BBA II

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
(GSU 7304)

DR. BAHATI SHAGAMA (PhD)

• Introduction
• Terms used in research
• Objectives of Research
• Characteristics of Research
• Motivation of Research
• Types of research
 1.0 INTRODUCTION
• Research means search of knowledge or is an
art of scientific investigation
• Is a scientific way of answering question or
testing hypothesis
Definitions:
Research is the process of finding solution to a
problem after a thorough study and analysis of
the situational factors
• Is the process of collecting/gathering data and
information by a scientific or logical
procedures that aims to solve a particular
scientific problem
 Terms used in Research
Research
Is a systematic and scientific process to answer
questions about facts and rship btn facts. It is an activity
of seeking answer to unanswered question.

Abstract
A clear, concise summary that communicates the
essential information about the study. Usually it is
located at the beginning of an article.
Data
Units of information or any statistics, facts, figure,
general material, evidence or knowledge collected
during the course of the study
Variables
Attributes or characteristics that can have more
than one value such as height or weight. Variables
are qualities or properties or characteristics of
people, things or situations that change or vary.
Independent variable
Variables that are purposely manipulated or
changed by the researcher.
Dependent variable
Is the variable being tested and measured in an
experiment, and is 'dependent' on the independent
variable. An example of a dependent variable is
depression symptoms, which depends on the
independent variable
Demographic variables
The characteristics and attributes of study subjects
such as age, gender, place of living, ed.
Extraneous variables
Are factors that are not the part of the study but
may affect the measurements of the study var.
Operational definition
Refers to the way in which the researcher defines
the variables under investigation
Concept
Refers to a mental idea of a phenomenon.
Concepts are words or terms that symbolise
some aspects of reality. Eg. Love pain.
Construct
Is highly abstract & complex phenomenon.
Is used to indicate a phenomenon that can’t be
directly observed.
Proposition
Is a statement or assertion of the r’ship btn
concepts. Eg. R’ship btn anxiety and
performance.
Conceptual framework
Interrelated concepts or abstractions that are
assembled together in some rational scheme by
virtue of their relevance to common theme.
Assumption
Basic principles that is being true or the basis of
logic or reason, without proof or verification
Hypothesis
a statement of the predicted r’ship btn two or
more variables in a research study. An educated or
calculated guess by the researcher.
Literature Review
a critical summary or research on a topic of
interest, generally prepared to put a research
problem in content or to identify gaps and
weaknesses in prior study
Limitations

Restrictions in a study that may decrease the

credibility and generalizability of the research
findings.

Population

The entire set of individuals or objects having some

common characteristics selected for a research study.
Target population

The entire population in which the researchers are interested and

to which they would like to generalise the research findings.

Sample

A part or subset of population selected to participate in the

research study.

Sampling – The process of selecting sample from the target

population to represent the entire population.

Probability sampling
The selection of subjects or sampling units from a pop.
Using random procedure
Non probability
The selection of subjects or sampling units from a pop using
non random procedure
Reliability
The degree of consistency or accuracy with which an
instrument measures the attributes it is designed to measure.
Validity
The degree to which an instrument what it is
intended to measure.
Analysis
Method of organising, sorting & scrutinising data in
such a way that research question can be answered
or meaningful interpretation can be drawn.
 Research Methods Vs Research
Methodology
• Research Methods are the methods that the
researcher adopts for conducting the research
• Research methodology is the way the
research problems are systematically solved.
• It is a scientific way of studying how research
is conducted
 Objectives of Research
• To get familiarity with new insights into a
phenomenon
• To accurately portray the characteristics of a
particular individual, group or situation
• To analyse the frequency with which something
occurs
• To examine hypothesis of causal effect relationship
between two variables
 Characteristics of research
 Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and
interpreting information to answer questions. But to
qualify as research, the process must have certain
characteristics.
i. It must be controlled
ii. It must be rigorous
iii. It must be scientific and systematic
iv. It must be valid and verifiable
v. It must be empirical
vi. It must be critical
Controlled – in real life there are many factors that affect an
outcome. The concept control implies that in exploring
causality in relation to two variables (factors) you set up
your study in a way that minimizes the effects of other
factors affecting the relationship.
Rigorous – you must be scrupulous in ensuring that the
procedures followed to find answers to questions are
relevant, appropriate and justified.
Systematic- this implies that the procedure adopted to
undertake an investigation follow certain logical sequence.
Validity and verifiable – implies that whatever you conclude
on the basis of your findings is correct and can be
verified by you and others.

Empirical - means that any conclusion drawn are based upon

hard evidence gathered from information collected from
real life experiences or observations

Critical – the process of investigation must be fullproof and

free from drawbacks.
 For a process to be called research, it is imperative to
bear these characteristics.
 Motivation of Research
 What makes people to undertake research? This is a question of

fundamental importance. The possible motives for doing research may

be either one or more of the following:

1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits

2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e.,

concern over practical problems initiates research

3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;

4. Desire to be of service to society

5. Desire to get respectability

 There can be so many other factors motivating people
to undertake research studies such as;
 directives of government
 employment conditions
 curiosity about new things
 desire to understand causal relationships
 social thinking and awakening, etc. may as well motivate
people to perform research.
 Types of Research
 Research can be classified from three perspectives

1) Application of research study

2) Objectives in undertaking the research

3) Inquiry mode employed

 A: Application
There are two broad categories of research;

a) Pure research

b) Applied research

 Pure research – involves developing and testing theories and

hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to the

researcher but may or may not have practical application at

the present time or in future

 The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in
order to add the existing body of research methods.

 Applied research – is done to solve specific, practical

questions for policy formulation, administration and
understanding of a phenomenon.
 This sometimes refers to either be applied (or action)
research. Applied research aims at finding a solution
for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization, whereas
fundamental research is mainly concerned with
generalizations and with the formulation of a theory.
“Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is
termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”
 Similarly, research studies, concerning human behaviour
carried on with a view to make generalizations about
human behaviour, are also examples of fundamental
research, but research aimed at certain conclusions (say,
a solution) facing a concrete social or business problem
is an example of applied research.
B/: Objectives:
 From the viewpoint of objectives, a research can be
classified as;
i. Descriptive research
ii. Correlational research

iii. Explanatory research

iv. Exploratory research

Descriptive research – attempts to describe systematically

a situation, problem, phenomenon, service or provide
information about say living condition of a
community, or describes attitudes towards an issue.
 The major purpose of descriptive research is
description of the state of affairs as it exists at
present. The main characteristic of this method is that
the researcher has no control over the variables; he
can only report what has happened or what is
happening. Eg. frequency of shopping, preferences of
people, or similar data
Correlational research – attempts to discover or establish
the existence of a relationship/interdependence
between two or more aspects of a situation.
Explanatory research - attempts to clarify why and how
there is relationship between two or more aspects of a
situation or phenomenon

Exploratory research – is undertaken to explore an area

where little is known or to investigate the possibilities
of undertaking a particular research study
c/: Inquiry Mode:
 From the process adopted to find answer to research
questions – the two approaches are;
i. Structured approach
ii. Unstructured approach
Structured approach – is usually classified as quantitative
research. In this respect, everything that forms research
process –objectives, design, sample, and the questions that
you plan to ask respondents is predetermined.
 It is more appropriate to determine the extent of a
problem, issue or phenomenon by qualifying the
variation e.g. How many people have a particular
problem? How many people hold a particular
attitudes? etc.
Unstructured approach – the unstructured approach to
inquiry is usually classified as qualitative research.
This approach allows flexibility in all aspects of the
research process.
 It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a
problem, issue or phenomenon without quantifying it.
 Main objective is to describe the variation in a
phenomenon, situation or attitude
 In many studies both approaches are used in
combination. Suppose you have to find out the types
of hotel available in city and the extent of their
popularity. In this, the types refers to qualitative
aspect while the extent of the popularity refers to
quantitative.
2. RESEARCH PROCESS
 RESEARCH PROCESS
• Research process consists of series of actions
or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research and the desired sequencing of these
steps.
• Whatever type of research or approach is
adopted, there are several fundamental stages
in the research process which are common to
all scientifically based investigation.
 Steps of Research Process
• A research process involves the following
sequence of steps:
(i) Formulate and clarify your research topic (i.e.
identifying a research topic)
(ii) Problem definition
(iii)Research objectives and questions
(iv)Critically review the literature
(v)Understand your philosophy and approach
(vi) Formulate research design
(Vii) Negotiate access and address ethical issues
(viii) Data collection
(ix) Data analysis,
(x) Interpretation of results
(xi) Write project report and prepare your
presentation
(i) Identifying a research topic
• You may find a research topic suggests
itself as a result of your coursework, job,
interests or general experience. For
example, you may be interested in the
employment problems of fresh graduates
in the society, the difficulties of funding
small businesses, problems of financial
accountabilities in local governments.
 (ii) Problem definition
• A research problem must be identified and
defined without any ambiguity. The
productivity is the core objective of any
organization for its survival in the
prevailing competitive environment. So,
each organization is involved in improving
its productivity through continuous
research in each functional area of
management.
 (iii) Research objectives, Questions
and Hypothesis
• Your research may begin with a general focus
research question that generates more detailed
research questions, or you may use your
general focus research question as a base from
which you write a set of research objectives.
• Objectives are generally acceptable to the
research community as evidence of the
researcher’s clear sense of purpose and
direction.
• It is suggested that such objectives would be
better if they pass the well-known SMART
test. That is the objectives are:
• Specific. What precisely do you hope to
achieve from undertaking research?
• Measurable. What measures will you use to
determine whether you have achieved your
objectives? (e.g. secure a career-level first job
in software design)
• Achievable. Are the targets you have set for
yourself achievable given all possible
constraints?
• Realistic. Given all the other demands upon
your time, will you have the time and energy
to complete the research on time?
• Timely. Will you have time to accomplish all
your objectives in the time frame you have
set?
• Research questions are the problems which
are not resolved till date. One should ask the
questions relating to the purpose of the study,
present state of the research, the researcher
must issue the possible means of finding
solution to the research problem.
• A hypothesis is an assumption about a population
of the study. A sample hypothesis is as follows:
• Hypothesis: Age has no influence over achieving
sales target of a salesperson.
• Generally, a hypothesis is formulated for a
situation where the influence is not clear. In the
above case, the hypothesis may be true or false.
The correct fact can be ascertained only after
collecting and analyzing the related data.
Phrasing Research Questions as Research
Objectives
Research questions Research objectives-
Why have organizations introduced team To identify organizations’ objectives for team
briefing? briefing schemes

How can the effectiveness of team briefing To establish suitable effectiveness criteria for team
schemes be measured? briefing schemes

Has team briefing been effective? To describe the extent to which the effectiveness
criteria for team briefing have been met
How can the effectiveness of team briefing (a)To determine the factors associated with the
be explained effectiveness criteria for team briefing being
met

(b)To estimate whether some of those factors

are more influential than other factors
Can the explanation be generalized? To develop an explanatory theory that associates
certain factors with the effectiveness of team
briefing schemes
 (iv) Critically reviewing literature
• A literature review can be defined as the
selection of available documents on the topic,
which contain information, ideas, data and
evidence written from a particular standpoint
to fulfill certain aims or express certain views
on the nature of the topic and how it is to be
investigated
• The literature review forms an important
chapter in the research report, where its
purpose is to provide the background to and
justification for the research undertaken.
• literature review helps you to formulate your
research questions; at the same time, you
begin to identify the related research studies
to your own and the methodology that you
might adopt for your
 (v) Determining how to conduct the
study
• Your general approach to the research is
known as your research paradigm/philosophy.
The term paradigm refers to the progress of
scientific practice based on people’s
philosophies and assumptions about the
world and the nature of knowledge; in this
context, about how research should be
conducted.
 (vi) Formulate research design
• A research design is a plan, structure and strategy of
investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to
research questions or problems, OR
• The research design is the blueprint for fulfilling
objectives and answering questions. Selecting a
design may be complicated by the availability of a
large variety of methods, techniques, procedures,
protocols and sampling plans. For example, you may
decide on a secondary data study, case study,
survey, experiment or simulation.
The research design provides complete
guidelines for data collection. Following are the
essence of a research design:
• Selection of the research approach
• Design of sampling plan
• Design of experiment
• Design of questionnaire
 Design of sampling plan
• Another step in planning the design is to
identify the target population and select the
sample if a census is not desired. The
researcher must determine who and how
many people to interview, what and how
many events to observe, or what and how
many records to inspect
 A SAMPLE
• A sample is part of the target population,
carefully selected to represent that
population. When researchers undertake
sampling studies, they are interested in
estimating one or more population values
and/ or testing one or more statistical
hypotheses.
 Sample:
• Sample is a small group element drawn from
population under study representing the same
variables.

Need of Sampling:
• Sometime it is not possible to examine all items in
population.
• Sometimes it is possible to obtain sufficient accurate
result and can be generalized
• sampling method is economic.
 Objective of Sampling:
• To obtain accurate and reliable information
about universe.
• To minimize the cost
• To save time
• To save energy.
• To set the limits of accuracy of such estimates
 Concepts in Sampling
• Population-totality of the objects or individuals
regarding inferences are made in a sampling
study.
• Sample-smaller representation of a large whole.
• Sampling- is a process of selecting a subset of
randomised number of the members of the
population of a study
• Sampling unit-is a geographical one (state,
district)
• Sample size-number of items selected for the
study
 Characteristics of Good sample
• The sample should be true representative of
universe.
• No bias in selecting sample
• Quality of the sample should be same
• Regulating conditions should be same for all
individual
• Sampling needs to be adequate
• Estimate the sampling error
• Sample study should be applicable to all items
 Types of Sampling
Broadly can be classified as
a) Probability Sampling
b) Non-probability Sampling
• Probability Sampling:
• Probability sampling provides a scientific
technique of drawing samples from population
according to some laws, of chance in which each
unit has some definite pre-assigned probability of
being chosen in sample.
 Non-Probability Sampling:
• It is purely based on personal judgment.
Under this method a desired number of
sample units are selected deliberately or
purposely depending upon object of the
enquiry so that only the important items
representing the true characteristics of
population are included
 Probability sampling:
(i)Simple random sampling
(ii)Systematic sampling
(iii)Stratified random sampling
(iv)Cluster sampling
(v)Multi-stage sampling
 Simple Random Sampling:
• A random sampling is a sample selected in
such a way that every item in the population
has an equal chance of being included.
• It’s more suitable for homogeneous and
comparatively large groups.
 Stratified Random Sampling:
• In this population is divided into groups
(Strata) according to geographical, sociological
or economic characteristics.
• To obtain more efficient and accurate results
when population is heterogeneous in variables
under study.
 Systematic Sampling:
• sample is taken from a list prepared on a
systematic arrangement either on the basis of
alphabetic order or on house number or any
other method. In this method only the first
sample unit is selected.
 Cluster Sampling:
• Under this method the population is divided
into some recognizable sub-divisions which
are termed as clusters and a simple random
sample of these clusters is drawn and then the
survey of each and every unit in the selected
cluster is made.
 Multi-Stage Sampling:
• In this sampling is carried out in various
stages. Here the population is regarded as
made of a number of primary units, each of
which is further composed of number of
secondary stage which is further composed of
third unit and so on till we reached the
desired sampling unit.
 Non-probability sampling
(i)Convenience sampling
(ii)Judgment sampling
(iii)Quota sampling
(iv)Snowball sampling
 Judgmental/Purpose sampling:
• Also, it is called a deliberate or judgment
sampling.
• In this when the researcher deliberately
selects certain units for study from the
universe is known as purpose sampling.
 Quota sampling:
• It is a special type of stratified sampling. In this
method, the population is stratified on some
basis, preferably on the characteristics of
population under study. After this the number
of sample units to be selected from each
stratum
 Convenience Sampling:
• It is known as unsystematic, careless,
accidental or opportunistic sampling.
• Under this sample is selected according to
convenience of the investigator. This may have
the base of availability of data, accessibility of
units.
 Snowball Sampling
• It refers to identifying some one who meets
the criteria for inclusion in the study.
• The selection of addition respondents is based
on referrals from the initial respondents.
(vii) Negotiate access and address ethical
issues

 Access and ethics are critical aspects for the

conduct of research.
 Insufficient attention may therefore be paid to
gaining access and even less to the likelihood
of ethical concerns arising in relation to the
conduct of the research project.
 These are aspects that require careful
attention at the outset of any research project.
 Ethical concerns will emerge as you plan
your research, seek access to
organizations and to individuals, collect,
analyze and report your data.
 Ethics refers to the appropriateness of your
behavior in relation to the rights of those
who become the subject of your work, or
are affected by it.
• Define research ethics
• The conduct of your research may be guided
by a code of ethics. A code of ethics will
provide you with a statement of principles and
procedures for the conduct of your research.
• You may also be required to submit your
research proposal
 Ethical issues that affect the research
process generally
• Privacy of possible and actual participants
• Voluntary nature of participation and the right to withdraw
partially or completely from the process
• Consent and possible deception of participants
• Maintenance of the confidentiality of data provided by
identifiable participants and their anonymity
• Reactions of participants to the way in which you seek to
collect data
• Effects on participants of the way in which you use, analyze
and report your data
• Behavior and objectivity of the researcher
(viii) Data collection
• Data are the basic input to any decision-
making in a business. The processing of data
gives statistics of importance of the study. As
stated earlier, data can be classified into
primary data and secondary data.
• The different methods which are used for
primary data collection are observation
method, personal interview, telephone
interview and mail survey.
• As stated earlier, the secondary data are
collected from sources which have already
been created for the purpose of first-time use
and future uses. The secondary data can be
obtained from internal sources and external
sources.
 (ix) Data analysis
• After data are collected, proper tools and
techniques should be used for classification
and analysis of data.
• The tools of classification of data are
frequency distribution, cumulative frequency
distribution, relative frequency distribution
and charts. Charts are graphical
representation of data.
• Different types of charts are pie chart, bar
chart, stacked bar chart, histogram, frequency.
The classification tools serve as data
presentation techniques for clear
interpretations.
 (x) Interpretation of results
• Researchers must interpret these finding in
light of the client’s research question or
determine if the results are consistent with
their hypotheses and theories.
 (xii) Writing the report
• It is at the writing up stage that many students
experience problems, usually because they
have left it until the very last minute! It is
important to start writing up your research in
draft as soon as you start the early stages of
the project, and continue to do so until it is
completed. Research Report.docx
Chapter/section Description
Introduction A precise explanation of what research is about, why it is important
and interesting; the research questions or hypotheses should also
be stated

Literature review A critical analysis of what other researchers have said on the
subjectTypical
and wherestructure
your projectof
fits a
in.dissertation or thesis

Methodology An explanation of why you collected certain data, what data you
collected, from where you collected it, when you collected it, how
you collected it and how you analyzed it

Results A presentation of your research results

Analysis and discussion An analysis of your results showing the contribution to knowledge
and pointing out any weaknesses/limitations

Conclusions A description of the main lessons to be learnt from your study and
what future research should be conducted

References A detailed, alphabetical or numerical list of the sources from which

information has been obtained and which have been cited in the
text

Appendices Detailed data referred to but not shown elsewhere.

 3.0 DATA COLLECTION
• Research is carried out to discover facts which
enables us to make appropriate decision.
These facts are derived from processing what
we call data.
• Usually in research there are two types of
data, namely primary data and secondary data
(singular datum)
• Secondary data are ones which have already
been collected by someone else and have
already been passed through the statistics
process, but primary data are those which are
collected afresh and for the first time, and
thus happen to be original in character
(Kothari, 2008: 95)
 Secondary Data
Advantages of secondary data

• Secondary data have many advantages, which are outlined below, according to

Ghauri and Grønhaug, 2005):

• Time and money are saved because one does not have to go field to collect

them

• Most of secondary data are of high quality since they are collected and

compiled by experts using rigorous methods;

• If such data are collected yearly or regularly like the state of the economy

(yearly) or household budget survey data (regularly), they provide a good

opportunity for longitudinal analysis.

• They facilitate international research to compare
countries.
• They can suggest suitable methods to handle a
particular research problem.
• They are useful in answering research questions
or solving research problems.
• They help in problem statement by providing
information about a research gap and evidence
of the presence of a research problem.
 Disadvantages of secondary data
• They are collected for another study with different objectives and

may not completely fit the problem of another research;

• Some of them may be of low quality, especially if the people who

collected and analysed them had little competence and

• Sometimes it is difficult to classify secondary data in ways that are

consistent with the study at hand, especially if the variables have

• Even if the same measurement units have been used, the

definitions of terms may differ.

 Sources of Secondary Data
• Secondary data can be obtained from various sources
including the following ones,

(a) Personal documents, (b) diaries, (c) letters,

(d) Official published documents,

(e) Newspapers,

(f) Commercial or organl documents,

(h) Maps,
Sources…….
(i) Academic outputs including dissertations
and theses,
(j) Journal articles and conference papers,
(ii) lecture notes, (l) research reports,
(m) text books,
(n) web pages including Yahoo and Google, and
(o) databases
 Primary Data
• Since secondary data have many disadvantages as

outlined above, collection of primary data is usual in

order to avoid the deficiencies of secondary data. In other

words, when secondary data are not available or ones

that are available are not enough to answer research

questions, we must collect primary data that are relevant

to our particular study and research problem.

 Advantages of primary data
• Primary data have a lot of advantages as outlined
below, according to Ghauri and Grønhaug, 2005:
102-103):
• They are more consistent with research questions
and objectives since they are collected for a
particular research project at hand; and
• They help to know people’s attitudes and
intentions about issues being researched about
since the respondents can be asked to clarify their
answers.
 Disadvantages of primary data
• They can take a long time and substantial time and cash to collect.
• Some desirable respondents are not willing to cooperate,
especially if when research is on sensitive issues.
• If procedures, tools, methods, and procedures of data collection
and analysis befitting a study at hand are not used, the study is
jeopardised.
• The researchers are fully dependent on the willingness and ability
of the respondents.
• Some common reasons for people’s reluctance or refusal to
cooperate are lack of time, lack of incentives, fear of negative
consequences if they give honest answers, and fear of
embarrassment in case of sensitive issues.
 Sources of primary data
• Experiments as sources of primary data are more
relevant in natural science; observations are more
relevant in anthropology; and communications are
more relevant in social science (both quantitative
and qualitative). Surveys are commoner in
quantitative social research through questionnaires
and interview schedules, but interviews
(particularly semi-structured and unstructured
ones) are commoner in qualitative social research
 DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
• There are two main instruments for collection
of social quantitative primary data, namely a
questionnaire and an interview schedule.
According Kothari, 2008, an interview
schedule is a collection of questions designed
to be asked by an interviewer (enumerator) to
an interviewee (respondent) in a structured
interview.
 Data could be broadly classified as:-
i. Primary data
ii. Secondary data
1) Primary data is known as the data collected for the
first time through field survey. Such data are
collected with specific set of objectives to assess
the current status of any variable studied. Primary
data always reveal the cross-section picture of
anything studied. It refers to data collected at one
point of time and it may not be relevant at different
point of time.
Secondary data – refers to the information or facts
already available. Such data is collected with the
objective of understanding the past status of nay
variable or the data collected and reported by some
sources is accessed and used in the objective of a
study.
 TYPES OF DATA COLLECTION TECHINIQUES

1) OBSERVATION METHOD
 The observation method is the most commonly used
method specially in studies relating to behavioural
sciences. In a way we all observe things around us, but
this sort of observation is not scientific observation.
 Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method
of data collection for the researcher, when it serves a
formulated research purpose, is systematically
planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and
controls on validity and reliability.
 Under the observation method, the information is
sought by way of investigator’s own direct
observation without asking from the respondent. For
instance, in a study relating to consumer behaviour,
the investigator instead of asking the brand of phone
purchased by the respondent, may him/herself look
at the shopping centre.
 Types of observation could be broadly classified as:
1) Structured observation
2) Unstructured observation
3) Participant observation
4) Non-participant observation
5) Controlled observation
6) Uncontrolled observation
1. Structured Observation:
 While using this method, the researcher should keep
in mind things like:
 What should be observed?
 How the observations should be recorded? Or
 how the accuracy of observation can be ensured?
 What conditions are to be fulfilled to carry out
observation?
 What type of information or activity should be given
importance?
 Who are all to observe?
2. Unstructured Observation:
 when observation is to take place without the
characteristics of structured observation. The main
strength of this method is at the time of observation,
everything is taken note of and the researcher then
segregates the related and relevant details.
 Structured observation is considered appropriate in
descriptive studies whereas in an exploratory study
the observational procedure is most likely to be
relatively unstructured.
3. Participant observation
 We often talk about participant and non-participant
types of observation in the context of studies,
particularly of social sciences. This distinction
depends upon the observer’s sharing or not sharing
the life of the group he is observing.
 If the observer observes by making him/herself, more
or less, a member of the group he is observing so
that he can experience what the members of the
group experience, the observation is called as the
participant observation.
4. Non participant observation:
 When the observer observes as a detached emissary
without any attempt on his part to experience
through participation what others feel, the
observation of this type is often termed as non-
participant observation.
• Sometimes he/she may remain anonymous. When
the observer is observing in such a manner that his
presence may be unknown to the people he/she is
observing, such an observation is described as
disguised observation. For example policemen not in
uniform during certain political event.
5. Controlled observation:
 When observation takes place according to definite
pre-arranged plans, involving experimental
procedure, the same is then termed controlled
observation.
 In controlled observation, we use mechanical (or
precision) instruments as aids to accuracy and
standardization. Such observation has a tendency to
supply formalized data upon which generalizations
can be built with some degree of assurance.
6.Uncontrolled observation:
 In non-controlled observation, no attempt is made to
use precision instruments. The major aim of this type
of observation is to get a spontaneous picture of life
and persons. It has a tendency to supply naturalness
and completeness of behaviour, allowing sufficient
time for observing it.
 2. INTERVIEW METHOD

 The interview method of collecting data involves

presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms
of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used
through personal interviews and, if possible, through
telephone interviews.
 TYPES OF INTERVIEW METHODS
(a) Personal interviews: Personal interview method
requires a person known as the interviewer asking
questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the
other person or persons. (At times the interviewee
may also ask certain questions and the interviewer
responds to these, but usually the interviewer
initiates the interview and collects the information
 ADVANTAGES/MERITS OF INTERVIEW
METHODS

i. More information and that too in greater depth can

be obtained.
ii. Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the
resistance, if any, of the respondents.
iii. There is greater flexibility under this method as the
opportunity to restructure questions is always there,
iv. Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal
answers to various questions.

v. Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this

method.

vi. Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no

difficulty of the missing returns; non-response generally remains
very low.

vii. The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer
the questions. This is not possible in mailed questionnaire
approach. If so desired, group discussions may also be held.
 DISADVANTAGES
i. It is a very expensive method, specially when large and
widely spread geographical sample is taken.
ii. There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer
as well as that of the respondent; there also remains
the headache of supervision and control of
interviewers.
iii. Certain types of respondents such as important officials
or executives or people in high income groups may not
be easily approachable under this method and to that
extent the data may prove inadequate.
iv. This method is relatively more-time-consuming, specially
when the sample is large and recalls upon the respondents
are necessary.
v. The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-
stimulate the respondent, sometimes even to the extent
that he may give imaginary information just to make the
interview interesting.
vi. Under the interview method the organization required for
selecting, training and supervising the field-staff is more
complex with formidable problems.
vii. Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors.
) Telephone interviews:
 This method of collecting information consists in
contacting respondents on telephone itself. It is not a
very widely used method, but plays important part in
industrial surveys, particularly in developed regions.
Advantages/merits of Telephone interview
1. It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.
2. It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of
obtaining information.
3. It is cheaper than personal interviewing method;
here the cost per response is relatively low.
4. Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.
5. There is a higher rate of response than what we
have in mailing method; the non-response is
generally very low.
6. Replies can be recorded without causing
embarrassment to respondents.
7. Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
 Demerits/Limitations of telephone interview:

a) Little time is given to respondents for considered

answers; interview period is not likely to exceed
five minutes in most cases.
b) Surveys are restricted to respondents who have
telephone facilities.
c) Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted
by cost considerations.
 QUESTIONNAIRE
 This method of data collection is quite popular,
particularly in case of big enquiries.
 In this method a questionnaire can be self
administered or sent (usually by post) or mailed
through internet to the persons concerned with a
request to answer the questions and return the
questionnaire.
 A questionnaire consists of a number of questions
printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set
of forms.
 Advantages o Questionnaire
1. There is low cost even when the universe is large
and is widely spread geographically.
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers
are in respondents’ own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well
thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can
also be reached conveniently.
5. Large samples can be made use of and thus the
results can be made more dependable and reliable
Demerits/ Weaknesses of Questionnaire method:
i. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires;
bias due to no-response is often indeterminate.
ii. It can be used only when respondents are educated
and cooperating.
iii. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is
sent.
iv. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of
amending the approach once questionnaires have
been dispatched.
 HOW TO CONSTRUCT A GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE

 The following are the points to be given importance

while designing a questionnaire:-
i. Questionnaire should be printed in a clear format
to be easily read by respondents.
ii. The first part of the questionnaire should indicate
the purpose or intention of the study.
iii. An assurance to respondents on confidentiality.
iv. An introduction of the researcher or organization
which is collecting information
v. Questions must be written using simple language.
vi. Questions should never be lengthy. It is wiser not to
combine a number of questions in one question.
vii. Each question should be specific and clear.
viii. Avoid asking sensitive questions/Personal questions
like wealth, habits, etc.
ix. Questions should be given in sequence.
x. Questions should not demand referencing and
recalling
xi. Instructions on how to answer the questions must
be given and must be clear and understandable
 4. FOCUSED GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD)

What is an FGD?
 A Focus Group Discussion (FGD) is a qualitative
research method and data collection technique in
which a selected group of people discusses a given
topic or issue in-depth, facilitated by a professional,
external moderator. This method serves to solicit
participants’ attitudes and perceptions, knowledge
and experiences, and practices, shared in the
course of interaction with different people
 TYPES OF FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION

 A number of focus group discussion have been

identified in the literature, and a further two are
emerging with the growth in access and variety of
online platforms.
1. Single focus group
 The key feature of a single focus group is the
interactive discussion of a topic by a collection of all
participants and a team of facilitators as one group in
one place. This is the most common and classical
type of focus group discussion.
2. Two‐way focus group
 This format involves using two groups where one
group actively discusses a topic, whereas the other
observes the first group. Usually, this type of focus
group is conducted behind a one‐way glass. The
observing group and the moderator can observe and
note the interactions and discussion of the first group
without being seen.
3. Dual moderator focus group
 Involves two moderators working together, each
performing a different role within the same focus group.
The division of roles ensures a smooth progression of the
session and ensures that all topics are covered.
4. Duelling moderator focus group
 This involves two moderators who purposefully take
opposing sides on an issue or topic under investigation.
Proponents believe that the introduction of contrary views
to the discussion by the moderators is critical to achieving
more in‐depth disclosure of data and information.
 4.0 ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH
• Introduction
You must accept the responsibility to behave
ethically toward those who will be affected by
your research.
• Ethics is a study of proper action.
• Research ethics concern the responsibility of
researchers to be honest and respectful to all
individuals who may be affected by their
research studies.
• Ethics: Principles for guiding decision making
and reconciling conflicting values.
• What a person considers to be a good or right
may be considered bad or wrong by another
person.
 Ethical issues during data processing and
storage
 In Tanzania, the Statistics Act (2013)
contains a stiff penalty for anyone who
publishes data or statistics outside
publications by the Tanzania National
Bureau of Statistics (NBS).
• The Cybercrimes Act (2015) criminalizes and
penalizes a number of cyber activities,
including

• obtaining without permission data protected

against unauthorized access): punished with at
least five years in prison and/or a fine of at
least Tanzanian Shilling TZS20mill whichever
is higher.
• publication of false information: (defined as the
publication of “information, data or facts presented in
a picture, texts, symbol or any other form in a
computer system where such information, data or fact
is false, deceptive, misleading or inaccurate”): at least
six-months in prison and/or a fine of TZS3 million
 Importance of ethics in research
• Is a reflection of respect for those who take part
in research.
• It ensures no unreasonable, unsafe or
thoughtless demands made by researchers.
• It ensures sufficient knowledge is shared by all
concerned.
• It imposes a common standard in a all above
respect.
• It has become a warm as an expectation for
research activity
 Ethical issues in Research

• According to Bryman and Bell (2007) the

following ten points represent the most
important principles related to ethical
considerations in dissertations:
 Research participants should not be subjected to
harm in any ways whatsoever.
 Respect for the dignity of research participants
should be prioritised.
 Full consent should be obtained from the
participants prior to the study.
 The protection of the privacy of research
participants has to be ensured.
 Adequate level of confidentiality of the research
data should be ensured.
Anonymity of individuals and organisations
participating in the research has to be
ensured.
Any deception or exaggeration about the aims
and objectives of the research must be
avoided.
Affiliations in any forms, sources of funding, as
well as any possible conflicts of interests have
to be declared.
Any type of communication in relation to the
research should be done with honesty and
transparency.
Any type of misleading information, as well as
representation of primary data findings in a
biased way must be avoided.
 5.0 DATA ANALYISIS
Data processing and analysis

• Data processing includes editing and coding them

just before they are entered into the computer for
analysis.

• Data analysis is computation of certain measures and

finding relationships supporting or conflicting with
original or new hypotheses.
• The measures and relationships help make
conclusions and generalizations about the population

from which the sample was drawn.

 Data processing
(a) Editing
 Raw data are examined to detect errors, omissions,
contradictions and unreasonable information to be
corrected.
 Editing is done to ensure that the data are accurate,
consistent, uniformly entered and are well arranged to
facilitate coding and tabulation.
 Field data editing should be done daily in the field by going

through every questionnaire to write better and legible

responses without “cooking” any information or guessing

what the respondents would have said.

 Central editing is done in office after all questionnaires are

collected. Obvious errors such as entries made in wrong

places, values recorded in undesirable

 Questionnaires with serious mistakes, while it is impossible to

go back to the field to get them correct, are discarded.

 (b) Coding

• Is the action of assigning numerals or other symbols

to items of a questionnaire so that responses can be
put into a limited number of categories that are

exhaustive.
 Data Analysis

• Data analysis is an important stage of research

process. Raw form convey little meaning to most
people, hence data need to be processed in order to
turn them into useful information.
• Usually data analysis is preceded by a pre-processing
stage where raw data collected may be edited, coded,
classified and tabulated
Basic ideas about data analysis

Statistics: is a set of concepts, rules, and procedures

that help us to: organize numerical information in
the form of tables, graphs, and charts; understand
statistical techniques underlying decisions that affect
our lives and well-being; and make informed
decisions.
Data: are facts, observations, and information that
come from investigations, and are divided into
quantitative data and qualitative data. The former are
numerical and continuous, the latter are wordy and
sometimes called categorical.
 Measures of Centre or of central
tendency
Plotting data in a frequency distribution shows the
general shape of the distribution and gives a general
sense of how the numbers are bunched. Several
statistics can be used to represent the "centre" of the
distribution. There are three measures of central
tendency: Mode, Median and Mean
Mode: is the point or value of X that corresponds to the
highest point on the distribution. If the highest
frequency is shared by more than one value, the
distribution is said to be multimodal.

Median: is the score that divides the distribution into

halves; half of the scores are above the median and half
are below it when the data are arranged in a numerical
order.
• The median location of N numbers can be found by
the formula (N + 1) / 2. When N is an odd number,
For example, in the distribution of numbers (3, 1, 5,
4, 9, 9, 8) the median is determined by first arranging
the numbers from the smallest to the biggest as
follows: 1, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 9. Then the median = [(7 +
1)/2]th number
• Mean: The mean is the most common measure of
central tendency. It is defined as the average of a
distribution that is computed by summing all the
scores in the distribution (SX) and dividing that sum
by the total number of scores (N).
 Measures of Spread
(Measures of variability)
• What is Variability?
• Variability refers to how "spread out" a group
of scores is. To see what we mean by spread
out, consider graphs in Figure 1.
• These graphs represent the scores on two
quizzes. The mean score for each quiz is 7.0.
Despite the equality of means, you can see
that the distributions are quite different.
• The scores on Quiz 1 are more densely packed
and those on Quiz 2 are more spread out. The
differences among students were much
greater on Quiz 2 than on Quiz 1.
QUIZ .1 Bar Chart
QUIZ .2 Bar Chart
• The terms variability, spread, and dispersion
are synonyms, and refer to how spread out a
distribution is.
• There are four frequently used measures of
variability: the range, interquartile range,
variance, and standard deviation.
 Range
• The range is the simplest measure of
variability to calculate. The range is simply the
highest score minus the lowest score.
• What is the range of the following group of
numbers: 10, 2, 5, 6, 7, 3, 4?
• 99, 45, 23, 67, 45, 91, 82, 78, 62, 51
• Now consider the two quizzes shown in Figure
1&2
• Definition
• The range of a data set is the number R
defined by the formula
• R=xmax−xmin
• where xmax is the largest measurement in
the data set and xmin is the smallest.
The scores of individual students in the
examination and coursework
 Interquartile Range
• The interquartile range is the middle half of the data.
• The interquartile range (IQR) is the range of the
middle 50% of the scores in a distribution. It is
computed as follows:
• IQR = 75th percentile - 25th percentile
• For Quiz 1, the 75th percentile is 8 and the 25th
percentile is 6. The interquartile range is therefore 2.
For Quiz 2, which has greater spread, the 75th
percentile is 9, the 25th percentile is 5, and the
interquartile range is 4.
The examination marks for 20 students
• median lies at the mid-point between the two central values
(10th and 11th)
• = half-way between 60 and 62 = 61
• The lower quartile lies at the mid-point between the 5th
and 6th values
• = half-way between 52 and 53 = 52.5
• The upper quartile lies at the mid-point between the 15th
and 16th values
• = half-way between 70 and 71 = 70.5
• The inter-quartile range for this dataset is therefore 70.5 -
52.5 = 18 whereas the range is: 80 - 43 = 37.
 Variance
• Variability can also be defined in terms of how
close the scores in the distribution are to the
middle of the distribution.
• Using the mean as the measure of the middle
of the distribution, the variance is defined as
the average squared difference of the scores
from the mean.
• The data from Quiz 1 are shown in Table 1.
The mean score is 7.0. Therefore, the column
"Deviation from Mean" contains the score
minus 7. The column "Squared Deviation" is
simply the previous column squared.
The formula for the variance is:

• where σ2 is the variance, μ is the mean, and N

is the number of numbers. For Quiz 1, μ = 7
and N = 20.
 Standard Deviation
• The standard deviation is simply the square
root of the variance. This makes the standard
deviations of the two quiz distributions 1.225
and 2.588. The standard deviation is an
especially useful measure of variability when
the distribution is normal or approximately
normal
 Measures of Spread
(Measures of variability)
• Although the average value in a distribution is
informative about how scores are centred in the
distribution, the mean, median, and mode lack
context for interpreting those statistics.
• Measures of variability provide information about the degree
to which individual scores are clustered about or deviate from
the average value in a distribution. The commonest measures
of central tendency are the following ones: Range, Variance
and standard deviation.
• Range: is the difference between the highest and
lowest score in a distribution.
• Variance: The variance is a measure based on the
deviations of individual scores from the mean. As
noted in the definition of the mean, however, simply
summing the deviations will result in a value of 0. To
get around this problem the variance is based on
squared deviations of scores about the mean
• Standard deviation - The standard deviation (s or s)
is defined as the positive square root of the variance.
The variance is a measure in squared units and has
little meaning with respect to the data. Thus, the
standard deviation is a measure of variability
expressed in the same units as the data.
A statistic: is a quantity that is calculated from a
sample of data. It is used to give information about
unknown values in the corresponding population.
For example, the average of the data in a sample is
used to give information about the overall average in
the population from which that sample was drawn.
 Kinds of Data Analysis
i) Descriptive analysis
ii) Inferential analysis
Descriptive analysis
• Refers to description of the data from a
particular sample
• Are numerical values obtained from the sample
that gives meaning to the data collected
• Are used to describe characteristics of
population
 Classification of Descriptive Analysis
a) Frequency Distribution
A systematic arrangement of numerical values from
the lowest to the highest or highest to the lowest.
Frequency distribution include frequency
distribution table, graphs. Measure of central
tendency include, mean, median and mode. While
measure of variability including standard deviation
(Variance), the minimum and maximum of variable.
 Uses of Frequency Distribution
Frequency distribution helps us
1. To analyse the data.
2. To estimate the frequencies of the population
on the basis of the sample.
3. To facilitate the computation of various
statistical measures
 Frequency Distribution Table
• A frequency distribution table is one way to
organize data so that it makes more sense.
The data so distributed is called frequency
distribution and the tabular form is called
frequency distribution table.
• The frequency distribution table lists all the
marks and also show how many times
(frequency) they occurred.
• lass interval Frequency
20-25 10
• 25-30 12
• 30-35 8
• 35-40 20
• 40-45 11
• 45-50 4
• 50-55 5
• The simplest frequency distribution table
presents the measurement scale by listing the
different measurement categories (values)
from the highest to the lowest
 Example:
8, 9, 8, 7, 10, 9, 6, 4, 9, 8, 7, 8, 10, 9, 8, 6, 9,7,8,8
X F

10 2

9 5

8 7

7 3

6 2

5 0
 Frequency Distribution Graph
• A frequency distribution graph is basically a
picture of the information available in a
frequency distribution table. Frequency
distribution graph includes;
 Histogram (graph for intervals or ration data)
 Bar graph (graph for nominal or ordinal data)
 Histogram
In order to construct histogram, first list the
numerical scores (the categories of
measurement) along X-values that;
a) The height of the bar correspondents to the
frequency for that category
b) The width of the bar extends to the real
limits of the category.
Measurement and Scaling in Research

• Measurement in research, Measurement

scale, Source of errors in measurement,
Scaling and meaning of scaling and
Importance of scaling.
• The measurement and scaling techniques help
us to:-
 Explain the concepts of measurement and
scaling.
Discuss four levels of measurement scales
Classify and discuss different types of errors
Sources of errors in measurement
a) Measurement
• Measurement is the process of observing and
recording the observations that are collected as
part of research. The recording of the
observations may be in terms of number or
other symbols to characteristics of object,
according to prescribed rules.
b) Scaling
• Scaling is the assignment of objects to
numbers or semantics according to rules. In
scaling, the objects are text statements, usually
statements of attitudes, opinion or feelings.
 Levels of Measurement Scales
• The level of measurement refers to the
relationship among the values that are
assigned to the attributes, feelings or opinions
for a variable.
• Typically there are four levels of measurement
scales or methods of assigning numbers
a) Nominal scale b) Ordinal scale
c) Interval scale d) Ratio scale
 1) Nominal Scale
• This, the crudest of measurement scales,
classifies individuals, companies, products,
brands or other entities into categories where
no order is implied. Indeed it is often referred
to as a categorical scale.
• The nominal scale does not express any values
or relationships btn variables
 2)Ordinal scale
• Involve the ranking of items along the
continuum of characteristics being scaled. In
this scale, items are classified according to
whether they have more or less of
characteristics.
• The categories have a logical or ordered r’ship.
• Eg. 1) Excellent 2) very good 3) Good 4) Poor
 3) Interval scale
• Is a scale in which numbers are used to rank
attributes.
• The interval or cardinal scale has equal units
of measurement, thus making it possible to
interpret not only the order of scale scores but
also the distance between them.
 4) Ratio Scale
• The highest level of measurement is a ratio scale.
This has the properties of an interval scale.
Examples of variables which are ratio scaled
include weights, lengths and times. Ratio scales
permit the researcher to compare both differences
in scores and the relative magnitude of scores. For
instance the difference between 5 and 10 minutes
is the same as that between 10 and 15 minutes,
and 10 minutes is twice as long as 5 minutes.
 Errors in Measurement
• An error may be defined as the difference
between the measured value and the actual
value. For example, if the two operators use
the same device or instrument for finding the
errors in measurement, it is not necessary that
they may get similar results.
• Sequentially, to understand the concept of
errors in measurement, you should know the
two terms that define the error. They are true
value and the measured value. The true value
is impossible to find out the truth of quantity
by experimental means.
Types of Errors in Measurement
• Generally errors are classified into three types:
systematic errors, random errors and blunders
 Random Errors

• 1) Gross Errors
• Gross errors are caused by mistake in using
instruments or meters, calculating measurement and
recording data results. The best example of these
errors is a person or operator reading pressure gage
1.01N/m2 as 1.10N/m2. It may be due to the person’s
bad habit of not properly remembering data at the
time of taking down reading, writing and calculating,
and then presenting the wrong data at a later time.
 2) Blunders

• Blunders are final source of errors and these

errors are caused by faulty recording or due to
a wrong value while recording a measurement,
or misreading a scale or forgetting a digit
while reading a scale.
 3) Measurement Error
• The measurement error is the result of the
variation of a measurement of the true value.
Usually, Measurement error consists of a
random error and systematic error. The best
example of the measurement error is, if
electronic scales are loaded with 1kg standard
weight and the reading is 10002 grams, then
• The measurement error is = (1002 grams-1000
grams) = 2 grams
 Systematic Errors
• The Systematic errors that occur due to fault in
the measuring device are known as systematic
errors. Usually they are called as Zero Error –
a positive or negative error. These errors can
be detached by correcting the measurement
device. These errors may be classified into
different categories.
• Instrumental Errors
• Environmental Errors
• Observational Errors
• Theoretical
Measurement of the validity and reliability of
instruments for research
 Instruments that are used for data collection in
research include questionnaires for structured
interviews, checklists for semi-structured
interviews (SSI) such as focused group
discussions (FGDs) and scales (like the Likert
scale) for studying attitudinal aspects.
 The Validity
 The validity of a measuring instrument is the
extent to which differences in scores on it
reflect true differences among individuals on
the characteristics that we seek to measure
accurately without errors.
 A valid instrument measures successfully the
phenomenon for which it is intended to
measure, e.g. A spring balance to measure
mass or a measuring cylinder to measure
volumes of chemicals in a laboratory should
be able to measure them accurately and
consistently. Likewise, a questionnaire should
measure successfully variables conceptualized
in a research.
 The Reliability
 The reliability of an instrument is its
consistency in measuring what it is supposed
to measure even if the values it gives are
wrong.
 A valid instrument is reliable whereas a
reliable instrument is not necessarily valid.
Therefore, validity is superior to reliability.
• To establish validity and reliability of social
research instruments, they are pre-tested by
interviewing people with characteristics
similar to those of the people to be studied
before being used for actual data collection.
 If it is found that some variables are not well
measured (that is, if respondents do not give
consistent answers), the instruments (e.g.
questionnaire) are amended to get a second
version for actual data collection. People to
whom the instruments were pre-tested should
not be included in the actual survey.
 Scaling

• Scaling is assigning units of analysis to

categories of a variable (Bernard, 1994: 289).
In most cases, the intent of scaling is
upgrading the level of measurement of
variables from nominal and ordinal to interval
and ratio levels so that more quantitative data
analysis methods can be used, such as linear
correlation, multiple linear regression
DISSEMINATE FINDINGS
• Meaning of interpretation; Why
interpretation, Techniques of Interpretation,
and Precaution in Interpretation, Managing
data using graphics; Managing quantitative
and qualitative data, Introducing Tables,
Figures and Graphs in report, Meaning of
Report; Types of reports, Importance of
report writing, Steps in Report writing,
Layout of the report, and Oral presentation
of report
 Meaning of interpretation
Interpretation refers to the task of drawing
inferences from the collected facts after an
analytical and/or experimental study.
Interpretation is a search for broader meaning of
research findings. The task of interpretation has
two major aspects:
(i)the effort to establish continuity in research
through linking the results of a given study
with those of another, and
(ii)the establishment of some explanatory
concepts.
Why interpretation?
• It is through interpretation that the researcher
can well understand the abstract principle that
works beneath his findings.
• Interpretation leads to the establishment of
explanatory concepts that can serve as a guide
for future research studies; it opens new
avenues of intellectual adventure and
stimulates
• Researcher can better appreciate only through
interpretation why his findings are what they
are and can make others to understand the
real significance of his research findings.
• The interpretation of the findings of
exploratory research study often results into
hypotheses for experimental research and as
such interpretation is involved in the transition
from exploratory to experimental research.
Techniques of interpretation
• The technique of interpretation often involves
the following steps:

• (i) Researcher must give reasonable

explanation of the relations which he has
found and he must interpret the lines of
relationship
(ii) Extraneous information, if collected during
the study, must be considered while interpreting
the final results of research study.
iii) It is advisable, before embarking upon final
interpretation, to consult someone.
iv) Researcher must accomplish the task of
interpretation only after considering all relevant
factors affecting the problem to avoid false
generalization.
 Managing data using graphics

• Visual aids help in communicating information

more clearly than what is possible using only
textual matter. They help to clarify and
simplify data.
• visual aids can be used to emphasize important
material and to persuade the reader to
understand or agree with the writer's point of
view.
 When to use visual aids?
• Visual aids are used to make reports and
presentations more effective. They are used to
support and clarify textual descriptions
through graphics, diagrams etc. They simplify
complicated descriptions by breaking them
into various components and depicting them
together using flow charts, diagrams etc.
Selective usage of visual aids
• The following questions require to be answered to know
whether a visual presentation is effective or not?

• Does the visual presentation help to enhance the readers'

overall understanding of the subject?
• Can the information be conveyed in words rather than by
visual means?
• Will the textual information add meaning to the visual
display?
• Is the visual presentation easy to understand or does it
confuse the readers?
 Selecting a suitable visual aid

• Selecting the right visual aid could be the most

vital decision in making a report effective. The
visual aid selected should be the one that best
conveys the message to the readers.
Various visual aids available are discussed
below:
Tables
• A table is a systematic presentation of data in
columns and rows. A table is the most suitable
visual aid when detailed, numerical information
has to be presented in a clear and simple manner.

Bar charts
• The bar chart, also known as simple bar chart or
single-range bar chart, is a graphic aid used to
depict quantities.
• Line charts
Line charts are used to indicate the changes that
take place over a period of time.
• Pie charts
• Pie charts are similar to the stacked bar charts
and represent how the parts of a whole are
distributed. These are useful in depicting
percentages
Pictograms
• Pictograms are visual aids which use pictures to
depict numerical relationships.

Maps
• Maps are useful in illustrating geographic
relationships. Apart from being less confusing than
a verbal explanation, maps are a more interesting
and concise way of presenting geographical data.
 Flowcharts and Organization charts

These are used to express the physical or

conceptual relationships between various
components of a process or departments of an
organization
• Other visual aids
Apart from the visual aids that have been
discussed above, floor plans, photographs,
diagrams, cartoons and blueprints may also be
used in reports.
• Summary
• Use of visual aids in presentations help to clarify,
simplify, emphasize, summarize, reinforce and unify
information and help to attract and impress the
readers. Visual aids thus play a major role in making
an effective presentation.

• Visual aids are illustrations in tabular, graphic,

schematic or pictorial form. Selection of the visual aid
influences the quality of the report or presentation.
Writing up and presenting research outcomes

• The written research report

• It may seem unscientific and even unfair, but a
poor final report or presentation can destroy a
study. Research technicians may ignore the
significance of badly reported content, but
most readers will be influenced by the quality
of reporting
 Short reports
• Short reports are appropriate when the
problem is well defined, is of limited scope,
and has a simple and straightforward
methodology
• A letter of transmittal is a vehicle to convey
short reports. Short reports are about five
pages.
• Long reports
• Long reports are of two types: the technical or
base report and the management report. The
choice depends on the audience and the
researcher’s objective.
• Management report