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Lecture 1
FOR CALEB RESEARCH TEAM
RESEARCH METHODS
LECTURE 1
(FOR CALEB RESEARCH TEAM)
What is Research?
• Research is a systematic investigation into a problem with a view
to advancing the frontier of knowledge.
• It is a method of thinking in an orderly sequence by assuming an
inquisitive posture in order to investigate and solve a particular
problem.
• It is a systematic process of observing, recording, collecting and
analysing data with a view to solving a specific problem or to
contribute to knowledge.
What is Research? (contd.)
• It could also be defined as systematic and objective analysis and
recording of controlled observation that may lead to the
developments of generalizations, principles or theories resulting
in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events.
• On the whole, research can be seen as a SYSTEMATIC and
ORGANIZED way of FINDING ANSWERS to QUESTIONS.
• SYSTEMATIC because there is a definite set of procedures and
steps which you will follow. There are certain things in the
research process which are always done in order to get the most
accurate results.
What is Research? (contd.)
• ORGANIZED in that there is a structure or method in going about
doing research. It is a planned procedure, not a spontaneous one.
It is focused and limited to a specific scope.
• FINDING ANSWERS is the end of all research. Whether it is the
answer to a hypothesis or even a simple question, research is
successful when we find answers.
• QUESTIONS are central to research. If there is no question, then
the answer is of no use. Research is focused on relevant, useful
and important questions. Without a question, research has no
focus, drive or purpose.
Nature of Research
1. EMPIRICISM: Research has to do with collecting data which is
used for drawing conclusion through careful observation of the
phenomenon that is being investigated . This means that research
is not based on mere feelings or reasons.
2. THEORY: Research focuses on producing a set of inter-related
propositions which can explain certain phenomenon among
variables.
3. CUMULATION: Research puts together the existing facts and
theory and tries to refine and extend principles that have existed.
Nature of Research (contd.)
4. NON-ETHICAL: It has nothing to do with whether an action is
right or wrong but it is concerned with finding explanations
for any action.
5. VERIFICATION: A research is not all in all as the conclusions
made can still be verified by other researchers to either
confirm or contradict its authenticity.
Characteristics of Research
1. Research begins with confusion in the mind of the researcher about
certain phenomenon.
2. It requires a plan, which includes the isolation of the population,
sample, variables, questions or hypotheses and tests of data collection
3. Research requires that a problem is stated in a researchable form.
4. It requires a proposal to show every stage and aspect of the
investigation.
5. Research problems should be hierarchically broken down into
problems and sub-problems.
Characteristics of Research (contd.)

6. Research is factual, non-impressionistic, not taking a strong

stand but flexible according to evidence.
7. Research involves tests of hypotheses or answering of
questions.
8. It requires operational definition of terms.
9. Research is objective and not based on beliefs.
10. Research is a circular, forward and backward process which is
dynamic in nature.
Qualities of a Good Researcher
1. A good researcher must be a scholarly, imaginative and
objective person.
2. He/She must be ready to endure and tolerate frustration so as
to establish the truth of an event.
3. He/She must be able to accept criticism of his or her methods,
designs, sampling techniques and statistical analysis so as to
have more improved results.
Qualities of a Good Researcher (contd.)

4. The Researcher must be able to have adequate

background thinking and logical connection of the
factors to be investigated as this would form the basis
of his or her conclusions.
5. He/She must be a continuous learner.
Types of Research
1. Research based on USE
2. Research based on METHOD
3. Research based on EVIDENCE
1. Research based on USE
i. Fundamental or Basic Research: it is also called pure or
academic research. It advances scientific knowledge through
the verification of hypotheses used to test theories. Thus the
principal concern is not the practical application of knowledge
in solving everyday problem.
It is merely explanatory and descriptive. Its basic interest is
to produce results or findings which will lead to the
development of theories that will advance knowledge in a
particular field.
1. Research based on USE (contd.)
ii. Applied Research: is otherwise known as Evaluation, Useful
Appraisal, Assessment or Policy Research. It is concerned with
finding solutions to specific behavioural or organizational
problems. It is interested in finding application of theories to
the solution of practical business or marketing problems.
1. Research based on USE (contd.)
iii. Action Research: This concerned with solving immediate and
pressing practical business or marketing problems. It is more
restricted in outlook than Applied Research. The limitation of
this type of Research is that their findings may not be
generalized to other situations.
2. Research Types based on METHOD
i. Historical Research: is based on systematizing as accurately as
possible the past events of human activities. It is preoccupied with a
consistent explanation of the past by the use of primary and
secondary sources.
ii. Case study: is concerned with the study of a problem or specific
situation. It is an intensive study aimed at a thorough understanding
of a given social unit; which may be an individual, a group, a
community, or an institution.
It provides relevant background information that may lead to more
extensive investigations. The sample often use is non-representative.
2. Research Types based on METHOD
(contd.)
iii. Causal-comparative or ex-post facto approach: it aims to
establish cause-effect or observation of some variables which
serve as causative agents.
The word causal comparative is derived from the fact that groups
differentiated in terms of some independent variables are
compared with a given dependent variable. It helps to discover
what a phenomenon is like, how and why it occurs. The likeness
and differences among different phenomena could be compared to
find out the factors responsible for the differences or similarities.
2. Research Types based on METHOD
(contd.)
iv. Experimental Research: is a scientific investigation in which
the research manipulates, controls and describes one or more
independent variables. The researcher tries to find the cause-
effect relationship between two or more variables by producing
a change in one so as to bring a change in the other.
He exposes one or more experimental groups to one or more
treatment conditions and compares the results with another
group (control) which did not receive any treatment.
2. Research Types based on METHOD
(contd.)
v. Descriptive Research: accesses certain attributes, properties or
characteristics in a situation at one time or the other.
• It is used when the objective is to provide a systematic
description that is as factual and accurate as possible.
• It provides the numbers of times something occurs or frequency
and lends itself to statistical calculations such as determining
the averages number of occurrences or central tendencies.
• It cannot determine what causes a specific behaviour,
motivation or occurrence.
2. Research Types based on METHOD
(contd.)
• It describes in a systematic way the characteristics or facts
about a given population.
• The resulting data are often used to explain and predict
phenomena. Thus, Descriptive Research includes:
• Survey Research
• Correlational Studies
• Development Studies
3. Research Types based on EVIDENCE
& ANALYSIS
i. Quantitative Research: This is conducted through a systematic
intense and prolong contact with a field or life situation. The
researcher tries to gain a holistic overview of the context understudy
including it’s logic, arrangement and explicit and implicit rule.
ii. Qualitative Research: It refers to essence of people, objects and
situations.
• It focuses on form of words or moving images.
• The words are based on observation and interviews documents.
• The tactics used for generating qualitative meaning are:
3. Research Types based on EVIDENCE
& ANALYSIS (contd.)
 Patterns and Themes
 Seeing Plausibility
 Noting Clustering
 Making Metaphors
 Counting
 Making contrasts and comparisons
 Partitioning variables
 Subsuming particulars into general
3. Research Types based on EVIDENCE
& ANALYSIS (contd.)
 Factoring
 Noting relationship between variables
 Finding intervening variables.
STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS
Step 1: Identification of a problem
• It involves clear definition of the research problem.
• The problem must not be ambiguous, it must be easy to
understand.
STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS
(contd.)
STEP 2: Review of related Literature
• It involves identifying, abstracting, synthesizing and appraising
information from past researches, theories and conceptual models
that could throw more light on the understanding and solution of
the problem the Researcher is interested in investigating.
• It should show areas of weaknesses and gaps in the existing work
that needed to be filled.
STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS
(contd.)
STEP 3: Selection/formulation of Hypotheses:
• Logical process of deductive and inductive reasoning are used to
formulate an expected outcome of the study.
• The hypotheses are gotten from the background literature,
theories, conceptual models and the likes.
STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS
(contd.)
STEP 4: Identification and Labelling of Variables
• A variable is anything that can vary over a range of values.
• Variables can be independent, dependent, controlling, mediating,
moderating and intervening.
STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS
(contd.)
STEP 5: Constructing Operational Definitions
• This is the conversion of the variables from theoretical, abstract
and conceptual form to operational or behavioural form.
• It is defined into observable and measurable form.
STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS
(contd.)
STEP 6: Constructing a Research Design
• A research design is a plan of action or specification of how
information or data can be obtained.
• The data are used to test the hypotheses under specified
conditions.
• There are different types of research design.
STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS
(contd.)
STEP 7: Specification and construction of instrument for
observation and measurement
• The variables must be capable of being measured through existing
instruments/ construct new one for the study.
• The design determines the type of instrument to be used by the
researcher.
STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS
(contd.)
STEP 8: Identification and control of extraneous variables.
• There must be specification as to handle the independent
variables and control the extraneous variables to ensure the
internal validity of the study.
STEP 9: Identification and selection of samples for the study.
• A sample are the number of people or element the researcher will
use in the study.
• The researcher must specify the sampling procedure, size and
characteristics of the sample.
STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS
(contd.)
STEP 10: Development and execution of data collection
strategy.
• All the strategies or steps of data collection for the study(which is
means of obtaining information from the subjects) should be
presented in a clear and detailed manner so that it will be easy for
another person to follow the procedure.
STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS
(contd.)
STEP 11: Specification of statistical analysis to be used.
• There is a need to analyse data after collection so as to draw
conclusions, the researcher needs to specify the statistical
techniques he hopes to use.
• The data analytical techniques must be suitable to the data
hypotheses, design, nature and problem of the researcher.
STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS
(contd.)
Step 12: Statement of how the result will be used.
• This is usually contained in the result section.
• The data can be used to prove or disprove the hypotheses earlier
formulated or corroborate the reported outcome of some related
study by other researchers.
STEPS IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS
(contd.)
STEP 13: Writing the research report:
• This is the last stage of the research process.
• Here, the researcher interprets, discusses and presents the report
of his investigation in a concise, precise and easy to read way.
• The researcher needs to follow standard reporting style like the
American Psychological Association known as a A.P.A format.