POS 058 – RESEARCH

Prelims

LESSON 1: OVERVIEW OF QUALITATIVE METHOD

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
A process of inquiry that builds a complex and holistic picture of a particular
phenomenon of interest by using a natural setting.
Involves analysis of words, pictures, videos, or objects in the context in which they
occur.
A type of scientific research.

4 MAJOR TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Phenomenology
Describe one or more individual’s experiences of a phenomenon.
Ethnography
Describe the cultural characteristics of a group of people and to describe cultural
scenes.
Case Study
To describe one or more cases in-depth and address the research questions and
issues.
Grounded Theory
To inductively generate a grounded theory describing and explaining a phenomenon.

FORMS OF QUALITATIVE DATA

 Field notes
 Audio/Video recordings
 Transcripts

ADVANTAGES OF QUALITATIVE METHODS FOR EXPLORATORY

RESEARCH
Use of open-ended questions and probing. Evoke responses that are:
- Meaningful and culturally salient to the participant.

LESSON 2: ASSUMPTIONS OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

ASSUMPTIONS
- Reality is socially constructed and there are multiple realities
- The researcher interacts and often works closely with the individuals or
groups under study and serves as primary instrument for data collection and
analysis.
 - The research is value laden
- Research is context bound and based on inductive forms of logic that emerges
as a study progresses.
- Find theories that help explain a particular phenomenon.

CHARACTERISTICS
1. Qualitative is very attractive. Involves collecting information in depth but from
relative no. of cases.
2. Emphasis on knowledge in depth.
3. Interviews help answer the how and why questions that must be addressed.
4. Helps to understand social issues from multiple perspectives to have a
comprehensive understanding of a particular event, person, or group.
5. Begin by asking the question why things happen as they did or as they are.
6. Data are descriptive.
7. Data sources are real world situations.
8. Emphasizes a holistic approach.
9. Data analysis is inductive.
10. Describes meanings of findings from the perspective of the participants.

COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS
 Qualitative research is “unscientific” because of small samples that can’t be
representative of the gen pop.
 Focus groups are rigged by moderators.
 Professional respondents taint the findings by lying about the qualifications.
 If thorough or careful in methodology, can prevent introduction of bias.

SOME TRUTHS IN MISCONCEPTIONS

 Sample sizes are small, inferences cannot be drawn to the gen pop, but
generalizability is not the point of qualitative research.
 Some focus group moderators do ask leading questions. They’re bad.
 Professional respondents do lie, but good mod will spot them.

LESSON 3: OVERVIEW OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

It is necessary to define these two methods of research and examine their goals.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
A process of inquiry examining an identified problem that is based on testing a
theory measured by numbers and analyzed with statistical techniques.
Thus, quantitative research involves the analysis of numerical data.
Brady and Collier (2004)
“An approach to methodology strongly oriented toward regression analysis,
econometric refinements on regression, and the search for statistical alternatives to
regression models in contexts where specific regression assumptions are not met.”
The econometric refinements and statistical alternatives referred to by the authors are
beyond the scope of this article but include logic and prohibit models, time-series
analysis, and a variety of techniques to circumvent problems that can occur in
regression analysis, such as heteroskedasticity and autocorrelation. Essentially,
quantitative methods have played a major role in improving on commonly used research
tools within the structure of regression models that are frequently used in the field of
political science.

CHARACTERISTICS
1. Used to quantify the problem by way of generating numerical data or data
that can be transformed into useable statistics. Used to quantify attitudes
opinions, behaviors, and other defined variables.
2. Uses measurable data to formulate facts and uncover patterns in research.
3. Collection methods are much more structured than qualitative data collection
methods.
4. Collection methods include various forms of surveys (online surveys, paper
surveys, mobile surveys, and kiosk surveys).

4 TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Descriptive
Seeks to describe the status of an identified variable.
Correlational
Attempts to determine the extent of a relationship between two or more variables using
statistical data.
Causal Comparative/Quasi Experimental
Attempts to establish cause-effect relationships among the variables.
Experimental
Often called true experimentation, uses scientific method to establish cause-effect
relationship among a group of variables that make up a study.

LESSON 4: ASSUMPTIONS ON QUANTITATIVE

Goal is to examine particular instances or aspects of phenomena to determine if
predictive generalizations of a theory hold true or to test causal hypotheses.

KEY ASSUMPTIONS
 Reality can be studied objectively.
 Research must remain independent of the researcher through the use of
experiments, questionnaires, machines, or inventories.
 Research is value free, and researcher does not become a part of or interfere
with the research.
 Theories and hypotheses are tested in a cause effect order.
  Purpose of research is to develop generalizations that contribute to theory and
allow the researcher to predict.

QUANTITATIVE METHODS IN POLITICAL ANALYSIS

Essentially a variety of research techniques that are used to gather quantitative data.
Experiments
Participants are randomly assigned to experimental conditions, as well as
experimental controls.
Individuals assigned to experimental controls are testing the independent variable.
Difference between Experiments and Quasi-experiments is the way that subjects are
selected.
Quasi-experiment
Participants are assigned to experimental conditions in a non-random fashion.
Content Analysis
Systematic means of counting and assessing information in order to interpret it.
Surveys
Used to estimate the characteristics of a population based on responses to
questionnaires and interviews from a sample of the population.
Five Types of Information
 Facts
 Opinions
 Perceptions
 Attitudes
 Behavioral reports

COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS
1. Quantitative research is scientific. It is not inherently so.
Scientific Method
1. Ask question
2. Do background research
3. Construct a hypothesis
4. Test hypothesis
5. Analyze data
6. Report results
2. Highly complex and complicated
3. More rigorous than qualitative
4. Prohibitively expensive and/or time consuming
LIMITATIONS
1. All cases are treated as though they are alike.
2. Quantitative methods are inherently biased.
3. Result in taking individuals out of their natural settings to examine very
limited aspects of what a person thinks or believes.
Context is very important, by taking actions out of context, it is impossible to
understand the true meaning of events or responses.

LESSON 5: WORKING ON RESEARCH TITLE AND BACKGROUND

INFORMATION
Best research work starts with best research title.
Capture reader’s attention and to highlight research problem under investigation.

PARAMETERS TO HELP FORMULATE TITLE

1. Purpose of the research
2. Narrative tone (defined by type of research)
3. Methods used
4. Initial aim is to capture the reader’s attention and to draw his or her attention to
the research problem being investigated

CREATING A WORKING TITLE

Should be developed early in the research process because it can help anchor the
focus of the study in much the same way the research problem does.
Help reorient yourself back to the main purpose of the study.

FINAL TITLE
1. Indicate accurately the subject and scope of the study
2. Avoid using abbreviations
3. Using words that create a positive impression
4. Use current nomenclature from the field of study
5. Identify key variables, both dependent and independent
6. May reveal how the paper will be organized
7. Suggest a relationship between variables which supports major hypothesis
8. 10 to 15 substantive words
9. Do not include “study of”. “analysis of” or similar constructions
10. In form of a phrase, can also be in the form of a question
11. Correct grammar and capitalization with all first words and last words
capitalized, also the first word of a subtitle. All nouns, pronouns, verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs between first and last words are capitalized.
12. Rarely is a title followed by exclamation mark. A title or subtitle can be in the form
of a question
SUBTITLE
Quite common in social science research papers.
1. Explains or provides additional context
2. Adds substance to a literary, provocative, or imaginative title
3. Qualifies the geographic scope of the research
4. Qualifies the temporal scope of the research
5. Focuses on investigating the ideas, theories, or work of a particular individual

BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Identifies and describes the history and nature of a well-defined research problem
with reference to the existing literature.
Expands upon the key points stated in the beginning of your introduction but is not
intended to be the main focus of the paper.
Supports the question, what did we know about this topic before I did this study?
Helps your reader determine if you have a basic understanding of the research
problem being investigated and promotes confidence in the overall quality of your
analysis and findings.
Provides reader with essential context needed to understand the research problem
and its significance before moving on to the literature review.

FORMS OF CONTEXTUALIZATION
Cultural
Placed within the learned behavior of specific groups of people.
Economic
Relating to systems of production and management of material wealth and/or
business activities.
Gender
Located within the behavioral, cultural, or psychological traits typically associated
with being male or female.
Historical
Time in which something takes place or was created and how that influences how you
interpret it.
Interdisciplinary
Explanation of theories, concepts, and ideas or methodologies borrowed from
other disciplines applied to the research problem rooted in another discipline.
Philosophical
Clarification of the essential nature of being or of phenomena as it relates to the
research problem.
Physical/Spatial
Reflects the space around something and how that influences how you see it.
Political
Concerns the environment in which something is produced indicating its public
purpose or agenda.
Social
Environment of people that surrounds something’s creation or intended audience,
reflecting how the people around something use and interpret it.
Temporal
Reflects issues or events of, relating to, or limited by time.
Background information can also include summaries of important, relevant research
studies.
Research studies cited as part of the background information of your introduction
should not include very specific, lengthy explanations.

STRUCTURE AND WRITING OF BACKGROUND INFORMATION

Providing background information in the introduction of a research paper serves as a
bridge that links the reader to the topic of your study.
Questions to consider while writing this part of information
1. Concepts, terms, theories, or ideas that may be unfamiliar to the reader, thus
require additional explanation?
2. Are there historical elements that need to be explored to provide needed context,
to highlight specific people, issues, or events, or to lay a foundation for
understanding the emergence of a current issue or event?
3. Are there theories, concepts, or ideas borrowed from other disciplines or
academic traditions that may be unfamiliar to the reader and therefore require
further explanation?
4. Is the research study unusual in a way that requires additional explanation, such
as, 1) your study uses a method of analysis never applied before; 2) your study
investigates a very esoteric or complex research problem; 3) your study
introduces new or unique variables that need to be taken into account; or, 4) your
study relies upon analyzing unique texts or documents, such as, archival
materials or primary documents like diaries or personal letters that do not
represent the established body of source literature on the topic?
Almost all introductions to a research problem require some contextualizing, but
the scope and breadth of background information varies depending on your
assumption about the reader's level of prior knowledge. Despite this assessment,
however, background information should be brief and succinct; save any elaboration of
critical points or in-depth discussion of key issues for the literature review section of
your paper.

LESSON 6: UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH DESIGN IN POLITICAL

ANALYSIS
MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design is the logical structure of the research enquiry that the political
scientist is engaged upon.
It is the plan, the structure and the strategy of investigation, so conceived as to
obtain answer to research question or problems (Kerlinger, 1986).
Provides the framework for collection and analysis of data to the priorities set by the
researcher.
The researcher observes a phenomenon that he or she feels is interesting,
puzzling, neglected or difficult to understand, and then speculates about its possible
causes.
The aim of the research is to generate new knowledge about the phenomenon and
to apply, test and refine theories to explain its occurrence and operations.
This strategy of cross-checking data by using a variety of research methods is known as
“triangulation”.

RESEARCH STRATEGY
 Sample Survey
 Comparative Analysis
 Case Study
 Participant Observation
The political scientist must consider what is the most appropriate and logical structure
for the research project about to be started.

2 FUNCTIONS OF RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Develop or conceptualize an operational plan
2. Ensure that the procedures adopted within the plan are adequate to provide
valid, objective, and accurate solutions to the research problems.

RESEARCH PROCESS
Linear Model
Assumes that the process is relatively clear and straightforward and can be broken
down into various stages or steps that all research projects go through.
Research Wheel
Can be shown as a large circle containing internal circles.
  Starts with empirical observations
 Development of a research proposal or conceptual framework
 Development of research questions and hypothesis
Highlights the false starts and reevaluations that occur in all research projects, but this
model research modifies and extends the linear model rather than conflicting with it.

LESSON 7: UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH PART TWO – TYPES OF

RESEARCH DESIGN
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Considered to be the best way of determining cause and effect in scientific research.
Limitation
Expensive and time consuming to establish and results are rather limited.

CROSS SECTIONAL DESIGN

Involves the collection of information on a large number of cases at a single point
in time, in order to accumulate a body of quantitative or qualitative data in relation
to a number of variables in order to discover patterns of association.
Limitation
Information is collected at a particular point in time and so quickly becomes out of
date and is overtaken by new events.
Major limitation of cross-sectional design is that it is unable to explain change over
time.

LONGITUDINAL DESIGN
An extension of survey research.
Social surveys provide a snapshot of facts and opinions at the time of the survey
was carried out. It is thus impossible to generalize over time and to explain the
changes that may have taken place.
Limitation
because the exposure and outcome are simultaneously assessed, there is generally no
evidence of a temporal relationship between exposure and outcome.

CASE STUDY DESIGN

Extremely popular form of research design in social sciences. This enables the
researchers to focus on a single individual, group, community, event, policy area,
or institution, and study it in depth, perhaps over an extended period of time.
More qualitative.
Limitation
Lacking scientific rigor and providing little basis for generalization of results to the wider
population.

COMPARATIVE DESIGN
Most important research designs in political science.
Limitation
Difficulty in finding comparable cases.