1.

NATURE AND FUNCTIONS OF RESEARCH

The Meaning of Research. Research can be well-defined from several

standpoints: from the point of view of an educator, historiographer, entrepreneur,
agriculturist, health specialist and social expert to name a few. Their characteristics
are part to their area of specialization but underlying them all is the connotation
which is basic and therefore appropriate to all fields of study.

On the origin of its formation, research suggests that the person has to
pursuit or take more careful look to find more (Selltiz and others, 1976).

Research is an activity which is intended to obtain better knowledge by

relearning what is already known through methodical observations and
investigations. It is acquiring new knowledge or perspectives by synthesizing into a
new form the disparate in the materials being examined (F. Landa Jocano).

Research is a methodical, measured, practical and critical investigation of

natural phenomena guided by an idea and hypothesis about the supposed relations
among such phenomena (Kerlinger, 1986).

Research is a organized and objective analysis and listing of meticulous

observations that may lead to the progress of simplifications, principles or ideas
resulting in calculation and control of events (Best and Khan, 1989).

A more basic and all-inclusive definition of research is: Research is a

systematic, objective and comprehensive investigation of certain phenomena which
involves accurate gathering and recording, and critical studies and understanding of
all proofs about the phenomenon for theoretic or applied ends.

The Characteristics of Research. The following features of research stated

by Best and Kahn (1989) will make strong research essence and meaning.

1. Research is engaged to the answer of a problem.

2. Research highlights the progress of generalities, principles or ideas that will

support in forecasting future occurrence.

3. Research is based upon evident experience or observed proofs.

4. Research demands accurate observations and descriptions.

5. Research involves gathering new data from primary or firsthand sources

using existing data for a new purpose.
6. Though research activity may be somewhat casual and disorganized, it is
more often considered by sensibly designed measures that apply hard analysis.
 7. Research requires expertise.

8. Research attempts to be impartial and rational, conducting every possible

trial to prove the procedures made, the data consolidated, and the conclusion
attained.

9. Research includes the pursuit for answers to unanswered problems.

10. Research is measured by persistence and unhurried activity.

11. Research is carefully recorded and reported.

12. Research sometimes requires courage.

Good and meaningful research comes from asking the right questions.
According to Aristotle, research springs from what he calls wonder, the well spring of
all science and ultimately wisdom.

Two Major Types of Research. In general, there are two basic types of
research namely: basic and applied.

Basic research is the kind of research which is steered for the sake of
significance. It is also identified as theoretical research because it is intended to
disclose theoretical issues regarding phenomena such as: thought, feeling, drive or
social conduct. Its main objective is to examine or to confirm at an idea with decisive
goal of creating general ideologies (Fox, 1969). Whatever knowledge it gains is not
intended for any practical purpose such as improving the lot of the poor or solving
social problem. The knowledge is increased so as to expand on what man
previously knows and thus increase the boundary of human understanding. It is
consequently a quest of information for the sake of information.

Applied research is to be started when the purpose is to find information for

practical utilization or valuable ends, thus it is also recognized as practical research.
In this kind of research, the purpose is not just to obtain knowledge but to utilize that
knowledge to explain problems or expand the prevailing condition which in its
current state is unacceptable but which has still room or option for betterment.
According to Gay (1976), the drive of practical research is to apply, examine, and
assess the practicality of an idea or data arrived at in resolving problems.

The Research Process. The research process involves several stages. The
order of the stages should be followed, particularly by the beginners in research
because the succeeding stage is defined or determined by the preceding stage.
 Basic Stages in the Research Process

Problem Identification

Objectives Formulation

Review of Related Literature

`````````````````````````````````````````````````````````````

Formulation of Hypothesis

Conceptual Framework Construction

Research Design Selection

Data Collection

Data Processing

Data Analysis and Interpretation

Report writing

Functions of Research. Below are the general functions of research.

1. Research corrects perceptions and expands them.

2. Research gathers information on subjects or phenomena we lack or have

little knowledge of.
3.analysis develops and evaluates ideas, practices and theories.

4. analysis additionally develops and evaluates ways that take a look at ideas,

practices and theories.

5. analysis obtains data for sensible functions like determination troubles on

population explosion, white plague, misbehavior and therefore the like.

6. analysis offers difficult data that function basis for designing, decision-making,

venture implementation, observation and analysis.

It is maybe within the social sphere of existence that search has its best

contribution. With the ultimate purpose of enhancing the pleasant of social life,

researchers provide improvement staff scientific basis for choice creating, designing

and implementation of improvement interventions, and furnish them with ability and

tools for observation as properly as evaluating declared interventions. The position

of analysis within the methodology of development is illustrated as follows:

Assessment 1. outline the subsequent terms: 1.1 research 1.2 basic analysis 1.3

applied analysis 1.4 research method

1. Answer the following questions:

1.1 In what way is research related to the problems or difficulties of

mankind?
1.2 What is the basic distinction between basic and applied research?
1.3 How are the stages of the research process related with each other?
1.4 In what way does research contribute to the expansion of human
knowledge?
1.5 What is the importance of the study of research to your particular
endeavor: study, work, project, etc.?

2. Expected Outputs

2.1 Analysis of a research report focusing on the following: type of

research, problem investigated, objectives or goals, procedures used
in data collection and processing and major findings.

2.2 Identification of a research topic for personal research project using

the following steps:

2.2.1 enumerating problems prevailing in the work setting

2.2.2 ranking them according to seriousness with # 1 assigned as the
most serious
2.2.3 explaining or justifying the rating of the problem as the most
serious using statistical records and published report.
2. RESEARCH PROBLEMS, OBJECTIVES AND OTHER CONCEPTS

The Research Problem. According to Fisher (1991), a problem is an

apparent difficulty, a sense of discomfort with the system things are, a inconsistency
between what someone have confidence in should be and what is. Deprived of a
problem no research can be initiated. As Leedy (1980) stated, the problem is the
core of each research activity since it is top in significance to the accomplishment of
the research, therefore the condition is clear: NO PROBLEM means NO
RESEARCH. Selltiz (1959), even opposes that the preparation of a problem is often
more vital that its solution.

Features of Researchable Problems

1. when there is no identified answer to the problem such that gap in

information exists;

2. when there are likely solutions to it but the success of which is unverified
or unknown yet;

3. when there are answers to the possible outcome of which may seem or
precisely contradictory;

4. when there are numerous plausible explanations for the undesirable

condition; and

5. when the presence of a phenomenon needs explanation.

Moreover, problem is researchable when it meets the following conditions

(Selltiz and others, 1976):

1. the ideas must be strong enough one can identify in words exactly what
the question is;

2. the ideas must be such that they can be characterized by some sort of
indication which is obtained through straight observation or other less
straight activities; and

3. it must be achievable to carry out such process or activities.

Sources of Research Problems. There are actually various sources from

which a researcher may draw a problem to be investigated.

1. Personal experience

2. Common sense
 3. Theories

4. Past researches

5. Journals, books, theses, and dissertations

6. Technological changes

7. Friends, colleagues and professors

8. conferences, symposia, dialogues, and even ordinary meetings

Features of an Ideal Research Problem. In the light of the experience of

researchers, the following criteria proved useful in making a decision to which
among the probable problems or topics is sound or good.

1. The research problem must be of the specialization to the researcher.

2. The research problem should be relevant and useful to a specific group of

people.

3. The research problem is good when it is novel in that is possess the

element of newness or freshness.

4. The research problem should be well-defined and specific.

5. The research problem must be quantifiable.

6. The research problem is time bound.

7. The research problem does not cause ethical or moral violations.

8. The research problem contributes to the refinement of certain important

concepts, creation or improvement of research instruments and analytical
systems and will permit generalizations.

9. The research problem can be manageable.

Explaining the Research Problem. To define a research problem the

researcher should observe the following steps.

1. Define clearly the major concepts or terms such that they mean according to
how the researcher wants them to be understood and they can be
represented by some evidence which can be obtained through direct and
indirect activities which are feasible to carry out.
 2. Limit the scope of the study in terms of the following:

2.1 issues or concerns

2.2 area coverage
2.3 subjects or respondents
2.4 time allotment
2.5 data requirement- qualitative or quantitative or both

Validating the Research Problem/s. The choice of the problem can be

justified by various reasons. To come up with convincing opinions on the worth of
learning the problem the next guide questions will be helpful:

1. Is the problem a present and timely?

2. Is it persistent or extensive?

3. Does it affect a specific group of people?

4. Does it convey to present program?

5. Does it relate to broad societal, economic, and health matters?

6. Who else is concerned?

7. What are its primary and secondary short and long-range influence on the
wellbeing of a specific group of people or society as a whole?

The Research Objectives

The term objective is an effect that is desired or expected to be achieved by

an activity, project or program (Blumenfield, 1985). Research objective then states to
the account of persistence for which the examination is to be conducted. They define
the intentions or goals that are anticipated to be achieved at the conclusion of the
research procedure.

Research objective maybe classified into two broad categories which are
general and specific. The general objective is a broad statement of purpose which
uses abstracts and non-measurable concepts. The exact objective is a declaration
of persistence which uses distinct and quantifiable ideas the preparation of which
must be built on and rationally flow from general objective.

Good research purposes must not only flow from the acknowledged research
problem nonetheless should have the following characteristics:

1. they should be stated in Simple language;

 2. they are Measurable concepts;

3. they are Attainable;

4. they are Result-oriented; and

5. they are Time bounded.

Research objectives may be stated in declarative or question form. The

choice depends mainly on the style of the researcher. Whatever form the researcher
has chosen should be used for all statement of research objectives.

The Theory. Having formulated the research objectives, the next stage in the
research process is the construction of the research paradigm or framework of the
study. Basic to the research paradigm is the theory. Snow (1973) defines theory as a
symbolic construction designed to bring generalizable facts or laws into systematic
connection. Marshall (1989) explains theory as a set of related propositions that
suggest why events occur in the manner they do. Theory to Kerlinger (1986) is a set
of interrelated constructs, definitions, and propositions that presents a systematic
view of phenomenon by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of
examining and predicting phenomenon. From these definitions, two elements of the
theory can be deduced: 1)a set of units; and 2) system of relationship among units.

To determine whether the theory is good or not Mouly (1978) suggests the
following criteria:

1. A theoretical system must permit deduction that can be tested empirically,

that is, it must provide the means for its confirmation or rejection.

2. Theory must be compatible with both observation and previously validated

theories. It must be grounded in empirical data that have been verified and
must rest on postulates and hypotheses.

3. Theories must be stated in simple terms; that theory is best that explains
the most in the simplest ways. This is the law of parsimony.

The role of theory in research are five-fold (Mouly, 1978). These are:

1. It helps to make research more productive in that it organizes a number of un-

assorted facts, laws, concepts, constructs and principles into meaningful and
manageable form.

2. It can act as guide to discovering facts.

 3. It identifies gaps to be investigated, crucial aspects on which to focus and
major questions to be answered.

4. It can stimulate research in areas that warrant study.

5. It can help connect studies and facilitate the interpretation of the larger
meaning of the research findings.

The main value of theory in research is derived from the ability its to
summarize existing knowledge to provide an explanation for observed events and
relationship, and to predict the occurrence of as yet an observed events and
relationships on the basis of the explanatory principles embodied in the theory
(Selltiz, 1959).

The Research Paradigm. It provides some explanation why the problem

under study exists by showing how the variables involved in the problem are related
to each other. According to Mercado (1977), the research paradigm helps the
researcher see clearly the variables that should be measured, and provides a
general framework which can guide him in the analysis of data.

Hypothesis. A statement about expected relationship between two or more

variables which permit empirical testing. Leedy (1980) explains hypothesis as
tentative propositions set forth as a possible explanation for an occurrence of a
provisional conjecture to assist in guiding the investigation of a problem. A
hypothesis as null and alternative types. The null hypothesis is a statement of
denial of relationship, difference or an effect. As such it is expressed in the negative
form. The alternative hypothesis is a formal affirmative statement predicting a
single research outcome, a tentative explanation of the relationship between tow or
more variables. In practice, the null hypothesis is popularly used since with its use
errors in rejecting or not rejecting the hypothesis is easily avoided. However, the
recent trend is toward the use of alternative hypothesis. The basic argument is that,
stated in the affirmative form, hypothesis provides more impetus or motivation to
carry out the study. Hypothesis is required only for studies which have comparative
or relational objectives.

Scope, Limitations and Delimitation. The scope of the study defines the
coverage or boundary in terms of 1) area or locality; 2) subjects or population; 3)
duration or period; and 4) issues which are explicitly stated in specific objectives of
the study. The limitations are statement of certain conditions which are beyond the
control of the researcher. Stating the study limitations not only provide extra
credence to the study but provides the reader caution not to expect beyond what the
study can and promises to deliver not withstanding certain conditions.

Definition of Terms. There are two types of definitions – the conceptual and
the operational. Conceptual definition is the universal meaning that is attributed to
a word or group of words. The usual source is the dictionary which is the reference
book of everyday language. Operational definition is the meaning of the concept or
term as used in a particular study.

The Variables. In research, variables refer to characteristics that has two or

more mutually exclusive values or properties. They also mean conditions which the
researcher manipulates, controls or observes. The two major variables are the
dependent and independent variables. The dependent variables are conditions or
characteristics which are influenced by the independent variables. Learning for
instance is a dependent variable, the status of which either satisfactory or
unsatisfactory could be influenced by sex, age, students’ economic status, self-
esteem, teaching strategy and teacher factor. The independent variables are
conditions that cannot be changed by the researcher.

Significance of the Study. It is in this section where the researcher

discusses the value of the study. The discussion on how each individual or social
group will benefit from the result of the study should be made explicitly or in detail.
The basic consideration here is: in what way or ways will the result of the study
(findings, conclusions, recommendations) be useful to the identified beneficiary or
beneficiaries.

Assessment

1. Define the following terms:

1.1 research problem

1.2 research objectives
1.3 research paradigm/framework
1.4 hypothesis
1.5 scope
1.6 limitation
1.7 delimitation
1.8 variable
 2. Answer the following questions:

2.1 What makes a problem researchable?

2.2 What are the sources and characteristics of a good research
problem?
2.3 How does one go about defining a research problem?
2.4 What are to be considered in justifying the choice of a research
problem?
2.5 What are the characteristics of a good research objectives and a
good research hypothesis?
2.6 Why is there a need to define operationally the key terms of a
study?
2.7 What are the distinguishing feature of each of the major type of
hypothesis?
2.8 What is the role of a paradigm or framework in a research
undertaking?
2.9 What is the best way of asserting the importance of a research
project?

3. Expected Outputs

1. Analysis of a research report covering the following:

1.1 research problem and objectives

1.2 scope and limitation
1.3 variables and their indicators
1.4 significance of the study

2. Research proposal composed of the following components:

3.1 research problem and objectives

3.2 scope and limitation
3.3 variables and their indicators
3.4 significance of the study
3. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

The Webster Dictionary (1990) defines literature as all the writings having
excellence of form or expression and expressing ideas of permanent or universal
interest produced in a particular language, country or age. The adjective related
implies that the literature reviewed have some connection, bearing or relation to the
problem or concern under investigation.

Why the Review. The following functions of literature were culled from the
works of Best and Kahn (1989), Kerlinger (1986), Gay (1976) and Selltiz and others
(1976).

1. The review provides the researcher knowledge and background on the

subject matter under study.

2. The review will enable the researcher to avoid duplicating what has been
studied already.
 3. If a study on the same topic has been conducted before, the review provides
the researcher information about the aspect of the problem which has not
been investigated or explored before.

4. By reviewing related literature, the researcher will be helped in developing

various parts of the study such as definition of problem and terms, research
design, sampling and data gathering techniques.

5. The review provides the researcher information on the weaknesses and

problems of previous studies and some ideas on how to handle or avoid them
in his own study.

6. It also provides the researcher ideas on how to proceed with his own
investigation. It will give him guidance and how and where to start, who and
what he will consult and what direction he should be headed to.

7. in relational or exploratory study the review provides researcher bases in

determining what variables are related with each other, the types of their
relationship, and how to analyze and measure these relationships.

8. The review provides findings and conclusions of past studies which the
researcher may relate to his own findings and conclusions.

9. Studies reviewed will provide the researcher motivation and impetus that will
ensure a good progress toward the goal of completing his study.

10. A summary of the writings of recognized authorities and of previous

researches provides evidence that the researcher is familiar with what is
already known and what is still untested.

Sources of Literature. The library (school libraries, government and non-

government libraries, private individual libraries) is the usual depository of all forms
of literature. With modern technology in form of internet capable computer (on line
sources) the researcher has now access to literature of relevance to his study).

Guides in Doing the Review. A neophyte or beginner goes about doing the
review by:

1. Examining what is already on hand- what has been stored in his memory and
those available in his personal bibliography.

2. Listing all the titles of the said materials and to add to it titles of relevant
references obtained from other sources constituting the bibliography.

3. Examining each material with the working bibliography as guide.

 3.1 First reading may be done superficially since the goal is to identify
the sections, paragraphs, or lines of articles or books which are
related to the research topic or problem.

3.2 Second reading is done with careful and critical examination of the
parts of articles or books which have bearing or connection to his
particular study.

For related literature, the focus of the review is the ideas which have
relations to the research topics, may they be supportive or contradictory to the
researcher’s assumptions or hypotheses. In case of related studies, the review
should include the research problem or objectives, research designs, method,
instruments, the population or samples covered, the major findings, conclusions and
recommendations particularly those for further research. The text of this review
should be brief and to the point. This can be attained by summarizing important
points and by paraphrasing the rather long and detailed presentation into a concise
one.

Presenting the Reviewed Literature. In presenting the reviewed literature,

the researcher has the option to choose from among the following approaches.

1. Chronological approach in which the reviewed material is presented

according to the time they were written that is following the time-sequence
pattern.

2. Type of literature approach in which the reviewed material is classified into

literature and studies with the former presented first.

3. Findings, theme or topic approach which brings together and classifies

reviewed material according to similarity of findings, theme or topic.

4. Country approach which classifies literature by country or into local and

foreign studies categories.

The researcher may combine two or more approaches in presenting

reviewed literature. It should be pointed out that related literature are reviewed
because they are perceived as related to the problem or topic being investigated. It
is therefore, the task of the researcher to point out in what aspects the reviewed
literature may have bearing on his own study.
Assessment

1. Define the following terms:

1.1 literature
1.2 related literature
1.3 bibliography
1.4 chronological approach

2. Answer the following questions:

2.1 Why is there a need to review literature related to your study?

2.2 What are required of a researcher when he makes a review?
2.3 How does a beginner do about doing a review?
2.4 What should be given attention to in reviewing literature?
2.5 Which of the approaches in presenting reviewed literature is preferable to
you and why?

Expected Output

1. Analysis of the review of related literature section of a study focusing on its

presentation approach, the type of literature reviewed and the content of the
review.
 2. Five reviews on related literature and another five on related studies which
are related to your particular study.

4. THE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Historical Research Design. Historical research delves on what was. Is the

systematic and objective location, evaluation and synthesis of evidence in order to
establish facts and draw conclusions about the past events (Cohen and Manion,
1980). The goal of historical research is to know the whole truth of what happened in
the past so that we will not only understand the present but will be helped in knowing
what to do in the present and future (Fox, 1969).

A researcher may be motivated to go into historical research by a number of

reasons.

1. He may have some doubts about some reported events, the development of
an organization or institution or the experience of a person or a group.
2. He may have stumbled upon source materials which had never been
discovered before but which may shed light to unanswered questions about
past events.
3. Certain interpretation of historical data may not be satisfactory, disputable or
unbelievable.
4. Gaps in historical exposition may motivate a researcher to do historical
investigation to fill those gaps so as to make the historical account complete,
more meaningful and more definitive.

Sources of Historical Data. The sources of data in historical research may

be classified into primary and secondary. Primary sources of data are classified
into three groups; 1) documents or records written and kept by actual participants
in or witness of an event for the purpose of transmitting information for future use
(books, research reports, census data, newspaper and magazine accounts, laws,
contracts, wills, receipts, maps, biographies, letters, diaries, memoranda, charters,
declarations and proclamations) ; 2) remains or relics which are objects associated
with a person, group or period (skeletons, fossils, weapons, tools, utensils, pictures,
coins, buildings, clothing and art objects); 3) oral testimonies which are the spoken
accounts of a witness of, or participant in an event (obtained in a personal interview
and may be recorded or transcribed as the witness relates his experience.
Secondary sources of data are accounts of persons who were not actually present
when the event happened but who obtained their descriptions from the report or
testimony of an actual witness or participant in an event. Other sources of secondary
data include textbooks, quoted materials, encyclopedias, reproduction of material or
information, prints of paintings and replicas of art objects. Best and Kahn (1989)
point out that secondary sources of data are usually of limited worth because of the
errors that result when information is passed on from one person to another.

Descriptive Research Design. Descriptive research is designed to study

what is. It is appropriate for studies which aim to find out what prevail in the present
such as conditions or relationships, held opinions and beliefs, processes and effects
and developing trends. Descriptive research also seeks to determine relationship
between variables, explores causes of phenomena, tests hypotheses and develops
generalizations, principles or theories on the basis of its findings. While its primary
concern are conditions and things which exist at the time of the study, it also
considers past events and influences which are deemed related to what is studied in
the present.

Types of Descriptive Research. Descriptive research, the most widely-used

research design is of several types.

Surveys. This descriptive research type is suitable for studies the objective of
which is to see a general picture of the population under investigation, describe the
nature of existing conditions or determine the relationships that exist between and
among specific variables or events. It is the design to use when the investigator
wishes to cover a relatively large population across sections at a particular point in
time. Its concern is not to find out the characteristic of every individual but to come
up with general descriptions of the whole group.

Classification of Surveys Based on Coverage

1. Census. Also known as complete enumeration covers every

member of the population under investigation.
2. Sample Survey. Also known as sample is limited in scope in that it
is restricted to only a portion of the study population.
 Further categories can be made of surveys if subject matter is brought into
consideration. These categories are:

1. Census of tangibles. Census which focuses on the study of

concrete or perceptible variables (number of school or hospital
facilities)
2. Census of intangibles. Census which deals with the variables not
directly observable but which can be studied with the use of indirect
measures (motivation, attitude, morale and psychological
adjustment).

Surveys vary not only in terms of coverage and subject matter but also in
terms of level of complexity.

1. Low level of complexity. Surveys which merely describe selected

characteristics of the population under study or limited to frequency
count.

2. High level of complexity. Surveys which deal with determining

relationships between variables.

The survey of whatever type uses observation and or research instrument,

either questionnaire or interview schedule in obtaining observation about the
study population. The questionnaire is a self-administered instrument made up of
carefully prepared set of questions which the respondent answers by himself. The
interview schedule is also a set of carefully prepared questions but it is used by the
interviewer in personally generating information from the subjects of the study.

Case Studies. The case study is the appropriate type to use when the aim of
the study is to have a deeper and more thorough and more comprehensive
understanding of an individual or group such as the family, class, organization or
community. It is also useful when the investigator wishes to know in detail the
process which explains the characteristics and behavior of a person, group or
institution under investigation. The purpose of the case study according to Cohen
and Manion (1980) is to prove deeply and to analyze intensively the multifarious
phenomena that constitute the life cycle of the unit with a view to establishing
generalizations about the wider population to which the unit belongs.

In using the case study, the researcher has to discover and identify all
important variables that have contributed to the development of the case into what it
is at the time of study. This would involve a historical study of its past, an analysis of
its present status, and knowing the various factors which individually and collectively
affect its current state.

In doing the case study, the investigator may use a variety of methods to
obtain the data he needs. These methods include observation of the researcher of
his informants physical characteristics, social qualities and behavior; interviews of
the subject or subjects’ relatives, friends, teachers, councilors and others; use of
questionnaires, opinionnaries, psychological tests and inventories; and
analyses of recorded data from newspaper, courts, clinic, government agencies
and other sources.

Trend Studies. This type of descriptive research is most appropriate in

predicting on the basis of available data the direction and future status of certain
phenomena like population size, school the direction and future status of certain
phenomena like population size, school enrolment, business growth, household
expenditures and residential location.
On the basis of time involved in the conduct of the study, trend studies are of
two categories: 1) short-term studies and 2) long-term studies. Short-term
predictions are more reliable than the long-term predictions because, in the latter,
the time wherein unexpected and uncontrolled events may happen is longer than the
time of the former.

Content Analysis
Feasibility Studies
Development Studies
Evaluation Studies
Ethnographic Studies
Relational Studies
Ex Post Facto Studies
Replication and Secondary Analysis