Western University College

Research Methods in Business Administration

(ReMt. 214)

BY
Kagnew Tarekegn

February 28, 2020

 Self introduction
– Name
– Why did you Join this Profession?

 Ground Rules for the Course

 Expectation from the course

Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Research
Brainstorming Questions
1. Why did you join this field of study?

2. Where do you get knowledge?

3. What is research? Or How do you define research by your own

words?
4. What is research methodology?

5. Why do you conduct research?

6. What are the characteristics of research?

7. Does a process of conducting research require ethics? Why?

1.1. Sources of Knowledge
 Where do you get knowledge?
 What is truth?
 What is true about the world, about us, and about others?

 How do you come to know truth?

• For example, you are studying Business Admin., so you
want to know what is true about Business Administration.
If your interest is in studying human beings, you want to
know what is true about humans.

 Is it true that animals think? How do you know it?

 What are the methods of knowing this world?
 Sources of …

 There are two major methods (sources) of

knowing the world:
I) Nonscientific method (everyday experience) and
II) Scientific method (research).

 Nonscientific method as sources of Knowledge:

 Nonscientific method - is a process of acquiring
knowledge and truths using techniques that do not
follow the scientific method.
 Sources of …
 Some of the sources are:
 Tenacity (tradition or culture) - automatic acceptance of
the traditional beliefs and customs.
 Authority - accepting information from a figure in power.
 Expert opinion – accepting information from an expert in
the subject area.
 Personal experiences – accepting information about the
world as true b/c we gain it through sense organs.
 Logical reasoning - know things logically and develop logic
to make conclusions.
 Intuition (commonsense) - information is accepted as true
because it “feels right”.
Sources of …
 Scientific method as a source of knowledge:
 is logically stepped process,
 can reproduce findings and demonstrate it to be
consistent,
 is entirely free from personal beliefs, opinion and
feelings,
 solve two major problems of non-scientific methods:
the methods used and the types of reasoning involved.
 Sources of …
The method of building practical knowledge in
everyday source:
 is highly personal, subjective, internal, & non-observable,
 can’t be followed by another person in exactly the same
way,
 fails to combine deductive and inductive reasoning & may
lead to build incomplete, erroneous and inconsistent
knowledge.
 draw a final conclusions i.e., either accepted as true or
rejected as false all together.
 lacks a self-correcting character.
 Scientific & non-scientific methods compared
Scientific method Non-scientific method

- Systematically builds theoretical - Used theories and concepts less

structures carefully to explain happenings

- Teststheories for internal - Faithfully

accept mystical
consistency explanations of phenomena

- Empiricaltests are more - Empirical tests of theories and

systematic and controlled hypotheses are common practices

- Tends to give metaphysical

- Carefully rules out metaphysical
explanations (an explanation, a
explanations from scientific work statement, a proposition or an idea
that cannot be tested).
1.2. Definition of Research & Its Methodology

Definition of Research:
o Research has different meanings for different people so that
researchers define it differently.

The word research was derived from:

 the French word “recherché” (means to travel through/ survey or to
search closely). The literal meaning of research is to investigate
thoroughly.

 re and search i.e., re means again and again, and search means to
find out something.

 Therefore, research means to observe the phenomena again and again

from different dimensions.
Definition of Research…

 Other attempt is that research:

 refers, in common terminology, to a search for
knowledge.

 defined as a careful & critical examination in

seeking facts and principles; diligent
(thorough) investigation in order to ascertain
something.
 Definition of Research…
 Research also defined as:
 a scientific and systematic search for pertinent

information on a specific topic;

 an art of scientific investigation;
 a voyage of discovery;
 the mother of all knowledge and the methods, which man
employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the
unknown;
 an academic activity;
Definition of Research…
 a body of knowledge developed through ways

other than the commonsensical approaches;

 an application of knowledge to solve practical
problems and improve the quality of human life;
and
 a method of building dependable, valid and self-
correcting knowledge;
 Definition of Research…
 Generally, scientific research is:
 a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical
investigation of hypothetical propositions about
educational, natural, behavioral and social phenomena; or
 a systematic and structured activity directed towards the
discovery and development of organized body of
knowledge: generalizations and theories or principles
through the application of scientific procedures, or
 the systematic process of collecting and analyzing
information to increase our understanding of the
phenomenon under study.
 Definition of Research…
 The above definitions give the following salient
distinguishing features:
 Systematic - so ordered, planned and disciplined;
 Controlled - the researcher can have confidence in
his/her research outcomes;
 Empirical – the researcher is putting ideas, or
assumptions to a test; and
 Critical - many truths are tentative and are subject to
change as a result of subsequent research.
 What is a Research Methodology?
 Methods and Methodology in Research
 Methods:
 mean that range of approaches used in research to gather data
which are to be used as a basis for inference and interpretation,
for explanation and prediction.
 mean not only the methods of normative (positivistic) research
but also those associated with interpretive paradigms – participant
observation, role-playing, and non-directive interviewing, etc.
 may also include the more specific features of the scientific
enterprise such as forming concepts and hypotheses, building
models and theories, and sampling procedures.
 refers, generally, to techniques and procedures used in the
process of data-gathering.
Definition of Methodology…
 Methodology:
 refers to describing approaches to research, and
describing kinds and paradigms of research.

 is aimed to help us to understand, in the broadest

possible terms, not the products of scientific
inquiry but the process itself.
Generic Issues of Methodology
 How is understanding research methodology
useful?
 Every science use the methods of science to gather
and interpret information,
 Conducting a research/ study requires,
 Reading and evaluating other people’s studies,
 Understanding brief descriptions of studies/
abstract,
 Making decisions in our daily lives,
 Being a better thinker.
 Generic Issues …
 Every science use the methods of science to
gather and interpret information:
 Science provides a carefully developed system for
answering questions so that the answers we get are as
accurate, objective, and complete as possible.
 Conducting a research/ study:
 Each student in this class has to develop a research
proposal and need to read and understand the most recent
research publications.
 Reading and evaluating other people’s studies:
 Critically evaluate the research presented in journal
articles and determine to what extent the evidence
supports conclusions.
 Generic Issues …
 Understanding brief descriptions of studies/
abstract:
 There are basic principles that every scientific study follows
and knowing about these principles to better understand the
meaning of abbreviated descriptions of studies.
 Making decisions in our daily lives:
 Make educated decisions about the claims you encounter in
everyday life.
 Being a better thinker:
Science is a logical and objective method of critical
thinking. It helps evaluate evidence in a more
sophisticated way and make a more objective decisions.
 1.3. Characteristics of Research
 Some of the qualities of research are:
 Objectivity: means unbiased, not subjective;

 Empirical: means research is guided by observable experiences or

evidence;

 Systematic: means a process that follows several steps; or carefully

designed procedures, and rigorous analysis;

 Validity: means the instruments used to gather the data and the
conclusions to be reached should be appropriate, meaningful and
useful;

 Probabilistic thinking: means research results are not always

absolute. There is always a room for errors;
 Characteristics of Research…
 Reliability: refers to the consistency of research findings
and the extent of its replication;

 Research requires expertise;

 Research is more than information gathering;

 Research is directed towards seeking solutions for a
problem. If solution has already been given to a certain
problem, then there is no need to do research on it; and
 Research is unhurried activity;
 1.4. Goals and Steps of Research
 Goals of Research:
 Scientific research aims at:
 achieving two general goals (building/
development of theory, and solving immediate/
intermediate problems); and

 as a minimum six specific goals (description,

evaluation, explanation, prediction, control, and
comparison).
Steps of Research
 Steps of scientific research include:
Step 1: Find the research idea/ Formulate the research problem
Step 2: Convert your research idea into a specific research questions/
hypothesis/ objectives
Step 3: Determine how you will define and measure your variables
Step 4: Identify the participants or subjects/ Determining sample design
Step 5: Select a research design – make decisions about the specific
methods and procedures
Step 6: Collecting the data
Step 7: Evaluate the data
Step 8: Analysis of data
Step 9: Generalizations and interpretation
Step 10: Writing up research report and report the results
Chapter 2: Research Types & Classifications

2.1. Research Classifications

 It is really difficult to propose a single classification
method that fits various disciplines and is acceptable
by all.
 Research can be classified into different types based
on various criteria. The criteria used to classify
research into different types are:
 Purpose of research,
 Designs of research,
 Approaches of research, etc
 2.1.1. Researches by their Purposes
 The three interrelated kinds:
 Basic research:
 also known as theoretical, pure or fundamental research,
 dealing with theoretical problems,
 conducted to formulate new knowledge and develop new
theories, and
 may not have direct application to practical problems,
 provides the foundation for applied research.
For example, development of learning theory: Piaget cognitive
development, Constructivism, Mastery learning, Gardner’s
multiple intelligences, etc.
 There is no immediate solution/ application to social and
environmental problems.
 Researches by their Purposes…
 Applied research:
 dealing with practical problems of an intermediate
level,
 concern with collection and analysis of data to
examine the usefulness of theory on solving
practical educational problems.
 The interaction of basic and applied research:
 basic research provides the theory that
produce the concepts for solving problems,
 applied research provides the data to help
support, guide, and revise the development of
the theory.
 Researches by their Purposes…
 Action research:
 dealing with very immediate problems,

 Concerning with the collection and analysis of data to provide a

solution to the practical, valued problems of educators within
their own classroom, school or organization.
 less rigorous in terms of design and methodology than other
educational research.

 results obtained from one locality may not be generalizable to

other sites.

 For example, how can we encourage students to participate in the

classroom activities?
 2.1.2. Researches by their Designs
 Research design:
 refers to the plan and structure of investigation used to obtain
evidences to answer research questions,
 describes the procedures for concluding the study,
 is the arrangement of conditions for the collection and
analysis of data,
 is the blue print of the research,

 is a conceptual structure within which research is conducted,

 provides a framework for the measurement, collection, and
analysis of data, and
 includes an outline of what the researcher will do from
writing the hypothesis and its operational implications to the
final analysis of data.
 Researches by their Designs…
 Research design is concerned with four basic things:
 The time when the research is carried out,
 The nature and selection of research participants or
subjects of the study,
 The place where research is conducted, and
 the how of data collection, analysis and reporting or the
conditions under which the research takes place.
 Hence, based on the design, research types
can be classified into:
 experimental research designs, and
 non-experimental research designs.
 2.1.2.1. Experimental Research Designs
 Experimental research design:
 establish cause and effect relationships between
variables i.e., manipulated conditions (IV) and
measured outcomes (DV).
 include three specific kinds such as: Pre-experimental,
quasi-experimental, and true experimental designs.
 In experimental research design, the researcher:
 manipulates one or more independent variable(s) and
control extraneous variables,
 has control over the experiment in terms of sample
selection, treatment, environment, etc.
 Experimental …
 For example, does practice in computer skills affect rate
of learning among Western University College students?
 Basic concepts in experimental research design:
 Hypotheses – means a tentative statement (educated
guess) about the expected relationship between two or
more variables.
 Research groups – in many of the experimental research
designs, there are:
 Experimental group – gets the treatment, the IV, and which
is the focus of the research., and
 Control group – the group that does not get the treatment, the
IV, and employed in the research for comparative purpose.
Experimental …
 Variable – refer to what is measured or varied. It is an
attribute of a person (or object) that can vary from person
to person. The types of variables are:
Independent variable (IV) – is the variable that is
manipulated, measured or selected by the researcher in
order to observe its relation to the subject’s response.
Dependent variable (DV) – is the observed variable
and it measures the effects of the independent variable.

Intervening variable – is a hypothetical variable that

is not observed directly in the research study, but is
inferred from the relationship between the independent
and dependent variables.
 Experimental…
 Control variable – is any variable that is held constant
in a research study.
 Extraneous variable – is the variable that is minimized
so that the results are due to the manipulation of the IV as
opposed to some other factor.
 Random assignment – participants in most of the
experimental research designs are placed in either of the two
research groups in a random manner.
 In random assignment each member of the selected
participants will have equal chance of belonging to either the
experimental or the control groups. This is one of the
mechanisms that help us to reduce the many extraneous
variables.
 Basic concepts in experimental…
 Commonly used symbols in experimental
designs are:
 O1 = Observation in time t before treatment/pretest
 X = treatment
 O2 = Observation in time t after treatment/posttest
 DV = Dependent Variable
 IV = Independent Variable
 R = Random assignment
 The difference in DV between the treatment and
control group = effects of IV (the treatment/
manipulation).
 Experimental Research Designs…
 the three kinds of experimental designs and their
sub-designs are given below.
I) Pre-experimental designs:
 do not involve randomization and/or control group,

 follow the experimental procedure except that they do

not involve the control group.
 a single group is studied without any comparison to a
non-treatment group, and

 include three basic kinds: One-shot case study, one

group pretest posttest study, and the static groups
comparison study designs.
 Pre-experimental designs
A) One-shot case study design:
 use a single group of subjects exposed to some treatment,
 the effect of the treatment without a pretest is simply measured,
 determine or measure the posttest if there is an effect of the
treatment over the behavior under consideration,
 symbolically represented as: X O2
Example, life skill training program given to graduating students
of WUC and see how many of them will have a job in one
month?
 It does not involve a control group with which we can
compare how many of the students got a job in one month.
 It does not involve a pretest to see if how the training has
improved the ability to get a job in a short time.
 Pre-experimental designs…
B) One group pretest posttest study design :
 use one group of subjects,

 has a pretest to determine the state of the behavior

before the treatment,

 then employ the treatment and the posttest

 finally, compare behavior with the level produced
after the treatment.

 symbolically represented as: O1 X O2

 Pre-experimental designs…
Example, the achievement of 2nd year WUC students on
certain Business Administration concepts is measured; then a
student centered learning strategy is implemented for one
semester and then the same Business Administration concept
is measured with a similar kind of measurement as that of the
first one.

 What we cannot confidently state is:

 whether the outcome of the intervention would have been
produced if the treatment was not implemented.
 the improvement in the performance of students may have
simply been the result of maturation or more learning of the
Business Administration concepts.
 Pre-experimental designs…
C) The static groups comparison study design:
 employ one experimental and one control groups,
 has no a pretest before the treatment,
 conducted a posttest.
 improve on the previous one by trying to employ a
control group; but fails to have a pretest to see if there is
a real improvement in the experimental group.
 cannot decide if there is any difference between the two
groups of subjects prior to the implementations of IV.
 symbolically represented as: X O2
-- O2
 II) Quasi-experimental designs
 Quasi-experimental designs:
 one step closer to true experimental design than pre-
experimental design,
 use comparative means on the effects of the treatment,
 do not involve random assignment of participants into
the two research groups,
 subjects are taken from the pre-existing (intact)
groups, and

 three basic kinds of Quasi-experimental designs:

Pretest posttest non-equivalent groups design, time series
design, and non-equivalent groups before-after design.
 Quasi-experimental designs…
A) Pretest posttest non-equivalent groups
design:
 both experimental and control groups are employed,
 subjects are assigned based on convenience (mostly pre-
existing groups) rather than randomization,
 have pretest for both groups,
 use the treatment for the experimental group, and
 has posttest for both groups.
 symbolically represented as:
O1 X O 2
O1 -- O2
 Quasi-experimental designs…
B) Time series design:
 only one group of participants is employed.
 employed a lot of pretest and posttest for the comparative
means of the effect of the treatment,
 enables to see if the effect of the treatment will persist with
time or simply disappear after a short period of time,
 symbolically represented as: O1O1 X O2O2

 The purposes of the many pretests and posttests are:

 To clearly determine the level of the behavior before and after
the treatment;
 To see the long term effect/strength of the treatment on the
behavior/performance of participants.
Quasi-experimental designs…
 Example, the contribution of a mediational
interaction program on the mother-child
interaction in institutional homes.
 select one institution for the study and conduct
pretests of the interaction between the children and
the mothers every month,
 clearly determine the level of the interaction before
the treatment,
 give the training to the mothers, and
 after the training follow the same procedure and
measure the level of interaction that the mothers and
the children have for every month.
 Quasi-experimental designs…
C) Non-equivalent groups before-after design:
 combines the above two quasi-experimental designs,
 employ two groups (but both the groups will be
experimental),
 involve multiple measurements of the behavior due to
the two groups are inherently different even before the
introduction of the treatment,
 clearly indicate the level of the behavior in two
groups, both before and after the treatment is
introduced.
 symbolically represented as: O1O1 X O2O2
O1O1 X O 2O2
Quasi-experimental designs…

 Example, the contribution of a mediational

interaction program on the mother-child
interaction in institutional homes.
 select two experimental groups from two
institutions run in different systems,
 give the treatment for both the groups at the
same time over an extended period of time,
 take multiple measurements of the level of
interaction in both the institutions before and
after the treatment.
 III) True experimental designs
 True experimental design:
 overcome the shortcomings of the previous two
experimental designs,
 significantly establish the cause and effect
relationship that may exist among variables,
 have both the mechanism of control and random
assignment of subjects into the two groups,
 either control or at least take the contribution of
confounding variables (variables other than the IV
that can have impact on the DV) to the outcome.
True experimental designs…
 establish the change in DV which is the
actually result of the manipulation of the IV.
 have two basic kinds of designs: Posttest
equivalent groups study and pretest posttest
equivalent groups study designs

A) Posttest equivalent groups study design:

 employ both randomization and control group,
 involve one experimental and one control groups,

 does not involve the use of pretest.

True experimental designs…
 select and assign people into the two groups, and
proceed into implement the IV,
 give a posttest to both groups to see if there is any
difference between the two groups,
 cannot confidently state that the observed difference
between the two groups are the result of the treatment.
There could have differences even before the
implementation of the IV.
 involvement of randomization by itself cannot fully
create truly equivalent experimental and control
groups.
 symbolically represented as: R X O2
R -- O2
 True experimental designs…
B) Pretest posttest equivalent groups study design:
 have control group and randomization,

 involve the use of a pretest and establish the equivalence

of the two groups of subjects,
 implement the treatment and see the effect it produces on
the behavior or the DV,
 symbolically represented as:
R O1 X O2
R O1--- O2
 Single Subject Research Design
 In addition to the aforementioned experimental research
designs, there is also experimental research design called
single subject research design.
 Single Subject Research Design:
 conduct study with a sample of one (individual or group),
 investigate cause and effect relationships,
 similar to quasi-experimental design (there is direct
manipulation but no random assignment),
 differs from case studies in that the researcher describes
behavior in case studies and cannot manipulate the IV.
 more of a clinical type of designs, especially used in behavior
modification for an extended period of time.
 Single Subject Research Design…

 involves repeated assessment of behavior over time,

replication of treatment effects within the same subject, and
the subject serving as own control,
 use of specific intervention to cause behavioral change in
low incidence populations,
 involve two of the common designs: the A-B-A-B (reversal)
design and the multiple baseline design.
Example, the effect of a behavior modification program on
Muna’s conduct (if she is diagnosed with autism) in class?
 Single Subject Research Design…
 A-B-A-B design:
 the “A”s indicate the baseline measurement (pretest), and the
withdrawal of the treatment (measurement of the outcome of
the treatment) after some time of the treatment,
 the “B”s indicate the first presentation of the treatment, and
the reintroduction of the treatment after a time of withdrawal.
 At the end the outcome is measured once again to decide that
the undesirable behavior has reduced or not.
 Single Subject Research Design…
 Multiple baseline design:
 considered alternative to the A-B-A-B design,
 typically used when it is not possible (or ethical)
to withdraw a treatment and return to the baseline
condition,
 involve three basic designs: Across behaviors,
across subjects and across settings.
 Across behaviors: – data is collected on several
behaviors for a single subject and treatment is applied
to each behavior one at a time until all behaviors have
been treated.
Single Subject Research Design…

 Across subjects - data is collected on several

subjects for one behavior and treatment is
applied to each subject one at a time until all
subjects have been treated.

 Across settings – data is collected on one

behavior for one subject across several settings
and treatment is applied to each behavior one at
a time in each setting until all settings have been
treated.
2.1.2.2. Non-experimental Research Design

 It describes something that has occurred or examined

relationships between things without suggesting direct
cause –and- effect relationships.
 In some situations non-experimental designs are used
to investigate cause-and-effect relationships, given
there are sufficient empirical & theoretical grounds.
 Non-experimental research designs include:
descriptive (e.g., survey, and correlational), case
study, causal-comparative, evaluative, exploratory,
explanatory, developmental designs, etc.
 Non-experimental…
A) Descriptive research design:
 describes existing phenomena by using words or numbers to
characterize individuals or a group,
 give a detailed or a pictorial account of an event, behavior, situation,
particular issue, person or process emphasizing on ‘what’, ‘where’ and
‘when’ questions.
 does not allow the researcher control over the variables but only report
what has happened & what is happening,
 is not the manipulation of treatments or subjects; the researcher
measures things as they naturally occur.
For example:
 Do WUC students have a favorable attitude towards the teaching-
learning process in Business Administration Class?
 What proportion of students are classified as gifted in innovating
business plan and in what ways are they schooled?
 Descriptive research design…
 Descriptive design:
 is not to explain the influence or impact of certain factors in the event
on which it is focusing,
 considered as a basic level of research for further explanation and
prediction,
 describe a particular state of affairs-determining the type, forms, and
magnitude of its existence.
 Examples:
 Is academic problem a major problem among students in WUC?
(existence/type of a behavior)
 Are the academic problems of students in WUC related to
understanding lessons, lack of motivation or what? (forms of existence
of a behavior)
 Are the academic problems of students in WUC mild or profound?
(magnitude of occurrence of a behavior)
 Descriptive research design…
 Surveys research design:
 used to scan a wide field of issues, populations,
programs etc. in order to measure or describe any
generalized features,
 used to describe the characteristics of groups of people
called a population.
 intended to know about the behavior, thought and
attitude of a very large group of individuals which are
taken from the general population.
 yields a broad range of information including
demographics, opinions, attitudes and lifestyles.
 Descriptive research design…
 Correlational research design:
 traces the relationships among two or more
variables that produce statistical measure of the
degree of relationship called correlation coefficient
(r) ranges from –1.00 to +1.00,
 Correlation coefficient (r) represents two things:
 direction and
 strength of the relationship.
 Variables being studied may:
 have relationship (positive or negative) or
 unrelated at all.
Descriptive research design…
 In positive correlation:
 variables are related in the same direction,
 as one increases, the other increases;
 as one decreases, the other also decreases.
 In Negative correlation:
 variables are related in opposite direction,
 as one increases, the other decreases and vice versa.
 Example, the relationship between:
 height and weight, and
 ESLCE and university freshman grades.
Direction and Strength of Correlation
 Descriptive research design…
 There are two types of correlational designs:
 Explanatory design – correlate two or more variables, collect
data at one point in time, analyze all participants as a single
group, obtain at least two scores for each individual in the group
– one for each variable, and interpret based on statistical test
results.

 Prediction design – identify the predictor and criterion

variables. Predictor variable – is a variable that is used to make a
forecast at one point in time about criterion variable. Criterion
variable – is the outcome being predicted at a later point in time.

 Note that correlation does not prove causation!

 B) Case study design
 Case study Design:
 emphasize highly detailed investigation of a single
individual, group, and institution,
 usually of a small number of sites (small towns, hospitals,
schools),
 studied in depth to reveal underlying behavioral principles
via observation, and interview,
 used to investigate rare, unusual, or extreme conditions,
and
 helps us to get large information (depth and breadth).
 What are the types, causes, and effects of WUC
administrative problems?
C) Causal-comparative research design
 Causal-comparative research design:
 sometimes referred as Ex post facto research design,
 a method of teasing out possible antecedents of events
that have happened and cannot manipulated by the
investigator.
 Ex Post Facto in research:
 means after the fact or retrospectively and
 investigate possible cause-and-effect relationships
among variables that cannot be manipulated by the
researcher but by observing an existing condition and
searching back in time for plausible causal factors.
 Causal–comparative…
 Examples,
 What characteristics differentiate students who
drop out from those who do not?

 What is the effect of part-time employment on the

achievement of students in WUC?

 Do university students from preschools perform

better than those who do not attend preschools?
 D) Evaluative research design
 Evaluative research is:
 the collection and analysis of data to make decisions related to
the merit or worth of a specific program.
 more sensitive than other research activities politically, legally,
economically and culturally.
 Merit relates to a program accomplishing what it was supposed to
accomplish – goals.
 Worth relates to the value attached to a program by these using it.
The most common types of evaluations are:
 Formative evaluation: inform and improve a program while it is being
developed or implemented.
 Summative evaluation: make decision regarding the overall quality of the
program being evaluated.
 E) Exploratory research design
 Exploratory design:
 defined as an initial research into a hypothetical or
theoretical idea,
 is a ground work for future research,
 is the first step in learning about something,
 Exploratory researcher think about two big forms:
 A new topic: is often unexpected and astonishing in its
findings. For example, American psychologist John
Watson really began his behaviorism research with a new
topic and studied human behaviors and learning.
 A new angle: come from new ways of looking at things,
either from a theoretical perspective or a new way of
measuring something.
 F) Explanatory research design
 Explanatory design:
 defined as an attempt to connect ideas to understand
cause and effect, meaning researchers want to explain
what is going on, or
 give reasons for the occurrence of a certain behavior.
 typically concerned with understanding the relationship
between things between the past and the future.
 involves not only description of the status of
occurrences of a certain behavior but also explanation
which is going a step further to examine the reasons
behind the occurrence,
 focuses on investigating the reasons explaining why a
behavior occurs the way it does.
 Explanatory design…
 If you find a relationship between the two
variables, then it means that the IV can explain the
occurrence of the DV.

 If you do not discover relationship, the IV can’t

explain the occurrences of the DV.

 that reasons (or IVs) are of two types: factors

and causes. Factorial relationship is not a cause-
effect type of relationship.
 G) Developmental research designs
 Developmental designs:
 assess changes over an extended period of time,
 use many different designs and methods to study human
development,
 involve three basic designs: Cross-sectional design, Longitudinal
design, and Cross-sequential design.

I) Cross-sectional design:
 involve a number of different-age individuals with the same trait or
characteristic studied at a single time.
 permits the study of common patterns and individual differences in
development and relationships,
 might include a group of 15 years old, 20 years old, and 25 years
old.
Developmental…
II) Longitudinal design:
 studying people of the same age over a long period of time,
usually several years or more.
 is divided into three primary designs: Trend studies, Cohort
studies and Panel studies.

a) Trend studies:
 study the trends in which different samples are selected
from a general population and studied at different times.
 Each of these samples represents the same population, while
different cases or persons are sampled and studied.
 Example, the attitude of the 2015, 2020, 2025
graduating class students of BA at WUC towards work
 Developmental…
b) Cohort studies:
 focus on the same specific study population each time and the samples studied
may be varied.
 select different samples at different time from the same class, every time.
 For example, the attitude of the 2015 graduating class students of BA at WUC
towards work. Five years later, the researcher could question another samples of
2015 graduates, and study any changes in attitude.

c) Panel studies:
collect data at successive times from the same sample of respondents at different
time.
 involves an examination of individuals change overtime.
 For example, the attitude of the 2015 graduating class students of BA at
WUC towards work. Every year, the researcher would contact the same
people, and ask the similar questions, and ask them the reason for any
changes in their habits.
 Developmental…
III) Cross-sequential design:
 studying people of different ages at the same time and
then studying them over a long period of time.
 is a combined cross-sectional and longitudinal design.

 Note that longitudinal studies emphasizes on

changes and processes in the course of time but it
is too time consuming and expensive.
 Cross-sectional studies are time saving and cost
effective.
 H) Narrative research design
 Narrative designs:
 focus on studying a single person
 gathering data through the collection of stories that
are used to construct a narrative about the individual’s
experience and the meaning he/she attributes to them.

 Example 1, what are the experiences of a business

administrative person who has administered a factory
workers for more than 30 years?
 I) Ethnographic research design
 Ethnographic design:
 obtain an understanding of the shared beliefs and
practices of a particular group or culture.
 concerned with the culture of the learning setting and
would focus on the effects of this intervention on the
whole classroom social environment.
 Example, what is the nature of the problems teachers
encounter when they begin using a cooperative group
learning approach to instruction after having taught
using a very traditional approach for 10 years?
 J) Historical research design
 Historical design:
 investigates past events to reflect on and provide
possible answers to current issues and problems.
 is unique in that it focuses primarily on the past.
 is the systematic collection and evaluation of data to
describe, explain, and thereby understand actions or
events that occurred sometime in the past.

 Example, how have women in urban areas been treated

in the past business administrative related issues?
 K) Phenomenological research design
 Phenomenological research:
 describes a meaning of several individuals lived experiences.
 involve two types: Hermeneutic and Transcendental/
Psychological.
 Hermeneutic phenomenology – the interpretation of meaning and
significance of the experience by the researcher.
 Transcendental/ Psychological phenomenology – a shift from
researchers interpretation to description of the phenomena by
participants.
 Description of themes include:
 Textual description – what participants experience?
 Structural description – how participants experience?
 Combination of textual and structural descriptions
2.1.3. Researches by their Approaches
 The three general categories of research approaches are: quantitative,
qualitative and mixed research approaches.
 Quantitative research approach:
 based on the measurement of quantity or amount.
 applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
 a systematic investigation of the magnitude of a behavior,
 applying measurement techniques and tools that yield numerical data to
be analyzed and interpreted statistically.
 Qualitative research approach:
 concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena involving
quality or kind of a subject while interpreting and attempting to
understand an event.
 examines types and characteristic features of a behavior,
use an instrument that yields a non-numerical (i.e., visual or verbal) data
to be analyzed with non-statistical techniques.
 I) Quantitative approach
 Some of the basic types of quantitative approaches:
 Descriptive Research,
 Causal-comparative research,
 Experimental research,
 Evaluative research,
 Developmental Research, etc

 General purpose of quantitative approaches:

collect and analyze quantitative data to explain, predict, or control
phenomena of interest,
Describe current conditions,
Investigate relationships between variables,
Study causes and effects.
 Quantitative approach…
 Assumptions of quantitative researchers:
 generally regarded as a positivistic perspective,
 live in a stable, uniform, and coherent world,
 can measure, understand, and generalize about our world

 Characteristics quantitative research:

 yield numerical data,
 use of formally stated hypotheses and procedures,
 use of controls to minimize the effects of factors that could
interfere with the outcome of the research,
 use large numbers of participants or subjects,
 there is an objective, detached researcher,
 Use of pencil and paper tests, questionnaires, observations, etc.
 II) Qualitative approach
 Some of the basic types of qualitative approaches:
 Case study research approach,
 Narrative research,
 Ethnographic research,
 Historical research,
 Phenomenological research, etc.

General purpose of qualitative approaches:

 probe deeply into the research setting to obtain in-depth understandings
about the way things are, why they are like that, and how participants
perceive them.
 create a sustained in context study that allows the researcher to uncover
subtle, less overt personal understandings,
 give someone a mental picture of what the researcher is seeing.
 describe a unique and dynamic interaction to the reader.
 Qualitative approach…
 Assumptions of qualitative researchers:
 all meaning is situated in a particular perspective or context,
 different people and groups often have different perspectives and contexts,
so there are many different meanings in the world,
 generally regarded as a post-positivistic perspective.

 Characteristics of qualitative research:

 no hypotheses guiding the researcher, rather a general issue of concern,
 problems and methods tend to evolve over the course of the study, as
understanding of the research context and participants deepens
 phenomena are examined as they exist in a natural context, and they are
viewed from the participants’ perspectives,
 there are few participants involved in the study,
 data analysis is interpretative in nature,
 the researcher interacts extensively with the participants.
 III) Mixed research approach
 Mixed research approach:
 represents the application of qualitative and
quantitative methodologies to fully describe an event.
 attempts to mix the two and take the best of both
worlds.

 Which method is best? Quantitative or qualitative?

 One is not better than the other because the problem
you are studying determines which method to take.
 However, some researchers used both qualitative and
quantitative methods in a single study.
Summary of quantitative-qualitative dichotomy
2.2. Research Ethical Issues
 What are Research Ethics?
 Ethics: is the division in the field of philosophy that
deals with values and morals.
 It is a topic that people may disagree on because it is
based on people’s personal value systems.
 What one person or group considers good or right
might be considered bad or wrong by another person
or group.
 Hence, Ethics is define as the principles and
guidelines that help us to uphold the things we value.
Ethical Issues…
 There are three major approaches to ethics:
a) Deontological Approach – researchers should identify and use a
Universal code when making ethical decisions. An action is either
ethical or not ethical, without exception.

b) Ethical Skepticism Approach - concrete and inviolate ethical or

moral standards cannot be formulated. In this view, ethical
standards are not universal but are relative to one’s particular
culture, time, and even individual.
c) Utilitarianism Approach - is a very practical viewpoint, stating
that decisions about the ethics should be based on an examination
and comparison of the costs and benefits that may arise from an
action. It is used by most people in academia (such as Institutional
Review Boards) when making decisions about research studies.
 Ethical Issues…
 There are primary areas of ethical concerns for researchers:
1) Professional issues:
o Fraudulent activity (fabrication/fake or alteration of results)
is the primary ethical concern by researchers. Obviously,
cheating or lying are never defensible.
o Duplicate publication (publishing the same data and results
in more than one journal or other publication) should be
avoided.
o Partial publication (publishing several articles from the data
collected in one study). This is allowable as long as the
different publications involve different research questions and
different data, and as long as it facilitates scientific
communication. Otherwise, it should be avoided.
 Ethical Issues…
2) Treatment of Research Participants:
o This is probably the most fundamental ethical issue in the field of
empirical research.
o It is essential that one insures that research participants are not
harmed physically or psychologically during the conduct of research.

 Ethical Guidelines for Research with Humans: Here are some of

the most important issues discussed.
a) Informed Consent: Potential research participants must be
provided with information that enables them to make an informed
decision as to whether they want to participate in the research study.
b) Deception: is present when the researcher provides misleading
information or when the researcher withholds information from
participants about the nature and/or purpose of the study.
 Ethical Issues…
o Deception is allowable when the benefits outweigh the costs.
o However, the researcher is ethically obligated not to use any more
deception than is needed to conduct a valid study.
o If deception is used, debriefing should be used.
o Debriefing: is a post-study interview in which all aspects of the study are
revealed, such as the purposes of the study and reasons for deception, and
any questions the participant has about the study are answered.
 Debriefing has two goals:
 Dehoaxing: informing and debriefing study participants about any
deception that was used, and explaining the reasons for its use. The
goal is to restore trust.
 Desensitizing: helping study participants deal with and eliminate any
stress or other undesirable feelings that the study might have created
in them. Should explain that their behavior was normal.
 Ethical Issues…
c) Freedom to Withdraw: Participants must be informed that they
are free to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty.
o If you have a power relationship with the participants (e.g., if you are their
teacher or employer) you must be extra careful to make sure that they
really do feel free to withdraw.

d) Protection from Mental and Physical Harm: This is the

most fundamental ethical issue confronting the researcher.

e) Confidentiality and Anonymity

o Confidentiality: the researcher agrees not to reveal the identity of the
participant to anyone other than the researcher and his or her staff.
o Anonymity: means, a stronger and even better condition, that the identity
of the participant is not known by anyone in the study, including the
researcher. An example would be where the researcher has a large group of
people fill out a questionnaire but NOT write their names on it.
 Ethical Issues…
3) Ethical Issus in Preparing the Research Report:
i) Authorship: goes to the individuals who made a substantial
contribution to the conceptualization, design, execution,
analysis, or interpretation of the study.
o Helping collect, enter, or analyze data does not usually
warrant authorship but does warrant acknowledgment in a
footnote.
ii) Plagiarism: refers to using the work produced by others and
presenting it as your own. Do not ever plagiarize when writing
the research report. It is a type of stealing and it is unethical.
o Self plagiarism refers to using one’s words as original when
they have been used previously in another publication.
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