RESEARCH

The search for knowledge is referred to as research. It comprises of two words‘re’ and
‘search’ which means to search again or a careful investigation. The origin of research
is curiosity. The research is well identified as follows
1) Defining and redefining problems
2) Careful inquiry or examination to discover new information.
3) To verify existing knowledge.
Thus research means a continued search for knowledge and understanding.
Definition:

Research is defined by different authors. Some of the definitions given by well

known authors are as follows:
According to John w Best “Research may be defined as the systematic and
objective analysis and recording of controlled observations that may lead to the
developments of generalizations principles or theories, resulting in prediction and
possibly ultimate control of events”.
Redman and Mary has explained research as “systematized effort to gain new
knowledge”.
The webter’s international dictionary gives a very inclusive definition of
research as “a careful critical inquiry or examinations in seeking facts or principles,
deligent investigation in order to ascertain something”.
The encyclopedia of social sciences defines research as “the manipulation of
generating to extend, correct or verify knowledge”.
Kerlinger defines “Systematic controlled empirical and critical investigation of
hypothetical propositors about the presumed relations among natural phenomena”.
Characteristics of research:

From these definitions it is clear that research is a process for collecting

analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions, but to quality as research
the process must have certain characteristics
1) Research requires deep knowledge in the subject concerned.

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2) Research is a scientific program and tells us 2 relationship between cause and
effect. Research is directed towards what the solution of the problem or to answer a
question.
3) Research demands accurate investigation and descripition.
4) It emphasizes the development of generalization of principles, theories which are
helpful in prediction.
5) Research involves gathering of new data from primary and secondary sources.
6) Research requires courage
7) Research is carefully recorded and reported.
8) Research is characterized by patience and unhurried decisions.
9) It is a way to progress and it has accelerate the rate of progress.
10) Reserve was born out to solve the man’s problem.

What is social science?

Random house dictionary defines social science as the study of society and
social behaviour, a science or field of study as history, economics etc. Dealing with an
aspect of society or forms of social activity.
Social science may be classified into two main categories:
1)Theortical type of research such research are called pure research. Such research
neither depend on primary data nor on secondary data and make contribution to the
realization of the theory and to the existing literature on the subject by way of
interpretation oe a different approach to the problem, it is original or basic in
character. It may be entirely new discovery, the knowledge of which has not existed so
far.

2)Empirically type of research such researches aim at discovering of facts based on the
empirically gathered primary data, such facts finding studies aims at an accurate
assessment of the conditions prevouling in the society.
Most of the research in the social studies is applied. In other words the research
techniques procedures and methods that form the body of research methodology are
applied to the collection of information about various aspects of a situation, issue,

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problem or phenomenon so that information gathered can be used in other ways such
as for the policy formulation, administration and the enhancement of understanding of
a phenomenon.
A study classified as descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a
situation, problem, phenomenon, service or program or provides information about say
the living conditions of a community or describes attitudes towards an issue. It is
essentially a fact finding approach related largely to the present and abstracting
generalizations by the cross sectional study of the current situation.
The main emphasis in a correlation research study is to discover or establish the
existence of a relationship between two or more aspects of a situation.
Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship
between two aspects of a situation or phenomenon. This type of research attempts to
explain why stressful living results in heart attacks.
The fourth type of research from the view point of the objectives of a study is
called exploratory research. This is when a study is undertaken with the objective
either to explore an area where little is known or to investigate the possibilities of
undertaking a particular research study.

RESEARCH PROBLEM

A question which needs careful consideration while undertaking research is

have to select a research problem. The formulation of a research problem is the first
and most important steps of the research process. it is like the identification of a
destination before undertaking a journey.
A research problem is like the foundation of a building. the type and design of
the building is dependent upon the foundation. If the foundation is well designed and
strong you can expect the building to be also. The research problem serves as the
foundation of a research study. If it is well formulated, you can expect a good study to
follow.
According to kerlinger
“If one wants to solve a problem one must generally know what the problem is.
It can be said that a large part of the problem lies in knowing what one is trying to do”.

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Sources:

Most research revolves around four P's people, problems, programs,

phenomena. You may select a group of individuals(group or a community as such-
people) either to examine the existence of a certain issues or problems relating to their
lives, to ascertain attitude of a group of people towards an issue(problem) to establish
existence of a regularity (phenomena) or to evaluate the effectiveness of an
intervention(program).
Selection:

1) Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen for it will be a difficult
task to thro any new light in such a case.

2) Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researches.

3) Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided

4) The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related
research material or sources of research are with in one’s reach.

5) Before the final selection of the problem the researcher has to ask himself/herself
the following questions:
a) whether the researcher is well equipped in terms of his/her background to carry out
research.

b) whether the selection of the problem has been preceded by a preliminary study.
The following characteristics are attributed to a good research problems

1) Clear and unambiguous- there must be perfect clarity in the problem taken up for
study. It should not give scope for divergent expressions and thus becoming
confusing.

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2) Logical and systematic - Research is guided by logic reasoning ,that is why
induction and deduction processes have great value in carrying out research. The
problem must be amenable for study in a specified step or in a accordance with the
well defined set of rules and methods.

3) Empirical – It is always related to one or more aspects of real situation and hence
deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external validity to research results,
therefore the problem should be such as to take realities into consideration.

4) Relation between variables – The problem selected for study should express a
relation between the variables contained the study. The problem under study must be
in a position to highlight the nature, extent and implications of such relation existing
among variables of the study.

5) Verifiable – Verfiability is said to be the chief characteristic of physical and natural

sciences, though results of the research studies in social sciences cannot be
reproduced, the problem chosen for study should not look absured. It should be
undertaken with an intention to make the study useful and replicable.

6) Management - The scope of the study depends on the purpose in mind. The
researcher is required to select such a topic which should be with in his reach and yet
fulfil the basic requirements of a study at the specified level.

7) Interesting – it is not always possible for a researcher to formulate his problems

simply , clearly and completely. he may often have only a rather general , diffuse,
even confused notion of the problem. This is in the nature of the complexity of
scientific research. It may even take an investigator years of exploration thought and
research before he can clearly say what questions he has been seeking answers to.
Neverthless adequate statement of the research problem is one of the most important
parts of research.

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 Resources:

1) Physical resources – It includes the personal comforts, travel facilities etc, the
problem area may be far away from the place of residence of the researcher and he has
to spend considerable time and energy for that clerical assistance office help,
communication facilities and stationery resources play no and energy for that clerical
assistance office help, communication facilities and stationery resources play no small
role. As the social research is time bound a topic must be selected in such a way to
finish the study with in the prescribed period.

2) Monetary resources – Next to time, monetary resources decide the selection of a

research problem. A researcher can individually prepare the schedules collect the data
and then write the report. When studies cover wider area investigators must be
appointed for data collection, project experts must be employed and formulation of an
expert committee to guide the perfect may also be needed. So depending upon the
monetary resources available a problem can be selected to cover limited or border
area.

3) Literacy resources – Books, journals, periodicals, research report, research

journals, bibliography and index constitute flesh and blood for social research.
From published articles and reports of research, one can gather ideas and
suggestions for subjects requiring further study. These ideas can sometime be a real
help to the young scholar when he is looking about a suitable problem to pick up.

METHODS OF RESEARCH
There are 3 types of objectives of research theoretical, factual, and application.
The first 2 types of objectives of research contribute new knowledge in the form of
new theory and facts in a particular field of study or discipline.
The third objective does not contribute to knowledge but suggests new
application for practical problems. The research are classified broadly into 2 two
categories.

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1) Fundamental or basic research (pure)
2) Action research or applied research
In the social sciences, according to bailey “pure research involves developing
and testing theories and hypothesis that are intellectually challenging to the researcher
but may or may not have practical application at the present time or in the future. Thus
such work often involves the testing of hypothesis containing very abstract and
specialized concepts.
Pure research is concerned with the development, examination, verification and
refinement of research methods, procedures techniques and tools that form the body of
research methodology.
Eg of pure research include developing a sampling technique that can be applied to a
particular situation, developing an instrument say, to measure the stress level in people
and finding the best way of measuring people’s attitudes, The knowledge produced
through pure research is sought in order to add to the existing body of knowledge of
research methods.
Applied research is known as action research. M.corey has defined it as “the
process by which practitioner’s attempt to study their problems scientifically in order
to guide, correct and evaluate their decision and action is what a number of people
have called action research”.

Characteristics:
1) It is a process for studying practical problems of social studies.
2) It is a scientific procedure for finding out a practical solution of current problem.
3) The practitioner can only study his problem.
4) The focus is to improve and modify the current practices.
5) The individual and group problems studied by action research.

Thus the research techniques procedures and methods that form the body of research
methodology are applied to the collection of information about various aspects of a
situation, issue problem or phenomenon so that information gathered can be used in

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other ways. such as for the policy, formulation, administration and enhancement of
understanding of a phenomenon.

Fundamental vs. Applied

Fundamental or pure Applied or Action

Contributes new knowledge in the form Aims to solve or ameliorate a problem

Of new theory facts and truth.

Studies any problem Studies problems with important social

consequences

Studies a problem usually from the focus often social disciplines collaborate for
solving the problem
Of one discipline

Require mainly technical indgement requires a sense of what the situation

And personalities can bear.

Seeks generalization Often studies individual cases

Without the objective to generalize.

Accepts the hypothesis that variables recognize that other variables are
Not measured remain constant. Constantly changing

This is to say why things happen. This to say how things can be changed

Attempts to get all the facts should attempt only to correct facts
which speak reasonably directly to
Practitioner’s decision to actionable
Alternatives recognized in advance.

Aims at publishing a research report aims at bringing out actionable

Points quickly in a series of
Memoranda and discussions with
Practioner.

Reports in technical language of the Reports in common language

discipline

Descriptive Research:

It is essentially a fact finding approach related largely to the present and

abstracting generalization by the cross-sectional study of the current situation. The
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descriptive method is extensively used in the physical and natural science for instance,
when physics measures, biology classifies zoology dissects and geology studies the
rocks, but its use in social sciences is more common as in socio-economic surveys and
jole and activity analysis.

1) It aims to portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual situation or

group

2) To determine the frequency with which something occurs or when it is associated

with something else.

One limitation is that the research may take description an end itself.
Research is essentially creative and demands the discovery of facts in order to lend to
a solution of the problem.
A second limitation lies in going to the other extreme and generally is
associated whether the statistical technique dominates. This limitations aries because
statistics which is partly a descriptive tool of analysis can aid but not always explain
casual relation.

Exploratory or Formulative Research:

This is when a study is undertaken with the objective either to explore an

area where little is known or to explore an area where little is known or to investigate
the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study,
This study may have
1) Clarifying concepts
2) Increase investigates familiarity with the phenomenon they wish to investigate in a
subsequent, more highly structured study with the setting in which they plan to carry
out such a study.
3) Establishing priorities for further research

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4) Providing a census of problems regarded as urgent by people working in a given
field of social relations.
Thus the major emphasis is an discovery of ideas and insights. Therefore
the research design must be flexible enough to permit the consideration of many
different aspects of a phenomenon. zikmund has pointed out the following areas of
exploratory research in business.
1) General business research – a) Business trends
b) Short/long range studies
c) Import/export studies
2) Management research – a) Leadership style
b) Job satisfaction
c) employee morale
3) Sales and marketing – a) Sales analysis
b) Advertising research
c) Buyer behaviour research

eg: A manager notices that worker’s grievances are increasing and production is
decreasing. He wishes to investigate the reasons.

A financial analyst wishes to investigate whether monthly income scheme or

cumulative scheme or mutual fund scheme has a higher yield.

Explaratory research or Casual research:

This research explains the causes of social phenomena. Desribing the

magnitiude and nature of crimes committed by females in India, is one aspect of
female crime but why do they commit crime is its explanatory aspect.
Explanatory research aims at establishing a relationship between variables that
is how one is the cause of the other or how when one variable occurs the other will
also occurs.

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Ex post facto research:

It is a systematic empirical inquiry in which the scientist does not have direct
control of independent variables because their manifestation has already occurred or
because they are inherently not manipulate .Inferences about relations among variables
are made without direct investigation, from concomitant variation of independent and
dependent variables. This kind of research is based on a scientific and analytical
examination of dependent and independent variables.

In ex post factin the o research the researche’s control on the behaviour of independent
variable is very weak and to many cases on control is possible. Social science
particularly do not offered a possibility of controlling the changes behavioural pattern
of independent variables. These are usually affected by complex social phenomena
and one can only examine how the dependent variables is affected by such situation.
Ex post facto research therefore has to take things as they are and examine separately
or wholly their impact on the explained variables.

Quantitative Research:

The structural approach to inquiry is usually classified as quantitative research.

In the structural approach everything that forms the research process objectives,
design, sample and the questions that you plan to ask of respondents is pre determined.
It is more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon.

Eg: What percentage of medical engineering, law, arts, science and commerce
students take drugs or alcohol. This type of research is based on the methodological
principles of positive vision and adheres to the standards of strict sampling and
research design.

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Qualitative Research:

The study is classified as qualitative of the purpose of the study is primarily to

describe a situation, phenomena, problem or event. The information is gathered
through the use of variables measured on nominal or ordinal scales and if analysis is
done to establish the reacreation in the situation, phenomenan or problem without
quantifying it.

The describe of an observed situation, the historical enumeration of events, an

account of the different opinions people have about an issue and a description of the
living condition of a community are examples of qualitative research.

Longitudional Research:

This involes the study of the problem or the same boby of phenomena over a
period of time. for eg prevalence of AIDS among males and femalesin India in 79,89
and 99,such studies indicate the trend.
The research can be cross sectional. This study covers a broad range of
phenomena at a single point in time eg: study of 410 house holds conducted by IP
desai in Gujarat Prospective research that follows the samebody of phenomena
forward through a period of time, beginning with the present and the hetropective
research which studies a body of phenomena, working backward from the present over
a period of time.

Research Process

An architect prepares a blue print plan of a building, the architect takes decision as to
how large building will be, how many rooms it will have and how these will be
approached .Perhaps all the decisions will be taken only by keeping his mind on the
purpose for which the building will be used.

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 An army prepares a strategy before launching an attack. So also the
researchers makes a plan of his study before he undertakes his research work. Such a
plan of study or blue print for study is called a research design or research
strategy . A researcher attempting to solve his problem should necessarily prepare a
plan which will help him to attain his ultimate motto. This plan is nothing but a
research design. Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing
of the various research as efficient as possible yielding maximum information with
minimum expenditure of effort , time and money.
According to Pauline v. Young , a research design is “ the logical and systematic
planning and directing a piece of research”.

Ack Scoff Russell maintains that research design is “planning various phases and
procedures relating to the formulation of research efforts”

Johoda, deutsch and cook have defined it as ‘a research design is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose with economy on procedure”

Essentials of research design.

1. It is a plan that specifies the objectives of the study and hypothesis to be tested .
2. It is an out line that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the
research questions.
3. It is a blue print specifying the method to be adopted for gathering and analyzing
the data.
4. It is a scheme defines the domain generalisability that whether the obtained
information can be generalized to a large population or to different situation.

The first is to decide what you want to find out about or in the
other words ,what research questions you want to find answers to .you then need to

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think how to go about finding their answers. The path to finding answers to your
research questions constitutes research methodology.

Steps in preparing a research design

1. Title of the problem:

0ne should take more care not only in selecting the problem but also in
its caption as it reflects the nature of study. it is said that the title should be as brief
and precise as possible . The title should not be lengthy or too involved. It should be
specific to the are of study. It should be so worded that it would give sufficient
information about the nature of the study.

2. Nature of the study:

The nest step in formulation research design is to ascertain the nature

of the study, whether it is statistical study, case study or a comparative study or an
experimental study etc, should be decided .since the research study is complex the
specific nature of study should be determined early and precisely.

3. Objective of the study:

Everyone should state the objective or purposes for which it is

undertaken.
To gain familiarity to phenomenon or event and achieve new insight. It can
be help in formulating a very precise research problem.
To accurately lay down the characteristics of any group situation or individual.
To test the hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables.

4. Scope of the study:

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 In order the make the study meaningful, it is always better to define
and delimit the scope of the study. It is true that scope of any investigation depends on
several factors like the time and money available to the investigation, nature and
accessibility of the data. Once the scope of investigation is fixed the research will have
definite idea
Of his study

5. Survey of literature:

Reviewing the literature in the area researches preliminary before

attempting to plan the study. It is essential to review all the relevant materials
connected with the problem chosen. It is necessary to show how the problem
understudy relates to previous research studies. It is equally important to show for his
work differs with the existing literature .after going through the concerned works, one
will get an insight in to the problem and thus will be able to formulate a correct plan
for his future investigation.

6. Conceptualisation of terms used:

Every researcher is required to make is mind clear by defining the meaning

attached or wanted to attach the different terms (tech or non-technical) used in the
study. Generally there would be a separate section in every research study for this
purpose. This becomes essential for the reason that certain terms and concept and
terms in any discipline carry with them different meanings. The general definition may
be modified for operational purpose .This has to be made clear by the investigation in
his analysis.

7. Formulation of hypothesis:

With in the concept of research proposal, hypothesis is propounded in testable

form. They have to be closely related with objectives of the project and have to be in a

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form so that they may be subjected to numerical test. Thus the research is supposed
tom formulate a clear hypothesis to increase the value of the research study.

8. Selection of sample:

The factors of time and cost are usually important consideration in social
research. It is more economical and efficient to case studies or samples rather than to
study the universe. To make the sampling effective, the investigator has to look in to
the following …
1. The definition of the population
2. Size of the sample
3. Representatives of samples,
From this analysis, usefull conclusion which is equally applicable to the universe
can be drawn.
Sampling is guided by two principles …..
1. The avoidance of bias in the selection of sample.
2. The attainment of maximum precision for a given outlay of resources.

9. Data collection:

This is the important in the whole research design. The research scholar has to
decide about the nature of the data and the sources from which he has to collect the
same .anything that becomes a means of collecting information for your, study is
called a research tool or research instrument .observation forms, interview schedule
questionnaires and interview guides are all are all classified as research tools is the
first practical step in carrying out a study
What ever be the source, collection of adequate and persistent data is highly essential.

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10. Data analysis:

The data collected from various sources must be properly processed and
analyzed. It has to be decided in the beginning whether process of data collection
would be manual process or mechanical process and what types of values to prepare.
The quality of the study and its utility are decided a how meaningful conclusion are
but not how much data are or collected. An investigation to be more caution and
vigilant in analyzing the data and use his value judgment judicially. For enhancing the
utility of the analysis, he may depend on several mechanical and statistical techniques.

11. Dimension of the study:

It is necessary to take certain assumption in every study where ever this are
made, they should be state clearly. The limit should be clearly mentioned in the
research design. New concepts should be defined.

12. Chapter scheme or report writing:

A research study finally ends with the writing of a report, which is atoll for
communicating the various aspects of the study. Writing of an effective report is
depends on the skill of the investigator. a good reports needs to take care of the
following…
1. Clear statement of the problem.
2. Specification of the methodology employed.
3. Objectives and scope of the study.
4. Hypothesis proposed to be tested and how for they are accepted or not accepted.
5. Methods of data collection.
6. Techniques of data collection.
7. Presentation of main conclusion of study in the form of a summary. a good research
reports needs to care for identifying area for further research if any and for fresh
hypothesis.

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13. Bibliography:

It is a customer that every research report contains at the end, few pages or
the books and articles referred to or consulted. this is consider essential by the scholar
as it provides an understanding to the readers as to how the investigator has formed is
opinion.
The following is the usual order followed by the scholar in case of book..
1. Name of the author.
2. Title of the book.
3. Place of publication.
4. Name of the publishers.
5. Year of publication.
In case of an article..
1. Name of the author.
2. Name of the article.
3. Name of the journal.
4. Volume and number
5. Month and year of publication.
6. Page numbers relating to the article

Hypothesis

When a researcher observes known fact and takes up a problem for analysis, the
has to start some where and this points of start is hypothesis. in other words ,one has to
proceed to formulate tentative solution as soon as the problem to tackled is finalized
.this proposal solution or explanation constitute hypothesis which the researcher
proceeds to test on the basis of fact already known.
The importance of hypothesis lien their ability to bring direction, specificity
and focus to a research study.

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Definition:
Webster’s new international dictionary Of English language defines a hypothesis
as;
“A proposition, condition or principle which is assumed, perhaps with out
belief in order to draw out its logical consequences and by this method to test its
accord with facts which are known or may be determined.

Pummel and balline defines it as …

“A hypothesis is a statement capable of being tested and there by verified or
rejected”

In the word of George and A.lundberg

“a hypothesis is a tentative generalization, the validity of which remains to be tested.
in its most elementary stage the hypothesis may be every hunch, guess, imagnitive
data, which becomes the basis for action or investigation”

According to Grinnell and stothers...

“A hypothesis is written in such a way that it can be proven or disproven by valid and
reliable data, it is in order to obtain these data that we perform our study”

FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHESIS

PHASE 1 PHASE 2 PHASE 3

Formulate collect the required Analyze data to draw
Your assumption data conclusion about true
Or false
1. The formulation of a hypothesis provides a study with focus. it tells you what
specific aspects of a research problem to investigate
2. A hypothesis tells you what data to collect and what data to not collect there by
providing focus to the study.

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3. As it provides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis enhances objectivity in
study.
4. A hypothesis enables you to add to the formulation of theory. It enables you to
specifically conclude what is true and what is false.

CHARACTERISTICS:

1. A hypothesis should be simple specific and conceptually clear.

There is no place for ambiguity in the construction of a hypothesis,

as ambiguity will make the verification of your hypothesis almost impossible. To be
able to develop a good hypothesis you must be familiar with the subject area. The
more insight you have in to a problem the easier it is to construct a hypothesis.
The hypothesis is clear specific and easy to test, it tells you (average age of this
class) attempting to compare, which population groups are being compared (male and
female students)

2. A hypothesis should be capable of verification.

Methods and techniques must be available for data collection and analysis.
There is no point in formulating a hypothesis if cannot be subjected to verification
because there are no techniques to verify it.

3. A hypothesis should be related to the existing body of language.

It is important that hypothesis emerges from the existing body of knowledge and
adds to it, as this is an important function of research. this can only be achieved if the
hypothesis has its root in the existing body of knowledge .

4. A hypothesis should be operationalisable.

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 This means that it can be expressed in terms that can be measured. If cannot be
measured it cannot be tested and hence no conclusion can be drawn.

DIFFICULITIES IN FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS.

1. Lack of clear theoretical back ground

Hypothesis does not have clear cut and definite theoretical background.
because of this weakness it is not easy to arrive at certain conclusion.

2. Lack of logical back ground

Hypothesis not only lacks a definite and clear cut back ground, but also lacks
the logical use of the theoretical background.

3. Lack of knowledge of scientific methods

It is always not possible to have complete information of and acquaintance

with the scientific methods for formulation of hypothesis.

IMPORTANCE OF HYPOTHESIS

1. Hypothesis provides guidance to proceed on certain of definite lines:

Hypothesis helps the investigator in knowing the direction in which he should

proceed. The hypothesis specifies who should be studied, in what context they will be
studied. In the absence of hypothesis, the researcher is like sailor in an uncharted
vessel with out compass or radar

2. Hypothesis helps in selecting pertinent factor.

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 Once the investigator is able to get the direction with then help of hypothesis,
he is able to eliminate the irrelevant and pertinent facts.
Pauline.v.young has rightly remarked
“The use of hypothesis prevents a behind research and indiscriminate gathering of
masses of data which may latter prove irrelevant to the problem under study”

3. Hypothesis helps in drawing specific conclusion.

If the hypothesis is rightly drawn and scientifically formulated it helps the

researcher not only to proceed in his study on right times but also to draw conclusions.

TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS.

There are two prerequisites to test the hypothesis-

1. A real social situation is needed hat will suffice as reasonable testing ground for
the hypothesis.

2. The investigator should make sure that the hypothesis is testable.

There are two fairly important means of testing hypothesis.
A. The study of hypothesis for logical consisting.
B. The study of hypothesis for agreement with fact.

The study of hypothesis for logical consistency is phase of thinking; it consists

of checking the logical character of the reasoning by which the consequences of
hypothesis are deduced for verification .in the second place the study of hypothesis for
logical consistency involves checking it for agreement with already known laws of
nature

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TYPES.

Depending on the level of refinement and abstraction hypothesis are classified

broadly in to the following two groups:

1. Crude hypothesis

A crude hypothesis is low kevel of abstraction. It indicates the kind of data

to be collected and it does not lead to higher theoretical research in the nature of a law
or a theory

2. Refined hypothesis

The refined hypothesis is more significant in research and the degree of

significant varies depending on the level of abstraction.

Refined are further classified in to three types...

1. Hypothesis that state the existence of empirical uniformities.
2. Hypothesis that are concerned with complex ideal types.
3. Hypothesis that are concerned with the relation of variables
The first type of hypothesis states some degree of uniformity among empirical
phenomena.

Example: income of people grows, demand for comforts also grows

The second type of refined hypothesis aim at testing the existence of logically derived
relation relationship between empirical uniformities.
The demand for co lour TVs in city like Hyderabad the more number of salary
revision and loans payment there more is the demand for TV sets.

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The third type of hypothesis occurs at level of abstraction beyond that of ideal types.
They deal with the study of analytical variables between changes in one property and
changes in another.

Example: the demand for TV sets (dependant variable) and various factors
(independent variable) like other modes of entertainment available, the incomes of the
inhabitants, the demonstration effect, advertisement impact created by the TV
companies and the general broad casting policy of the government.
When you construct a hypothesis stipulating that there is no difference between two
situations, group out comes or the prevalence of a condition or phenomenon this is
called a null hypothesis and usually written as Ho.
Example: there is no significance difference in proportion of male and female smokers
in the study of population

A hypothesis in which a researcher stipulates that there will be difference but does not
specify its magnitude is called a hypothesis of difference.

Example: a greater proposition of females than males are smokers in the study of
population.
A total of 60% of females and 30% males in the study population are smokers.
A researcher may have enough knowledge about smoking behavior of the community
or the treatment program and its likely out comes to speculate almost the exact
prevalence of the situation or the out come of a treatment program is quantitative
units. This type of hypothesis is known as a hypothesis point of prevalence

The fourth hypothesis is a relationship between the prevalence of a phenomenon

(smokers) among different population (male and female). This type of hypothesis is
called a hypothesis of association.

Example: there are twice as many female smokers as male smokers in the study of
population.

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ERRORS:

Incorrect conclusion about the validity of a hypothesis may be drawn if..

The study design selected is faulty.
The sampling procedure adopted is faulty.
The method of data collection is inaccurate.
The analysis is wrong.
The statistical procedures applied are inappropriate
The conclusions drawn are incorrect.
Hence in the testing of hypothesis there is always the possibility of errors are
attributable to the reason identified above.

Measurement

By measurement we mean the process of assigning numbers to objects or

observations, the level of measurement being a function of the rules under which the
numbers are assigned.
Measurement may be defined as the assignment of numerals to characteristics
of objects, persons , persons, states or events according to rules.
What is measured is not the object, person state or event itself but some
characteristic of it. When objects are counted foe Eg we do not measure the object
itself but only its characteristics of being present.

Levels of measurement:

1) Nominal measurement:

It is the most elementary method of measurement which classifies persons,

objects, or events into a number of mutually exclusive categories on the basis of the

25
sample presence or absence, applicability or in applicability, possession or non
possession of certain property.
Eg: Population of a town may be classified according to sex into males and females or
a according to religion into hindus, muslims, Sikhs, and Christians, and each category
of persons given certain labels either in the form of numerals (0,1,2,3) or in the form
of letters(A,B,C,D and I).These labels only tell us that the categories are qualitatively
different from each other

2) Ordinal Measurement:

The ordinal scale places events in order but there is no attempt to make the
intervals of the scale equal in terms of some rule. Rank orders represent ordinal scale
and are frequently used in research relating to qualitative phenomen.
A students rank in his graduation class involves the use of our ordinal scale.
If Rank’s position in his class is 10 and Mohan’s position is 40, it can not be
said that Ram’s position is form times as good as that of Mohan. The statement would
make no sense at all.
Ordinal scales only permit the ranking of items from highest to lowest.

3) Interval:

It represent numerals used to rank objects in such a way that numerically equal
distances on the scale represent equal distances in the property being measured .The
distance between numerals are very meaningful because, by comparing these distances
we can know how far a parts the objects are with respect to the property in question.
Eg: The most common examples of interval scales are the centigrade and farenheit
temperature scale which start with different points of origin.

Centigrade 0 10 30 100
Fahrenheit 32 53 86 212

26
 The point of origin is zero on the centigrade scale and 32 on fahrenheit, because
any two readings on the centigrade scale (Eg between 10 and 30) is not the same as
that on fahrenhit scale. One can only talk of a 20ºc rule in tempeture but not 30 ºc as
being there times as hot as 10 ºc.

4) Ratio:

This measurement besides possessing the property of the interval measurement,

possesses one additional property viz it has a time, natural or absolute zeropoint, one
for which there is universal agreement as to its location, with a ratio measurement, the
comparison between the ratio measurement, the comparision between the ratio of the
absolute magnitude of the numbers becomes possible.
A person weighing 100kg is said to be twice as heavy as one weighing 50kg and
a person weighing 150kg is twice as heavy.

Sources of error in measurement:

Measurement should be precise and unambiguous in an ideal research study. As

such the researcher must be aware about the sources of error in measurement.

a) Respondent:

At times the respondent may be relvent to express strong negative feelings or it

is just possible that he may have very little knowledge but may not admit his
ignorance. Transient factors like fatigue, boredon, anxiety etcmay limit the ability of
the respondent to respond accurately and fully.

b) Situation:

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 Situational factors may also come in the way of correct measurement. Any
condition which places a strain on interview can have serious effects on the interview
can have.

Situation:

The situational factor may also come in the way of correct measurement. Any
condition which places a strain on interview can have serious effects on the
interviewer, respondent report. For instance, if someone else is present, he can distort
responses by joining in or merely by being present. If the respondent feels, that
anonymity is not assured, he may be reluctant to express certain feelings.

3. Measures:

The interviewer can distort responses by rewording or reordering questions, his

behavior style and looks may encourage or discourage certain replies from
respondents, careless mechanical processing may distort the findings. Errors may
creep in because of incorrect coding, faulty tabulation and statistical calculations,
particularly in the data analysis stage.

4. Instrument:

Errors may arise because of the defective measuring instrument. The use of
complex words, beyond the comprehension of the respondent, ambiguous meaning,
poor printing, inadequate space for replies, response choice omissions etc. are a few
things that make the measuring instrument defective and may result in measurement
errors.

Tests of Sound Measurement:

Sound Measurement must meet the lists of validity, reliability and practicality.

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Validity:-

It refers to the extent to which a test measures what we actually wish to

measure.

Reliability:-

It has to do with the accuracy and precision of a measurement procedure.

Practicality:-

It is concerned with a wide range of factors of economy,

convenience and interpretability.

Test of validity:

It is a most crucial criterion and indicates the degree to which an instrument

measures what it is supposed to measure, Validity is the extent to which differences
found with a measuring instrument reflect time differences among those being tested.

Types of Validity:

1. Content Validity:

It is extent to which a measuring instrument provides adequate coverage of

the topic under the study. If the instrument contains a representative sample of the
universe, the content validity is good. It can also be determined by using a panel of
persons who shall judge how well the mentering instrument meets the standards, but
there is so economically way to express it.

29
 1. Criterion relatively validity:

It relates to our ability to predict some outcome or estimate the existence of

some current conditions. It contains, Relevance : A criterion is relevant if it is
defined freedom from biasn – attaining when the criterion gives each stage at an
equal opportunity to score well .

Reliability: It is stable or reproducible.

Availability: The information specified by the criterion must be available.

3. Construct Validity:

It is most complex and abstract, a measure is said to possess construct validity

to the degree that it confirms to predicted correlations with other theoretical
propositions, construct validity is the degree to which scores on a test can be
accomlished for by the explanatory constructs of a sound theory.

(II) Test of Realibility:

A measuring instrument is reliable, if it is provides consistent result, for

instance, a scale that consistently overweight objects by five kgs is a reliable scale, but
it does not give a valid measure of weight.

Realibility is not as valuable as validity, but it is easier to assess reliability in

comparision to validity.

Two aspects of reliability, stability and equivalence deserve special mention.

The Stability aspect is concerned with securing consistent results with repeated
measurements of the same person and with the same instrument. The Equivalent

30
aspect considers how much error may get introduced by different investigator or
different samples of the items being studied.

(III) Test of Practicability:

The Practicability characteristics be of a measuring instrument can be judged in

terms of economy, convenience and interpretability.
Economy consideration suggest that some trade-off is needed between the ideal
research project and that which the budget can afford. The length of measuring
instrument is an important area where economic pressure re quickly felt.
Convenience test suggest that the measuring instrument should be easy to
administer. For the purpose, one should give due attention to the proper layout of the
measuring instrument.
For instance, a questionnaire with clear instrument is certainly more effective
and easier to complete than one which lack these features.
Interpretability consideration is specially importance when persons other than
the designers of the list are to interpret the results. The measuring instrument, in order
to be interpretable must be supplemented by the following:
@. Detailed instruction for administering the list.
@. Scoring keys.
@. Evidence the reliability.
@. Guides for using the list and for interpreting result.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN:

Experimental Design refers to the frame work or structure of an experiment.

Ex: Suppose you want to list the following :
The impact of a particular teaching method on the level of comprehension of
students or the effectiveness of a program such as random testing on the level of good
accident. In such situation there is assumed to be a cause and effect relationship.

31
 The first involves the researcher introducing the intervention that is assumed to
be ‘cause’ of change and waiting until it has produced or has been given sufficient
time to produce the change. The second consists of the researcher observing a
phenomenon and attempting to establish what cause it. In this instance the researcher
starts from the effect or outcome and attempts to determine causation.
If the relationship is studied in the first way starting from the cause to establish
the effects. It is classified as an experimental study. If the starting from the effects to
trace the cause-it is classified as non experimental study.

Experimental Design has been classified into two brand. They are
1. Informal Experimental.
2. Formal Experimental.
Informal experimental design are those design that normally use a less
sophisticated form of analysis based on differences in magnitudes. Where as
In Formal experimental design offer relatively more control and use precise
statistical procedures for analysis.
Informal Experimental design are as follows:

1. BEFORE AND AFTER WITH CONTROL DESIGN:

In such a design a single test group or area is selected and that the dependent
unavailable is measured before the introduction of the treatment. The treatment is
then introduced and dependent variable is measured against after the treatment has
been introduced.
The effect of treatment would be equal to the level of the phenomenon after the
treatment minus the level of phenomenon before the treatment.
Test area: Level of phenomenon Treatment introduced Level of the
before treatment (X) phenomenon (Y)
Treatment effect = (Y)-(X).

2. After only with control design:

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 In this design two groups or area are selected and the treatment is introduced in
to the list are only. The dependent variable is then measured in both the areas at the
same time the treatment impact is assessed by subtracting the value of the dependent
variable in the control area from its value in the test area.
Test area Treatment Introduced level of phenomenon after treatment
Control area Level of phenomenon without treatment(Z)
Treatment effect = (Y) –(Z)
The basis assumption in such a design is that the two areas are identical with
respect to their behavior towards the phenomenon considered.

3. BEFORE AND AFTER WITH CONTROL DESIGN:

In this two area are selected and the dependent variable is measured in both the
areas for an identical time period before the treatment. The treatment variable is then
introduced in list area only, and the dependent variable is measured in both for an
identical time period after the introduction of the treatment. The treatment effect is
determined by subtracting the changes in dependent variable in the control area form
the change in the dependent variable in test area.
Time period I Time Period II
Test area :Level of phenomenon Treatment Level of phenomenon before
treatment (X) introduced after treatment(Y).
Control area: Level of phenomenon Level of phenomenon
without treatment(A) with treatment(Z).
TREATMENT EFFECT = (Y-X)- (Z-A).

FORMAL EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN :

Completely Randomized Design :

33
 It involves only two principles. The principles replication and the principle
of randomization of experimental design.

Example: If we have 10 subjects and if we wish to list 5 under treatment A and 5

under treatment B of the randomized process gives every possible group of 5 subject
selected from a set of an equal opportunity of being assigned to treatment A & B.
Such a design is used when experimental areas happen to be homogeneous.

a) Two group simple randomized design :

In a two group simple randomized design first of all the population is defined and
then from the population a sample is selected randomly. After being selected
randomly, from the population be randomly assigned to be experimental and control
groups. This design yields two groups as representatives of the population.
This design of experiment is quite common in research studies concerning
behavioral sciences.
The Merit of such design is that it is simple and randomizes the differences
among those conducting the treatment not eliminated.

B) Random replication design :

It serves two purpose that is it provides control for the differential effects of
the extraneous independent variables. It randomizes any individual differences among
those conducting the treatment.
It is clear that there are two populations in the replication design. The sample is
taken randomly from the population available for study and is randomly assigned to,
say, four experimental and four control group. Similarly, sample is taken randomly
from population available to conduct experiments and the right individuals. So
selected should randomly assigned to the eight groups. Equal number of items are put
in each group, so that the size of the group is not likely to affect the result of the study
variable relating to both population characteristic are assumed to be randomly
distributed among the two groups.

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RANDOMIZED BLOCK DESIGN :
It is an important over the R.B design . In the R.B design, subject are first
divided into groups known as blocks, such that with in each group the subject are
relatively homogeneous in respect to some selected variable.
In number of subject in a given block would be equal to the no of treatment and
one subject in each block would be randomly assigned to each treatment. Suppose
four treatment forms of a standardized test in statistics were given to each of five
students and following are the score which they obtained:
If each student separately randomized the order in which he or she took the four
test, we refer to the design of this experiment as a R,B design.

LATIN SQUARES DESIGN :

It is an experimental design very frequently used in agricultural research. The

conditions under which agricultural investigations are carried our are different from
those in the other studies for nature plays an important role in agriculture. For
instance an experimental has to be made through which the effect of five different
variables of fertilizes on the yield of a certain crop say, what is to be judged. In such
a case the varying fertility of the six different blocks in which the experiment has to be
performed must be taken into consideration.

FACTORIAL DESIGN :

They are used in experiments where the effects of varying more than one factor
are to be determined. They are specially important in several economic and social
phenomena where usually large no of factors affect a particular problem.

MERITS OF INTERVIEW METHOD :

35
1. It is only the method which permits the investigator to go deep into the feelings of
the respondents.
2. It is the most best method available to top information that is not normally coming
from the respondents.
3. It is only method from which we can get first hand information.
4. There is a possibility for the exchange of ideas between the investigator and the
respondents.
5. It perhaps the only method to study abstract factors like attitude, feelings, opinion
etc.
6. Interview allows the investigator to test the authentically of the information he got
through cross examination. Repeated interview help in this process.
7. It is again through interview method that several people can be appericated at a time
and skill get the relevant information.

LIMITS :

1. It is expensive , as each and every respondent needs to be approached personally.

2. It is termed as unscientific, as it does not stand for verification.
3. Another problem with the interview method is that of authentically respondents of
ten times disown the claims of investigators.
4. Since the interview method leaves little time for the resepondent to thinks, he may
give off hand answer to the questions.
5. Interview is an art, those that have good qualities of interviewing achieve the
desired success and those who lack the art fail. As such, the quality of the study
depends much on the efficient of the interviewer.

QUESTIONNAIRE:
A questionnaire is a written list of questions, the answer to which are recorded
by respondents. In a questions respondents read the questions interpret what is
expected and then write down the answer.
FORMS OF QUESTIONNAIRE :

36
 Non-Structured – It may consists of partially completed question.
The interviewer possess only a blue print of the enquires and he is largely free to
arrange the form or statement of the questions.
Structured – It may contains definite concrete and direct questions.
The question that call for short check responses are known as restricted or closed
form type. They provide for making a yes or no or checking an item out of a list of
given responses.
The open form, open end or unrestricted type of questionnaire of calls for a free
response in the respondent’s own words. The respondent frames and supplies his own
reasons. It probably provides for greater depth of response.
The Mixed questionnaire consists of both close and open type questionnaire.
For social research, this method is very useful.
Questionnaire of facts, which requires certain information of facts from the
respondent without any reference to his opinion or attitude about them. Questionnaire
of opinion and attitude in which the informant’s opinion, attitude or preference
regarding some phenomenon is sought.
In the pictorial questionnaire, pictures are used to promote interest in answering
questions. It is used extensively in studies of social attitudes and prejudices’ in
children or illiterate person. The selected alternative answer in the form of pictures
are given and the respondents is required to tick the picture concerned.

PURPOPSE :

1. To collect information from the respondents who are scattered in a vast area.
2. To achieve success in collecting reliable and dependable data.

PROCESS OF OUESTIONNAIRE :

The study of questionnaire is divided in to,

@. Designing or making:

37
 While designing, alteration should be paid to three important matters:
1) Physical appearance of the questionnaire
2) Contents of the questionnaire.
3) Subject matter.
@. Issuing and Returning:
Delbert C. Milter in his handbook of research design and social
measurement provides a guide to the questionnaire construction.
a) keep the language pitched to the level of the respondent.
b) Try to pick words that have some meaning for every one.
c) Avoiding long questions.
e) Do not prior assume that your respondent possess factual information.
f) Establish the frame of reference you have in mind.
g) Informing a question, either suggest all possible alternatives to the res.,
h) protect your respondent’s ego.
i) Decide whetner the questions should be open or closed.
j) decide whether general or specific questions are needed.
k) Avoid ambiguous wording.
l) Avoid biased questions.
m) Phase question so what they are not unnecessarily objectiveable.
n) Decide whether a personal or impersonal questions will obtain the better response.

ESSENTIALS OF MAILED QUESTIONNAIRE:

1. Introduce you and the institution you are representing.
2. Describe in two or more sentences the main objectives of the study.
3. Explain the relevance of the study.
4. Convey and general instructions.
5. Indicate that participation in the study is voluntary.
6. Provide a contact number in case they have any questions.
7. Give a return address for the questionnaire and a deadline for its return
8. Thank them for their participation in the study.

38
ADVANTAGES:

Economical – Since the questionnaire approach makes it possible to cover at the same
time, a large no of people spread over a large territory, it is decidealy more economical
in terms of money time and energy.

Ensures Anonymity – As the respondents are not required to indicate this names on
the questionnaire , they face to express their views and opinions.
Less pressure on the respondents – This method places less pressure on the subject for
inmate response and gives more time to the respondents for properly answering
questions.

Uniformity – The questionnaire, by its very nature is an inpersonal technique.

Uniformity from one measurement solutions to another is provided by virtue of its
standardized wording of questions, standardized sequence of questions and fixed for
recording response.

DISADVANTAGE:
Application is limited - One main disadvantage is that the application is limited
to a study population that can read and write. It cannot be used on a population that is
illiterate, very young, very old.
Response rate is low – If you plan to use a questionnaire keep in mind that because not
everyone will return their questionnaire, your sample size wil in effect be reduced.
Self selecting bias – Not everyone who receives a questionnaire return it, so there is a
self selecting bias. If the response rate is very low, the finding may not be
respresentative of the total study population.
Opportunity to clarify issue is lacking – If for any reason, respondents do not
understand some questions, there is no opportunity for them to have the meaning
clarified. If different respondents interpret questions differently, this will affect the
quality of the information provided.

39
 A response cannot be supplemented with other information. An interview can
sometimes be susplemented with information from other methods of data collection
such as observation. However a questionnaire lacks this advantages.
DATA COLLECTION METHOD :
Interview is one of the important and powerful tools for the data collection in
social research. According to C. William Gnory,
“Personal interviewing is a two way purposeful conversation initiated by
an interviewing to obtain information that is relevant to some research purpose. The
person who is interviewing is called interviewer and the person who is interviewing is
called interviewer, and the person who is giving interview is called interviewee or
respondent”.
Gott and Hatt remark that interviewing is fundamentally a process of social
interaction, the process of social interaction in the interview is completed by the fact
that the interviewee also has insight. This means that the interviewer must not only
attempt to be real meaning of the answer made by the interviewee, he must be aware
of the fact that his respondent is in turn guessing at the motives of the interviewer,
responding to the embarrassment of the later, even to the lack of insight on his part.
OBJECTIVES :
The main purpose of interviewee as a tool of data collection – field procedure –
is together data extensively and intensively. The objective of the interview are,
1. To exchange of ideas and experience.
2. To elicit information.
TYPES OF INTERVIEWS :
A) Classification according to Formality :
1. Formal interview – The interview present a set of well defined questions and notes
down the answer of informant in accordance with prescribe rules. 2. Informal
interview – The interview has fall freedom to make suitable alterations in the
questions to suit a particular situations. He may revise the order or paraphrase the
questions to suit the needs of the respondents, it is called an informal interview.
B) Classification according to Number ;

40
1. Personal Interview – A single individual is interviewed, it helps to establish close
personal contacts between the interviewer and the interviewee and by this means
detailed knowledge about intimate and personal aspects if the individual can be had.
2. Group Interview – In this there are two or more persons are interviewees. The
first is aimed at probing in to the inner life and feelings of an individual, the group
interview is suited for gathering routine information.
C) Classification according to Purpose :
1. Diagnostic interview – The interviewer toy to understand the cause of malady. In
clinical psychology and psychoanalysis, the preliminary interviews with the patients
are held with a purpose to group the nature and cause of the disease.
2. Treatment Interview – if the cause of a psychological malady is diagnosed as non
physical further interview are held to being to fore – conscious of the patient that his
malady is due to this or that mental complex or faulty style of life.
3. Research Interview – These interview are held together information pertaining to a
certain problem. The questions to be asked together the describe information are pre
determined and by asking them of the informants the data is collected. In as much as
this data is gathered for the purpose of research into problem, these are called
Research interview.
4. Interview to fulfill curiosity – These interview as the name implies are held to
satisfy some question lurking in the mind of a scientist, for ex – if a scientist gets an
idea that good lectures are delivered extempore, he has to interview some reputedly
goods lectures whether they take extensive notes for delivering a lecture or not.
D) Classification according to the period of contact ;
1. Short contact interview – For filling up schedules etc a single sitting of small
duration suffers.
2. Prolonged Control interview – The case history method requires prolonged
interviews. In these establishment of close personal relations between the interviews
and interviewee is very likely.
E) Classification according to subject matter ;
1. Qualitative interview – This held for cash studies are qualitative because the
interviewer has to range over past, present and future to known about the case.

41
2. Quantitative interview – they are those in which certain set facts are gathered
about a large no of persons. Ex: Census Interview.
3. Mixed interview – This is known as free or unstructured interview. This is a type
of interview in which the interviewer no control, provides no deduction and has no
brief or predetermined set of questions to ask. The interviewer merely engages the
interviewee in talk and encourage him to tell about his experience and feelings. The
informant is left free to narrate, as well as explain his experiences.
4. Focused interview – This type of interview takes place when the interviewee are in
a special concrete situation. For ex: When they have seen a particular film or heard a
particular radio broadcast or are eyewitnesses of a social situation, under these
circumstances the can give information about these things.
This type of interview is possible in those concrete circumstances which have
been analysed before hand, that is prior to the beginning of the interview.
In an interview of this type the inner feelings and emotional attitudes of the
interviewees viz-a-visa given problem or situation are given particular attention.
This type of interview is done on the basis of an interview guide in which the field of
inquiry and hypothesis are clearly started.
5. Repeated Interview – this type of interview is eminently suited to trace the
development of process and to determine the factors or attitudes which are behind a
given behavior patterns.
6. Telephone interview – This popularity of possible because of the wide spread
acceptance of the telephone as a necessary communication device.
MERITS :
1. Its low cost merits on attention, where respondents are widely scratted telephones
are especially economical.
2. It is useful in reaching individual who are located in such remote places that face to
face interview would be difficult and expensive as well as those who may not bother
answering a mailed questionnaire.
Travel time can be drastically reduced because all call can be made from a
single location. A study can be planned and carried out in a few days over a wide
geographical area. Another advantage is the quality or response which is excellent in

42
many cases depending upon the topic and study conditions, besides the establishment
of proper rapport.
Interviewer bias is normally reduced because of the lack of face to face contact
between interviewer and respondent.
LIMITS :
The obvious first requirements is that respondent must be reachable by phone
and this causes the difficult in drawing a completely random sample. There are
always a large no of obsolete numbers and newly located households for which
numbers have not yet been published. Near the end of a directory year it is probable
that 20 to30 % of actual phone subscribes are either unlisted or not listed correctly in
the current directory.
Limits on the length of interview is another disadvantage of the telephone, bur
the degree of this limitation depends on the type of respondent and his interest in the
topic. More over respondents find it easier to terminate an interview by telephone than
that in the face-to-face situation.
METHODS OF DEPLOYING INTERVIEWER :
Invasion Method – A large team of interviewers sweeps into a village in a hit and run
style conducts all interviews in a day or two and leaves.
USES :
1. When the no of villages to be covered is a large so that the no of respondents per
village is small and the interview of each respondent relatively brief.
2. When due to the nature of topic or the nature of sample composition there is
particular reason to fear contamination of the data by numerous or circulation of
questionnaire itsem between early and later days of interviewing.
3. When problem of transport, timing or other reason favour this method. For ex:
Female interviewer may not like to stay in the village , they may go out during the day
and return to the central lease at night.
RECORDING :
There are generally two aspects to recording in interview work. One is related
to the function performed by the interviewer who may utilize any method from
recording by pencil on a questionnaire to the use of moving pictures.

43
 The other aspects concern the respondents answering questions or statements
directly on a data form viz., ‘SCHEDULE”.
Tape record as a medium for collection verb eating data are employed in several
phases of interviewing. The essential part of group interview, the role playing
technique and depth interviewing and may even be occasionally used with the
structured questionnaire.
VALIDITY :
The following precautions are to be taken to avoid the errors in interview:
1. The interviewer must examine the cause and effect of the relevant aspects of the
interview.
2. The researcher should examine data from other sources.
3. the interviewer must know about the relatives of the respondent and their attitude
towards him.
4. Resorting to group interview.
5. The interviewer must cross check the statement that he might have record earlier.
6. The interviewer must try to collect extensive facts about the important aspects.

ADVANTAGE OF TELEPHONE :
1. The primary advantage of telephone interviewing is low cost relative to a personal
interview. Because all calls are made from the same location, travel time and
expenses are eliminated .
2. Another advantage of the telephone interview is its speed. We can obtain
information on the activities, while they are actually taking place.
3. Telephone interviews generally incorporate a sense of important and priority,
especially what a long distance call is involved.
4. The interview’s bias is normally reduced because of lack of face to face contact
between the interviewer and the respondent.
DIS ADVANTAGE :
1.Sample selection is a difficult exercise and may turn out to be quite unscientific. For
ex: your study is on teenage group of persons and the no of you are varying may not
have any one suitable to your study.

44
2. Most people tend to be brief over the telephone. Because of this interviewer may
find it difficult to assure interest and confidence in the study.
3. People are reluctant to report over telephone such personal matters like family
income ,age etc.
4. The communication medium. That is telephone may play havoc with the whole
process. If the lines are not audible or the line is becoming dead quite frequently, it is
difficult to carry on the interview.

DISTINGUISH BETWEEN INTERVIEW AND QUESTIONNAIRE:

The First difference between the interview and questionnaire methods is that the
former involves presentation of oral vertical stimuli and return of oral verbal
response . where as the questionnaire method involves presentation of written verbal
response . Thus in a questionnaire the questions are arranged to get information while
in an interview there is an opportunity for greater care in communicating questions
and in electing information.
The Interviewer has the opportunity to observes looks the subject anad the total
solution to which he or she is responding. Interviews conducted by telephone fall
between the questionnaire and personnel interview to the extent to which the
interviews can assess the subject and subject’s situation and to the extent to which a
valid questioning process may be ensured.

SAMPLING:

Sampling is the process of selecting a few form a bigger group to become the
basis for estimating or predicting the prevalence of an unknown piece of information,
situation outcome regarding the bigger group. A sample is a subgroup of population
you are interested in sampling process may be defined as “The selection of part of an

45
aggregate or totality on the basis of which a judgment or interference about the
aggregate is made”.

PROCESS OF SAMPLING:

1. Defining the population:

It is the aggregate of all the elements defined prior to selection of the
sample. It is necessary to define population in terms of elements, Sampling units,
extent and time.

2. Identifying the Sample Frame :

The frame which could be a telephone directories, a list of blocks and
localities of a sample units. Perfect frame is one where every elements appears on the
list separality, once, only once and nothing else appears on the list.

3. Specific the sampling units:

It is the basis units containing the elements of the target population . If
one wanted a sample of homoservice, it might be possible to have accvess to such a
sample directly However, it might be easier to select as sampling unit and their
interview in each of the selected households.

4. Specific sampling method:

One of the most important decision in this regard is to determine which of
the two-probability and non-probability sample is to be chosen.
Probability sample, the probability or chance of every unit in the
population beinf included in the sample is known, the selection of specific units in the
sample depends entirely on chance.

5. Determine the sample size:

46
 One has to decide how many elements of the targets population are to be
chosen.

6. Specify the sampling plan:

One should indicate, how decisions made so far are to be implemented.
For Ex: If a survey of households is to be considered, a sampling plan should define a
household, contain instruction to the interviewer as to how should take a systematic
sample of households, advice him on what he should do when no one is available on
his visit to the household and soon, these are some pertinent issues on a sampling
survey to which a samplilng plan should provide answers.

7. Select the sample:

This is the final step in the sampling process. A good deal of office and
field work is involved in the actual selection of the sample elements.

PRINCIPLES OF SAMPLING:

A) In a majority of cases of sampling there will be a difference between the sample

statistics and true population mean, which is attributed to the selection of the units in
the sample.
B) The greater the sample size, the more accurate will be the estimate of the true
population mean.
C) The greater difference in the variable under study in a population for a given
sample size, the greater will be difference between sample statistics and the true
population mean. Thus as a rule, the large the sample size, the more accurate will be
the findings.

AIM OF SAMPLE SELECTION:

1. To achieve maximum precision in your estimates within a given sample size.
2. To avoid bias in the selection of your sample.
BIAS :

47
 The Bias is the selection of a sample can occur if ,
@. Sampling is done by a non-random method that is, if the selection
consciously or unconsciously influenced by human choices,,
`@. The sampling frame list index or other popylation records which sercices as
the basis of selection does not cover the sampling population accurately and
completely.
@. A selection of sampling population is impossible to find or refuses to co-
operate.
METHODS OF SAMPLING:

I. PROBABILITY SAMPLING (RANDOM) METHOD:

a) Simple Random Sampling [Unstructured]:
It refers to the sampling techniques in which each and every itsem
or each possible sample combination in the whole population has on equal and
independent chance of being included in the sample. The underlying principle of a
random sample is that the personal factor is eliminated in the selection of the sample
as the investigator does not exercise his discretion in the choice of items. This method
is also known as “METHOD OF CHANCE SELECTION”.
To ensure randomness of selection one may adopt either the lottery method or
consult table of random numbers.

2. LOTTERY METHOD:
The procedure can be easily described by considering an ex: let a sample
of size 25 be required from a population of size of 200. Prepare 200 cards or lots of
same size and colmns.Write on each of them the name or other distinguished mark of
one unit of the population. Fold them uniformly and shuffle trhem well 25 of them to
be selected.

RANDOM NUMBER METHOD:

48
 When the size of the population is large, the method provides on easier
procedure. (1) Tippett’s Table. (2) Fishers and Yale’s table and (3) Hendall and
smith’s table are popular.
Merits of Tippett’s table :
1. No possibility of personal bis affecting the result the selection of items in the
sample depends entirely a chance.
2. It represent the universe in a better way.

Limits:
1. Prepaaring cards or making use of random number table is tedions when a sample is
to be selected from a large population.
2. Expensive and time consuming especially when the population is large.

II MIXED OR STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING:

This sample consists of single sample of universe. A stratified sample is
equivalent to a set of random samples a single type. For general stratified of the
population for the purpose of sampling contributes to the efficient of sampling if it
establishes classes.
A stratified sampling may be either proportionate stratified sampling or
disproportionate sampling.
In proportionate sampling the no of items drawn from each stratum is
proportional to the size of strata. On the other hand if an equal no of items drawn
from each stratum regardless of how the stratum is represented in the universe. Such a
plan is known as disproportionate sampling .

MERITS:
1. More Representative.
2. create Aaccuracy.
3. Size of the sample from each stratum is determined.
LIMITS:
1. In convience.

49
 2. More Difficulty.

3) Systematic or Quasi random sampling

A systematic sample is one in which every Kth item is selected in a list
representing a population or a stratum. The no. K is called the sampling intervals.
The item of the population are arranged in a systematic order on the basis of its
important characteristics.

MULTI STAGE OR CLUSTER AND AREA SAMPLING:

As the name implies this method refers to an sampling procedure which is
carried our in several stages. The population is distributed into a no of first stage
sampling units and a sample is taken of these first units by some suitable method.
This method adopted in the first stage may be the same or different for subsequent
stages.
“large grouping within the population are called Cluster”.
The cluster are the sampling units known as primary units, first stage
level, second stage district level, 3rd stage village level, 4th stage household level.
When the population is broken into areas that constitute the primary sampling units,
the sample is called an Area sampling.

AREA SAMPLING :
It is sometimes convinent to confine questions about details to a fraction of the
sample, which other informaaation is collected from the wholel sample. This
procedure is known as Multiple sampling.

SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING:
When a particular lot is to be accepted or rejected on the basis of a single
sample, it is known as single sampling.
When the decision is to be taken on the basis of two samples, it is known as double
sampling.

50
And When the decision is taken on basis of more than two samples but the no of
samples is certain and decided in advance the sample is known as multiple sampling.
But when the no of samples is more than two but how many is neither certain nor
decided in advance, this type of system is often reffered to as Sequential sampling. In
sequential sampling one can go on taking samples one after another, so long as one
describes to do so.

NON RANDOM OR NON PROFITABILITY SAMPLING :

This type of sampling gives assurance that every element has same specifiable
chance of being included. They are used when the no of elements in a population
either unknown be individually identified.
1. ACCIDENTAL SAMPLING;
The researcher simply reaches out and takes the cases that fall to hand
continuing the process till such time as the sample reaches a designated size.
The researcher for sample may take the first 150 persons that he meets on any
one of the pedestrian paths of a street who are willing to be interviewed or to provide
the kind of information on that he is seeking. In such a sample, there is no other way
of estimating the bias except by doing a parallel study with a probability sample or
undertaking a complete census.
This type of sampling besides being economical and convenient can also afford
a basis for stimulating insight and hypothesis.

QUOTA SAMPLING:
It is one which the interviewer is instructed to collect information from an
assigned number, or quota of individuals in each of several group. The group being
specified as to age, sex, income or other characteristics much like the strata in
stratified sampling.

STAGES:
1. The population is classified in terms of properties known or assumed to be pertinent
to the characteristics being studied.

51
2. The proportion of population falling into each group or class is determined on the
basis of known assumed composition of the population.

3. Each observes or interviews is assigned a quota of respondents.

MERITS:
It is the least expensive way of selecting a sample, you do not nee any
information such as a sampling frame, the total no of elements, their location or other
information about the sampling population. It guaranties the inclusion of the type of
people you need.

LIMITS:
As a resulting sample is not a probability one, the finding cannot be generalized
to the total sampling population.
The most accessible individuals might have the characteristics that are unique to
them and hence might not be truly representative of the total sampling population.

3. JUDGEMENT OR PURPOSIVE SAMPLING:

A judgement sample is one which is selected according to someone’s personal
judegment. The investigator used his judgement in the choice and included only those
items of the universe in the sample which he considers are most typical of
convenience. While selecting the sample only the average items are considered and
extreme items are omitted .
1. This method is suitable when only a small no of sampling is in the universe.
2. In solving the every day business.
3. Problem and making public policy decision.

4. CONVENIENCE SAMPLING:

52
 It is also called the chunk. A chunk refers to that fraction of the population
being interviewed or investigated which is selected neither by probability or by
judgement but by convenience .
A sample obtained from readily available lists such as automobile registrations,
telephone directories etc is a convenience sample.
The result obtained by this method can hardly be representative of the
population. They are generally biased and unsatisfactory, however, convenient
sampling is often used for making pilot studies. Questions may be tested and
primarily information may be obtained by the chunk before the final sampling design
is decided upon.

FACTOR ANALYSIS:
In many real life applications, the no of independent variables used in predicting
a response variable will be too many. The difficulties in having too many independent
variables in such exercise are as follows;
1. Increased computational time to get solutions.
2. Increased time in data collection.
3. Too much expenditure in data collection.
4. Presence of redundant independent variables.
5. Difficulties in making inferences..
These can be avoided using factor analysis.
Factor analysis aims at grouping the original input variable into factors which
underlic the input variable . Theortically , the total no of factors analysis is equal to
total no of input variables. But after performing factor analysis the total no of factors
in the study can be reduced by dropping the insignificiant factors based on certain
criterion.
Ex : The marketing manager of a two- wheeler company designed a questionnaire to
study the customer feedback about its two-Wheeler and in turn he is keen in
identifying the factor of his study. Identified by six variables ;
1. Fuel Efficiency (X1).
2. Life of the two- wheeler (X2).

53
 3. Handling convenience (X3).
4. Quality of original spares (X4).
5. Breakdown rate (X5).
6. Price (X6).
After administering a questionnaire among respondents, the opinion of the customer
can be obtained on the above variables.
Let the range of the score for each of the above variables is assumed to be
between 1–10. The score 1 means the lowest rating and 10 means the highest rating.
Let assume that the application of factors analysis groups these variables as
follows.
Technical Factor X1, X2, X4 and X5 into the Factor 1
Price Factor X2 into the Factor 2
Personal Factor X3 into the Factor 3.
If all the three factor are significant then they are retained for future
analysis. A careful examination of these grouping of variables into factors reveals that
the factor 1, factor 2 and factor 3 can be named as technical factors, price factors and
personal factor.
If there are n variables, there will be n factors, each factors say factor k is
represented by a linear composite. Let Fk be the linear composite of the factors k
which is given by, Fk = W1kX1 + W2kx2 + ……W1k1X1 + WnkXn.
Where W1k is the weight of the original variable,
X1 is the linear composite of the factor K,
Fk =
Objects :
1. It simplified the data by reducing a large no of variables to a set of a small no of
variables.
2. It analysis the interdependence of inter relationship among a total set of variables.

TERMINOLOGIES:
Correlation co-efficient Matrix.

54
 It is the matrix of correlation co-efficient of the original observation between
different pairs of input variables. Factor loading Li (i) is a matrix representing the
correlation between different combination of variables and factors.
Li (i) is the factor loading of the variable J on the factor I, where I =1,2,3,….n
and J = 1,2,3,……n.

EIGEN VALUE:
It is the sum of squares of the factor loading of all variables on a factor.

ROTATION:
After obtaining factor loading one should examine whether the factor loading
matrix possesss sample structure. If a factor loading the matix has a simple structure,
it is easy to make interpretation about the factor. If there is no simple structure then
the n-dimensional space of the factor should be rotated by an angle such that the factor
loading are revised to have a simple structure which will simply the process of
interpreting of the factors such rotation is called Rotation of factor.
After the performing each factor assign a score for each respondent. Such
scores are called Factor scores.

CENTROID METHOD:
It maximizes the sum of absolute loading of each factor. In this method, the co-
efficient of the terms in the linear composite of each factor will be either +1 or -1.
This method is less number when compared to other methods.
PRINCIPAL COMPONENT METHOD :
This a popular technique which determines loading of variables on different
factors by using the standard normal values of the observation of the original
variables.
Let n be the total no of input variables be the total no of sets of observation for
the variables n the total no of factor which is same as total no of variables..
X is the input variable j, j =1,2,3,…n.,

55
 Y is the original observation or opinion .
C marked byu the Jth respondent J for the Jth input variable. The mean of the original
observation of the variable J. the standard deviation of the original observation of the
variable and Zij the standard normal value of the Jth observation of the Jth variable
given by the following.

CLUSTER ANALYSIS:
Cluster analysis is a technique which groups persons/objects/occasions into
unknown no of groups are having similar characteristics/attributes. The different
technique of cluster analysis form gropus such as that similarity among the member of
the group is maximized.
It is also called as classification analysis or numerical taxonomy.
Ex :
SYSTEM OBJECTS
VARIABLES/ATTRIBURES
Health patients Diagnostic categories.
Marketing customer Buying Behaviour.
Customer Demographic data.
Sales region Buying pattern
Customer features.
Educational students Electives taken
Faculty specialization.

CLUSTER TECHNIQUES:
It can be classified into hierarchical clustering and non- hierarchical clustering.
Hierarchical clustering can be classified in to
@. An agglomerative method is a bottom-up approach in which each object is
assumed as a separate cluster and then they will be clustered in succession until a
single cluster which consists of all the objects is formed.

56
 @. A division method is a top down approach in which initially all the object
are included in a single cluster. Then the single cluster will divided into subcluster
until each object constitute a cluster.

POPULATION HIERARCHIAL CLUSTERING TECHNIQUE:

Single linkage clustering method, initially, two objects which are having the
shortest distance will be clustered together.
Then again, if another object which has the least distance with any one of the
existing cluster is found, it will cluster with that cluster. This process continues until
all the objects are included in a single object.
The complete linkage clustering method is same as the single linkage clustering
method except the clustering criterion. In this method, longest distance is the
clustering criterion.
The average linkage clustering method is same as that of single linkage
clustering method or complete linkage clustering method with the clustering criterion
as the average distance.
The average distance between two clusters is the average of the distance from
the object of one cluster to the object of the another cluster.
The WARD’S method uses a different clustering criterion which signifies
the loss of information by way of grouping object in to cluster. This measure is
known as total sum of squares of deviations of the objects co-ordinates from the
respective mean co-ordinates of the cluster to which the objects are assigned. In
centroid method the cluster criterion is the distance between the centroids of the two
clusters.
In non-hierarchial clustering technique an object of one cluster will be permitted
to join another cluster while the cluster are formed using either agglomerative method
or division method. This means that lateral shifting of objects from one cluster to
another cluster by violating the hierarchy is permitted. In this approach, some initial
seeds of the objects will be assumed biased on certain household value of the
similarity co-efficient back seed represents a cluster which contains certain objects.
Back object should be present in any one of the initial seeds.

57
DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS:
The discriminate analysis aims at studying the effect of two or more predictor
variables on certain evaluation criterion. The evaluation criterion may be good or bad,
like or dislike successful or unsuccessful.
Good or bad :
While grouping investment alternatives based on rate of return, the criterion of
the rate of return will be categorized into good or bad.
Eg : Investment alternatives is an entirely and each investment alternative is
entity and each investment alternative is treated as a member of the entity.
Successful or Unsuccessful :
While grouping salesman in terms of meeting sales target, the criterion will be
successful or unsuccessful.
While grouping R&D projects on their successful completion, the criterion will
be successful or unsuccessful.
Like or dislike:
While grouping products by consumer in terms of their flavor, the criterion will
be like or dislike.
While grouping executives in a company in terms of their leadership qualities
the criterion will be like or dislike.
Above expected level or Below expected level :
While grouping employees after a training programme, in terms of their
enhance skills, the criterion will be above expected level or below expected level.
The researcher will be keen in checking whether the predictor variables
discriminate among the groups. It is so necessarily to identify the predictor variable
which is more important when compared to other predictor variable, such analysis is
called Discriminate analysis.
Designing a discriminate function like the one shown ;
Y = Ax1 + Bx2.

58
 Where Y is the linear composite representing the discriminate function X1 and
X2 are the predictor variables which are having effect on the evaluation criterion of
the problem of interest.
Finding the discriminant ratio (k) and determing the variables which account for
intergroup differences in terms of group means.
In this ratio is the maximum possible ratio between the variability groups and
the variability with in groups.
Finding the critical value which can be used to include a new data set in to its
appropriate group.

TESTING THE NULL HYPOTHESIS:

Ho : The group means are equal in importance against the alternative
hypothesis.
H1o : The group means are not equal importance using first at a given
significance level.

MULTIPLE REGRESSION:
Multiple regression involves a single dependent variables and two or more than
one, then the model is called as multiple regression. In fact, may of the real world
application demand the use of multiple regression model.

RESEARCH REPORT:

Research reports is the oral or written presentation of the evidence and the
findings in such detail and form as to be enable him to veriefy the validity of the
conclusions.

Significance:
Research report is considered a major component of the research study
for the research task remains incomplete till the report has been presented and written.
As a major of fact even the most brilliant hypothesis highly well designed and
conducted research study and most striking generalization and findings are of little
59
value unless they are effectively communicated to others. Research result must
invalidity enter the general the general store of knowledge. All this explains the
significance of writing research report.

DIFFERENCE STEPS IN WRITING REPORT :

1. Logical analysis of the subject matter.
2. Preparation of final outline.
3. Preparation of rough draft.
4. Rewriting of positioning.
5. Preparation of the final bibliography.
6. Writing the final draft.

LOGICAL ANALYSIS:
It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the development of a
subject. There are two ways in which to develop a subject.
@. Logically and @. Chronologically.
The logically development is made on the basis of mental connections
and associations between the onething and other by means of analysis.
Logical treatment often consists in developing the material from the simple
possible to the most complex structures.
Chronoligical development is based on a connection or sequence in time or
occurance.

PREPERATION OF FINAL OUTLINE:

It is the real step in writing the research report. Out line are the frame work
upon on which long written works are constructed. They are an to logical orgn. Of the
material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.

PREPERATION OF ROUGH DRAFT:

In this step is of utmost importance for the researcher now stills to write down
what he has done in the context of his research study. He will write down the
procedure adopted by him in collecting the material for his study along with various
60
limitations faced by him, the technique of analysis adopted by him, the broad findings
and generalization and various suggestions he wants to offer regarding the problem
concerned.

REWRITING AND FINAL BIBLIOGRAPHY :

The careful revision makes the difference between a mediocre and a good price
of writing. The researcher should “see whether or not the material as it is presented
has unity and cohesion does the report stand upright and firm and exhibit a definite
pattern or does it resemble an old wall of moldering cement and loose brikes”.
He should check the mechanics of writing grammar, spelling and usage.

PREPERATION OF FINAL BIBLIOGRAPHY:

The bibliography which is generally happened to the research report, is a list of

looks in someway pertinent to the research which has been done. The bibliography
should be arranged alphabetically and may be divided into two parts : The first part
may contain the names of the looks and pamphlets and the second part may contain
the names of magazine and newspaper articles. For looks and pamphlets the order
may be
1. Name of author, last name first.

2. Title undetermined to indicate italics.

3. Place publisher and date of publication.

4. No of volumes.

For magazines:
Name of the author, last name first.
Name or article in questions mark.
Name of periodical, underlined to indicate italics.
The volume or volume and number.
The date of the issue.
The pagination.

61
WRITING THE FINAL REPORT:
The final draft should be written in a concise and objective style and in simple
language avoiding vague expression such as “it seems”, there may be and the
likes one. It must be remembered that every report should be an attempt to
solve some intellectual problem and must contribute to the solution of a
problem and must add to the knowledge of both the researcher and the reader.
TYPES OF REPORTS :
The preparation of the report is final stage of the research and its purpose to
convey to interested person the whole result of the study, in sufficient detail and so
arrange as to enable each reader to comprehend the data and to determine for himself
the validity of the conclusion.The basic quality of good scientific writing is accuracy
and clarity.
The first step is to decide just what information one wants to convey and to
understand how the various lists of it are releated to one another. Usually the work
can be done more efficiently if a sentence outline is prepared. Prepare a detailed
outline allows one to concentrate exclusively on what is to be paid.
Once the outline has been prepared, it is a good idea to carefully go through it,
check whether ideas have been grouped together logically be long together.
1. TECHNICAL REPORT :

In this report the main emphasis is on the methods esmployed, assumptions

made the course of the study, detailed presentation of the findings including
their limitations and supporting data.
OUTLINES:
1. SUMMARY RESULTS:

A brief review of the main findings just in two or three pages.

2. Nature of study-Description of the general objectives of the study,
formulation of the problem, the working hypothesis, the type of
analysis and data required.

3. Method employed – specific methods used in the study and their

limits.
62
 4. Data- Dissicussion of data collected, their sources, characteristics and
limits.

5. Analysis of data- the analysis is of data and presentation of findings

of the study with supporting data in the form of tables and chart be
fully narrated.

6. Conclusion– a detailed summary of findings and the policy

implications drawn from the results be explained.

7. Bibliography-of various sources consulsed be prepared and attached.

8. Technical appendicies- appendices be given for all technical matters

relating to questionnaire, material deviations, elobarations on
particular techniques of analysis and the likes ones.

9. Index- must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the

end.

It should be remembered that even in a technical report, simple presentation

and ready availability of the findings remain an important consideration and as such
the liberal use of chart and diagrams are considered invariables.

POPULAR REPORT :
The popular report is the one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
alternativeness. The simplification should be sought through clear writing
minimization of technical particularly mathematical, details and liberal use of charts
and diagrams.
The feelings and their implications - Emphasis in the report is given on the finds of
most practical interest and on the implication of these feelings.
Recommendation for actions–Recommendation for action on the basis of the
findings of the study is made in this section of the report .
Objectives of Study- A general review of how the problem are is presented along
with the specific objectives of the project under study.

63
Methods Employed - A brief and non-technical description of the methods and
techniques used including a sort review of the data on which the study is based, is
given in this part of the reports.

Result – This section constitutes the main body of the report where in the results of
the main study are presented in clear and non technical terms with liberal use of all
sorts of illustration such as charts diagrams and the likes ones.

Technical Appendices – More detailed information methods used forms etc. is

presented in the form of appearance. The only importance thing about such a report is
that it gives emphasis on simplicity and policy implications from the operational
points of view avoiding the technical details of all sort to the extent possible.

ORAL PRESENTATION :
At times oral presentation of the results of the study is considered effective,
particularly incase where policy recommendations are indicated by project results.
The merits of this approach lies in the fact that it provides an opportunity for give and
take decisions which generally lead to a letter understanding of the findings and their
implications.
But the main demerits of this sort of presentation is the lack of any permanent record
concerning the research details and it may be just possible that the findings may fade
away from people’s memory even before an action is taken.

STRUCTURE OF RESEARCH REPORT :

1. The Preliminary.
2. The Text [Main leady of the report].
3.The Reference material.

Preliminary Section :
a. The title page. b. Preference including acknowledgement.
c. Table of contents. d. List of tables.

64
 e. List of figures. f. List of derivations.
Text (or) context :
a. Introduction. b. Main body of the report.
c. Conclusion {Summary/Recommendation/Suggestions}.
Reference Material :
a. Bibliography. b. Appendices.
c. Index [If any].

TITLE PAGE :
The first page of the report is the title page. It should carry a concise and
adequately descriptive title of the research study. It includes,
1. Name of the topic.
2. The relationship of the report to a course or the degree for which the degree is
conferred.
3. The name of the author.
4. The name of the institution where the report is to be submitted.
5. The date of presentation of the report.
The entire title should be typed in all capital letters, single spaced and centered
between the right and left margin of the page. The name of the writer should be typed
in capital letter.

ACKNOWLEDMENT :
In the process of carrying out any research, the researcher should have received
help from different persons and organizations.
A sample list of people who are to be acknowledged is as follows :
Research supervision, organizational head, collegians of the department who rendered
their valuable suggestion and critics during the research period, the executive in
different organization who provided data literature for research, the type spelling
office and personnel.
The purpose of the table of content is to provide an outline of the content of the
report. It may contain only a list of a titles, of chapters and their appropriate roman

65
numerals, followed by page number on which each chapter begins or it may be more
analytical containing besides the chapter titles, saleshead or section heading or words
or phrases indicating the subject matter or the chapter.
On the right hand should be typed the heading page at the right margin, below
which page number will be appear. On the left hand, will appear the heading in the
sequence in which they actually appear in the thesis. Main heading should be in
capital letters without closing punctuation and should be numbered consecutively.
If the tables and figures are included in this report, separate pages for them
should follow the table of content, figures and illustration are synonyms, diagram and
photographs.

TEXT :
Introduction : Main body of the report devoted for analysis, interpretation and
presentation of data and summary and conclusion. The introductory chapter consists
of
1. Statement of the problem. 2. The objective of study.
3. Review of literature. 4. Significance of justification for
5. Scope of the study. the present study.
6. Conceptual frame work. 7. Methodology adopted.
8. Limitation of the study. 9. Chapterisation.

MAIN BODY OF THE REPORT :

This is the heart of the research report and probably the largest section of the
report. This may take a few chapters present all the arguments, documentation, ideas,
concept, interpretation and findings, the chapter should include a discussion of the
issue or part of the problem investigated and the evidence used in its solution.

CONCLUSION :
It consists of summary, conclusion/generalization suggestion and
recommendation. Finding are statement of factual information based upon the data
analysis. Besides summary and conclusion, recommendation are also required from

66
the investigator – researcher recommendations are typically brief statement of a
limited no of suggestions for the future consideration.

Suggestion for future research :

The research report should him to give leads to future research scholars. The
researcher should be able to give direction to the future researcher form the insight he
has gained during the investigation. Hence it may be appropriate including this part of
the report to indicate topics which need the future research.

REFERENCE MATERIAL :
A bibliography means look list i.e a list of written sources either published or
unpublished consulted in the preparation of the report during the course of research,
books, periodicals, articles, government document, Interviews etc. It may be arranged
according to the alphabetical order, chronological order, division of the subjects etc.

67