SOLIDS HANDLING EQUIPMENT

Introduction
 handling of materials deals with their movement over relatively short distances
Unassisted Manpower
 involve shoveling, pushing, carrying, and lifting
 short distance, not exceeding 10 ft
 quantity not exceeding 4 to 5 tons over a normal working time
 under normal conditions, a man can do work at the rate of 1,500 to 3,000 ft-lb/min
 the handling rate varies considerably with the
- individual
- nature of material being handled
- method of handling – the rate decreases rapidly when the material must be lifted higher than
3 to 5 ft or moved a distance greater than 5 to 10 ft
 lifting of more than 100 to 150 lb per man should be avoided – strain or rapture may result
Assisted Manpower
 assisted manpower uses equipment, like wheelbarrows,
two-wheeled floor trucks, or carts
 the radius of work is increased to 100 to 200 ft
 depending on the device, an average man can move 200 to
1,000 lb across a horizontal surface at an average rate of
1-½ mile per hour or 130 ft/min under a normal rolling
coefficient of 0.02 to 0.03.
 loading and unloading time varies with the material being handled – approximately ¼ to 1
minute per 100 lb of material
 for distances greater than 200 ft, power trucks or tractor-drawn trucks are more efficient
 for lifting loads weighing more than 100 to 150 lb, equipment utilized are chain blocks, pulley
blocks, hand-powered hoists and jacks
Portable Power-Driven Machines
Electric Storage Battery Trucks
 the most common electric storage-battery trucks are the 2-
ton capacity with a speed of about 4 to 6 mph
 better adapted for short indoor hauls
Gasoline-Powered Industrial Trucks
 similar to electric truck but with speeds up to 15 mph
 better adapted for longer hauls outdoors

Trailers
 frequently used in conjunction with industrial trucks
Tractors
 carry no loads but used to tow trailers or materials on
skids

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 Power Shovels
 used widely for handling large quantities of solid materials
with portable equipment. Utilized in
open-pit mining
excavation
handling of open-air storage piles
 power shovels operate on a turntable and have a boom
which may be raised or lowered
 the material to be handled is picked up by a thrust or drag motion, elevated with a boom, and
rotated to the point of discharge by the turntable
 discharge is by gravity and occurs when the scope is inverted or a gate at the abck of the scoop
is opened
Gantry or Bridge Cranes
 often used for loading and unloading railroad cars or ships
 consists of two supporting towers with a bridge in between
 a trolley moves back and forth across the bridge; the entire crane
is on wheels and can be moved along a track
 the trolley has a grab bucket or lift

Permanent Installations for Handling Solids

 materials that are being moved from one fixed location to another fixed location continuously or at
frequent intervals usually can be more economically handled by some type of permanent installation
 when the material must pass through a series of operations, gravity feed can often be used to an
advantage
 the raw material is brought to the top of the building or structure by a conveyor or elevator and
passing downward, operation by operation, until removed as product at the bottom
 loose material is usually guided by means of a chute of slide
- the chute may be straight or spiral
 the angle of slide with the horizontal must be sufficient to overcome frictional resistance
angle of slide is the minimum slope, measured in degrees from the horizontal, at which loose solid
material will start to slide or flow
angle of repose is the angle of maximum slope measured from the horizontal at which a heap of
loose solid material will stand without sliding
 17 - for wet clay earth
 27 - for anthracite coal
 31 - for fine sand
 35 - for bituminous coal
 39 - for dry earth
 39 to 48 - for gravel
 the coefficient of friction varies with different materials but is about 0.3 to 0.6 for most dry solids on
steel slides
 slides are usually constructed at an angle of 45 or steeper to overcome the frictional resistance

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Mechanical Conveyors
 mechanical conveyors move materials by scraping action or by carrying action
Scrapers
 screw or helical flight conveyors
 consist of a steel shaft having a spiral or helical fin
fastened to a shaft and rotating in a trough
 the helical fin pushes the material along the trough
 the shaft is driven by a motor through gears or a chain
 the conveyor is made in sections from 8 to 12 ft in
length that may be joined together to obtain the desired
length
 torsional stress developed in the shaft usually limits a single drive to about 100 ft
 diameters vary from 3 to 24 inches
 in selecting the diameter of the conveyor, considerations must be given to the size of the lump
(use Table 12)
 screw conveyors are used to handle wide range of materials
- grains
- asphalt
- crushed coal
- ashes
- gravel
- sand
 for horizontal movement, the total horsepower may be estimated as
(𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕)(𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚, 𝒍𝒃/𝒎𝒊𝒏)(𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉, 𝒇𝒕)
𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 =
𝟑𝟑, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
where: coefficient: 4.0 for ashes
2.5 for coal
1.3 grain
Flight Conveyors
 consist of one or two endless chains passing through a trough or
set of guides
 the chains have plates of wood or steel called flights attached at
regular intervals
 the flights are shaped to fit the trough
 speeds of 100 fpm are common, but may vary from 25 to 200 fpm
 flight conveyors may be used on inclines up to 45, but preferably
the incline should be limited to 30
 widely used for loose materials that are nonabrasive
- grains
- food waste
- garbage
- coal

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 capacity
𝑩𝑫𝑺𝝆𝒃
𝑻=
𝟔, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
where: T = capacity, ton/hour
B = width of flight, in.
D = depth of flight, in.
S = speed of conveyor, fpm
b = bulk density of material handled, lb/cu.ft
 horsepower required to drive the flight conveyor
(𝒂𝑻𝑳) + (𝒃𝑾𝑳𝑺) + 𝟏𝟎𝑳
𝑯𝑷 =
𝟏, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
where: HP = total horsepower at conveyor shaft
T = material handled, tph
L = length of conveyor from center to center of sprocket, ft
W = total weight of chain and flights per ft of distance between centers
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥⁄
usually about equal to 4
S = conveyor speed, fpm
a = constant for material (use Table 14)
b = constant for conveyor (use Table 14)
Redler Conveyors
 special type of flight conveyor for dry and loose
material
 it consists of a metal duct which may be circular,
rectangular, or square through which a chain passes
carrying flights
 the flights occupy only a portion of the entire cross-
sectional area of the duct
 the duct is kept filled or partially filled with material
 redler conveyors are primarily used in handling finely
divided or powdered materials
- flour
- cement
- clay
and loose materials
- sand
- coal
- grains
 one of its major advantages is its ability to elevate vertically as well as convey horizontally

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 Slat or Drag Conveyors
 consist of one or two chains to which are attached cross bars, usually of wood, which drag on a
flat-bottom trough
 used for conveying loose materials such as chips, sawdust and refuse
 the capacities when material is being carried to a depth of 4 in. at a speed of 30 linear fpm vary
from 400 to 800 cu.ft of material per hour for chains of 46 to 54 in. in width
 the capacities are directly proportional to the speed, but speeds should not exceed 30 fpm for
abrasive materials
Carriers
Belt Conveyors
 consist of endless belts, suitably supported and driven,
which carry or transport solids from place to place
 belts are made of canvass, reinforced rubber, or
balata, and strip steel
balata is a non-eleastic, rubber-like, water-resistant
gum that softens in hot water and is obtained from the
latex of a tropical American tree, Manikara bidentata,
and is used mainly in the manufacture of machinery
belts, golf ball covers
 adapted to wide varieties and quantities of materials
 require relatively low power
 can transport solids over long distances
 width of belt conveyors varies from 14 to 60 in.
 the number of idlers varies accordingly and must
be spaced so that there will be no sagging of the idlers
belt between them
 idler spacing varies from about 5 ft for narrow
belts down to 3 ft for the widest belts
 the return idlers are cylindrical rollers, spaced at
greater intervals than those carrying the loaded
belts
 the idlers may be equipped with anti-friction
(ball or roller) bearings or ordinary bushed
bearings
 power requirements are considerably lower for anti-friction bearings, but original costs are higher
 capacities of belt conveyors are presented in Table 15 and Table 16
 the essential parts of a belt-conveyor system include
- a continuous belt
- idlers
- driving unit
- driving and tail pulleys
- take-up equipment
- supporting structure

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  a conveyor for transporting materials a short distance may be
- portable unit, or
- fixed installation
 when a belt-conveyor system is used to transport materials a considerable distance, the system
consist of a number of flights
 each flight is a complete conveyor unit that discharges its load into the tail end of the succeeding
unit
 the figure below illustrates four types of belt-conveyor systems based on the location of the drive
pulley, the number of drive pulleys, and the take-up method of maintaining the necessary tension
in the belt

 typical belt-conveyor idler and support arrangement:

(source: Perry’s Chemical Engineers Handbook)

Economy of Transporting Materials with a Belt Conveyor
 one of the first questions that arises in considering the use of a belt conveyor is whether this method
of transportation is the most dependable and economical when compared with other methods
 net total cost of the conveyor system

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  installed cost of the system
 access road for installing and servicing the system
 maintenance
 replacement and repairs
 fuel or electrical energy cost
 labor
Conveyor Belts
 the belt is the moving and supporting surface on which the material is transported
 belts are manufactured by joining several layers or plies of woven cotton duck into a carcass which
provides the necessary strength to resist the tension in the belt
 the layers are covered with an adhesive which combines them into a unified structure
 special types of reinforcing are employed to increase the strength of the belt
 rayon
 nylon, or
 steel cables
 it is necessary to select a belt
 with sufficient strength to resist the maximum tension to which it will be subjected
 wide enough to transport the material at the required rate
 the number of tons that can be transported in an hour is determined by
𝟔𝟎 𝑨𝑺𝝆
𝑻=
𝟐, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
where: T = weight of material, tons per hour
A = cross-sectional area of material, square feet
S = speed of the belt, feet per minute
 = density of material, lb per cu.ft
 the cross-sectional area of the material will depend on
 width of the belt
 depth of the trough
 angle of repose for the material
 extent to which the belt is loaded to capacity
 in order to eliminate spillage, it is assumed
that materials will not be placed closer than
𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝐖 + 𝟏 𝐢𝐧.
from the sides of the belt
where: W = width of the belt
 Table 11 – 1 gives the cross-sectional areas
for various belt widths and loading conditions. These areas are subject to variation and should not be
considered as exact unless the loading conditions are as stated
 Table 11 – 2 gives the approximate carrying capacities of troughed conveyor belts for various widths
and materials for a speed of 100 fpm
 Table 11 – 3 gives the suggested maximum speeds which are considered good practice for conveyor
belts of different widths when handling various kinds of materials

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 Table 11 – 4 gives representative allowable working tensions in duck belts for various thicknesses
and widths
Idlers
 idlers provide supports for a belt conveyor
 for the load-carrying portion of a belt, the idlers are designed to provide the necessary troughing
 the essential parts of troughing idlers include the
 rolls
 brackets
 base
 anti-friction bearings are generally used in idlers, with high-pressure grease fittings to permit periodic
lubrication of the bearings
 the rolls may be made of steel tubing or cast iron, either plain or covered with a composition, such as
rubber, where it is necessary to protect a belt against damage due to impact
 diameters of rolls most commonly used are 4 in., 5 in., 6 in., and 7 in.
 large-diameters rolls give lower friction and better belt protection

Spacing of Idlers
 troughing idlers should be spaced close enough to prevent excessive deflection of the loaded belt
between the idlers
 Table 11 -5 provides the recommended maximum spacing of troughing idlers
 the sole function of the return idlers is to support the empty belt. Spacing can be increased to
approximately 10 ft
Idler Friction
 in the analysis of belt conveyor to determine the horsepower requirement, it is necessary to include
the power needed by the idlers
 this power will depend on the type and size of the idler, the type of bearings used, the weight of the
revolving parts, the weight of belt, and the weight of the load
 Table 11 – 6 gives representative friction factors for idlers equipped with anti-friction bearings
Feeders
 the purpose of a feeder is to deliver material to a belt at a uniform rate
 a feeder may discharge directly onto a belt, or it may discharge the material through a chute in order
to reduce the impact of the falling material on the belt
 types of feeders commonly used
- apron feeder
 an apron feeder usually receives the material from a gated
hopper, which regulates the flow onto the feeder
 the feeder consists of a moving, flat, rubber-coated belt or a
number of flat steel plates connected to two moving chains
 the feeder moves the material from under the hopper and
discharges it through a receiving unit onto the conveyor belt
 the belt feeder is suitable for handling material consisting of
relatively small pieces
- reciprocating feeder

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  a reciprocating feeder consists of steel plate placed under a hopper
 the plate is operated through an eccentric drive to produce a reciprocating effect, which
moves the material onto the conveyor belt
- rotary vane feeder
 a rotary-vane feeder consists of a number of vanes
mounted on a horizontal shaft
 as the material flows down an inclined plane, the
rotating vanes deliver measured amounts to the
conveyor
 the rate of feeding may be regulated by varying the
speed of the rotating vanes

- rotary plow feeder

 a rotary-plow feeder consists of a number of
plow or vanes mounted on a vertical shaft
 the plows rotates over a horizontal table onto
which the material is allowed to flow
 the rate of feeding may by regulated by
varying the speed of the plows
Trippers
 when it is necessary to remove material from a belt conveyor before it reaches the end of the belt, a
tripper should be installed on the conveyor
 a tripper consists of a pair of pulleys which are so
located that loaded belt must pass over one pulley and
under the other
 as the belt passes over the top pulley, the load will be
discharged from the belt into an auxiliary hopper or
chute
 a tripper may be stationary or travelling type
 the latter type may be propelled by a hand-operated
crank, separate motor, or the conveyor belt
 if a tripper is installed on a conveyor, additional power
should be provided to operate it
Power Required to Drive a Belt Conveyor
 the total external power required to drive a loaded belt conveyor is the algebraic sum of the power
required by each of the following:
1. power to move the empty belt over the idlers
2. power to move the load horizontally
3. power to lift or lower the load vertically
4. power to turn all pulleys
5. power to compensate for drive losses
6. power to operate a tripper, if one is used

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Power Required to Move an Empty Belt Conveyor
 the power required to move an empty conveyor belt over the idlers will vary with the type of idler
bearings, the diameter and spacing of the idlers, and the length, weight, and speed of the belt
 the energy required to move an empty belt is given by the equation
𝑳𝑺𝑪𝑸
𝑷=
𝟑𝟑, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
where: P = power required to move the conveyor, HP
L = length of the conveyor, ft
S = speed of the belt, feet per minute
C = idler-friction factor (from Table 11-6)
Q = weight of moving parts per foot of conveyor (Table 11-7)
 Table 11 – 8 gives representative values for the horsepower required to move empty conveyor belts

Power Required to Move a Load Horizontally

 the power required to move a load horizontally is given by the equation
𝑳𝑪𝑻
𝑷=
𝟗𝟗𝟎
where: P = power required to move the load, HP
L = length of the conveyor, ft
C = idler-friction factor (from Table 11-6)
T = tons of materials moved per hour
 Table 11 – 9 gives representative values for the horsepower required to move loads horizontally on
conveyor belts. The values are based on using 5-in. diameter idlers with anti-friction bearings. For 6-
in.-diameter idlers, decrease the values by 17%
Power Required to Move a Load Up an Inclined Belt Conveyor
 the power required to lift a load through a net change in elevation may be determine by
𝑻𝑯
𝑷=
𝟗𝟗𝟎
where: P = power required to move the load, HP
H = net change in elevation, ft
T = tons of materials moved per hour
 Table 11 – 10 gives representative values for the horsepower required to lift the load when there is
net change in elevation
 if the load is moved up an inclined conveyor, the power given in the equation must be supplied from
an outside source
 if the load is moved down an inclined conveyor, the power will be supplied to the belt by the load
Driving Equipment
 a belt conveyor may be driven through the head or tail pulley or through an intermediate pulley
 the pulley may be driven by an electric motor or a gasoline engine or diesel engine

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 it is usually necessary to install a suitable speed reducer, such as gears, chain drives, or belt drives,
between the power unit and the driving pulley
 the power loss in the speed reducer should be included in determining the total power required to
drive the belt conveyor
 this loss may amount to 5 to 10% or more, depending on the type of speed reducer
 when the power is transmitted from a driving pulley to a belt, the effective driving force, which is
transmitted to the belt, is equal to the tension in the tight side less the tension in the slack side of
the belt
𝑻𝒆 = 𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐
where: 𝑇𝑒 = effective tension or driving force between pulley and belt, lb
𝑇1 = tension in tight side of belt, lb
𝑇2 = tension in slack side of belt, lb
 the coefficient of friction between a rubber belt and a bare steel or cast-iron pulley is approximately
0.25
 if the surface of a pulley is lagged with rubberized fabric, the coefficient of friction will be increased
to approximately 0.35
 for a driving pulley with a given diameter and speed, the effective tension Te, required to transmit a
given horsepower to the belt may be determined from the following equation
𝝅𝑫𝑻𝒆 𝑵
𝑷=
𝟑𝟑, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
where: 𝑃 = power transmitted, HP
𝐷 = diameter of pulley, ft
𝑇𝑒 = effective force between pulley and belt, lb
𝑁 = rotative speed, RPM
 Table 11 – 11 gives a representative values on the tension factors for driving pulleys
𝑇1
 the ratio 𝑇𝑒
= 𝐹 is defined as the pulley tension factor. This factor varies with the type of pulley
surface, bare or lagged, and the arc of contact between the belt and pulley
Power Required to Turn Pulleys
 a belt conveyor includes several pulleys, around which the belt is bent
 for the shaft of each pulley there is a bearing friction that requires the consumption of power
 the power required will vary with the tension in the belt, the weight of the pulley and shaft, the type
of bearing, baited or anti-friction
 Table 11 – 12 gives the percent of the power delivered to a conveyor required to overcome pulley
friction for conveyors with head drive and babbitted bearings for all pulley shaft

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ANGLE OF REPOSE OF VARIOUS MATERIALS

Material Maximum Angle

of Repose
wet clay earth 17
anthracite coal 27
fine sand 31
bituminous coal 35
dry earth 39
gravel 39 to 48

TABLE 12. MAXIMUM SIZE OF LUMPS FOR VARIOUS DIAMETERS OF SCREW CONVEYORS

Conveyor diameter, in. 3 4 6 9 12 14 16 18 20 24

Lumps 20 to 25 percent of total ,in. 3

/8 ½ ¾ 1½ 2 2½ 3 3 3½ 3½

All lumps, in. ¼ ¼ ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2 2½

source: Brown, Unit Operations

REDUCTION IN CAPACITY OF SCREW CONVEYORS

Angle 10 15 20 25 30 35

% Reduction 10 26 45 58 70 78

TABLE 13. APPROXIMATE MAXIMUM CAPACITIES OF HORIZONTAL SPIRAL OR SCREW CONVEYORS

Light Nonabrasive Material, Heavy Nonabrasive Material, Light Abrasive Material, e.g.,
e.g., Grain e.g., Coal Ash
Diameter of
Screw, in. Capacity, Capacity, Capacity,
Maximum Maximum Maximum
cu.ft/hr RPM cu.ft/hr RPM cu.ft/hr RPM

3 74 250 37 125 - -

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 4 171 220 86 110 46 90
5 304 210 150 105 85 85
6 500 200 255 100 135 80
7 820 190 410 95 200 75
8 1180 180 590 90 300 75
9 1600 175 780 85 400 70
10 2050 160 1030 80 516 65
12 3300 150 1660 75 820 60
14 4000 140 2000 70 1200 55
16 7000 130 3400 65 1630 50
18 9000 120 4500 60 2100 45
20 12000 115 5800 55 2860 46
source: Brown, Unit Operations

Table 14. POWER CONSTANTS FOR FLIGHT CONVEYORS

Inclination with Horizontal 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Anthracite 0.343 0.42 0.50 0.586 0.66 0.73 0.79 0.85 0.90 0.945

a Bituminous 0.60 0.69 0.76 0.83 0.88 0.95 1.02 1.08 1.13 1.15

Ashes 0.54 0.62 0.72 0.80 0.85 0390 0.97 1.03 1.06 1.10

Flights and chain supported on

blocks which slide directly on 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.029 0.028 0.027 0.026 0.025 0.023 0.020
the track
b
Flight supported by 3½nnn-in.
0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.003 0.003 0.003
rollers
source: Brown, Unit Operations

TABLE 15. MAXIMUM LUMP SIZE AND SPEEDS FOR CONVEYOR BELTS

Maximum Lump Size, in Cross- Maximum Belt Speeds, fpm

Belt Width, Sectional
in. Uniform With 90% Area of Normal Free Flowing Average Abrasive
Size, in. Fines Load, sq. ft Speed, fpm Material* Material† Material‡

14 2 3 0.11 200 400 300 250

16 2½ 4 0.14 200 500 300 250
18 3 5 0.18 250 500 400 300

20 3½ 6 0.22 300 600 400 300

24 4½ 8 0.33 300 600 500 350
30 6 11 0.53 350 700 500 350

36 8 15 0.78 400 800 600 400

42 10 18 1.09 400 800 600 400
48 12 21 1.46 400 800 600 400

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 54 14 24 1.90 450 800 600 400
60 16 28 2.40 450 800 600 400
source: Brown, Unit Operations
*
Free-flowing includes such materials as grain and fine-sized anthracite coal.
†
Average includes such materials as coal, crushed stone, sand, and fine ore.
‡
Abrasive includes such materials as coke, screened lump coal,, gravel, and coarse ore.

TABLE 16. APPROXIMATE MAXIMUM CAPACITIES OF HORIZONTAL SPIRAL OR SCREW CONVEYORS

Cubic Maximum Capacity with Materials of Various Bulk densities, tons/hour at

Belt Width, Yard/hour at 100 fpm
in. 100 fpm
25 lb/cu.ft 50 lb/cu.ft 75 lb/cu.ft 100 lb/cu.ft 150 lb/cu.ft

14 23.6 8 16 24 32 48
16 31.1 10 21 31 42 63
18 39.6 13 27 40 54 81

20 49.3 16 33 49 66 99
24 72.4 24 49 73 98 147
30 116.7 39 79 118 158 237

36 173.3 57 115 172 230 345

42 242.2 82 165 247 330 495
48 324.4 110 220 330 440 660

54 422.2 142 285 427 570 855

60 533.3 180 360 540 720 1080
Notes:
 Operating capacities of flat belt conveyors are taken at one-half of those listed.
 Capacities of inclined conveyors are 5 to 10 percent less than listed.
 For material weights and speeds other than shown above, use direct proportion for tonnage calculations.
source: Brown, Unit Operations

TABLE 16A. APPROXIMATE WEIGHTS OF CONVEYORS

Flight Conveyors
4 x 10 to 6 x 18 0.5 lb/in. of width per running foot
8 x 18 to 10 x 24 1.0 lb/in. of width per running foot

Belt Conveyors 1.0 lb/in. of width per running foot

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 source: Brown, Unit Operations

Tables from Peurifoy & Ledbetter. Construction Planning, Equipment & Methods

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