Research and Report Writing Handout

BASICS OF RESEARCH
MEANING OF RESEARCH
Authorities in the area of research commonly use the following phrases to define “research”.
Research is:
 a systematic inquiry involving a serious of steps.
 a scholarly or scientific investigation or inquiry.
 an inquiry used to obtain useful and dependable information.
 a systematic search for reliable truth.
 a problem solving activity.
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. One can also define research as a
scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is
an art of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays
down the meaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for
new facts in any branch of knowledge.” Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized
effort to gain new knowledge.” Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from
the known to the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct
of inquisitiveness for, when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes
us probe and attain full and fuller understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the
mother of all knowledge and the method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of
whatever the unknown, can be termed as research.

Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.
According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they
fit the formulating hypothesis. D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of Social
Sciences define research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of
generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction
of theory or in the practice of an art.” Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing
stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study,

1
observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective
and systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach
concerning generalization and the formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term
‘research’ refers to the systematic method.

According to Rusk
“Research is a point of view, an attitude of inquiry or a frame of mind. It asks questions which
have hitherto not been asked, and it seeks to answer them by following a fairly definite
procedure. It is not a mere theorizing, but rather an attempt to elicit facts and to face them once
they have been assembled. Research is likewise not an attempt to bolster up pre-conceived
opinions, and it implies a readiness to accept the conclusions to which an inquiry leads, no matter
how unwelcome they may prove. When successful, research adds to the scientific knowledge of
the subject.
According to George J. Mouly
He defines research as, “The systematic and scholarly application of the scientific method
interpreted in its broader sense, to the solution of social studies all problems; conversely, any
systematic study designed to promote the development of social studies as a science can be
considered research.”
According to Francis G. Cornell
“To be sure the best research is that which is reliable verifiable and exhaustive, so that it
provides information in which we have confidence. The main point here is that research is,
literally speaking, a kind of human behavior, an activity in which people engage. By this
definition all intelligent human behavior involves some research.”

“In social studies, teachers, administrators, or others engage in ‘Research’ when they
systematically and purposefully assemble information about schools, school children, the social
matrix in which a school or school system is determined, the characteristic of the learner or the
interaction between the school and pupil.”
According to Clifford Woody of the University of Michigan
He writes that in an article in the Journal of Social Studies Research (1927), research is a careful
inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles; a diligent investigation to ascertain

2
something, according to Webster’s New International Dictionary. This definition makes clear the
fact that research is not merely a search for truth, but a prolonged, intensive, purposeful search.
In the last analysis, research constitutes a method for the discovery of truth which is really a
method of critical thinking. It comprises defining and redefining problems; formulating
hypotheses or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions
and reaching conclusions; and at last, carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they
fit the formulating hypotheses.
According to C.C. Crawford
He writes that “Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing
specialized tools, instruments, and procedures in order to obtain a more adequate solution of a
problem than would be possible under ordinary means. It starts with a problem, collects data or
facts, analysis these critically and reaches decisions based on the actual evidence. It evolves
original work instead of mere exercise of personal. It evolves from a genuine desire to know
rather than a desire to prove something. It is quantitative, seeking to know not only what but how
much, and measurement is, therefore, a central feature of it.”

John W. Best thinks, “Research is considered to be the more formal, systematic, intensive
process of carrying on the scientific methods of analysis. It involves a more systematic structure
of investigation, usually resulting in some sort of formal record of procedures and a report of
results or conclusions.”
“Research is but diligent search which enjoys the high flavor or primitive hunting.”
According to C. Francis Rummel
“Research is an endeavor to discover, develop and verify knowledge. It is an intellectual process
that has developed over hundreds of years, ever changing in purpose and form and always
searching for truth.”

P.M. Cook has given a very comprehensive and functional definition of the term research
“Research is an honest, exhaustive and intelligent searching for facts and their meanings or
implications with reference to a given problem. The product or findings of a given piece of
research should be an authentic, verifiable and contribution to knowledge in the field studied.”
He has emphasized the following characteristics of research in his definition:

3
1. It is an honest and exhaustive process.
2. The facts are studied with understanding.
3. The facts are discovered in the light of problem. Research is problem-centered.
4. The findings are valid and verifiable.
5. Research work should contribute new knowledge in that field.
Research is a systematic attempt to answer meaningful questions through the application of
scientific process. In this definition we can see that research is:
 a system in which a number of interrelated components coexist.
 a system in which questions get answers.
 a scientific process which can be proven.
Research is the process of arriving at dependable solution to a problem through planned and
systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of data. However, research is not the only way
to give solutions to a problem, but it is one of the most effective ways of solving problem
scientifically. Experience of a person and authorities in the area of inquiry could be sources of
solutions to problems.
The term ‘Research’ consists of two words: Research = Re + search. ‘Re’ means again and
again; ‘Search’ means to find out something.
FUNCTIONS OF RESEARCH
The following are the main functions of research
The main function of research is to improve research procedures through the refinement and
extension of knowledge. The refinement of existing knowledge or the acquisition of new
knowledge is essentially an intermediate step toward the improvement of the social studies al
process.
The social studies improvement is associated with various aspects of Social Studies:
(a) The function of research is to aid to make a decision concerning the refinement or extension
of knowledge in this particular area.
(b) The function of research is to improve the students learning and classroom problem with
which teacher is encountering with problems. The more effective techniques for teaching can be
developed.
(c) Another function of research is to aid social studies administrators to improve the Social
Studies systems.

4
The Researches should contribute to the theory and practice of study studies simultaneously. It
should have the image of a helpful mechanism which can be used by researcher/research scholar
in one way or the other, for the improvement of the process.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
The following characteristics may be gathered from the definitions of ‘Research’
1. It gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand sources.
2. It places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles.
3. It is an exact systematic and accurate investigation.
4. It uses certain valid data gathering devices.
5. It is logical and objective.
6. The researcher resists the temptation to seek only the data that support her/his hypotheses.
7. The researcher eliminates personal feelings and preferences.
8. It endeavors to organize data in quantitative terms.
9. Research is patient and unhurried activity.
10. The researcher is willing to follow his procedures to the conclusions that may be unpopular
and bring social disapproval.
11. Research is carefully recorded and reported.
12. Conclusions and generalizations are arrived at carefully and cautiously.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCHER
In selecting a problem, it is very essential for an investigator to possess the following
characteristics:
1. S/He should be sensitive in his nature.
2. S/He should be problem-minded.
3. S/He should have mastery on the area and should have specialization in the field studied.
4. S/He should have a scientific outlook about the area.
5. S/He should have deep insight into the educational process.
6. S/He should be able to think reflectively on the field studied.
7. S/He should have tolerance and patience.
8. S/He should be interested in the field studied.
9. S/He should be honest and devotee to his work.

5
10. S/He should have the curiosity to find out something new or to answer some questions which
are still to be answered.

CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH
There are various classifications of research. Scholars classify research on the basis of the
purpose of research, the type or nature of research, methods of research, and techniques of
research.
i. Research classification by purpose includes basic research and applied research.
ii. It is also possible to classify research by level of complexity as descriptive (Survey,
historical), explanatory (case study, tracer study), and experimental (causal, comparative, quasi-
experimental, experimental).
iii. The other classification of research is by the types of data or method of data collection such
as qualitative, quantitative and mixed method.
In this unit, we will discuss the most common types of research known as basic, applied,
qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods. Other designs such as descriptive, explanatory and
experimental research will be described in unit two.
Basic and Applied Research
A common classification of research is to group research as basic and applied. Basic research
deals with the expansion of the frontier of knowledge by formulating, expanding, evaluating
theories regardless of practical implementation.
Basic research sometimes called pure research. It is carried out to study a general phenomenon or
a process. It is concerned with formulation of principles. It may involve questions like “How
does cultural background affect foreign language learning?”; “Why some students in grade ten
are proficient in English language while others are not proficient at it?”

On the other hand, applied research refers to a type of research whose goal is to solve an
immediate practical problem and adding new inputs to scientific knowledge. Applied research is
often thought of as a research targeted at solving a specific problem. It may involve questions
like: “How can I improve students writing skills?’; “What are the possible ways to maximize
students’ interaction in English Class?”.

6
However, basic and applied researches are not entirely exclusive to each other. Basic research is
the theoretical foundation to applied research. Applied research is done on the basis of principles
and theories that basic research contributed. In simple terms, basic research provides tools for
applied research. It provides knowledge and methods that support the problem solving process of
applied research.
Qualitative, Qualitative and Mixed Methods
Quantitative and qualitative methods are the main strands of research methods utilized by
researchers. They are classifications of research by the type of data collected. In this section, we
will define the meanings of quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods. In the third unit, the
common techniques that are used in data collection will be discussed.
1. Quantitative Method
Quantitative method is described as a method that explains phenomena by collecting numerical
data that are analyzed using numbers (Aliga and Gunderson, 2002). From the definition, you can
understand that quantitative method deals with amount or quantity that is expressed in number.
Thus, a researcher in quantitative research collects numerical data to explain a certain
phenomenon.
2. Qualitative Method
Qualitative research is a method of research in which researchers study things in their natural set
ting attempting to make sense of or to interpret phenomena in terms of the meanings people
bring to them (Denzin and Lincoln,2003 p3 ). In the definition, we can see phrases like ‘natural
setting and phenomena’. When we say qualitative research is done their natural setting, we mean
that the researcher often goes to the actual site, i.e. home, office, school or class of the participant
(subject of the research) to conduct the research and then develop a level of detail about the
participants or the place. This enables the researcher to be highly involved in actual experiences
of the participants.

After the information collected in the natural setting is analyzed and interpreted, conclusions on
the researched issue are drawn. This is to mean that the researcher makes an interpretation of the
data. It includes developing a description of the participants, and/or setting, analyzing data for
themes or categories, and finally making an interpretation or drawing conclusions about its
meaning personally and theoretically, stating the lessons learned, and offering further quest ions

7
to be asked (Wolcott , 1994 cited in Creswell ,1994 p.20). The researcher filters the data through
his own personal lens. Qualitative method, therefore, is used to understand a social or human
problem from multiple perspectives. It helps to understand the world in which we live and why
things are the way they are.
Qualitative research, unlike quantitative method, relies on non-statistical judgment. It is
described in words rather than numbers. For instance, you may observe the following problem in
your classroom: a few students are not interested in reading and writing lessons but they are so
interactive in listening and speaking lessons. Thus, you want to do research on the issue of “Why
a few of my students are interactive in listening and speaking lessons but not interested in writing
and reading lessons?” In such scenario, you may decide to find out the answer. Then, let us say,
you begin to collect data by interviewing the students about their learning styles and strategies
they utilize while learning the four-macro skills. This type of inquiry falls under qualitative
research, because you collect the information using interview and hopefully, you analyze the
data in words.
Table 1 Comparisons between qualitative and quantitative Methods

Quantitative Qualitative
Objective Subjective
Reductionist Holistic
Scientific Phenomenological
Positives Anti-positivist
Experimental Descriptive
Contrived Naturalistic
Deductive Inductive

Mixed Method
Mixed method is defined as:
A research design deals with philosophical assumptions as well as methods of inquiry. As a
methodology, it involves philosophical assumptions that guide the direction of the collection and
analysis of data and the mixture of qualitative and quantitative approaches in many phases in the
research process. As a method, it focuses on collecting, analyzing, and mixing both quantitative
and qualitative data in a single study or series of studies. Its central premise is that the use of
quantitative and qualitative approaches in combination provides a better understanding of
research problems than either approach (Creswell, 1994 p5).

8
The label ‘mixed method’ denotes that it is the hybrid of two methods: Quantitative and
qualitative. According to the above definition, mixed method involves both collecting and
analyzing quantitative and qualitative data. In mixed method, set of data collected through
quantitative and qualitative methods will be blended so that the data are analyzed, interpreted
and conclusion is drawn. This can be done in three ways:
 Merging the two datasets and bringing them together.
 Connecting the two dataset and having one build on the other.
 Embedding one dataset within the other.
The Research Process
STEPS IN THE PROCESS OF SCIENTIFIC THINKING
The logically related, the following steps are involved in scientific thinking:
1. The location and definition of a problem.
2. The survey of past experiences with problem of previous investigations that are already
available.
3. The formulation of hypotheses representing a tentative solution of the problem. All the
activities are organized for the verification of the hypotheses (collection of data statistical
techniques etc.).
4. The collection of new data or evidences.
5. The analysis of the data classification and summarization by quantitative treatment.
6. The formulation of generalizations.
Therefore, when considering a research topic, you should keep the following criteria in mind.
1.8.1 Importance of Research Topic
One of the criteria to select a research topic is its importance to improve the existing problems.
As a professional, you should think of results that the research yields. Research will not be done
for its own sake. It should give answer to unanswered questions. You have to ask yourself -
“Will this research give answer to the problem I faced in my professional career?” If you think
that your research topic is not helpful to improve the existing problem you faced, you have to
quit it up-You should not exert you effort, time and money.

9
1.8.2 Researchable
The research topic should be one that can effectively be solved in the process of research. You
may be thinking of numerous research topics or problems in your day-to-day teaching endeavor.
But you should be aware of whether or not the problem can be solved through research process.
1.8.3 Originality
There is no point to spend time and exert energy on topics which have already been adequately
investigated by other researchers. Therefore, you have to examine the record of previous studies
on similar and related topics. By so doing, you will have an insight on the gap between your
topic and researches done before. You may also find that it is important to extend the topic
beyond its present limit. A good research should not be duplication. It should be built on
previous research. In this way, you can do original research rather than duplicating others’ work.
1.8.4 Feasibility of the Topic
Feasibility is concerned with the personal aspect of the researcher. There are important issues
you should consider when you choose your research topic. If you answer all of the following
questions “Yes”, it depicts that your topic is feasible. If you say “No” to some or all, you have to
see alternative topic.
 Research competence
o Is the research topic in your area of specialization or field of study?
o Are you well conversant with the area of the topic (theories, concepts, and techniques, etc.)?
 Research interest
o Do you have a genuine interest on the topic?
 Monetary consideration
o Do you have the required financial resources to undertake the research?
 Time consideration
o Do you have adequate time to carry out the research? Page 6
 Administrative consideration
o Are you sure that you can obtain relevant and adequate data on the topic?
o Are you confidant enough that your subjects (participants of the research) are willing to
provide you with information you require?

10
1.8.5 Balance between Specificity and Generality
A research topic should state the problem in general way. At the same time, it should be specific
enough and viable in your particular situation. The balance between generality and specificity
should be kept. You can keep the balance between the two by stating your title as clearly as
possible.
Look at the following examples:
1. Broad topics:
“Quality of Education in Ethiopia”
This topic is vague and does not show the variables to be investigated. You may raise a question
as “what happened to the quality of Education in Ethiopia?” It does not show a direct ion to
which you pursue your research. It can be a good title but not good research topic. Look at the
second topic which is better than this.
 “Factors that Affect the Quality of Education in Ethiopia”
In this research topic, the variables that are going to be investigated are well stated: the first
variable is “factors” which have influence on the second variable “quality of education”.
However, this topic is so broad that a researcher like you cannot adequately research into it. It
cannot be handled by you because it requires you to do it at national level. Therefore, you need
to sharpen it.
2. Narrow topic:
 “Factors that Affect the Quality of Education in Minilik Secondary School with Particular
Reference to Grade Nine”
This topic is very narrow because, on one hand, it tends to study on the broad issue, “quality of
Education”. On the other hand, its target groups are grade nine students of Heto Secondary
School. This broad variable, “quality of Education” needs to be studied with a larger sample size
so that dependable conclusion can be drawn. The following topic seems better than the two.
3. Feasible topic:
 “Factors that Affect Quality of Classroom Instruction in Some Selected High Schools in
Durame Town”
This research topic is feasible in terms of generality and specificity. It is manageable and a
researcher like you can handle it.

11
The factors are to be considered in the selection of a research problem both the criteria external
and personal. External criteria have to do with such matters as novelty and importance for the
field availability of data and method, and institutional or administrative cooperation. Personal
criteria involved such considerations as interest, training, cost and time, etc.
Thus criteria for the selection of the problem suggested by Good and Scates are as follows:
1. Novelty and avoidance of unnecessary duplications.
2. Importance for the field represented and implementation.
3. Interest, intellectual curiosity, and drive.
4. Training and personal qualifications.
5. Availability of data and method.
6. Special equipment and working conditions.
7. Approachability of the sample.
8. Sponsorship and administrative cooperation.
9. Hazards, penalties and handicaps.
10. Cost and returns.
11. Time factor.
1. Novelty and avoidance of unnecessary duplication
The question of novelty or newness is not merely one of duplication of earlier investigations. It
involves the regency of the data summarized especially in the case of survey studies made during
a period of great Economic, Educational and Social change.
2. Importance for the field represented and implementation
This criterion of importance in choice of a problem involves such matters as significance for the
field involved, timelines and practical value in term of application and implementation of the
results. Scientific research in Education, psychology and social sciences in general has an
especially urgent obligation to play a social role rendering service to society and humanity.
3. Interest, intellectual curiosity and drive
One of the personal motives of research most frequently mentioned by scientists themselves is
pure curiosity, accompanied by genuine interest and a derived satisfaction and enjoyment.
4. Availability of data and method
The data under consideration must meet certain standards of accuracy, objectivity and
verifiability.

12
5. Special equipment and working conditions
The major purpose of equipment is to define the process of observation-to provide control of
conditions and accuracy or permanence of recording.
6. Sponsorship and administrative cooperation
It is a common practice for the thesis to be sponsored by a faculty adviser in whose area of
specialization the problem lies.
7. Costs and returns
The candidate must consider carefully her/his own financial resources in the light of such
facilities and assistance as can be provided by the institution.
8. Time factor
As a general rule the minimum amount of graduate work for the Master’s degree is one year, and
for the Doctor’s degree three years.
Historical, experimental case and longitudinal genetic studies frequently require more time than
the several types of normative survey work.
Hildreth Hoke McAshan has proposed an objective guide for judging the merits of a problem.
The following questions may be raised for this purpose.
1. Is the problem really important?
2. Is the problem interesting to others?
3. Is the chosen problem a real problem?
4. Does the problem display originality and creativeness?
5. Am I really concerned with finding the solution?
6. Am I able to state hypotheses from the problem in a testable form?
7. Will I learn something new from this problem?
8. Do I understand the relationship of this specific problem to the broader problem area?
9. Will be able to select a sample from which I can generalize to some population?
10. Will some other intelligent person be able to replicate the study?
11. Will my proposed data-gathering instruments actually give the Information which I want?
12. Is the study, including the application of its results, practical? The number of affirmative
answers should be required for a suitable problem.

13
1.9DEFINING A PROBLEM
Research problem is defined as “a situation that arouses interest, tweaks curiosity, hammers
mind, and raises question for which as yet there are no answers or where there are answer but
still disputes persists” (Abebayehu, et .al 1999,p. 51). Identifying and analyzing a research
problem is the first and crucial step of research process, and statement of the problem is an
inclusive to research problem. Research problem concerns with the functioning of the broader
area of the field studied, whereas statement of the problem is the verbal statement of the
problem. The term “problem” has specific meaning in the world of research. Problem, in
academic world, is not something we need to avoid; rather it is something we seek. Without a
research problem, research is in vain.

Research problem, in general, is a pressing or problematic situation in a specific field of study.

Stating a research problem is among the most important issues in research endeavor. It provides
focus and direct ion for the remainder of the study. A well -written problem statement defines the
problem and helps identify the variables that will be investigated in the study. It is a specific and
accurate synopsis of the overall purpose of the research. The problem statement should:
 describe the context for the study and identifies the general analysis approach.
 show that the problem is critical and needs to be researched.
 show the gap between studies conducted and the current study.
 be presented within a context and that context should be provided and briefly explained,
including a discussion of the theoretical and conceptual framework in which it is embedded.
address the problem showing what its pressing aspects that need attention. It should answer
why this research needs to be conducted.
PTask
1. Write statement of the problems for the three topics you have already identified in the
previous tasks
-- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -
-- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -
2. Please state three sources of a research problem.
-- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- - - - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -
-- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -

14
1.9.1. Sources of Research Problem
Selection of a research problem is not an easy task. It requires much energy, time and effort. The
following are the possible sources from which a research problem can be generated.

1. Personal Experience
Personal experience of a researcher in the field of his specialization is the main source of a
research problem. As a researcher, you may feel something that has gone wrong in your
classroom, school, or in the method of teaching you are applying, etc. These are potential sources
of research problems.
2. Professional Literature
Professional literature in you field of study could be source of research problem. When you read
journals, research reports, books, and the like something may tweak your curiosity. That could be
a source of research problem.
3. Gap between Theory and Practice
As teachers, you may come with a number of theories that can be implemented in your teaching
career. When you put the theory into practice, you may find obscuring situations. So the
impeding situation needs to be investigated and that would be a source of research problem.
4. Contact with Professionals
In situations where professionals meet for discussion or research workshops,there could be
considerable number of issues that need to be researched.
5. Innovations, Technological and Social Changes
Contemporary changes in society, inventions, and technological advances bring with some
unanswered queries. Answers to the queries could be desirable. These are good opportunities for
conducting research.
1.9.2. Sample Statement of Research Problem
A statement of the problem should be:
 A comprehensive statement of what will be studied.
 Unambiguous age 27
 Context for the study is identified and discussed.
 The problem is critical and needs to be researched.
 The problem shows what its pressing aspects that need attention.

15
 The gap between studies conducted before and the current study is shown.
 Discussion of the theoretical and conceptual framework is presented.
Task
Look at the statement of the problem below and identify whether or not the following major
components of a statement of the problem are available.

Title of the research: A study on the communicative competence of English language teachers at
primary schools: with special reference to Hadiya Zone
Statement of the Problem
A number of observations on teaching English at Primary schools show that communicative
competence of English language teachers is not promising. When we look at the teaching -
learning activities in some primary schools, first-cycle and second cycle (grades1-4 and 5-8
respectively) a considerable number of Primary School English language teachers are seen to be
in trouble to utilize different communication techniques that would enable them to get meaning
or their lesson across their students. In this regard a study was conducted at five zones in
Southern Nation, Nationalities and People Regional State (SNNPRS).The findings of the study
show that Primary school teachers are found to be deficient in utilizing communication strategies
(Alemayehu, 2007 p.34). Similar observation was made with graduates of English language on
Teachers Training Colleges. They seem quite deficient in their command of English. They often
resort to their mother tongue when they teach English. The researcher argues that resorting to
mother tongue does not help the learners unless it is done in a certain situation where code
switching is important to make instructions clear or to show equivalent terms of expressions in
students own language. It is the researcher’s beliefs that English has to be taught in English.
Unless, teachers at this level are capable of handling classes in English learners, undoubtedly,
face with great challenges when they join secondary and tertiary education because they are
expected to do more in English. If the students are not at the expected level which is supposed to
be achieved at the end of grade eight, they could hold back the teaching- learning process. Their
teachers may be forced to look for alternative way out, i.e. teaching their lessons in vernacular.
That, finally, would hamper students from relying on themselves in their future academic
development because books and other technological resources are provided more of in English
than other languages. Research on teaching English as a foreign language has been conducted

16
with multidimensional focus. However, there is no source in Ethiopian context that is concerned
with strategic competence of English language teachers, particularly primary school English
language teachers. The researcher believes that studying the strategic competence of teachers
will provide a considerable amount of evidence about communicative competence of the
teachers.

Strategic competence, according to Brown (1987,p 21), depicts the ability of a speaker to send a
message to less able inter-locater in terms of command of language, and it is the ability of a
speaker to maintain communication when he/she is in short of language to communicate.
Therefore, strategic competence is a core construct of communicative competence for a language
teacher, particularly a primary English teacher. This is due to the fact that primary school teacher
are confronted with learners who are less able in their command of language. On the top of all
the result of the study provides with relevant information to the SNNPRS Education Bureau
which manages the training of primary school teachers. It is with this intention that the
researcher embarked on the topic to investigate strategic competence of primary school.

Defining a problem means “To pin-point the problem or defining a problem to reach the core of
the problem i.e. threadbare analysis.”
(a) Need of defining a problem
The definition of a problem serves the following purposes:
1. The definition of a problem sets the direction of the study.
2. The definition reveals the methodology or procedure of the study.
3. The definition helps the researcher to control subjectivity or biases of the researcher.
4. The definition of the problem suggests and specifies the variables to be taken up into the
investigation through a problem involved into so many variables.
5. The-definition makes the research work practicable.
(b) Precautions are to be taken in identifying the problem
The following precautions should be taken into consideration for identifying problem.
1. The words used for defining a problem should have a single meaning.
2. The statement of the problem must be brief but comprehensive.
3. The assumptions are to be recognized for the study.

17
4. The problem should have practical importance in the field of Education.
5. The definition or the statement of the problem should have certain rationale.
(c) Steps in defining a problem
The following steps are to be followed in defining a problem:
1. Researcher should have to develop a conceptual framework of the problem. The conceptual
framework should be such that it can be stated into verbal form.
2. Delimiting the elements of the problem.
3. Classifying the elements in the homogeneous group.
4. Locating the key-points in the conceptual framework.
5. Evaluating the theoretical security of the problem.
6. The final form of the statement can be given into verbal form to a conceptual framework of
the problem.
7. Deciding the practical difficulty in conducting the study.

MEANING OF REVIEW OF LITERATURE

‘Literature” in the context of research does not mean works like poetry, short story or novel. It is
concerned with works you consult in order to understand and investigate your research problem.
A literature review refers to published information in a particular subject area. Review is an
account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. Reviewing
related literature provides a handy guide to a particular topic. It also provides a solid background
for a research paper. Therefore, a comprehensive knowledge of the literature on the field of study
(topic) is desirable for a research.

Nature has made only one thing that is more powerful in the universe and that is called as Human
or Man. Man is the only animal that can take advantage of knowledge which has been preserved
or accumulated through the centuries or since the origin of man. Human knowledge has the three
phases: preservation, transmission and advancement. This fact is of particular importance in
research which operates as a continuous function of ever-closer approximation to the truth.
Practically all human knowledge can be found in books and libraries and money in the banks.
Unlike other animals that must start a new with each generation, man builds upon the

18
accumulated and recorded knowledge of the past. His constant adding to the vast store of
knowledge makes possible progress in all areas of human endeavor. The investigator can ensure
that his problem vacuum and that considerable work has already been done on topics which are
directly related to his proposed investigation.

For any specific research project to occupy this place in the development of a discipline, the
researcher must be thoroughly familiar with both previous theory and research. To assure this
familiarity, every research project in the behavioral sciences, has as one of its early stage, a
review of the theoretical and research literature.

The phrase ‘review of literature’ consists of two words: Review and Literature. The word
‘literature’ has conveyed different meaning from the traditional meaning. It is used with
reference to the languages e.g. Hindi literature, English literature, Sanskrit literature. It includes
subject content: prose, poetry, dramas, novels, stories etc. Here in research methodology the term
literature refers to the knowledge of a particular area of investigation of any discipline which
includes theoretical, practical and its research studies.

The term ‘review’ means to organize the knowledge of the specific area of research to evolve an
edifice of knowledge to show that his study would be an addition to this field. The task of review
of literature is highly creative and tedious because researcher has to synthesize the available
knowledge of the field in a unique way to provide the rationale for his study.

The very words ‘review’ and ‘literature’ have quite different meanings in the historical approach.
In historical research, the researcher does much more than review already published material; he
seeks to discover and to integrate new information which has never been reported and never
considered. The concept and process implied in the term ‘review of literature’ have such
different meanings in historical as compared with survey and experimental research.

Reviewing the literature has two phases. The first phase includes identifying all the relevant
published materials in the problem area and reading that part of it with which we are not
thoroughly familiar. We develop the foundation of ideas and results on which our own study will

19
be built. The second phase of the review of literature involves writing this foundation of ideas
into a section of the research report. This section is for the joint benefit of the researchers and
readers. For the researcher, it establishes the background in the field. For the readers it provides a
summary of the thinking and research necessary for them to understand the study.

2.4.2 NEED OF REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The review of literature is essential due to the following reasons:
1. One of the early steps in planning a research work is to review research done previously in the
particular area of interest and relevant area quantitative and qualitative analysis of this research
usually gives the worker an indication of the direction.
2. It is very essential for every investigator to be up-to-date in his information about the
literature, related to his own problem already done by others. It is considered the most important
prerequisite to actual planning and conducting the study.
3. It avoids the replication of the study of findings to take an advantage from similar or related
literature as regards, to methodology, techniques of data collection, procedure adopted and
conclusions drawn. He can justify his own endeavor in the field.
4. It provides as source of problem of study, an analogy may be drawn for identifying and
selecting his own problem of research. The researcher formulates his hypothesis on the basis of
review of literature. It also provides the rationale for the study. The results and findings of the
study can also be discussed at length. The review of literature indicates the clear picture of the
problem to be solved. The scholarship in the field can be developed by reviewing the literature of
the field.
2.4.3 OBJECTIVES OF REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The review of literature serves the following purposes in conducting research work:
1. It provides theories, ideas, explanations or hypothesis which may prove useful in the
formulation of a new problem.
2. It indicates whether the evidence already available solves the problem adequately without
requiring further investigation. It avoids the replication.
3. It provides the sources for hypothesis. The researcher can formulate research hypothesis on the
basis of available studies.

20
4. It suggests method, procedure, sources of data and statistical techniques appropriate to the
solution of the problem.
5. It locates comparative data and findings useful in the interpretation and discussion of results.
The conclusions drawn in the related studies may be significantly compared and may be used as
the subject for the findings of the study.
6. It helps in developing experts and general scholarship of the investigator in the area
investigated.
7. It contributes towards the accurate knowledge of the evidence or literature in one’s area of
activity is a good avenue towards making oneself. This knowledge is an asset ever afterwards,
whether one is employed in an institution of higher learning or a research organization.

Reviewing the literature has two phases. The first phase includes identifying all the relevant
published materials in the problem area and reading that part of it with which we are not
thoroughly familiar. We develop the foundation of ideas and results on which our own study will
be built. The second phase of the review of literature involves writing this foundation of ideas
into a section of the research report. This section is for the joint benefit of the researchers and
readers. For the researcher, it establishes the background in the field. For the readers it provides a
summary of the thinking and research necessary for them to understand the study.

2.4.2 NEED OF REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The review of literature is essential due to the following reasons:
1. One of the early steps in planning a research work is to review research done previously in the
particular area of interest and relevant area quantitative and qualitative analysis of this research
usually gives the worker an indication of the direction.
2. It is very essential for every investigator to be up-to-date in his information about the
literature, related to his own problem already done by others. It is considered the most important
prerequisite to actual planning and conducting the study.
3. It avoids the replication of the study of findings to take an advantage from similar or related
literature as regards, to methodology, techniques of data collection, procedure adopted and
conclusions drawn. He can justify his own endeavor in the field.

21
4. It provides as source of problem of study, an analogy may be drawn for identifying and
selecting his own problem of research. The researcher formulates his hypothesis on the basis of
review of literature. It also provides the rationale for the study. The results and findings of the
study can also be discussed at length. The review of literature indicates the clear picture of the
problem to be solved. The scholarship in the field can be developed by reviewing the literature of
the field.
2.4.3 OBJECTIVES OF REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The review of literature serves the following purposes in conducting research work:
1. It provides theories, ideas, explanations or hypothesis which may prove useful in the
formulation of a new problem.
2. It indicates whether the evidence already available solves the problem adequately without
requiring further investigation. It avoids the replication.
3. It provides the sources for hypothesis. The researcher can formulate research hypothesis on the
basis of available studies.
4. It suggests method, procedure, sources of data and statistical techniques appropriate to the
solution of the problem.
5. It locates comparative data and findings useful in the interpretation and discussion of results.
The conclusions drawn in the related studies may be significantly compared and may be used as
the subject for the findings of the study.
6. It helps in developing experts and general scholarship of the investigator in the research are
investigated.
7. It contributes towards the accurate knowledge of the evidence or literature in one’s area of
activity is a good avenue towards making oneself. This knowledge is an asset ever afterwards,
whether one is employed in an institution of higher learning or a research organization.

THE FUNCTIONS OF THE REVIEW OF LITERATURE

There are five functions of review of literature:
1. The conceptual frame of reference for the contemplated research.
2. An understanding of the status of research in problem area.
3. Clues to the research approach, method, instrumentation and data analysis.

22
4. An estimate of the probability of success of the contemplated research and the significance or
usefulness of the findings and, assuming the decision is made to continue.
5. Specific information required to interpret the definitions, assumptions, limitations and
hypotheses of research.
SOURCES OF REVIEW OF LITERATURE
There are various sources of literature which may be used for this purpose. These sources can be
broadly classified into these heads. (1) Books and Text-Books material. (2) The Periodical
literature, and (3) General references.
RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design is a distinguishing feature along the research methods and determines the type
of data to be collected, analyzed and interpreted. The type of research design itself is also
determined by the nature of research problems.

A researcher tends to choose a quantitative approach if his/her research problem is basically

viable to quantitative description. However, if the research problem lends itself to qualitative
description, a qualitative approach will be desirable. Under the general classification of
quantitative and qualitative research, there are specific research methods. In this section, we will
discuss some of the research designs which apply to foreign and second language research.
2.1.1. Experimental Research
Experimental research deals with the involvement of a researcher in assigning control group and
experimental group and examines the effect of the experimental manipulation on the dependent
variable or experimental group. Atypical experimental research method uses two groups of
subjects. One of the groups is said to be control group or comparison group and the second group
is experimental group. Participants of the study will be assigned to the two groups on the basis of
random assignment. The purpose is to find out the result of the treatment or independent variable
on the experimental group. In experimental research, a researcher manipulates and observes.
What s/he manipulates and what s/he observes are called variables.
Page 29
Variables refer to any factors or conditions that are changeable or cause for change or source for
change in research undertaking. Variables can be classified as independent, dependent and
extraneous. Independent variable is a variable that is selected or controlled by the researcher, to

23
determine its relationship to the observed outcome of the research. It is also called control,
explanatory, predictor, or manipulated variable. Dependent variable, on the other hand, is a
variable that is being measured as an outcome of the manipulation of the experiment. It is also
called outcome, response, or explained variable. Extraneous variable is a confounding variable
which may have undesirable effect on the dependent variable.

In experimental research, the independent variable is the manipulated variable and the
manipulation is observed on the dependent variable. Independent variable is thought to have an
effect on the dependent variable. For example, a researcher intends to do an experimental
research on the impact of continuous assessment on English language proficiency. He divided his
students (subjects) into two sections, experimental and control group. Each group is comprised
of twenty- five students. He taught both sections using the similar teaching method for one
semester, but the assessed one of the sections “experimental group” frequently. He gave them
frequent class works, frequent home works, two assignments, two tests, two quizzes, a mid-
exam, and a final exam that assess their spoken as well as written language ability. Moreover, he
evaluated the performance of each student and kept record of their scores. However, he taught
the second group in the same way as the experimental group but assessed them by giving only a
mid-exam and a final exam. Finally, both groups were made take the same examination to
evaluate their language proficiency. Accordingly, the researcher would likely conclude that
students who had been assessed continuously (experimental group) were found to be better in
their language proficiency when they were evaluated compared to the control group.
Page 30
The independent variable in the aforementioned example is continuous assessment (class work,
homework, assignment, test, quiz, mid exam, and final exam). The dependent variable is the
English language proficiency (outcome of the study). This confirms that dependent variable is
the result of independent variable and independent variable is the cause for the dependent
variable.

In the above example, the researcher has to ensure that the participants of his study do not have
any language exercises except what he has given them. If they had any other exposure that would
help them improve their language proficiency such as watching English films, reading

24
magazines, newspaper or fiction written in English, the outcome of the research may not be
because of the continuous assessment (independent variable). If this is so, the extra activities the
participants engaged in are extraneous variables that would have been controlled.
To sum up, in experimental research:
 There are two groups known as experimental group and control group.
 The experimental group is one which receives the treatment or independent variable.
 The control group never receives the treatment that the experimental group receives. Page 31
 The control group is used to compare the outcome.
 The researcher manipulates an independent variable to observe the outcome (dependent
variable).
 The researcher should be aware of any possible extraneous variable that affects his result.
 Extraneous variable should be controlled since they have influences on selection of
participants, the procedures, the statistics and likely to affect the outcome.
 The researcher should measure the outcome so that he finds out the influence of the
independent variable on the dependent variable. In other words, he should measure the cause and
result relationship.
Task
Based on the above example answer the following quest ions:
1. What is the independent variable?
-- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- -
-- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- -
2. What is the dependent variable?
-- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - -- - - - -- - -- - -- -- - -- --
-- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- -
3. What is the difference between experimental group and control group?
-- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- -
-- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - - - - -- --

2.1.2. Quasi -Experimental Research

Quasi -experimental research is a variant of experimental research, but it is different from the
true experimental research in that participants (subjects of the study) will not be assigned

25
randomly to experimental and control group. Quasi -experimental research uses the intact group
(naturally assigned group) to manipulate a treatment (independent variable) and observe the
outcome (dependent variable). For example, an experimenter desires to examine the impact of
study skill training and study skill orientation on grade nine students’ achievement. He took two
sections (say section A&B) of grade nine students. He did not assign students into the two sect
ions randomly rather he used the sections as they were assigned by the school in the beginning of
the academic year. One of the sections is experimental group but the second group is a
comparison group, not control group.

First, he administered a pre -test to both sections to examine their achievement. Next, he trained
section A on study skill for thirty days for an hour a day. But he oriented section B on study skill
for ten hours. Then, he administered a post-test to both sections to compare the impact of the
training and the orientation on the students’ achievement. Later, he compared the results of pre-
test and post-test of both sections. Finally, he found out that those who took study skill training
showed significant difference in their achievement and concluded that study skill training has
more impact on academic achievement than study skill orientation. In this example, we can see
that:
 Experimental groups are grade nine sections ‘A’ and ‘B’.
 Section ‘A’ is experimental group and section ‘B’ is comparison group.
 The independent variables are study skill training and study skill orientation.
 The dependent variable is students’ academic achievement (improvement of students’ results).
However, you should be aware of extraneous factors such as maturation, select ion, mortality and
interaction of selection with other threats would be responsible threats that may change the
outcome. Therefore, you have to be careful to control extraneous variables.
Maturation: individuals change during the time and may learn something different from what
has been presented or offered in the training.
Selection: Some individuals may be brighter and can do better even if they do not get the
training.
Mortality: the number of the experiment groups may not be equal when the experiment used
the existing class assignment. Some might have also dropped out in the course of the training.
This may have an impact in the overall result (outcome).

26
From the discussion above you can understand that quasi-experimental study lacks key
components of a true experimental study. There is no random assignment of experimental and
control group. We hope in the given example above you have seen that there is no random
assignment of subjects into groups, but there are experimental and comparison groups. In quasi -
experimental study, it is also possible to do an experiment without assigning comparison group.
A researcher can use only a single group to implement the treatment (independent variable. In
this case, he uses pre-test and post-test in the group to compare whether or not the result has
come due to the independent variable. For example, the researcher intends to observe the impact
of study skill training on students’ achievement. Thus, first he administers a pre-test to assess
achievement of the students on a certain topic and record the score. Then, he trains the group for
a specific time and administers a post -test on certain topic to compare the scores obtained in the
pre -test and the post-test. Finally, he comes to conclusion on whether or not the training has an
impact.

2.1.3. Survey Research

Survey research is a type of descriptive research. It involves conducting a detail description of a
phenomenon. It is capable of gathering information from large samples or an entire population
(census). Survey research is both exploratory and confirmatory. It is exploratory because
relationships and patterns of variables are explored. It is also confirmatory in which causal
relationship or hypothesis is tested.

A survey researcher, as with other researchers, should consider prerequisites to conduct a survey.
He has to specify the exact purpose of the research, determine the population, and ensure the
availability of resources (material as well as human).Survey researcher is different from
experimental researchers in that he does not experimentally manipulate the conditions. He
describes phenomenon in the data as he gathered. Survey researcher does either cross- sectional
or longitudinal survey. In cross -sectional survey, data are collected at one point in time from a
selected sample to represent a large population.
Longitudinal survey involves procedure of collecting data about a phenomenon with the same
population, and changes in cohort group or sub populations of the same individuals over time.

27
The participants may be different or the same in longitudinal survey. There are assumptions or
guiding principles for employing survey research:
 Survey responses reflect reality of the respondents to a great extent possible. If a respondent is
asked about a phenomenon, it is assumed that he/she will tell as it is.
 Survey research is assumed to depict the nature of the phenomenon or research problem at the
time of investigation.
 Survey researcher assumes that all respondents understand survey questions in the same way
unless there is ambiguity in questionnaire items, culturally biased language or difficulty in
reading comprehension.
Page 34
2.1.4. Case Study
A case study is an in-depth and multi faceted exploration of complex issues in real life settings. It
is an in depth investigation of individuals, social units, organizations, processes, programs,
events and the like. A case study gives anaccount of what the case behind a certain happenings or
observed behavior maybe. In case study, a researcher collects data about the past, the present and
other environmental factors that at tribute to a research problem. The focus of case study lies on
the occurrence and development of a certain happening or a research problem. Case researcher
makes an in-depth and intensive study of a limited number of participants or limited
geographical representative cases. It is narrower in scope but it is more exhaustive. Case study
gives more detailed information about research problems than other methods like survey
research. Exploratory, descriptive and explanatory case studies are the variants of case study.
Exploratory case study sets to explore any phenomenon in data which serves as a point of
interest to the researcher. For instance, a researcher conducting exploratory case study on
students reading process may ask general questions, such as “Do students use any strategies
when they read a text? ” and “ If so, how often? ”. These general questions are meant to open up
the door for further examination of the phenomenon observed. In exploratory case study, prior
fieldwork and small scale data collection may be conducted beforethe research quest ion and
hypothesis are proposed. On the other hand, descriptive case study sets to describe the natural
phenomena that occur withinthe data in question. For instance, the researcher poses as
‘whatstrategies the student uses and how he uses them. In this kind of case study, the researcher
begins with a descriptive theory to support the descript ion of the phenomenon or story.

28
Explanatory case study examines the data closely both at a surface and deep level in order to
explain the phenomena in the data. For instance, a researcher may ask the reason as to why the
student uses an inferring strategy in reading. On the basis of the data, the researcher may then
form a theory and set to test this theory.

Task
Suppose that you are interested to conduct a research on “vocabulary learning strategies of
grade five students of your school”. Which one of the following research methods do you think is
appropriate? Why?
a. Experimental research
b. Quasi -experimental research
c. Survey research
-- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - - - - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -
-- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -
-- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - -- -- - -- - -- - -- -- - -- - -- -- - --age
35
2.1.5. Ethnography
The term ethnography literally means “Writing about groups of people”(Creswell, 2007 p.461).
Ethnography is characterized by first-hand, naturalistic, sustained observation and participation
in a particular social setting (Hinkel,2005 p.179). Ethnographic research is used to discover
knowledge that exists within a community. Ethnographers explore existing knowledge in a
community by understanding what people do, say and believe. Therefore, ethnographic research
requires a researcher develop a closer relationship with the participants of the study. An
ethnographer commonly selects key informants who are knowledgeable and have richest insight
about the culture of the target group (population) and the issue of the research. Ethnographers
talk with key informants informally many times so that they understand how the informants
perceive and interpret events or activities. Ethnographic research requires personal commitment
of a researcher as the main objective of the research is to find out the knowledge embedded in
the community from the perspective of the participants of the research.
Data in ethnographic research is often largely based on observer’s notes, logs, diaries, etc. Other
data may also be found in items such as published and unpublished documents, papers, books,

29
public records, letters, photographs, videos and assorted artifacts. For example, you may tend to
explore oral language used at mourning ceremony when elders in Konso pass away. To do such a
research, you should at tend the ceremony and record the event. You need also to get informants
who tell you about the cultural mourning and burial activities and the languages used. After
doing a thorough exploration of a number of similar events, you will be able to deduce the
language used in such ceremony.

MEANING AND DEFINITION OF SAMPLING

Sampling is indispensable technique of behavioral research; the research work cannot be
undertaken without use of sampling. The study of the total population is not possible and it is
also impracticable. The practical limitation: cost, time and other factors which are usually
operative in the situation stand in the way of studying the total population. The concept of
sampling has been introduced with a view to making the research findings economical and
accurate.
The research design is based on the sampling of the study. A good research design provides
information concerning with the selection of the sample population treatments and controls to be
imposed. Generalizability of the research findings is, of course, dependent upon the sampling
procedures followed. An ideally either a representative or random sample would be desirable to
provide maximum information about the generalizability of research data.
FUNCTIONS OF POPULATION AND SAMPLING
Research work is guided by inductive thinking. The researcher proceeds from specificity to
generality. The sample observation is the specific situation, which is applied to the population, it
is the general situation. The sampling is the fundamental to all the statistical techniques and
statistical analysis. The measures of a sample are known as statistics and measures of a
population are termed as parameters. Mean, Standard deviation and Coefficient of Correlation of
sample observations are known statistics and Mean S.D. and Coefficient of Correlation of a
population are called parameters. Generally parameters are estimated on the basis of sample
statistics. The accuracy of the parameters depends on sample representativeness or statistics. In
research work generalization is made by estimating parameters on the basis of sample statistics .

30
Advantages of Sampling Technique according to R.A. Fisher
Fisher has enumerated the following four advantages of sampling technique:
1. It has a greater adaptability.
2. It is an economical technique.
3. It has high speed for generalization.
4. It has a greater precision and accuracy in the observation.
Advantages of Sampling Technique according to W.G. Cocharan. He has given the following
four advantages of sampling technique:
1. This technique has great accuracy.
2. It has a greater speed in conducting a research work.
3. It has a greater scope in the field of research.
4. It reduces the cost of observation or data collection.
The Need for Sampling
It would be impractical, impossible or unimportant to test, interview or observe each member of
the population and come to a conclusion about a certain research problem. It may consume
unnecessary time, energy and money. Therefore, it is desirable to take representative samples of
a definite population to conduct a research. Taking samples lessens unnecessary costs we may
pay. As long as representative samples are available, data can be collected from representative
samples to generalize about the larger population.

Samples are selected on the basis of the objective of the research and the characteristics of the
population. The objective of the research and the characteristics of the population determine
which and how many samples to be selected. In selecting representative samples; therefore, a
researcher goes through the following stages:
i. Determining the population: define the population of interest, i.e. students, schools etc.
ii. Determining the sample frame: prepare list of a complete population if the size is manageable
iii. Selecting representative samples: identify representative samples.

31
Sampling Designs
Probability sampling and non-probability sampling are the most common designs in Educational
research as well as in second/ foreign language research. Probability sampling is based on
random selecting of samples where each unit of the population will have equal chance of being
selected. Inclusion or exclusion in the sample is the matter of chance, whereas in non-probability
sampling design, samples do not have non-zero probability of being selected for the sample. In
non-probability sampling, some members of the population do not have equal chance to be
selected. Let us look on the types of sampling in detail.
Probability Sampling
Probability sampling is a process of sample select ion in which every unit in the population has
non-zero probability of being included in the sample. The major types of probability sampling
designs are simple random and complex random sampling.
a) Simple Random Sampling
i. Lottery Method
In lottery method, the researcher first determines the sample size. Then, he gives serial numbers
to the list of the population. Each member of the population is represented by a number which
corresponds to his/her name. Next, the researcher prepares equal sized paper and writes the
numbers that represent the members in the population. Then, the pieces will be rolled. Later, the
rolled pieces of paper are mixed and drawn until the specified number of samples is obtained.
For example, in the research topic “attitudes of grade ten students toward televised lesson”, the
researcher lists 1000 students and represents them by number 1-1000. Then he rolls the lot and
picks the lot until he obtains 200students, i.e. the sample size.
ii. Coin Tossing
If the size of the population is fairly small, say 100, and the sample size is 20,the researcher may
use toss a coin to select the sample units. First, he has to determine whether or not head or tail
should represent the sample to be selected. Then, he tosses until the required number of samples
is obtained. You can also select samples in the same procedure by throwing a dice.
iii. Random Numbered Method
Random numbered method is one of the simple random methods in which samples are selected
by using random number table (see the table below). After a researcher determined the sample
frame (complete list of the population), he assigns a number for each unit of the population. For

32
example, if the researcher wants to select 20 samples from a population of 99, the researcher
assigns numbers from 01 to 99 for each unit of the population. Then, he reads in any one direct
ion in the table: vertically, horizontally or diagonally. If a number read corresponds to the
number written on the list (01 -99), then that member will be chosen until the required sample is
obtained. If a number that exceeds 99 appears, it will be ignored. Teppet’s (1927) table of
random numbers is popular.
Complex Random Sampling
Simple random sampling sometimes is called unrestricted sampling because each element of the
population has an equal and independent chance of being included in the sample. However, there
are situations in which simple random sampling may be impractical. One of the reasons is that if
the population from which samples is selected is so large, it would be difficult to use simple
random sampling as a method of select ion. The second reason is that if the population is diverse
in nature or composition, using simple random sampling will be inappropriate to select
representative samples. Therefore, researchers use complex random sampling methods instead.
The methods are: 41
i. Systematic Sampling
Systematic sampling is used when the size of the population is so large but manageable to get
complete list. A method of systematic sampling in a population of large size can approximate
simple random sampling. For example, if you have a list of 2600 students, i .e. the population for
which you will generalize your findings and decide to select 500 representative samples, then
you select every 7 individual in the list. The procedure of select ion takes the following steps:
th

a. Get a complete list of the population.

b. Determine the sample size.
c. Determine the sampling fraction dividing the total population by the sample size.
In the above example, you have 2500 students, the size of the population, in a list . You have
also determined the sample size i .e. 500. Then, divide 2500 by500.

Key:
N= Total population n = sample size Z = required size
Thus, Z =Z = 5

33
Therefore, you select a student at random at every 5 th interval. Your first random selection should
be between1-5. Say, you have randomly selected 4 as the initial number. Then, the next numbers
will be 4, 9, 14, 19, 24, 29… until you get 500 samples.
ii. Stratified Sampling
Stratified sampling is used to select representative samples when the population to be sampled
consisted of subpopulations (sub groups) that have different characteristics. When a researcher
employs this technique, he should divide the population into sub groups (strata) on the basis of
similar characteristics. Then he draws at random a predetermined number of units (samples).
Sampling in stratified technique can be of two types: proportionate and disproportionate
stratified sampling. Before we discuss what each refer to, let us see how stratified sampling in its
general sense is done. For example, a researcher wanted to study attitudes of high school
students toward sex education. The population is 800 and the sample size is 80. Here he divided
the students into different grade levels such as grade 9, 10, 11and 12. Then he classified these
grades into male and female (grade 9 male, Female), (grade 10,male, Female) etc. This shows
that he has stratified the samples into grade levels and sex.
iii. Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling refers to selection of sample units as a whole. In cluster sampling, groups of
elements or clusters are selected. Cluster sampling is not about selecting individual members in
the population. Rather it is a selection of groups of elements. Say, a researcher was interested to
study language proficiency of high School English language teachers in Ethiopia. In this case, it
is impractical to test or provide questionnaire to all English Language Teachers in Ethiopia. The
teachers are found in different regions, zones, woredas and schools. Therefore, the researcher
used these “natural” groups as clusters. He used nine regions (Oromya, Amhara, Tigray, SNNP,
Benishangul, Harari, Diredawa, Addis Ababa and Gambela). From this nine clusters, he selected
randomly (using lottery method) three of them (Tigray, Diredawa and SNNP).

Then he selected zones, woredas and schools from each regional state using random sampling
method. Finally, he employed appropriate measurement techniques to collect data. From this
example, you can understand that cluster is a division of smaller, non- overlapping area. Cluster
sampling is different from stratified sampling in that in cluster sampling, a researcher selects not
individual members with similar characteristics instead he selects smaller area that exists

34
“naturally”. Then it follows by simple random sampling or other methods of sampling to select
individual samples. In short, when you use cluster sampling method,
define the clusters to be used; for example, schools, institutions, etc.
develop the sampling frame (list of clusters).
 select a sample of clusters using either simple random sampling or systematic sampling.
 select a sample of elements from the clusters chosen.
Page 46
Iv. Multistage Sampling
Multistage sampling is a further development of cluster sampling. In multiage sampling, a
researcher does these:
 determine the population.
 determine sample frame.
 determine sample size.
 decide the clusters; for example, regions in Ethiopia.
 determine clusters from which sub clusters are selected; for example, region, zone, woreda,
School.
 Select sub-clusters randomly.
For example:
- two zones from a region
- three woredas from each zone (the two zones)
- one high school from the woredas (the three woredas)
 Select teachers proportionately from the schools.
When you have small number of clusters and small number of elements in your site, it is
advisable to include all in the study.
Page 47
To sum up, complex random sampling is known as restricted sampling. It is because all
individuals in the population do not have equal chance of being selected as a member of samples.
Random selection is concerned with selecting individual units for a sample from a population,
whereas random assignment refers to the assignment of experimental and control group in
experimental research. Random assignment of the groups is done after the individual members
are selected.

35
. Non-Probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling design is one of the most frequently used designs in quantitative
research. It is different from probability sampling in that it does not give equal chance for
individuals to be selected as sample units. In non-probability sampling, a researcher relies on
his/her experience or judgments to select samples from the population. Samples, in non-
probability sampling, are selected with the assumption that some members of a population are
not considered to be very important. Some of the prime reasons /conditions for using non-
probability sampling are:
o if there is no access to the entire population from which representative samples can be selected
o if the results of the study is not so important to make generalization to the population.
o if there is limited number of population available to the study. In this case, the entire
population will be taken as a source of information.
The most commonly used non-probability samplings are:
a) Comprehensive sampling
b) Convenient sampling /purposive sampling
c) Quota sampling
d) Snowball sampling
a) Comprehensive Sampling
Comprehensive sampling is a type of non-probability sampling technique in which all the
populations are used to elicit information. For example, suppose there are twenty students who
have at tended study skill training; you are interested to investigate the impact of the training on
the students’ achievement. Here, you do not need to select samples. It is advisable and
appropriate to include all of them in the research.
b) Convenient Sampling (Purposive Sampling)
In convenient sampling, a researcher selects those who are willing and available individuals. The
sample is drawn on the basis of opportunity.
c) Quota Sampling
Quota sampling is used when the population has different subgroups (strata), but it is not
possible to get a complete list of each stratum. Therefore, a researcher decides certain number
from each subgroup (strata) to be included in the sample.

36
d) Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling is a type of non-probability sampling technique in which a small group of
people who are appropriate to respond to a research problem identify other respondents they
believe to be appropriate to give information about the research problem. Hence, data is collected
from the referrals who are also asked to identify other people like them. The respondents are
selected based on certain criteria. For example, suppose you inclined to study a language spoken
by few people in South Omo Zone in Southern Nations, Nationalities and People Regional State
(SNNPR). Initially, you have got only two elders who speak the language. Then you at tempted
to get more informants about the language so that your first informants (the two elders) informed
you other three people in their village who speak the language. Now you have got five
informants. Later, the new informants also informed you another three individuals who speak the
language. Now you have eight informants to gather information for your research. This type of
sampling is known as snowball sampling.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE

The following are the main characteristics of a good sample:
1. A good sample is the true representative of the population corresponding to its properties. The
population is known as aggregate of certain properties and sample is called sub-aggregate of the
universe.
2. A good sample is free from bias, the sample does not permit prejudices the learning and
preconception, imaginations of the investigator to influence its choice.
3. A good sample is an objective one; it refers objectivity in selecting procedure or absence of
subjective elements from the situation.
4. A good sample maintains accuracy. It yields an accurate estimates or statistics and does not
involve errors.
5. A good sample is comprehensive in nature. This feature of a sample is closely linked with
true-representativeness. Comprehensiveness is a quality of a sample which is controlled by
specific purpose of the investigation. A sample may be comprehensive in traits but may not be a
good representative of the population.
6. A good sample is also economical from energy, time and money point of view.

37
7. The subjects of good sample are easily approachable. The research tools can be administered
on them and data can be collected easily.
8. The size of good sample is such that it yields accurate results. The probability of error can be
estimated.
9. A good sample makes the research work more feasible.
10. A good sample has the practicability for research situation.
DATA COLLECTIO AND ANALYSIS
DATA GATHERING INSTRUMENTS
Data collection is an important consideration in research undertaking. Data for a research are
collected by a number of techniques. In this section, the common types of data gathering
instruments will be discussed.
3.2 Types of Data
Data collection is the accumulation of evidences that enable the research to analyze, interpret and
come up with a conclusion about a research topic. One can classify types of data based on the
kind of research, and source of data type.

We have discussed the types of research as quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods.
Quantitative research deals with numbers whereas qualitative research is concerned with words.
Mixed method, as the name suggests, is the combination of the two methods. Some sort of
information is numerical in nature and expressed in number such as age, income, height, weight,
etc while others are expressed in words like strategies of learning vocabulary. The quantitative
data like these are collected from two data sources: primary and secondary data.

3.2.1 Primary Data

Primary data are original information or evidences collected by the investigator. For example,
data that are collected from a student about his learning experiences, study habit and his attitude
toward learning English is called primary data.
Primary data include:

38
1. Personal documents
Personal diary
Autobiography
Contract
Letters
Diaries
2. Official documents
News paper
Magazine Page 23
Bulletin
Minute
Court records
Census report
3. Eye witness
4. Artifacts
5. On the spot records (films, photographs)
3.2.2 Secondary Data
Secondary data are second hand descriptions of original sources. For example, data collected
from school record and register about students’ performance is called secondary source.
Examples of secondary data are:
Research report
History books
Newspaper report of an event not written by eye witness
Biographies
Secondary data are not collected from original sources. Therefore, there is always a quest ion of
data pertinence and quality. Secondary data, originally, is collected not for our purpose. It was
collected for other purposes. Hence, we need to scrutinize the importance of the data for our
purpose. It is advisable to get firsthand information as much as possible, but if primary source is
not possible to obtain, it would be good, if not better, to u se secondary sources. The question of
data quality is the second issue to discuss. How much is the reported material reliable? How

39
dependable the originators of the sources are? How expert are they in the area? It is also very
important to notice the age of the secondary data. Old data are not good to use as resources.

3.3 Instruments for Data Collection

1. QUESTIONNAIRE
Questionnaire is a formalized schedule that serves to collect data from respondents of a research.
It is made up of set of questions laid on a paper in a definite order. The purpose of designing a
questionnaire is to get data from participants of a research. When you design a questionnaire,
you have to be clear with that you are intruding to the life of the respondents because in one way
or other, you are making the respondent answer your question. Therefore, when you prepare the
questionnaire, you have to be considerate and take the following into your attention.
i. Request for cooperation
At the beginning of the paper, you have to clearly state the purpose of the questionnaire and
request for respondent’s help.
ii. Provide clear instruction
Write clear instruction how you want the respondent to answer the questions.
Types of questionnaire
Questionnaire can be classified on the basis of the nature of questions. There are two types of
questionnaire: open ended and close ended. Page 59
1. Open Ended Questionnaire
Open-ended questionnaire consists of a series of quest ions which do not provide specific
alternatives for respondents to choose or write their answers. This type of questionnaire has its
own advantage and disadvantage. As an advantage, open- ended questionnaire gives opportunity
for the respondents to express their views without limitation. Their views may even be divergent
from the researcher’s expectation and it provides the researcher with an insight.

On the other hand open-ended questionnaire is time taking for the respondent to reply and for the
researcher to code responses. For example, some responses may not be clear to understand, some
respondents hand writing may not be legible and some respondents may write too briefly so that
it would not be easy to understand.

40
2. Close Ended Questionnaire
Close-ended questionnaire consists of series of questions that give alternative answers for
respondents to choose. Close-ended equations are better than open-ended questions in that they
are easy for respondents to answer and they are easy for the researcher to code. They are not as
time taking as open-ended questions, but close-ended questions confine respondents to give
responses from only the given alternatives. The respondents may have ideas other than the given
alternatives.
To sum up, when you prepare questionnaire you should take the following considerations:
Do not ask memory questions that respondents may find it difficult to remember.
 Do not ask knowledge questions that require respondents to search for information.
 Do not ask sensitive questions that offend your respondents.
 Do not give clues to you questions that respondents can easily answer based on the clues.
For example, “Is it not good to watch films to improve listening abilities?’’. The language of the
question may lead the respondents to say, “Yes.”Age 60
 Do not use ambiguous words in your alternatives. For example, words like sometimes, a
certain amount and a good number of are ambiguous and imprecise. What does ‘sometime’, ‘a
certain amount’ and ‘a good number of’ mean? They are ambiguous.
 Do not construct double questions. For example, “do you enjoy spoken and writing classes?’
Suppose some respondents enjoy spoken class but not writing class, or the vice-versa.
It has a connotation on the overall information gathered. Therefore, questions should not be
doubled.
Finally, after you constructed your questions, the remaining task will be sequencing the
questions. You can use the following suggestion as a guideline:
 Use simple and interesting opening questions
 Ask general questions first
 Ask uninteresting and difficult questions later
 Arrange questions in logical order (Abebayehu, et .al 1999,p.157)age
2. INTERVIEW
Interview is a means of data gathering instrument in which the interviewee (the subject or the
participant) gives the intended information to the interviewer (researcher) in face-to- face
conversation.

41
Types of Interviews
Interview can be classified into ‘structured’ and ‘unstructured’.
1. Structured Interviews
In structured interview the order of quest ions provided to the respondents are determined in
advance and questions are asked in the same order to all the respondents. It takes the form of
questionnaire or checklist (schedule) that is going to be completed by the interviewer
(researcher) in face-to- face conversation. Structured interview does not have room for flexible
presentation of questions. The interviewer also does not have freedom to paraphrase or rephrase
the questions and add extra questions based on the response of the respondents. P
a2. Unstructured Interview
It is uncontrolled, unguided, nondirective, and flexible type of presenting questions to an
interviewee (respondent). Though unstructured interview is flexible in terms of arrangement of
questions, adding new questions and the like, the series of questions to be asked are determined
and sequenced in advance. The term unstructured interview is used interchangeably with in-
depth interviews, informal conversational interview, non-standardized interview and
ethnographic interview.
The interviewer has room for paraphrasing and rephrasing the questions. He can also add some
new questions related to the research topic. He generates questions based on the responses from
the interviewee.ge
3. OBSERVATION
Observation is a means of eliciting information from subjects of a research. Observation as data
collection method is classified in various ways. It is classified in terms of the setting of
observation, process of observation, utilization of checklist and involvement of observer
(Abebayehu, et .al, 1999 pp67-69).
Types of Observation
1. Natural or Contrived Observation
Natural observation involves observing behaviors of subjects of a study in their natural setting. It
is likely to be advantageous over contrived observation in that during natural observation,
subjects of the study are expected to show the true behaviors. Observing particular traits of
delinquent students while they are in school environment is an example of natural observation.

42
On the other hand, contrived observation refers to observing the subject of a study in artificial
setting (environment).
2. Disguised or Undisguised Observation
Disguised and undisguised observation deal with whether or not the subjects of the study are
aware of being observed. If the subjects of the study are aware of being observed, it is said to be
undisguised but if they are not aware of being observed, it is disguised. It is assumed that people
behave differently if they know they are observed. For example, to study classroom management
of a teacher, if the observer is in the class of the observed teacher, it is assumed that the teacher
behaves differently. Therefore, disguised observation is preferable approach to undisguised
observation.
3. Structured or Unstructured Observation
Structured and unstructured observations are concerned with whether or not the behavior to be
observed is already identified. If the observed behavior is identified, structured, the observer’s
duty will be how frequently the behavior is exhibited. For example, you are interested to study
behaviors of top scoring students in English in all classes you teach. Then you prepared the
following checklist, and observed the behaviors of the learners for one semester.
4. Participant or Non-Participant Observation
Participant observation is concerned with the engagement of the observer in the activities to be
observed, whereas in non-participant observation, the observer is not part of the observed
activity. In participant observation, the observer takes part in the activities which the subjects of
the study are engaged in. His /her role could be active participant, attentive listener, or any other
role. The degree of participation may vary. For example, to study the participation of students in
group work, you can be part of the group work activity, and observe how students are
participating. The recording of observation can be made either simultaneously when the act ion
is observed or after observation. If the situation is conducive to record what is observed, it would
be good to do it soon, but if you think that the observed participants may act differently, you
should record your observation at the end of the activities while the details are fresh.
To recap, observation is one of the methods of data collect ion in which an observer prepares a
checklist (except unstructured observation) to observe a phenomena and record happenings.
Observation can be supplemented by mechanical observation such as camera.

43
4. TEST
Test is one of the measurements used to measure knowledge, skills and attitudes of respondents
so that conclusion is made about the research problem. Test is a collection of test items or tasks
which show samples of intended achievement. Success or failure in a test is shown with the
number of items or tasks that are combined as a test. Researchers administer tests, commonly,
during their experimental studies. They give pretest to assign experimental and control groups.
They also use protest to understand participants’ current status before the manipulation of
independent variable, say a new teaching method. Later, they administer a post -test to compare
the outcome shown due to the manipulation of independent variable. It can be standardized test
or self-made test.
5. DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
Documents are written-records. Document analysis is a form of data gathering method in which
documents are analyzed and interpreted. Document analysis involves coding contents into
themes, analyzing, and interpreting them. Example of documents includes written records of
students, notebooks, exercise books, written exercises etc.
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
Reliability and validity are the two most important characteristics of measurement procedures in
research undertaking. Let us see the essence of the concepts in detail.
Reliability
Reliability refers to the extent to which data collecting techniques (questionnaire, interview, test,
observation, etc.) produce the same result on repeated trials. It shows consistency of scores over
time across raters. In determining reliability of a data collecting technique, we may make
repeated measurements, or we may calculate statistically what is likely to happen if we were to
make repeated measures, based on an analysis of the correlation between parts of our
measurement. Reliability is a prerequisite for measurement of validity.
Validity
Validity of a measurement technique and its reliability are the two most important issues of
measurement quality. A measurement technique should be both reliable and valid so that
dependable data will be collected. These two issues should be well thought of before data is
collected. In this section, we will see validity in terms of measurement techniques and validity in
terms of subject (participants).

44
Results and Discussions
Results
In the results section, present the information that is significant, i .e. the information that leads to
conclusions about the investigation. The data originally collected should be converted by
calculation or statistical analysis to information form in the report. Large amounts of data should
not be included in the Results sect ion; rather they can be included in the appendix.
The following are some of the guidelines for writing the results section:
 Draw the graphs and tables from the data recorded.
 Write the text. Graphs and tables should be supplemented with explanation and justification.
Some guidelines for writing the text are:
oState the results briefly: Don’t repeat the data in the tables.
oWrite something about each figure and table.
oRefer to each one in the text by its figure or table number. Page 86
 Do not discuss the results, just present them. The place for comparing the data with theory and
for interpreting them is in the next section named ‘Discussion’.

b. Discussion
In the Discussion, comment on the results and interpret them in relation to the objectives of the
work. The guidelines for writing a discussion part are as follows:
 Compare the results with values from references and then discuss the differences.
 Comment on the form of the graphs and the pattern of the results. Do they match the
expectations? Do they show unexpected variations?
This part is discussed further in the section on ‘Data Presentation and Interpretation in A Report’
below.
Conclusions
This sect ion is as important as the abstract. The fundamentals of the work can be understood
from this sect ion. The following are the guidelines for writing a conclusions section:
 Make sure to call it Conclusions and not Conclusion.
 There should be a series of conclusions that is drawn in the discussion section of the report.
Each one must be drawn directly and logically from the findings. It should be as precise as
possible.

45
 It is ideal to list the conclusions either bulleted or numbered.
 Start the list with the most important conclusions that is drawn from the study to the leastones.
 Make each point as concise as possible.
 All the conclusions listed under this section should have already been pointed out and
discussed somewhere else in the report.
Recommendations
Give recommendations for future work or planning. Present this sect ion as a bulleted or
numbered list, with each recommendation as a concise statement.
Proposal Writing
After an agreement on your research topic, what your research supervisor would ask you is to
come up with your own research proposal (Skeletal Framework). A research proposal is a
document that presents a plan of the research for reviews or evaluation.
Benefits of a Proposal
Bowden (2008, pp 9-26) and Lodico, et al. (2010, p 411) have stated that the objective in writing
a proposal is to describe what you will do, why it should be done, how you will do it , and what
result you expect. Proposals describe the processes and procedures that will be used by the
researcher and allow an opportunity to obtain feedback from colleagues before the study is
implemented.

Being clear about these things from the beginning will help you complete your thesis or senior
essay in a timely fashion. A vague, weak or fuzzy proposal can lead to a long, painful, and often
unsuccessful thesis writing exercise. A clean, well thought -out proposal forms the backbone for
the thesis itself and is the key to effective report writing.

According to Bowden (2008, p 9-26), there are a number of significant benefits of a skeletal
framework. In particular, it will enable the writer to:
 have an overview of the entire report
 be sure there is no misunderstanding over the Terms of Reference
 be reminded of what information must be collected, what is already available and what is not
needed
 order his or her thoughts before considering how they should be expressed

46
 appreciate the significance of, and the relationship between the various items of information
that will be gathered
 identify any gaps in coverage or logic, and
 maintain a sense of perspective while gathering this information and later, when writing the
report.
Elements of a Proposal
The structures of a proposal are identical with a report. With the addition of data analysis and
interpretation, your proposal will probably become your thesis. A good thesis proposal hinges on
a good idea. Once you have a good idea, you can draft the proposal in an evening. Getting good
idea hinges on familiarity with the topic. This assumes a longer preparatory period of reading,
observation, discussion, and incubation.
 Read everything you can in your area of interest.
 Figure out what are the important and missing parts of our understanding.
 Figure out how to build/discover those pieces.
 Live and breathe the topic.
 Talk about it with anyone who is interested.
 Then, just write the important parts as the proposal. Filling in the things that we do not know
and that will help us know more: that is what research is all about.
Most proposals in the social sciences and humanities provide the following information in the
order set forth roughly:
1) Title Page
2) Introduction
a. The background of the problem
b. Statement of the problem
c. Research Objectives
d. Research questions
e. Scope of the study
f. Significance of the study
g. Operational definitions

47
3) Method and procedures
a. Subjects and sampling techniques
b. Research design and data analysis
4) Time Plan
5) Budget Plan
6) Bibliography age 75

48