker (1963);
Mincer (1968); Angrist and Krueger (1988); Bound et al.
(1991)).”
127
Steps to Conduct a Literature Review
• Step 1: Identify Key Terms or “Descriptors”
• Extract key words from your title (remember, you may
decide to change the title later)
• Use some of the words other authors reported in the
literature
• Scan both electronic and library journals from the past
10 years and look for key terms in the articles
• Creswell, J.W. (2005) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and

Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research
128
• Step 2: Locate Literature
• Use academic libraries, do not limit your search to
an electronic search of articles
• Use primary and secondary sources.
• A “primary source” is research reported by the
researcher that conducted the study.
• A “secondary source” is research that summarizes
or reports findings that come from primary sources
129
Step 2: Locate Literature
• It is “best to report mostly primary sources”
• Search different types of literature: summaries,
encyclopedias, dictionaries and glossaries of terms,
handbooks, statistical indexes, reviews and
syntheses, books, journals, indexed publications,
electronic sources, abstract series, and databases
130
• Step 3: Critically Evaluate and Select Literature

• Rely on journal articles published in national journals
• Prioritize your search: first look for refereed journal
articles, then, non-refereed articles, then books, then
conference papers, dissertations and theses and then
papers posted to websites
• Look for research articles and avoid as much as
possible “opinion” pieces
• Blend qualitative and quantitative research in your
review
131
• Step 4: Organize the Literature
• Create a “file” or “abstract” system to keep track of
what you read. Each article you read should be
summarized in one page
• Study-by-study Review: a detailed summary of each
study under a broad theme is provided. Link summaries
(or abstracts) using transitional sentences. Must be
organized and flow coherently under various
subheadings. Avoid string quotations (i.e., lengthy
chunks of text directly quoted from a source)
132
• Step 5: Write a Literature Review
• Types of Reviews:
• Thematic Review: a theme is identified and studies
found under this theme are described. Major ideas and
findings are reported rather than details.
• Review in chronological order
• Review across countries
133
Literature Review
Structuring the review:
◦ Summarize every article briefly; a sentence or two will
do
◦ Interpret the article in light of its relevance to your
own study
◦ Critique it, if necessary
◦ Show the stock of knowledge building up over the
course of the literature
◦ Show how your research topic adds naturally to this
stock of knowledge
134
Forms of note taking
The process of note-taking can be done in the
forms of:
1. Paraphrasing,
2. Summarizing, and
3. Directly quoting the author's ideas
 All three should contain an in-text reference including:
◦ the author's family name
◦ the date of publication
◦ the page number(s); for direct quotation
◦ All three should also have a reference in the bibliography.
Con,
1. Paraphrasing
 Means writing the idea of an author in a different way
but with the same meaning. Here you need to cite the
source.
Four guidelines in paraphrasing:
i. Placing the information found in the source in a new order.
ii. Breaking the complex ideas into smaller units of meaning
iii. Using concrete, direct vocabulary in place of technical
jargon found in the original source.
iv. Use synonyms for the words in the source.
Con,
Why paraphrase?
 It shows that you understand what the writer is saying
 It makes it easier to build you own argument. For example,
you can use what someone else says as evidence or an
example to support what you want to say
 It fits more easily with your own writing style
Example:
Original: Employers who provide childcare at the workplace have

found that lateness declines and levels of stress experienced by
employees also decline.
Paraphrased reference: There is evidence to suggest that on-

site day care is beneficial to employers because employees are
more punctual and appear to suffer less from stress (Smith,
2018).
Con,
Why are these different?
1)It is necessary to read research papers critically. In
this regard, Walker (2019) emphasises the
importance of understanding the methodology
employed by researchers in their studies. (often
called author focused)
2)Itis important to understand the methodology that

researchers use in their studies (Walker, 2019).
(often called information focused).
When the author’s name is part of the sentence, it

does NOT go inside the brackets because it
becomes the subject of your sentence.
Con,
If the authors are more than One:
 Up to three authors: include all the names, in the order they are listed. For
example:
A sound business plan is essential to the success of every business (Morson , Child
and Smith, 2010).
Morson, Child and Smith (2010) state that most single pets live in privileged
circumstances.
 More than three authors: give only the first author followed by et al. For example:
Worth et al. (2013) suggest that top CEOs agree income could be raised to 50% on
earnings over £100,000.
Despite technological advances, radio production is less sophisticated than in the past
(Howard et al., 2015).
N.B. Give ALL the names in your reference list:
Howard, C., Smith, T., Jones, L. and Brown, N. (2015) Enemies and Friends. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Con,
Secondary referencing:
This is a sentence in a book by Grey (2016, p.9):

According to Brown’s (2015) study, middle managers feel more stressed
than those in higher positions.
You want to use Brown’s information but you have only read Grey’s book:
 In your essay:
There is evidence that stress is a greater problem for middle managers than
for senior managers (Brown, 2015, cited in Grey, 2016, p.9).
 In your list of references:
You cannot include Brown because you have not read this author – you can
only have Grey in your list.
Con,
2. Summarizing
 Means writing a summary of what the author
says.
 Herewe take ideas from the larger passage and

condense it using our own words.
It helps to:
 miss out unnecessary details, such as examples
 use less words than the author
Con,
3. Direct Quoting
 Means using exactly the same words as the original
author.
 Here we need to put the words of an author in “quotation
marks”
 A short quotation (<= four lines) is placed within the
text. Quotation marks (“ ”) are used around the quote.
 Do not use if a quotation has fifty words or more, or is
longer than four lines of text, it should be block-
indented and single-spaced.
 It should be separated from text by a double space, above
and below the block quotation.
Con,
3. Direct Quoting
Using the exact words of the author(s) in quotation marks „…‟. You must
include the author‟s last name, the year of publication and the page
number.
For example:
Generally, English for Academic Purposes (EAP) covers “those
educational activities in higher education, the purpose of which is the
teaching and learning of the English language required by
undergraduates, post-graduates and/ or staff ” (Kennedy, 2001, p. 25).
When should you quote?
 When you are using someone‟s definition which is key
 When you want to discuss exactly what someone said
 When the precise detail of what someone says is important – e.g. a
law, policy document, etc.
 When someone has phrased something effectively and succinctly
 Quotation using ellipsis ( ... ) to omit certain words, phrases or
sentences from the original. You can do this to miss out any
unnecessary information.
Con,
We use tenses to indicate more than
chronology.
 Use the past tense in reporting others'
research to indicate that the research has
secondary importance to your current work.
 Use the present perfect to indicate that the
research related to your work more and has
primary importance.
 You can use the present tense to indicate
your general position relative to reported
research.
Referencing
What is a reference or citation?
 A way of giving credit for someone's thinking, writing or research
 It means a standardized way of acknowledging the sources of
information and ideas
 You mark the material when you use it (a citation) and give the full
identification at the end (a reference)
 In academic writing you are obliged to attribute every piece of material you
use to its author
It can be done in-text or list of references.
Citations are needed:
 to avoid plagiarism
 Plagiarism is the unacknowledged use of another person's work.
 to add validity to our research
 the use of credible citations in your paper shows that you have spent time and effort
in researching the topic of your paper.
 to provide information
 a citation provides information about a source.
 To validate arguments
 To increase and spread knowledge
 To show depth, breadth & quality of your reading!
Citation Reference List
You make a short You make a list at the end
reference (author’s last of your essay of all the
name and year of sources you have referred
publication) in the text of to in you work – you give
your essay every time you complete details here
refer to someone else’s including publisher, etc.
work.
The citation acts as a key

so that your reader can find
the full reference easily on
the list of references at the
end of your essay.
In-text referencing
 When you cite the work of other authors, you may
choose to focus either on the information provided by
that author, or on the author him- or herself.
 The first focus is called information prominent
because the information is given primary importance.
 In the second type, author-prominent citation, the
author's name is given more emphasis.
Systems of Referencing
The three most systems of referencing are:
1. The Harvard system
2. The American Psychological Association( APA) system
3. The Vancouver or footnotes system
Elements of reference list:
 Author(s)
 Title of the document
 Date (year of publication)
 Place of publication
 Edition or revision
 Periodicity
 Series
 Scholarly journal
The Harvard Referencing style
 The most commonly used system in College
 Also known as the “author date system” – uses author-date system
for in text citation.
 There are very specific rules for textual citations
 There are very specific rules for listing your references at the end of
your paper
 Sources are listed alphabetically in the reference list section
In text citation
• the author‟s last name (not initials or title)
• the year of publication
• the number of the page that the quote comes from. E.g.
 “There are many ways of citing sources” (Cottrell, 2019, p. 250). Use
„p.‟ if you quoted from a single page and „pp.‟ for more that two
page..
 Dimond (2013) explains the legal framework of midwifery.
 Exercise could help prevent some cases of Type 2 diabetes (Diabetes
UK, 2018).
The Harvard Referencing style
 Reference List
The American Psychological Association( APA) system
 Created by American Psychological Association
 It is a system of citing research sources
 uses author-date system for in text citation
 Used in many technical and social science fields
 Sources are listed alphabetically in the reference list section
In text citation e.g
 According to Jones (1998), "students often had difficulty
using APA style, especially when it was their first time" (p.
199).
 According to Jones (1998), APA style is a difficult citation
format for first-time learners.
 APA style is a difficult citation format for first-time
learners (Jones, 1998, p. 199).
Reference List
Book (one author)
Book (two authors)

 DiFonzo, N., & Bordia, P. (2007). Rumor psychology: Social and
organizational approaches. American Psychological Association, USA.
Journal Article
Reference List
Chapters in Books
 Levi-Strauss, C. (1971). Totem and caste. In F. E. Katz (Ed.),
Contemporary sociological theory (pp. 82- 89). Random House.
Newspaper article
Website
The Vancouver system

The Vancouver system
Reference list
Book: print
1. Simons NE, Menzies B, Matthews M. A Short Course in Soil and Rock Slope
Engineering. London: Thomas Telford Publishing; 2001.
Book: online
2. Grech ED. ABC of interventional cardiology. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley blackwell; 2011
Available from: https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/imperial/detail.
action?docID=822522 [Accessed 6th July 2017].
Book chapter in an edited book
3. Partridge H, Hallam G. Evidence-based practice and information literacy. In: Lipu S,
Williamson K, Lloyd A. (eds.) Exploring methods in information literacy research.
Wagga Wagga, Australia: Centre for Information Studies; 2007. p.149–170.
Journal article: print
4. Chhibber PK, Majumdar SK. Foreign ownership and profitability: Property rights, control, and the
performance of firms in Indian industry. Journal of Law & Economics. 1999;42(1): 209–238
Journal article: online/electronic
5. Errami M, Garner H. A tale of two citations. Nature. 2008;451(7177): 397–399. Available from:
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v451/n7177/full/451397a.html [Accessed 20th January 2015].
Chapter Four: Research Design
4.1. Definition
4.2. Importance of Research Design
4.3. Types of Research Design
4.4. Sampling Design
4.5. Data Collection methods and tools
156
3.1. Definition and Components of Research Design
 The formidable problem that follows the task of
defining the research problem is the preparation
of the research design.
 Decisions regarding what, where, when, how
much, by what means concerning an inquiry or a
research study constitute a research design.
 “A research design is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the
research purpose with economy in procedure.”
 It is the conceptual structure within which
research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint
for the collection, measurement and analysis of
data.
157
As such the design includes an outline of what the
researcher will do from writing the hypothesis and
its operational implications to the final analysis of
data
i. What is the study about?
ii.Why is the study being made?
iii.Where will the study be carried out?
iv.What type of data is required?
v.Where can the required data be found?
vi.What periods of time will the study include?
vii.What will be the sample design?
viii.What techniques of data collection will be
used?
ix.How will the data be analyzed?
x. In what style will the report be prepared?
158
 In short, research design consists of:
 (i) The plan that specifies the sources and
types of information relevant to the
research problem.
 (ii) The strategy specifying which approach
will be used for gathering and analyzing
the data.
 (iii) The time and cost budgets since most
studies are done under these two
constraints.
159
Importance of research design
 It facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research
operations.
 It makes research efficient: helps to get the maximum

information with minimum expenditure of effort, time and
money.
 It helps to organize ideas in a form whereby it will be possible

to look for flaws and inadequacies.
 Thoughtlessness in designing the research project may result in a

futile research.
Characteristics of a Good Research Design
 Clearly understand the nature of the problem to be studied and
objectives to be realized.
 Flexible, appropriate, efficient, etc.
 Minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data to be
collected and analyzed.
 Has smallest sampling errors (statistical errors that arise when a sample does
not represent the whole population).
 Yields relevant information and provides an opportunity for
considering many aspects of a problem.
 Assumes the skills of the researcher.
 Considers the availability of time and money for the research work .
Types of Research Design by objective
Exploratory research design
 The main purpose is to discover new ideas and insights, especially when
little is known about the issue.
 Very flexible: as facts may necessitate changes in the research procedure.
 Open-ended process.
 Requires qualitative approach
Descriptive research design
 Describes attitudes, perceptions, characteristics, activities and
situations of a particular individual, or of a group.
 Researcher has no control over variables, can only report what happened
or what is happening.
 Most of the social researches fall under this category.
 Requires mixed method approach
Con,
Experimental design
 Provides evidence about cause-and-effect relationship among variables.
 Its premise is that something (and independent variable) directly

influences the behavior of something else (the dependent variable).
 The interest is to identify the the impact of one variable on another.
 Such design may require procedures that not only reduce bias and
increase reliability, but will permit drawing inferences about causality.
 Requires more of quantitative approach

Comparison of Research Designs
Criteria Exploratory Descriptive Causal/Exp.
Purpose Gain insights , new Describe things Determine cause-
ideas and-effect relations
Assumed Minimal Considerable Considerable
background
knowledge
Flexibility High Some Little

Sample Non-representative Representative Representative
Research Relaxed Formal Highly controlled
environment
Findings Preliminary Conclusive Highly conclusive
Dessalegn Shamebo (PhD) 164

Comparison of Research Designs Con’t
Exploratory Descriptive Experimental
Overall design Flexible Rigid Highly rigid
Sampling Design Purposive Random Random
Statistical design No pre planned Pre planned design Pre planned design
design for for analysis for analysis
analysis
Observational Unstructured Structured or well Highly structured or
design
(instrumentation) instruments for thought out well thought out
collection of instruments for instruments for
data collection of data collection of data
Operational No fixed Somewhat Highly advanced
design
(procedures) decisions about advanced decisions decisions about
the operational about operational operational
procedures procedures. Dessalegn Shamebo
procedures.
(PhD) 165
Research approaches
1. Qualitative research: exploring and understanding the meaning
individuals or groups assign to a social or human problem.
 Concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions
and behaviour.
 It entails purposive sampling for gathering data.
2. Quantitative research: explains phenomena by collecting

numerical data that are analyzed using mathematical methods.
 It favors methods such as surveys and experiments
3. Mixed methods research: an approach that combines both

qualitative and quantitative forms.
Comparison of RD Approaches
167
Quantitative Mixed Qualitative
Deductive Inductive
Tests hypotheses Produces theories
Positivism Constructivism/interpretivism
Objectivism Subjectivism
Employs measurement Does not employ
Detached researcher measurement
Involved researcher
Comparison of RD approaches cont…
168
Quantitative Mixed Qualitative
Measures objective facts Constructs social meaning

Focuses on variables Focus on interactive processes
Value free Values are present
Reliability is key Authenticity is key
Independent of context Context constrained
Many cases Few cases
Statistical analysis Thematic analysis
Dessalegn Shamebo (PhD)

Chapter Four: - Census and
Sample Investigation
4.1. Over View of Census and Sample Investigation

4.2. Sampling
4.2.1. Types of Sampling Techniques
4.2.1.1. Probability sampling techniques
4.2.1.2. Non-probability Sampling Technique
4.2.2. Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors
169
Sampling Design
We need to have sufficienct information
about the population and its characteristics.
Population: universe from which sample is

drawn.
Sampling: the procedure employed to draw
sample.
Sample is the subset of the population.
170
Purposes of Sampling
 Inorder to save budget and time (cost and
time efficiency).
 To collect information on more variables.
 To make the research project manageable
 Therefore, in quantitative research a carefully

selected sample can be used to generalize to the
whole population
Con,
Disadvantages of Sampling
 If sampling is biased, or not representative, or too
small, the conclusion may not be valid.
 If the population is very large and there are many

sections and subsections, the sampling procedure
becomes very complicated.
 If the researcher does not possess the necessary

skill and technical knowhow in sampling procedure
it may be done wrongly.
Con,
Characteristics of a good sample design
 Representation
 Small sampling error: precision
◦ the difference between survey result and
population value due to the random selection of
individuals or households to include in the sample
 Viable
in the context of budget
 Controlled systematic bias (sampling bias).
 results from not selecting a truly random sample
which is representative of the larger population
 Generalizable with a reasonable level of
confidence.
Con,
Steps in sampling design:
 Define the target population
 Select a sample frame
 Determine sample size
 Plan procedures for selecting sample units
 Select actual sampling units
 Conduct field work
 There are two sources of sampling error: size
of sample and heterogeneity of the population.
Sampling Concepts and Terminologies
 Representativeness: The quality of a sample
having the same distribution of characteristics as
the population from which it was selected. It is
enhanced by probability sampling and provides
for generalizability and the use of inferential
statistics.
 Population: refers to the entire group of

people, events or things of interest that the
researcher wishes to investigate.
Example: Investigating the saving habits of

government workers.
Sampling Concepts and Terminologies
 Sampling frame: A list composing a population

from which a sample is selected.
Example, the payroll of an organization would serve as
the population frame if its members are to be studied.
 Sampling unit/subject: is a single member of the

sample, just an element is a single member of the
population. Eg. employee
 Parameter :The summary description of a given

variable in a population (a number describing a whole
population). E.g. population mean
 Statistic: The summary description of a given

variable in a sample (a number describing a sample).
E.g. sample mean
Sampling Techniques
Non-Probability Sampling Techniques Probability Sampling techniques
Judgmental Convenience Quota Snowball
Simple Random Systematic Stratified Cluster
177
Sampling Types
There are two types of sampling method. These are:
Probability sampling: the sample is selected

randomly from a list that contains all members
of the population.
Non-probability sampling: all members of the
population will not have equal chance of being
selected.
 Used in qualitative researches and when it is
impossible to use probability sampling.
 E.g. homeless people, migrants,
Con,
Non-probability sampling designs
 Can work well for exploratory studies
 Useful if it is not important to obtain accurate estimates of population
characteristics.
 The units are selected at the discretion of researcher.
 Cheaper and easier to carry out than probability designs.
Some of the disadvantages of non-probability sampling:

 The results cannot be generalized: does not rely on random sampling
 One cannot estimate parameters from sample statistics.
 Sampling error of such samples cannot be determined. Thus

projecting the data beyond the sample is statistically inappropriate. Not
feasible to apply statistical method.
 Such samples would not be a representative of the population.

Non-probability Sampling Techniques
 Judgmental/Purposive: sample members are chosen only on the
basis of the researcher's knowledge and judgment
 we use different strategies to sample
Typical cases
Heterogeneity
Extreme cases
Confirming (provide deeper insights to preliminary
findings)and non-confirming cases (to test and highlight the
boundaries of the findings)
 Convenience: sample is taken from a group of people easy
to contact or to reach
◦ Visiting places near roads, towns, etc
◦ Interviewing people available during data collection
◦ Observing whichever areas key actors want to show us
 Advantage(s)=easy, fast and may help us collect data that would
not have been collected.
 Disadvantage(s)= not representative
180
Non-probability Sampling Techniques
 Quota: quotas are assigned to different strata groups and
interviewers are given quotas to be filled from different
strata.
◦ A researcher first identifies categories of people (e.g.,
male, female) then decides how many to get from each
category.
 Snowball (Network) Sampling – chain sampling
◦ This is a method for identifying and selecting the cases
in a network.
◦ It begins with one or a few people or cases and use
them to establish contact with others.
 You start with one or two information-rich key
informants and ask them if they know persons who
know a lot about your topic of interest.
181
Probability Sampling Techniques
1. Simple Random Sampling (SRS)
◦ The simplest and easiest method.
◦ each element of the population has an equal chance of
being selected into the sample.
◦ It assumes that an accurate sampling frame exists.
◦ Usually two methods are adopted to pick a sample.
 E.g., simple random sampling for household surveys
1. Population = all households in the country
2. Sampling frame = the list of all households (20
million in Ethiopia?)
3. Sample size = say we have resources to cover only
20,000 households
4. Sampling fraction 20,000/20,000,000 or 0.1%
5. Select randomly 20,000 households from the long list
of 20,000,000 households
Lottery,TRNs= Table of Random Numbers
182
Simple Random Sampling
 the units composing a population are assigned

numbers. A set of random numbers is then generated,
and the units having those numbers are included in the
sample.
Systematic Sampling Technique
 In SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING individuals are chosen at
regular intervals (for example every kth) from the
sampling frame.
 You compute k by dividing the size of the population by the
desired sample size; k is called the sampling interval.
◦ The major advantages of SS are its simplicity and
flexibility.
◦ instead of a list of random numbers, the researcher
calculates a sampling interval.
 The sampling interval is the standard distance
between elements selected in the sample.
 Typically, the first unit is selected at random.
184
 E.g., a systematic sample is to be selected from 1200
students of a school.
The sample size to be selected is 100.
 The sampling fraction is: 100/1200= sample size/study
population = 1/12
 The sampling interval is therefore 12.
 The first student in the sample is chosen randomly, for
example by blindly picking one out of twelve pieces of
paper, numbered 1 to 12.
If number 6 is picked -every twelfth student will be
included –i.e. 6, 18, 30, 42, etc.
185
Stratified Sampling
 A population is subdivided into the appropriate strata
and a simple random sample taken using either SRS or
SS techniques from each stratum.
 Particularly useful when we have heterogeneous
populations.
grouping of the units composing a population into
homogeneous groups (or strata) based on certain
stratification variable (age, sex, ethnic group, place of
residence, size etc.)
E.g., low income, middle income, high income areas
186
The reasons for stratifying
To increase a sample‟s statistical efficiency (smaller
standard errors).
To provide adequate data for analyzing the various
subpopulation.
To enable different research methods and procedures
to be used in different strata.
 Can be multiple stage stratified random sampling
 E.g., in the household survey we may be interested to have
sufficient number of households from each region of
Ethiopia; stratify by region!
187
How to Stratify
◦ Three major decisions must be made in order to
stratify the given population into some mutually
exclusive groups.
 (1) What stratification base to use: stratification would be
based on the principal variable under study such as
income, age, education, sex, location, religion, etc.
188
(2) How many strata to use: there is no precise answer as to
how many strata to use.
◦ The more strata the closer one would be to come to
maximizing inter-strata differences and minimizing intra-
strata variables.
(3) What strata sample size to draw: different approaches
could be used:
 One could adopt a proportionate sampling procedure.
 Or use disproportionate sampling, which allocates
elements on the basis of some bias.
189
Stratified Sampling (Con,)
 Stratified sampling can be either
Proportionate stratified Sampling- proportional sample size
from each stratum (the number of elements sampled from each
stratum is proportional to their representation in the total
population) or
Disproportionate stratified Sampling-
 Disproportionate allocation for between-strata analyses - equal
sample size from each stratum (the number of elements sampled
from each stratum is not proportional to their representation in
the total population), or
Disproportionate allocation for within strata analyses
The purpose of a study may require a researcher to conduct detailed
analyses within the strata of the sample
If a researcher uses proportionate stratification, the sample size of a
stratum may be very small and make attainment of the objectives of the
study problematic
oversample the small or rare strata may be a good option
Could result in a sufficient number of cases to carry out the within-strata
analyses required by the study‟s objectives
Stratified Sampling Illustration
 Cluster Sampling:
1. It may be difficult or impossible to take a simple random
sample because a complete sampling frame does not
exist, or
2. Logistical difficulties may also discourage random
sampling techniques
 E.G.: interviewing people who are scattered over a
large area may be too time-consuming).
 The selection of groups of study units (clusters) instead
of the selection of study units individually is called
CLUSTER SAMPLING.
 It is cost effective (High economic efficiency)
 It involves sampling of groups
 Clusters are often geographic units (e.g., districts, villages)
or organizational units (e.g., clinics, etc).
195
 E.g., sampling for household survey in Addis Ababa
◦ Probably no complete sampling frame and costly to
cover simple random sample
◦ Randomly select from sub-cities (clusters)
◦ Randomly select kebeles from sub-cities (clusters)
◦ Then randomly select households from the selected
kebeles
196
Determining the sample size
 Research designs with too small sample size are unethical
◦ because they waste resources as they can only provide
anecdotal evidence.
If the sample size is too small, the data will be unusable.
 Research studies that use too large samples i.e., larger than
needed, also are unethical because:
they waste time and financial resources,
197
 human subjects may also undergo unnecessary
experimental procedures that could be distressful and
painful.
 Sample size determination hinges on:
i) Degree of homogeneity: The size of the population variance is
an important parameter.
 The greater the dispersion in the population the larger
the sample must be to provide a given estimation
precession.
198
ii) Degree of confidence required: Since a sample can never
reflect its population for certain, the researcher must
determine how much precision s/he needs.
Degree of confidence - represents the probability that the
confidence interval captures the true population
parameter
 With a degree of confidence of 95% (a 95% confidence
interval ), you have 95% confidence that the true population
parameters will be in the confidence interval
 Precision is measured in terms of
 (i) An interval range (the margin of error).
 (ii) The degree of confidence (how sure you are)
199
iii) Number of sub groups to be studied:
If the research is to make estimates on several
subgroups of the population then the sample must be
large enough for each of these subgroups to meet the
desired quality level.
iv) Cost: cost considerations have a major implications.
All studies have some budgetary constraint and hence
cost dictates the size of the sample.
200
V) Prior information: If similar previous study exists we can
use that prior information to determine our sample size.
using prior mean and variance estimates or
stratifying the population to reduce variation within
groups.
samples that have met the requirements of the
statistical methods from past researches.
Researchers use it because they rarely have
information on the variance or standard errors.
201
vi) Practicality: Of course the sample size you select must
make sense.
 We want to take enough observations to obtain
reasonably precise estimates of the parameters of
interest but we also want to do this within a practical
resource budget.
 Therefore the sample size is usually a compromise
between what is DESIRABLE and what is FEASIBLE.
In general, the smaller the population, the bigger the
sampling ratio has to be for a reasonable sample.
202
 Hence:
For small populations (under 1000 a large sampling ratio
(about 30%). Hence, a sample size of about 300 is
required.
For moderately large population (10,000), a smaller
sampling ratio (about 10%) is needed – a sample size
around 1,000.
To sample from very large population (over 10 million),
one can achieve accuracy using tiny sampling ratios
(.025%) or samples of about 2,500.
203
How to Calculate Sample Size for Different Study
Designs
 In the recent era of evidence-based medicine,
statistics has come under increased scrutiny.
 Evidence is as good as the research it is based on,

which in turn depends on the statistical soundness of
the claims it make.
 One of the important issues faced by a biomedical

researcher during the design phase of the study is
sample size calculation.
 It is very important to understand that method of

sample size calculation is different for different study
designs and one blanket formula for sample size
calculation cannot be used for all study designs.
204
Sample size calculation for cross
sectional studies/surveys
 Cross sectional studies or cross sectional

survey are done to estimate a population
parameter, for instance, Prevalence of some
disease in a community or finding the
average value of some quantitative variable
in a population.
 Note that sampling size varies with the kind
of studies like case control, animal study,
time series etc.
 For cross sectional data, the sample size
formula for qualitative variable and quantities
variable are different as presented below:
205
For qualitative variable
 Suppose an epidemiologist want to know proportion of
children who are hypertensive in a population then this
formula should be used as proportion is a qualitative
variable. Sample size by Godden (2004)
 Where n is the total sample size, P is the sample

proportion based on previous studies or pilot studies, u
is the acceptable error term (let the error term be
0.05), (Z=1.96) is the standard normal variable in the
accepted level of the error term, the level of confidence
(α=0.05) will be used to check the level of significance
206
 For example: Let us assume that a researcher wants to
estimate proportion of patients having hypertension in
pediatric age group in a city. According to previously
published studies actual number if hypertensive may not
be more than 15 percent. The research wants to
calculate this sample size with the precision (MRE 5
percent) and a type I error of 5 percent. So if we use
the above formula, the sample size is 196.
pqz 2 0.15*0.85*(1.96)2
n 2  2
 196
u 0.05
207
For Quantitative Variable
 Suppose the same researcher is interested in knowing
average systolic blood pressure of children of the same
city then below mentioned formula should be used as
blood pressure is a quantitative variable.
SD * z1 / 2 2
n
d2
 Where Z is the standard normal variate as mentioned
before. SD is the standard deviation of variable. It can
be taken from previous done study. d is the absolute
error or precision as mentioned before. Let SD=25
25*1.962
n 2
 96
5
208
Determining sample size

Problems in Sampling
 Two types of errors:
 Non sampling errors
 Sampling errors
1. Non Sampling errors: are biases or errors due to fieldwork
problems, interviewer induced bias, clerical problems in
managing data, etc.
◦ These would contribute to error in a survey,
irrespective of whether a sample is drawn or a census
is taken.
2. sampling errors are error which is attributable to sampling,
and which therefore, is not present in information gathered
in a census.
210
1.Non-Sampling Error: refers to
◦ Non-coverage error
◦ Wrong population is being sampled
◦ Non response error
◦ Instrument error
◦ Interviewer‟s error
Non-Coverage sampling error: This refers to sample frame
defect.
◦ Omission of part of the target population (for instance,
soldiers, students living on campus, people in hospitals,
prisoners, households without a telephone in telephone
surveys, etc).
211
The wrong population is sampled
◦ Researchers must always be sure that the group being
sampled is drawn from the population they want to
generalize about or the intended population.
Non response error – Common in self-administered surveys
◦ This error occurs when you are not able to find those
whom you were supposed to study.
◦ Some people refuse to be interviewed because they are
ill, are too busy, or simply do not trust the interviewer.
◦ When one is forced to interview substitutes, an
unknown bias is introduced.
212
Instrument error
◦ The word instrument in sampling survey means the
device in which we collect data- usually a
questionnaire.
◦ When a question is badly asked or worded, the
resulting error is called instrument error.
 Example: leading questions or carelessly worded
questions may be misinterpreted by some
researchers.
213
Interviewer error :
◦ Enumerator can distort the results of a survey by in-
appropriate suggestions, word emphasis, tone of voice
and question rephrasing.
◦ Cheating by enumerators -with only limited training and
under little direct supervision.
◦ Perceived social distance between enumerator and
respondent also has a distorting effect.
 E.G: questions about sexual behavior might be
differently answered depending on the gender of the
interviewer.
214
2 Sampling Errors
◦ Error which is attributable to sampling, and which
therefore is not present in a census.
◦ Sampling errors can be calculated only for probability
samples.
◦ Increasing the sample size is one of the major
instruments to reduce the extent of the sampling error.
◦ Sampling error is related to confidence intervals.
 A narrower confidence interval means more precise
estimates of the population for a given level of confidence.
215
Data Collection Methods and Tools
 It is the process of gathering and measuring information

on variables of interest in an accepted systematic fashion.
 Data collection methods vary by discipline and data types;
but the emphasis on ensuring accurate collection remains
the same.
216
Data Collection Methods
 Consequences from improperly collected data:
Inability to repeat and validate the study.
Distorted, inaccurate findings.
Wasted resources.
Misleading other researchers to pursue fruitless avenues
of investigation.
217
Data Collection Methods
 More importantly, poor collection may cause

disproportionate harm when the results of the flawed
research are used to support public policy suggestions.
 It is critical that researchers have sufficient skills to ensure
the integrity of their data collection efforts.
◦ For instance: Quality data collection requires a
rigorous and detailed recruitment and training plan for
data collectors.
218
Methods of Data Collection
 We have to specify the sources/types of data and the methods

used to collect data
There are two types/sources of data:

1. Primary data: new data collected for the first time.
Collected through questionnaires, interviews, observation,
FGD, etc.
2. Secondary data: Data collected by others for their own

purpose or for a general purpose.
Documentary research
Con,
The most important sources of data (methods of
data collection) are:
Observation,
Interview,
Focus group discussions,
Questionnaire, and
Document review
1.Observation
 Commonly used in behavioral studies.
 Observation is everyday activity, it becomes a
research tool when it is systematically planned and
recorded, and needs to be checked for validity and
reliability.
 Under direct observation the researcher observes the
situation without asking respondents.
 Using checklist is important in order to guide the
things to be observed and to record the observed data.
 Suitable to study about respondents who are not
capable of expressing themselves.
Observation (Cont‟d)
 Its advantages are:
Avoids subjective bias of the respondents.
Captures what is happening now not affected by attitude.
Respondents willingness is not necessary.
 Disadvantages:
◦ Time consuming
◦ Observations may lack depth and qualitative richness.
◦ If the ethics are not handled well, legal action can be taken.
 There are different classification of observation.
1. Structured observation
 careful definition of the units to be observed,
 Standardized observation and selection of pertinent data for
observation.
 done for distinct categories or specific reasons
2. Unstructured observation- when the observation lacks the above
characteristics - conducted for unspecified categories or collecting every
event that occurs
Observation (Cont’d)
 Observation can also be participant and non-participant: whether the researcher
participate in the day to day activities of the research subjects or not.
1. Participant observation enables
 watching the events or situation or activities from inside by taking part in the group to
be observed
 To record natural behavior
 To generate data that is difficult to collect in direct observation
 The researcher to validate his observation using other research methods
 limitation:
 Lack objectivity as the researcher involves emotionally
 Often close association brings biased interpretation
 Involvement in groupism
 Misses important issues due to familiarity
2. non-participant
◦ the observer observes the group passively from a distance without participating in the
group activities, advantages:
 Objectivity and neutrality
 Freedom from groupism, etc.
 Disadvantages
◦ Inadequate observation
◦ Unnatural and formal information
◦ Inconvenience to the respondents, etc.
Observation (Cont’d)
Again based on how the researcher is observed it can be classified into two:
1. Disguised observation- when people observed did not know that they are
being observed by a researcher
 Advantage is that one can observe the natural behavior of the subject.
 It is to be conducted in public so as to record the public behavior
2. Undisguised
 when the subject knows about the process of observation
 This is ethical but the results can be skewed
Interview
2. Interview
 An interview is a face-to-face conversation between two individuals with
the sole purpose of collecting relevant information to satisfy a research
purpose
 There are three most common types of interview,
Unstructured Interview
 The researcher tries to get the holistic understanding of the
interviewee's point of view or situation.
 The respondent is free to talk with less directional influence.
 can give a greater insight and more in-depth understanding of the
topic researched,
 but need more expertise to control and more time for analysis
 It is purely qualitative
 Using tape recorder is important though not always
Con,
Semi-structured Interview
 Guided by a schedules, i.e. a set of general questions or

topic
 The schedules are flexible and can be updated after each
interviews
 Probing is crucial (i.e. asking for an elaboration of the
responses of the interviewee using when, who, how, etc.
questions)
 The interviewee need to feel comfortable and relaxed
(informal)
Interview (Cont’d)
 Structured Interview
Uses series of structured questions
Involves face to face interaction with the
enumerator/researcher
Used in quantitative researches
Maximize reliability
Tips for carrying out interviews
 Begin with an explanation of who you are and what the
survey is about and ensure confidentiality.
 Try to achieve rapport with the respondent: be friendly
and look as if you are enjoying the interview and are
interested in what they have to say.
 Be aware of the importance of body language in face-
toface interviews.
 Interviewees are more at ease with someone who is like
them in terms of ethnicity, class, sex, speech and dress
code.
 Dress in a similar manner to your interviewee if

possible;
Con,
 Eg. if interviewing a nomadic community in their
locality they are unlikely to be wearing a suit: T-shirt
and shorts would be more suitable.
 Be familiar with your questions and ask them in a

neutral manner, endeavor not to lead respondents
to answer in a certain way.
 Be aware of your role as an interviewer, which is to

listen, not to speak.
 Take a full record of the interview either through

tape-recording or note taking.
 Prompts may be necessary if information is not
given freely.
3. Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
FGD is a method in which a number of people are
brought together and discuss a certain issue
 Involving 6 to 12 people plus a moderator and
sometimes an assistant to take note;
◦ More than 12 people will be difficult to manage
◦ Less than 6 people will be dominated by loudmouths
 The focus group need to be made up of
homogenous people (age, gender, place of
residence, etc.); due to
◦ Share similar knowledge
◦ Since they will be well acquitted, it will help as in-built
mechanism to control the validity of information
 FGD efficient to collect in-depth information from
more people.
Con,
 Focus groups are extremely useful in providing
qualitative data which gives an insight into attitudes
and perceptions difficult to obtain using other
procedures.
 The researcher acts as a moderator and listener posing

predetermined open ended questions which the
respondents answer in any way they choose.
Focus Group Discussion (Cont’d)
 Opening FGD:
Help participants to relax
Introduce the purpose, confidentiality & anonymity
Negotiate the length of the FGD & ask participants to respect
it
 Asking questions:
Start with general and easy questions
Then move to more personal and sensitive questions
Keep an eye contact
Make sure that no one dominates
You can use list of questions or topics
However, probing the response of participants is important
Control deviation & break-away conversation
Focus Group Discussion (FGD)
Seeking response:
Gather as many diverse opinions as possible
Encourage those who are nervous to share their ideas
Some people might approach you after the discussion to give
you an information that they were not comfortable sharing in
the FGD, take a note of that
 Wrapping up:
Thank participants
4. Questionnaires
 A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of

a series of questions (or types of prompts) for the
purpose of gathering information from respondents.
 Here respondents write answers to questions posed by
the researcher on a question form.
 A number of respondents are asked identical questions,
in order to gain information that can be analyzed,
patterns are found and comparisons are made.
Con,
Questionnaires are set of questions or statements usually used in
surveys (observation) and experiments
 There are three types of questionnaires, these are:
 Closed-ended:
◦ Researcher structured responses
◦ Greater uniformity of response
◦ Pre-coded, hence can be directly entered to statistical software
◦ More popular
 Open-ended:
◦ Self-expressed respondents‟ responses
◦ Less uniformity in responses
◦ Cannot be directly entered into statistical software; must be post-
coded
◦ Less popular with researchers
 A combination of both
Questionnaires (Cont‟d)
Guides for Question Construction
 Make questions & items unambiguous.
 Avoid double barrel question or compound question or double-direct
question. This question is often composed of more than two separate issues or
topics, but which can only have one answer. E.g.
◦ Is this data collection tool interesting and useful? It would be better to ask two separate
questions:
 Is the data collection tool interesting?
 Is data collection the tool useful?
◦ How often and how much time do you spend on each visit to a hospital?
 How often do you visit a hospital?
 How much time do you spend on a visit to a hospital?
 Respondents must be competent to answer and questions need to be relevant.
 Short items are best.
 Respondents must be willing to answer.
 Close-ended items need to be exhaustive and mutually exclusive.
◦ Eg. How old are you? A. less than 15 B. 15-64 C. 65 and above
Questionnaires (Cont’d)
 Avoid negative items
◦ E.g. Don‟t ask “Should not” rather ask “should…”
 Avoid biased items
◦ People might agree with influential personalities (Mayor,
Prime Minister, etc.) and tend to disagree with less popular
personalities (Al Qaeda, etc.) in questionnaires.
◦ Hence avoid questions like “do you agree with PM, Mayor,
etc.” rather ask “What is your opinion….”
◦ Avoid value judgment words in the item
 E.g. Do you support the failed transport policy of Addis
Ababa
Questionnaires (Cont‟d)
 Questionnaire Instruction
A preamble detailing purpose of the study;
General instruction detailing how to answer the questions;
Short introduction for Sub-sections; (e.g. socio-demographic,
community problem section, etc.
Specific question instruction for special type of items in the
questionnaire (e.g. “circle the item you posses”)
 Pre-testing the questionnaire is important.
 Questionnaires can be interviewer administered and self-
administered.
5.Documentary Research
 The systematic use of published and unpublished materials for investigation
 It is most widely used method
 There are three types of documentary research:
Collecting and analyzing the works of others-generating information
from previous writers in the field in question (meta analysis and systematic
review).
 A systematic review is a research on a particular research question that systematically
identifies, selects, evaluates, and synthesizes all high quality research evidence relevant
to that question in order to answer it.
 Meta analysis is a specialized subset of systematic reviews. It is a statistical technique
used to combine data from the examined individual research studies, and use the
pooled data to come to new statistical conclusions.
 Simply put, a systematic review includes the entire process of selecting, evaluating,
and synthesizing all available evidence, whereas meta-analysis denotes the statistical
approach to combining the data derived from a systematic-review.
Use of Archival Sources- using public and private organizational records
(archives) as sources of information. E.g. letters. Minutes, etc.
◦ Reanalysis of data sets- reanalyzing the data collected by other
researchers or organizations. E.g. reanalyzing the census data set, analyzing
crime statistics, etc.
Documentary Research (Cont‟d)
 Issues to be considered in documentary research:
Reliability of data-who, how, when the data collected.
Suitability of the data
Adequacy of the data-in terms of accuracy and sufficiency
 Advantages of Documentary research
Easy to do
 Disadvantages of Documentary research
Accuracy of the information is always questionable particularly
in using newspapers & magazines as a source.
Official statistics are not always exhaustive.
Conceptualization and Operationalization
Concepts: are abstract terms we employ to explain or make
sense of our experience.
Conceptualization produces specific, agreed-upon meaning
for a concept for the purposes of research.
 The process of coming to an agreement about what terms

mean is conceptualization and the result is called a
concept.
E.g. Child labor, Poverty, social capital, etc.
 Abstract concepts need to have specific definition in the research.
 Conceptualization in deductive research helps in translating
abstract theory into measurable variables.
Con,
 Operationalization is the process whereby the
researcher specifies empirical observations that may be
taken as indicators of the attributes contained in the
given concept.
Eg. What is social capital and how do you measure it?

 Operational definition: specifies precisely how a
concept will be measured.
 Dimensionalizing means sub-diving a concept into

several specifiable aspects.
 Each dimension of a concept must also be conceptually

defined
Con,
Social captial:
 Trust
 Social support
 Reciprocity
 Membership and participation
 Social network
Alienation:
 Powerlessness
 Meaninglessness
 Normlessness
 Isolation
 Self-estrangement
Tests of Sound Measurement (criteria for measurement
quality)
For a measure to be useful, it must be both reliable and valid
 Reliable = consistent in producing the same results every time the measure is
used.
 Valid (accurate) = measuring what it is supposed to measure.
Validity: the degree to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure (it
tells us how accurately an instrument measures something).
Types of validity:
 Test validity: truely measuring what it has been intended to measure. Example
10+ 125=____
 Content validity: the extent to which a measuring instrument provides adequate

coverage of the topic under study (appropriateness of the content). It can not be
tested.
Con,
Internal validity: accuracy of conclusions drawn from the results
of a specific research study.
 Degree to which a study is sccesseful in eliminating confounding
variables within itself
 the extent to which a study establishes a trustworthy cause-and-
effect relationship between a treatment and an outcome.
 It helps to minimize systematic error which often usually come
from the measuring instruments.
External validity (generalizability): how well the conclusions

from one research apply to other.
How generalizable the findings are.
Tests of Sound Measurement (criteria for measurement
quality)
Reliability: A measuring instrument is reliable if it provides consistent results
every time it is applied.
 Threats to reliability are those factors that cause (or are sources of) error
 There are four threats to reliability:
 participant error e.g. light, day, time, temperature, etc.
 participant bias (desirability bias) – guess, change answers or behaviour, etc.
 observer error (increase in number of observer or ways of interpreting the responses).
Observed Score = true score + systematic error +
random error
1. Observed Scores: are the data gathered by the researcher.
2. True Scores: are the actual unknown values that correspond to the construct
of interest.
3. Systematic Error: may occur
◦ there is something wrong with the instrument or its data handling system, or
◦ the instrument is wrongly used by the experimenter.
4. Random Error:
◦ comes from unpredictable changes during an experiment
◦ is non-systematic variations in the observed scores
Con,
Reliability can be improved in two ways, these are:
1. Standardizing the conditions under which the measurement takes place, i.e.
reducing source of variation like fatigue, boredom, etc. eg. Moday or Friday.
2. By measuring with no variation from group to group using trained and
motivated researchers.
But in qualitative research it is difficult. Because different people have
different perceptions.
Types of reliability:
Test-retest reliability: asking the same person in different periods the same
question to see if the scores are the same
Internal consistency: Cronbach‟s alpha - a measure of internal consistency,
that is, how closely related a set of items are as a group or how well a test
measures what it should.
Test of practicality: measuring instrument can be judged in terms of
economy, convenience and interpretability
◦ E.g. Pilot survey
Con,
Internal consistency: Cronbach‟s alpha
Improving Data Quality
 Plan data collection carefully thinking of reliability,
validity and objectivity.
 Triangulation: use more than one method to answer
your research question (validity).
 Ask a second opinion (objectivity)
 Train interviewers/observers.
 Do a pilot-study (practicability).
Scales of measurement of
Variables
Why is level of scales of measurement important?
 It helps to decide on how to present data. Eg. Tabular or
graphical
 It helps to decide what statistical analysis is appropriate.
 Researchers normally use four level of measurement scales.

1. Nominal: categorical scales - categories only
2. Ordinal: ranking scales - categories with some order
3. Interval: rating scales - differences but no natural starting point
4. Ratio: relative scales - differences and a natural starting point.
Con,
a) Nominal Scale
 Categorizes or labels objects and assigns numbers to
label.
 It is used for categorical variables.
 The numbers assigned have no quantitative meaning
beyond indicating the characteristic.
Eg. gender=0 stands for male and gender=1 stands for
female.
 The numbers we assign are purely arbitrary.
 Arithmetic operation applied to these numbers is
meaningless.
 Nominal scales are the lowest form of measurement.
 The type of statistical analysis appropriate are mode,
percentages, the chi-square test, and etc.
Con,
b) Ordinal Scale
 It is a ranking scale that puts categories in a specific order
(rank).
 It involves assigning numbers based on relative extent to
which the objects possess some characteristic.
 It is better than nominal scale as it indicates relative position,
not the magnitude of the difference between the objects.
 The numbers are not obtained as a result of a counting or
measurement process.
 Arithmetic operations are not allowed.
The order matters but not the difference between values.
Eg. Quality of a health services can be coded as : 1= poor 2=
moderate 3=good 4=excellent.
 Mean is not an appropriate statistic for ordinal scale.
Con,
c) Interval Scale
 It involves the use of numbers to rate objects or events.
 Here the numbers are obtained as a result of a measurement process and
have some units of measurement.
 Interval scale is advanced over the ordinal scale as it has all the properties of
an ordinal scale plus the differences between any two adjacent points on
any part of the scale are meaningful.
 Eg. The difference between a temperature of 100 degrees and 90 degrees is
the same difference as between 90 degrees and 80 degrees.
 However, a point can not be considered to be a multiple of another.
 The zero that could be assigned is an arbitrary zero rather than a natural zero.
 All statistical techniques that are employed on nominal and ordinal scales
could also be employed
Con,
d) Ratio Scale
 It represents the highest form of measurement
precision.
 In addition to the properties of all lower scales of
measurement, it possesses the additional feature that
ratios have meaningful interpretation.
 Ratio scales differ from interval scales as it has a
natural/absolute zero.
 It permits the comparison of differences of values.
 Eg, the height of a person (in cm), weights of sugar (in
kg), the annual profit of firms (in Birr) and plot of land
(in meters).
 All statistical techniques can be applied on ratio data.
Con,
Data Management
Data analysis ranges from very simple summary statistics
to extremely complex multivariate analyses.
Data Preparation and Presentation
 Data processing starts with the editing, coding,
classifying and tabulation of the collected data.
259
Data Management
i) Editing
◦ Editing of data is the process of examining the
collected raw data to detect errors and omissions.
◦ In general one edits to assure that the data are:
Accurate
Consistent with other information/facts gathered
Uniformly entered
260
Data Management
 The editing can be done at two levels
a) Field level Editing
 After an interview, field workers should review
their reporting forms, complete what was
abbreviated, translate personal shorthand, rewrite
illegible entries, and make callback if necessary.
b) Central editing
 when all forms have been completed and returned
to the office data editors correct obvious errors
such as entry in wrong place, recorded in wrong
units, etc.
261
Data Management
ii) Coding
 Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals to
answers so that responses can be put into a limited
number of categories or classes -coding sheet.
iii) Classification and Tabulation
 large volume of raw data must be reduced into
homogenous groups if we are to get meaningful
relationships.
 Classification is the process of arranging data in groups or
classes on the basis of common characteristics.
262
Data Management
 Tabulation is the orderly arrangement of data in columns
and rows.
 Simple or complex tables.
◦ Simple tabulation gives information about one variable.
◦ Complex tabulation shows the division of data into two
or more categories.
 SPSS, R, excel, STATA, etc.
263
Data Management
 Tabulation provides the following advantages:
It conserves space and reduces explanatory and
descriptive statement to a minimum.
It facilitates the process of comparison
It facilitates the summation of items and the detection
of errors and omissions
It provides a basis for various statistical computations
such as measures of central tendencies, dispersions, etc.
264
Data management issues
 Storage and Protection
Research data must be stored securely both during a
research project and after it ends.
Risks like fire, water or other environmental damage, or
common technical failures like hard disk crashes, must
be considered.
Make backup copies of the data periodically and store
the copies in a secure location.
265
Triangulation
Triangulation
 refers to the use of more than one approach to the
investigation of a research question in order to
enhance confidence in the findings.
 The purpose of triangulation is to obtain confirmation
of findings through convergence of different
perspectives.
Why use triangulation
◦ By combining multiple methods, and empirical materials,
researchers can hope to overcome the weakness or
biases and problems that are associated with a single
method.
266
Data Collection Techniques
Taxonomy of triangulation
1. Data triangulation: Involves gathering data at different times
and situations, from different subjects using different
sampling techniques.
◦ Surveying relevant stakeholders about the impact of a
policy intervention would be an example.
E.G: Using survey data with time series data.
267
2. Investigator triangulation: involves using more than one
field researcher to collect and analyze the data relevant
to a specific research object.
 Asking scientific experimenters to attempt to
replicate each other‟s work is an example.
3.Theoretical triangulation: involves making explicit
references to more than one theoretical tradition to
analyze data.
 This is intrinsically a method that allows for different
disciplinary perspectives.
268
4. Methodological triangulation: combination of different
research methods or different varieties of the same method
- two forms of methodological triangulation.
Within method triangulation involves making use of
different varieties of the same method.
making use of alternative econometric estimators
would be an example.
Between method triangulation involves making use of
different methods.
Using „quantitative‟ and „qualitative‟ methods in
combination..
269
Research Proposal
1. Your proposal should have the following elements in order.
2. Title page
3. Table of contents
4. Background of the study
5. Statement of the Problem(Defining the problem, severity of the
problem, extent of the problem, gap analysis)
6. Objective of the study (major and specific objectives)
7. Research Questions
8. Hypothesis of the study
9. Scope of the study
10. Significance of the study
11. Literature review (Theories, empirics and conceptual framework)
12. Methods of the study ( Research design, model specification, data
nature and source, estimation method)
13. Work plan (time and budget)
14. List of references
270
Conceptual Framework
 What is conceptual Framework?
 It is a theoretical structure of assumptions, principles,
and rules that holds together the ideas comprising a
broad concept.
 It described as the abstract, logical structure of meaning
that guide the development of the study.
 All frameworks are based on the identification of key
concepts and the relationships among those concepts.
 It consists of concepts that are placed within a logical
and sequential design.
271
 It represents less formal structure and
used for studies in which existing theory
is inapplicable or insufficient.
 Based on specific concepts and
propositions, derived from empirics
observation and intuition.
 May deduce theories from conceptual
framework.
272
Purpose of Conceptual framework
 To clarify concepts and propose
relationships among the concepts in a
study
 To provide a context for interpreting the
study findings
 To explain observations
 To encourage theory development that is
useful to practice
“The terms conceptual framework and theoretical
framework are sometimes used interchangeably, but
they have different meanings.”
273
Theoretical Framework
 The theory provides a point of focus for
attacking the unknown in a specific area
 If a relationship is found between two or more
variables a theory should be formulated to
explain why the relationship exists
 Theories re purposely created and formulated,
never discovered; they can be tested but never
proven
 It consists of theories that seem to be
interrelated.
 More formal and used for studies based on
existing theories.
 Derived from specific concepts and propositions
that are induced or deduced.
274
Purpose of Theoretical Framework
 To test theories
 To make research findings meaningful and
generalizable
 To establish orderly connections between
observations and facts
 To predict and control situations
 To stimulate research
275
The End for Part I
Thank You
276

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ETHIOPIAN CIVIL SERVICE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF FINANCE, MANAGEMENT AND

PART I: Research Methods: The basics

Some tips: Hypothesis testing

Research philosophy used by the natural sciences

 Shares two features with Positivism:

 Ontology refers to the philosophy of the existence and nature of

2. Nature of research 2. Nature of research

1) Intellectual Curiosity: A researcher

 Exploratory research may be the first stage in a sequence of studies.

 A researcher may need to know enough to design

 When a researcher has a limited amount of experience with or

 The findings discovered through exploratory research would the

 A study that provides longitudinal data on a group

• want to cover a large group

• want narrative or in-depth information

• are not sure what you are able to measure Qualitative

• do not need to quantify the results

Ethical Behavior: Behavior that is morally accepted as good or

 Researchers may be unethical on researchers

Plagiarism: using words or ideas without proper

o Incorrect documentation, failing to cite your sources altogether, or

o Simply by relying too heavily on external resources.

• Whether intentional or unintended some or all of another author's ideas

o It betrays your own responsibilities,

o Your audience, and

o The very research community you were entering by deciding to

 Falsifying data: Changing data

 Fabrication: Making up data

 Irresponsible policy advise

 Waste of research fund

 Fund allocations directing research

 i.e. ‘money buying research results’?

HONESTY — conveying information truthfully and

ACCURACY — reporting findings precisely and taking

EFFICIENCY — using resources wisely and avoiding

OBJECTIVITY — letting the facts speak for

 Research process consists of series of actions or

 Start from here!

 In any case, the most fundamental rule of good research is

 It is simple or complex and directional or non-

 Purpose of Research Hypothesis

1. Unifying the theory to reality

 If it falls in the critical (rejection) region then we reject Ho.

 Otherwise ( if it falls in the non-rejection region) then we do not

 The value that is a border line between the non-rejection and

3.1. Related literature review

• Creswell, J.W. (2005) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and

• Step 3: Critically Evaluate and Select Literature

Original: Employers who provide childcare at the workplace have

Paraphrased reference: There is evidence to suggest that on-

2)Itis important to understand the methodology that

When the author’s name is part of the sentence, it

N.B. Give ALL the names in your reference list:

This is a sentence in a book by Grey (2016, p.9):

 In your list of references:

 Herewe take ideas from the larger passage and

The citation acts as a key

Book (two authors)

 It makes research efficient: helps to get the maximum

 It helps to organize ideas in a form whereby it will be possible

 Thoughtlessness in designing the research project may result in a