By Prof.

Venkatesh Badave
DKTE
 Research define as a scientific and systematic
search for related information on a specific topic.
 “A careful investigation or inquiry specially through
search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.”
-- The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
 Research comprises defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested
solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data;
making deduction and reaching conclusions; and at
last carefully testing the conclusions to determine
whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
-- Clifford Woody
 “The manipulation of things, concepts or
symbols for the purpose of generalizing to
extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether
that knowledge aids in construction of theory or
in the practice of an art.”
 “Research is an original contribution to the
existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement.”
 In short, the search for knowledge through
objective and systematic method of finding
solution to a problem is research.
 Data: Measurement of records of facts made under
specific conditions
 Hypothesis: tentative assumption of the study or
expected results of the study
 Independent variable: The part of the experiment that
the researcher is manipulating; also called
experimental or treatment variable.

K. SYED, MPT (ortho)

 Dependent variable: The effect of the Independent
variable
 Population: A total number of subjects which they
abide the inclusion and exclusion criteria.
 Paradigm crisis phenomenon: development of
discrepancy leading to proposals of new paradigm that
better explain the data.

K. SYED, MPT (ortho)

 Review: A research paper that is a critical
evaluation of research on a particular topic.

 Research proposal / Synopsis: A formal

preparation that includes introduction, review
of literature and proposed method of
conducting study.

K. SYED, MPT (ortho)

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to
achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or
formulative research studies)

2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a

particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as
descriptive research studies)
3. To determine the frequency with which
something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with
this object in view are known as diagnostic
research studies)

4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship

between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies)
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its
consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the
unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some
creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.
 Many more factors such as
 directives of government,
 employment conditions,
 curiosity about new things,
 desire to understand causal relationships,
 social thinking and awakening,
and the like may as well motivate (or at
times compel) people to perform research
operations.
 Descriptive v/s. Analytical
 Applied v/s. Fundamental
 Quantitative v/s. Qualitative
 Conceptual v/s. Empirical
 Some other types of Research
• One-time research or longitudinal research
• Field-setting research or laboratory research or
simulation research
• Clinical or diagnostic research
• Exploratory or formalized research
• Historical research
• Conclusion-oriented & decision oriented
 Descriptive Research
Descriptive research includes surveys
and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds.
The major purpose of descriptive research is
description of the state of affairs as it exists at
present.
In social science and business research we
quite often use the term Ex post facto research
for descriptive research studies

E.g. :- frequency of shopping, preference of

people
 Analytical Research
In analytical research, on the other
hand, the researcher has to use facts or
information already available, and analyze
these to make a critical evaluation of the
material.
 Applied Research or (Action)
Applied research aims at finding a solution
for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization,
Research to identify social, economic or
political trends that may affect a particular
institution or the copy research (research to find out
whether certain communications will be read and
understood) or the marketing research or
evaluation research are examples of applied
research.
Thus, the central aim of applied research is
to discover a solution for some pressing practical
problem.
 Fundamental Research or (Basic or Pure)
Fundamental research is mainly
concerned with generalization and with the
formulation of a theory.
“Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s
sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”
Research concerning some natural
phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics
are examples of fundamental research. Similarly,
research studies, concerning human behavior,
are also examples of fundamental research.
 Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is based on the
measurement of quantity or amount.
It is applicable to phenomena that
can be expressed in terms of quantity.
 Qualitative Research
Qualitative research is concerned
with qualitative phenomenon i.e., phenomena
relating to or involving quality or kind.
e.g. -we are interested in investigating the reasons
for human behavior (i.e. why people think or do
certain things)
‘Motivation Research’ is an important type of
qualitative research. This type of research aims
at discovering the underlying motives and
desires, using in depth interviews for the
purpose.
 Qualitative Research
Other technique such research are
word association tests, sentence completion
tests, story compilation tests.
Attitude or opinion research i.e.
research designed to find out how people feel
or what they think about a particular subject or
institution is also qualitative research.
Qualitative research is specially
important in the behavioral science where the
aim is to discover the underlying motives of
human behavior.
 Conceptual Research
conceptual research is that related to
some abstract idea(s) or theory. It generally
used by philosophers and thinkers to
develop new concepts or to reinterpret
existing ones.
 EmpiricalResearch
empirical research relies on
experience or observation alone, often
without due regard for system and theory. It
is data-based research, coming up with
conclusions which are capable of being
verified by observation or experiment.
We can also call as
experimental research.
 All other types of research are variations of one or more
of the above stated approaches, based on either the
purpose of research, or the time required to accomplish
research, on the environment in which research is done, or
on the basis of some other similar factor.

 One-time research or longitudinal research

 Field-setting research or laboratory research or
simulation research
 Clinical or diagnostic research
 Exploratory or formalized research
 Historical research
 Conclusion-oriented & decision oriented
 There are two basic approaches to research.

1. Quantitative Approach
A. Inferential Approach
B. Experimental Approach
C. Simulation Approach

2. Qualitative Approach
 Quantitative Approach
This approach involves the
generation of data in quantitative form which can be
subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal
and rigid fashion.
A. Inferential Approach :-
This research is to form a data base from
which to infer characteristics or relationship of
population. This usually means survey research
where a sample of population is studied to
determine its characteristics, and it is then
inferred that the population has the same
characteristics.
B. Experimental Approach
Experimental approach is characterized by
much greater control over research environment and
in this case some variables are manipulated to
observe their effect on other variables.

C. Simulation Approach:-
Simulation approach involves the construction
of an artificial environment within which relevant
information and data can be generated. This permits
an observation of the dynamic behavior of a system
under controlled conditions.
2. Qualitative Approach
Qualitative approach is to research is
concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes,
opinions and behavior. Research in such a situation
is a function of researcher’s insights and
impressions. Such an approach to research
generates results either in non-quantitative form or
in the form which are not subjected to rigorous
quantitative analysis.
Generally, the techniques of focus group
interviews, projective techniques and depth
interviews are used.
 The role of research in several fields of applied
economics, whether related to business or to the
economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern
time.
 Research provides the basis for nearly all government
policies in our economic system.
 Research has its special significance in solving various
operational and planning problems of business and
industry.
 Research is equally important for social scientists in
studying social relationships and in seeking answers to
various social problems.
a) To those students who are to write a master’s or
Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a careerism or a
way to attain a high position in the social structure;
b) To professionals in research methodology, research
may mean a source of livelihood;
c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean
the outlet for new ideas and insights;
d) To literary men and women, research may mean the
development of new styles and creative work;
e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean
the generalizations of new theories.
 Define
Problem

Planning a Conclusions
Research Design and Report

Planning Processing and

a Sample Analysing the Data

Gathering
the Data
28
1. Formulating the research problem
2. Extensive literature survey
3. Development of working hypotheses
4. Preparing the research design
5. Determining sample design
• Deliberate sampling (non-prob.)
• Simple random sampling
• Systematic sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Quota sampling
• Cluster sampling and area sampling
• Multi-stage sampling
• Sequential sampling
6. Collecting the data
• By observation
• Through personal interviews
• Through telephone interviews
• By mailing of questionnaires
• Through schedules
7. Execution of the project
8. Analysis of data
9. Hypothesis – testing
10. Generalizations and interpretation
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis
A research design is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the
research purpose with economy in procedure.

 The research is the plan, structure, and strategy

of investigations of answering the research
question is the overall plan or blueprint the
researchers select to carry our their study.
 Research design is always gives the answers of
following questions
• What is the study about ?
• Why is the study being made ?
• Where will the study be carried out ?
• What type of data is required ?
• Where can the required data be found ?
• What periods of time will the study include ?
• What will the sample design ?
• How will the data be analyzed ?
 Minimizes time and money

 Advance planning

 Avoid flaws

 Selection of appropriate tools

 Eliminate bias and marginal error

 It should be flexible, appropriate, efficient, economical
and so on.
 Minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data
 It should give a smallest experimental error and high
reliability and validity.
 Good research design includes following five important
elements.
• Subjects
• Variables
• Time
• Setting
• Investigator’s role
 Research design in case of exploratory
research studies

 Researchdesign in case of descriptive and

diagnostic research studies

 Research design in case of hypothesis-testing

research studies
 Exploratory research studies are also termed
as formulative research studies. The main purpose
of such studies is that of formulating a problem for
more precise investigation or of developing the
working hypotheses from an operational point
view.
The major emphasis in such studies is on
the discovery of ideas and insights. As such the
research design appropriate for such studies
must be flexible enough to provide opportunity
for considering different aspect of a problem
under study.
 Inbuilt flexibility in research design is
needed because the research problem,
broadly defined initially, is transformed into
one with more precise meaning in
exploratory studies, which fact may require
changes in the research procedure for
gathering relevant data.
A) The survey of concerning literature
B) The experience survey
C) The analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’
 Descriptive research studies are those studies
which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual, or of a
group, whereas diagnostic research studies
determine the frequency with which something
occurs or its association with something else.
The studies concerning whether certain
variables are associated are examples of diagnostic
research studies.
An against this, studies concerned with specific
predictions, with narration of facts and
characteristics concerning individual, group or
situation are all examples of descriptive research
studies.
 Hypothesis-testing research studies
(generally known as experimental studies)
are those where the researcher tests the
hypotheses of causal relationships between
variables. Such studies requires procedures
that will not only reduce bias and increase
reliability, but will permit drawing
inferences about causality. Usually
experiments meet this requirement.
Prof. R.A. Fisher’s name is associated with
experimental designs. Beginning of such
designs was made by him when he was
working at Rothamsted Experimental
Station (Centre for Agricultural Research in
England).
As such the study of experimental
designs has its origin in agricultural
research.
 Professor Fisher has enumerated
three important principles of research
design.

 Principle of Replication
 Principle of randomization
 Principle of Local Control
 According to this principle, the experiment
should be repeated more than once. Thus,
each treatment is applied in many
experimental units instead of one.
 By doing this method, the accuracy and
precision of the study are increased
significantly.
 For example, the effect of two variety of rice.
 Forthis purpose we may divide the field into
two parts and grow one variety in one part and
other variety in the other part. We can then
compare the yield of the two parts and draw
conclusion on that basis. But if are to apply the
principle of replication to this experiment,
then we first divide the field into several parts,
grow one variety in half of these parts and the
other variety in the remaining parts. We can
then collect the data of yield of the two
varieties and draw conclusion by comparing
the same.
 This principle provides protection
 This principle indicates that the researcher
should design or plan the experiment in
such a way that the variations caused by
extraneous factors can all be combined
under the general heading of “Chance”.
 Example : effect of two variety of rice
 If we grow one variety of rice, say, in the first
half of the parts of a field and the other variety
is grown in the other half, then it is just
possible that the soil fertility may be different
in the first half in comparison to the other half.
If this is so, our results would not be realistic. In
such situation, we may assign the variety of
rice be grown in different parts of the field on
the basis of some random sampling technique
i.e. we may apply randomization principle and
protect ourselves against the effects of the
extraneous factors (soil fertility difference in
the given case).
 The extraneous factors, the know source of
variability, is made to vary deliberately over
as wide a range as necessary and this needs
to be done in such a way that the variability it
causes can ne measured and hence
eliminated from the experimental error.
 This means we should plan the experiment
in a manner that we can perform a two way
analysis of variance.
 Example : effect of two variety of rice
 Total variability of the data is divided into three
components attributed to treatments(varieties of
rice in our case), the extraneous factor (soil fertility
in our case ) and experimental error.
 According to the principle of local control, we first
divide the field into several homogeneous parts,
known as blocks, and then each such block is
divided into parts equal to the number of treatments.
Then the treatments are randomly assigned to these
parts of a block. Dividing the field into several
homogenous parts in known as ‘blocking’. In
general, blocks are the levels at which we hold an
extraneous factor fixed, so that we can measure its
contribution to the total variability of the data by
means of a two way analysis of variance.
 The selected respondents constitute
what is technique called a ‘Sample’ and the
selection process is called ‘Sampling
technique’. The survey so conducted is known
as ‘Sample survey’
plan how a sample should be selected
and of what size such a sample would be that
is sample design.
 Type of universe
 Sampling unit
 Source list
 Size of sample
 Parameters of interest
 Budgetary constraint
 Sampling procedure
 Sample design must result in a truly
representative sample.
 Sample design must be such which results in a
small sampling error.
 Sample design must be viable in the context of
funds available for the research study.
 Sample design must be such so that systematic
bias can be controlled in a better way.
 Sample should be such that the results of the
sample study can be applied, in general, for the
universe with a reasonable level of confidence.
 Non – probability sampling

 Probability sampling
 Non probability sampling is that
sampling procedure which does not
afford any basis for estimating the
probability that each item in the
population has of being included in the
sample.
 Non-probability sampling is also known
by different names such as deliberate
sampling, purposive sampling and
judgment sampling
 Probability sampling is also known as
“Random Sampling” or “ Chance
Sampling”. Under this sampling design,
every item of the universe has an equal
chance of inclusion in the sample. It is, so
to say, a lottery method in which
individual units are picked up from the
whole group not deliberately but by
some mechanical process.
 Write each of the possible samples on as slip
of paper, mix these slips thoroughly in a
container & then draw as a lottery either
blindfolded or by rotating a drum or by any
other similar device.
 Write the name of each element of a finite
population on a slip of paper, put the slips of
paper so prepared into a box or a bag & mix
them thoroughly & then draw the required
number of slips for the sample one after the
other without replacement.
 Systematic Sampling
 Stratified Sampling
 Cluster Sampling
 Area Sampling
 Multi-stage Sampling
 Sampling with probability Proportional to
Size
 Sequential Sampling
 Systematic sampling is a random sampling
technique which is frequently chosen by
researchers for its simplicity and its periodic
quality.
 In systematic random sampling, the researcher first
randomly picks the first item or subject from the
population. Then, the researcher will select each n'th
subject from the list.
 The procedure involved in systematic random
sampling is very easy and can be done manually. The
results are representative of the population unless
certain characteristics of the population are repeated
for every n'th individual.
•A method of sampling that involves the division of a
population into smaller groups known as strata. In
stratified random sampling, the strata are formed based
on members' shared attributes or characteristics.

•A random sample from each stratum is taken in a

number proportional to the stratum's size when
compared to the population. These subsets of the strata
are then pooled to form a random sample.
 Ifthe total area of interest happens to be
a big one, a convenient way in which a
sample can be taken is to divide the area
into a number of small non-overlapping
area and then to randomly select a
number of these smaller areas( usually
called clusters), with the ultimate sample
consisting of all units in these small areas
or clusters.
 IfClusters happen to be some
geographic subdivisions, in that case
cluster sampling is better known as area
sampling.
 Multi
stage sampling is a further
development of the principle of cluster
sampling
 Incase the cluster sampling units do not
have the same number or approximately
the same number of elements, it is
considered appropriate to use a random
selection process where the probability
of each cluster being included in the
sample is proportional to the size of the
cluster
 This sampling design is some what
complex sample design. The ultimate
size of the sample under this technique is
not fixed in advance, but is determined
according to mathematical decision rules
on the basis of information yielded as
survey progresses.
 By measurement we mean the process of
assigning numbers to objects or
observations, the level of measurement
being a function of the rules under which
the numbers are assigned.
 Technically speaking measurement is a
process of mapping aspects of a domain
onto other aspects of a range according
to some rule of correspondence.
 The rule of correspondence is : If the
object in the domain appears to be male,
assign to “0” and if female assign to “1”.
 Similarly we can record a person’s
marital status as 1,2,3,4 depending on
whether the person is single, married,
widowed or divorced.
 We can as well record “Yes” or “No”
answers to a question as “0” and “1”.
 Ifwe code the various categories, we refer to the
numbers we record as nominal data. Nominal
data are numerical in name only, because they
do not share any of the properties of the numbers
we deal in ordinary arithmetic.
 In those situations when we cannot do anything
except set up inequalities, we refer to the data as
ordinal data.
 When in addition to setting up inequalities we
can also form differences, we refer to the data as
interval data.
 Nominal scale

 Ordinal scale

 Interval scale

 Ratio scale
 Nominal Scale:-
Nominal data is simply a system of
assigning numbers of symbols to events in
order to label them. The usual example of
this is the assignment of numbers of cricket
players in order to identify them.
The number are just convenient
labels for the particular class of events and
as such have no quantitative value.
 Ordinal Scale:-
The ordinal scale places events and
order, but there is no attempt to make the
intervals of the scale equal in terms of some
rule. Ranks orders represent ordinal scales and
are frequently used in research relating to
qualitative phenomena.
A student’s rank in his class involves
the use of and ordinal scale.
Thus the use of ordinal scale implies a
statement of ‘grater than’ or ‘less than’ without
our being able to state how much grater or less.
 Interval Scale:-
in case of interval scale, the
intervals are adjusted in terms of some rule
that has been established as a basis for
making the units equal. The units are equal
only in so far as one accepts the assumptions
on which the rule is based.
The temperature scale is an
example of an interval scale and shows
similarities in what one can and cannot do
with it.
 Ratio Scale :-
Ratio scales have an absolute or true
zero of measurement. The term ‘absolute zero’
is not as precise as it was once believed to be.
with ratio scale involved one can make
statements like “X” typing performance was
twice as good as that of “Y”. The ratio involved
does have significance and facilitates a kind of
comparison which is not possible in case of an
interval scale.
 Respondent

 Situation

 Measurer

 Instrument
 Test of Validity
Validity is the most critical standard and
indicates the degree to which an instrument
measures what it is supposed to measure.
 Test of Reliability
A measurement instrument is reliable if it
provides consistent results.
 Test of Practicality
The practicality characteristic of
measuring instrument can be judged in terms
of economy, convenience and interpretability.
 Scaling describes the procedures of assigning
numbers to various degrees of opinion,
attitude and other concepts. This can be done
in two ways viz.,
• Making a judgment about some characteristic of an
individual and then placing him directly on a scale that
has been defined in term of that characteristic.
• Constructing questionnaires in such a way that the
score of individual’s responses assigns him a place on
a scale.
 Scalingis applied to the procedures for
attempting to determine quantitative
measures of subjective abstract concepts.
Scaling has been defined as a
“procedure for the assignment of
numbers (or other symbols) to a
property of objects in order to impart
some of the characteristics of numbers to
the properties in question.”
 Rating Scales
• The rating scale involves qualitative description of a
limited number of aspect of a thing or of traits of a
person.
 E.g. “like-dislike”, “above average, average, below
average”, or other classifications such as “like very
much—like some what—neutral—dislike somewhat—
dislike very much”; “excellent– good– average– below
average– poor”
 The graphic rating scale
 The itemized rating scale
 How do you like the product ?
(please check)

Like very like some Neutral dislike some dislike very

Much what what much
 Suppose we wish to inquire as to how well does a
worker get along with his fellow workers? In such
a situation we may ask the respondent to select
one, to express his opinion, from the following:
• He is almost always involved in some friction with a
fellow worker.
• He is often at odds with one or more of his fellow
workers.
• He sometimes gets involved in friction.
• He infrequently becomes involved in friction with
others.
• He almost never gets involved in fiction with fellow
workers.
 Ranking Scale :
under ranking scale (or comparative scales)
we make relative judgments against other similar
objects. The respondents under this method directly
compare two or more objects and make choices
among them. There are two generally used approaches
of ranking scales viz,
• Method of paired comparisons
n(n -1)
N=
2
where N= number of judgments
n = number of stimuli or objects to be judged
• Method of rank order
 Arbitrary approach

 Consensus approach

 Item analysis approach

 Cumulative scales

 Factor scales
 Arbitrary scales are developed on ad hoc
basis and are designed largely through the
researcher’s own subjective selection of items.
The researcher first collects few statements or
items which he believes are unambiguous and
appropriate to a given topic. Some of these are
selected for inclusion in the measuring
instrument and then people are asked to check in
a list the statements with which they agree.
This scale can be developed very easily,
quickly and with relatively less expenses.
But in this scale we do not have objective
evidence that such scales measures the concepts
for which they have been developed.
 Differential scales (or Thurstone-type
scales)
Here a panel of judges evaluate the items
chosen for inclusion in the instrument in terms
of whether they are relevant to the topic area
and unambiguous in implication.
 Summated Scales (or Likert–type
Scales)
This approach developed by utilizing
the item analysis approach wherein a
particular item is evaluated on the basis
of how well it discriminates between
those persons whose total score is high
and those whose score is low.
 Cumulative scales or Louis Guttman’s
scalogram analysis, like other scales,
consist of series of statements to which a
respondent expresses his agreement or
disagreement. The special feature of this
type of scale is that statements in it form a
cumulative series.
 Factorscales are developed through factor
analysis or on the basis of inter- correlation of
items which indicate that a common factor
accounts for the relationships between items.
Factor scales are particularly “useful in
uncovering latent attitude dimensions and
approach scaling through the concept of
multiple-dimension attribute space.”
 Primary Data
Primary data are those
which are collected a fresh and for time,
and thus happen to be original in
character.
 Secondary Data
Secondary data are those
which have already been collected by
someone else and which have already
been passed through the statistical
process.
 Questionnaire

 Interviews
• Personal Interviews
• Structured Interviews
• Unstructured Interviews
• Focused Interview
• Telephone Interviews
 Processing operations
• Editing
 Field editing
 Central editing
•
• Coding

• Classification
 Classification according to attributes
Classification according to class-intervals

• Tabulation
 Theproblem concerning “Don’t know” (or DK)
responses

 Use of percentages
 Introduction-

 The term central tendency relates to the way in

which quantitative data tend to cluster around
some value or a single value which represents the
characteristics of the entire available data. This
single value which represents the entire data is
called the ‘central value’ or an ‘average’.

 It is also known as measure of location and

since this value is located at a central point
nearest to other values of the data it is known as
measure of central tendency.
 There are totally 3 ways of specifying
this Central tendency or Statistical
Average.

 Mean
 Median
 Mode
In Mathematics and Statistics, the Mean
(or An Arithmetic Mean) of a list of
observations is the sum of all the
observations divided by the number of
observations in the list.
The mean is the most commonly-used
type of Average and is often referred to
simply as the Average.
Arithmetic mean is represented by
notation x (x-bar)
 ∑X
x =
n

Where,
x is mean

∑X is the sum of values of all observations.

‘n’ is the number of observations.

 It’s chief use consists in summarizing the
essential features of a series and in enabling
data to be compared.
 It is amenable to algebraic treatment and is
used in further statistical calculations.

 Itis unduly affected by extreme items; it may

not coincide with the actual value of an item
in a series, and it may lead to wrong
impressions.
 It is one type of average, which is found by
arranging the values in order and then selecting
the one in the middle.
In other words ‘The median is that value of the
data set which divides the data set in to two
equal parts, one part comprising all the values
greater and the other, all the values less than
median.
If the data set contains an odd number of items,
the middle item of the array is the median. And if
the total number of items in the sample is even,
then the median is the mean of the two middle
numbers.
 Median = n+1 th

Here,
n = The no of observations.
The mode is the value that occurs most
frequently in a data set and around which the
other items of the set cluster.

For example, a manufacturer of shoes is

usually interested in finding out the size most in
demand so that he may manufacture a larger
quantity of the size.
Definition-

Dispersion is the measure of the variation of

the items.
OR
Dispersion is a measure of the extent to which
the individual items vary.
1. To find out the reliability of an average.

2. To control the variation of the data from

the central value.

3. To compare two or more sets of data

regarding their variability.

4. To obtain other statistical measures for

further analysis of data.
The various measures of dispersion are

1. Range

2. Quartile deviation

3. Mean deviation

4. Standard deviation
Range is defined as the difference
between the two extreme observations
of the distribution.
OR
Range is the difference between the
greatest and the smallest observation
of the distribution.

Therefore Range= X.max - X.min

But this formula is used only to compare the
variability of two or more distributions with the
same units of measurement.

To compare the variability of two or more

distributions given in different units of
measurement, the formula takes the form,

Range= X.max - X.min

X.max + X.min

This is called as co-efficient of range.

The utility of range is that it gives an idea
of the variability very quickly, but the
drawback is that range is affected very
greatly by fluctuations of sampling.
it is not considered as an appropriate
measure in serious research studies.
 Mean deviation is the average of difference of
the values of items from some average of the
series. Such a difference is technically described
as deviation. ∑ Xi - X
Mean deviation from mean ( x) =
n
∑ Xi - M
Mean deviation from median ( m) =
n
∑ Xi - Z
Mean deviation from mode ( z) =
n
Where,
= Symbol for mean deviation
Xi = i th value of the variable X;
n = number of items;
X = Arithmetic average;
M= Median;
Z = Mode.
 It is defined as the positive square root of the
arithmetic mean of the squares of the deviations of the
given observations from their arithmetic mean

Thus if X1,X2,X3,…..,Xn is a set of n observations

then its standard deviation is given by,

= ∑( X-X )2
n

Where,
X = ∑X/n, which is the arithmetic mean of the given
values.
 The moments defined about any point
except mean are called as raw moments.
The rth moment of a variable X about
origin is denoted by µ’r and is defined as,
µ’r = rth moment of X about origin.
1 n

= ∑Xir r = 0,1,2,……

n i=1
 In
simple regression, we have only two
variables, one variable (defined as
independent) is the cause of the behavior of
another one (defined as dependent variable).
Regression can only interpret what exists
physically i.e., there must be a physical way in
which independent variable X can affect
dependent variable Y. the basic relationship
between X and Y is given by
Y = a + bX
 Alternatively, for
fitting a regression equation
of the type Y = a+bX to the given values of X
and Y variables, we can find the values of the
two constants which is a and b by using the
following two normal equations:
∑ Yi = na +b ∑ Xi

∑ Xi Yi = a ∑ Xi +b ∑ X2 i
 When there are two or more than two
independent variables, the analysis concerning
relationship is known as multiple correlation and
the equation describing such relationship as the
multiple regression equation.
Y = a+b1 X1 + b2 X2
 Where,
X1and X2 are two independent variables.
Y being dependent variable.
and the constants a, b1 and b2 can be solved by
solving next three normal equations.
∑ Yi = na +b1∑ X1i +b2∑ X2i

∑ X1i Yi = a ∑ X1i +b1∑ X21i +b2∑ X1i X2i

∑ X2i Yi = a ∑ X2i +b1∑ X1i X2i +b2∑ X21i
 What is a hypothesis :
One simply means a mere assumption or some
supposition to be proved or disprove. But for a
researcher hypothesis is a formal question that he
intends to resolve.
Thus a hypothesis may be defined as a
proposition or a set of proposition set forth as an
explanation for the occurrence of some specified
group of phenomena either asserted merely as a
provisional conjecture to guide some investigation or
accepted as highly probable in the light of established
facts.
 Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis :-
If we are to compare two method A with method
B about its superiority and if we proceed on the
assumption that both methods are equally good, then
this assumption is termed as the Null Hypothesis.
As against this we may think that the method A is
superior or the method B is inferior we are then
stating what is termed as Alternative Hypothesis.

Null Hypothesis is generally symbolized as H0

Alternative Hypothesis is symbolized as Ha’
 NullHypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis :-
suppose we want to test the hypothesis that
the population mean (µ) is equal to the
hypothesized mean (µH0) = 100
Then we would say that the null hypothesis
is that the population mean is equal to the
hypothesized mean 100
and symbolically we can express as
H0 : µ = µH0 = 100
 Ifour sample results do not support this null
hypothesis, we should conclude that
something else is true. What we conclude
rejecting the null hypothesis is known as
alternative hypothesis.
 In other words, the set of alternatives to the
null hypothesis is referred to as the
alternative hypothesis. If we accept H0 then
we are rejecting Ha’ and if we reject H0 then we
are accepting Ha’
Alternative Hypothesis To be read as follows
Ha : µ = µ H 0 The alternative hypothesis is that the
population mean is not equal to 100 i.e.
it may be more or less than 100

Ha : µ > µ H 0 The alternative hypothesis is that the

population mean is grater than 100

Ha : µ < µH0 The alternative hypothesis is that the

population mean is less than 100
 The level of Significance :-
It is always some percentage (usually 5%) which should
be chosen with great care, thought and reason.
In case we take the significance level at 5%, then this
implies that H0 will be rejected when the sampling result (i.e.
observed evidence) has less than 0.05 probability of
occurring if H0 is true.
In other words, the 5% level of significance means that
researcher is willing to take as much as a 5% risk of rejecting
the null hypothesis when it H0 happens to be true.
Thus the significance level is the maximum value
of the probability of rejecting H0 when it is true and is
usually determined in advance before testing the hypothesis
 Type I and Type II errors:-
We may reject H0 when H0 is true that is
called Type I error.
and we may accept H0 when in fact H0 is
not true that is called Type II error.
Decision
Accept H0 Reject H0

H0 (True) Correct Decision Type I error (α error)

H0 (False) Type II error( Correct Decision

error)+
 Two-tailed:-
A two-tailed test rejects the null hypothesis if,
say the sample mean is significantly higher or
lower than the hypothesized value of the mean of
the population. Such a test is appropriate when
the null hypothesis is some specified value and
the alternative hypothesis is a value not equal to
the specified value of the null hypothesis.
H0 : µ = µH0 and Ha : µ = µH0 which may
be µ > µH0 or µ < µH0
 Acceptance and rejection regions in case of a two-tailed test
With 5% significance level

Acceptance region (accept H0 if the

sample mean (X) falls in this region)
Rejection Rejection
region region
Limit

Limit
0.475 0.475
Of area Of area
0.025 of area 0.025 of area

Both taken together equals

0.95 or 95% of area

Z= -1.96 µH0 = µ Z= 1.96

Reject H0 if the sample mean( X )falls
in either of these two regions
 Two-tailed:-
Mathematically we can state :

Acceptance Region A : |Z| < 1.96

Rejection Region R : |Z| > 1.96

 One-tailed tests:-
A one-tailed test would be used when
we are to test, say whether the population
mean is either lower than or higher than
some hypothesized value. For instance, if
our
H0 : µ = µH0 and Ha : µ < µH0 then we
are interested in what is known as left-tailed
test
 Acceptance and rejection regions in case of one-tailed test (left-tail)
With 5% significance level

Acceptance region (accept H0 if the

sample mean (X) falls in this region)
Rejection
region
Limit

0.45 0.50
Of area Of area
0.05 of area

Both taken together equals

0.95 or 95% of area

Z= -1.645 µH0 = µ
Reject H0 if the sample mean( X )falls
in either of these two regions
 One-tailed:-
Mathematically we can state :

Acceptance Region A : Z > -1.645

Rejection Region R : Z < -1.645

 One-tailed :-
in case our H0 : µ = µH0 and Ha : µ > µH0 then
we are interested in what is known as one-
tailed test (right-tail) and the rejection region
will be on the right tail of the curve.
Acceptance and rejection regions in case of one-tailed test (left-tail)
With 5% significance level

Acceptance region (accept H0 if the

sample mean (X) falls in this region)
Rejection
region

Limit
0.50 0.45
Of area Of area
0.05 of area

Both taken together equals

0.95 or 95% of area

µH0 = µ Z= 1.645
Reject H0 if the sample mean( X )falls
in either of these two regions
 One-tailed:-
Mathematically we can state :

Acceptance Region A : Z < 1.645

Rejection Region R : Z > 1.645

 Making a formal statement

 Selecting a significance level

 Deciding the distribution to use

 Selecting
a random sample and computing an
appropriate value

 Calculation of the probability

 Comparing the probability

 State H0 as well as Ha

Specify the level of significance (or the œ

values )

Decide the correct sampling distribution

Sample a random sample(s) and workout

an appropriate value from sample data

Calculate the probability that sample result

would diverge as widely as it has from
expectations, if H0 were true

Is this probability equal to or smaller

than œ value in case of one-tailed test
and œ/2 in case of two-tailed test
Yes No
Reject H0 Accept H0