The Pineal & Thymus

Glands

Dr. MANOJ SINGH

 Pineal Gland: Physical
Characteristics
•Small, pine-cone-shaped gland (hence its name)
•Reddish-gray in color
•It is larger in children, but shrinks with the onset of
puberty
•In adults, it weighs a bit more than 0.1 grams and is
about 0.8 cm long
•Situated between 2 cerebral hemispheres; Attached to
the posterior wall of the 3rd cerebral ventricle
•Suspended in a cavity of cerebrospinal fluid
•Lacks a blood-brain barrier, therefore, receives blood,
oxygen, & nutrients through a rich vascular network
•Contains a large supply of adrenergic nerve fibers
•Composed of pinealocytes (endocrine cells with
extensions that interact with the extensions of nearby
cells) and supporting cells that resemble astrocytes
 Pineal Gland: Chemical
Characteristics
•It contains a number of neuropeptides &
neurotransmitters such as somatostatin, norepinephrine,
serotonin, and histamine.

•Somatostatin is a hormone that inhibits the secretion of

several hormones, including growth hormone, insulin,
and gastrin.

•Norepinephrine is the main neurotransmitter that Structural Formula of Melatonin

regulates its melatonin secreting activity.

•Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that helps maintain a

"happy feeling," and seems to help keep our moods
under control by helping with sleep, calming anxiety, and
relieving depression.

•Histamine is neurotransmitter that causes inflammation

and several allergic symptoms.

•However, melatonin, a derivative of tryptophan, is the

only hormone secreted by the gland.

•The chemical formula of melatonin is C13H16N2O2.

 Pineal Gland:
Molecular
Characteristics
•It is developed from epithelial tissue
•The soft tissue of the adult pineal gland
contains more fluoride than any other
soft tissue in the body - a level of
fluoride capable of inhibiting enzymes.
•The pineal gland also contains hard
tissue(hyroxyapatite crystals), which
accumulates more fluoride than any
other hard tissue in the body (ex. teeth
and bone)
•Studies show that fluoride reduces the
levels of melatonin in the blood
 Functions of the Pineal Gland
 The major function of the pineal gland is producing melatonin, a
hormone that has several important effects on the body.

 Melatonin regulates daily body rhythms, most importantly

circadian rhythm, the wake/sleep cycle. We feel sleepy at night
because darkness stimulates the pineal gland to produce
melatonin and we feel alert during the day because light inhibits
the pineal gland from producing melatonin. Since the activity of
the pineal gland depends on the amount of available energy, it
is a photosensitive organ.

 The abundant levels of melatonin in children inhibit the

secretion of gonadotropins, hormones that regulate normal
growth, sexual development, and reproductive functions, before
puberty. Therefore, they prevent the onset of puberty before the
appropriate age.
 Functions of the Pineal Gland cont’d
 Melatonin levels are low in children with autism, and as a result, about
70% of them suffer from sleeping problems.
 Studies show that low doses of melatonin can help children with autism
sleep better without giving them any noticeable side effects.
 Studies show that melatonin levels may be related to the risk of certain
types of cancer.
 Melatonin levels tend to be lower in women with breast cancer than in
those without the disease.
 Laboratory experiments show that low levels of melatonin stimulate the
growth of certain types of breast cancer cells. However, adding melatonin
to these cells slows their growth.
 New research also suggests that melatonin may strengthen the effects of
some chemotherapy drugs used to treat breast cancer.
 In one study, several women with breast cancer were given melatonin 7
days before beginning chemotherapy. The melatonin prevented the
lowering of platelets in the blood, a common complication that can cause
bleeding.
 Pineal Gland: Interactions with Other
Organs
 Secretion of melatonin by the pineal gland inhibits the secretion of the
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) by the hypothalamus.

 Secretion of melatonin also indirectly inhibits the pituitary from secreting

gonadotropins, Leutenizing Hormone (LH) and Follicle Stimulating Hormone
(FSH), because the secretion of GnRH is necessary for this to occur.

 Because its secretion reduces the levels of LH in the blood, melatonin may
inhibit ovulation in women and can decrease sperm mobility and sex drive in
men.

 The pineal gland also interacts with the hypothalamus in regulating the
circadian rhythm.
 Pineal Gland: Diseases & Disorders
 One sleep disorder is Delayed Circadian Rhythm Disorder. DCR constitutes a mismatch
between you external and internal clocks. Your internal clock runs slower than a normal
circadian rhythm which is a 24-hour period so your body doesn't 'wake up' until later in the
morning or day.

 When this occurs in the body, the pineal gland releases the nighttime hormone,
melatonin, too late, often causing you to fall asleep later. When its time to wake up, your
body clock believes it’s only midnight and is still producing the nighttime hormones.

 As a result of this disorder a person may experience the following symptoms:

 Difficulty falling and staying asleep, and or late night insomnia.
 A general lack of energy in the morning.
 An increase of energy/mood in the evening or late at night.
 Difficulty concentrating, being alert, or accomplishing tasks
 Some DCR sufferers oversleep and have trouble getting up

 Treatment:
 Dawn Simulation helps people maintain a steady circadian rhythm by exposing their
internal body clocks to a properly timed signal of light through their retina. The light
gradually becomes brighter, simulating a sunrise, to reset the body clock while not to
bright to cause premature awakening.
 Diseases & Disorders cont’d
 Advanced Circadian Rhythm Disorder (ACR) is the opposite of DCR. With ACR, your internal
body clock is running faster than a normal circadian rhythm. You tend to run out of energy
before their day is up. ACR compresses the sleep portion of your daily cycle, causing you to lose
valuable sleep. ACR sufferers often sleep less than 8 hours per night, and awaken early.

 Because your circadian rhythm is running fast, your pineal gland releases melatonin too
soon, causing lethargy earlier in the day. Then, because melatonin is released prematurely, you
are unable to maintain a complete sleep cycle, and you wake up too early.

 As a result of this disorder a person may experience the following symptoms:

 Early morning awakening and/or early morning Insomnia
 Inconsistent sleep with one or more awake periods during the night
 Lack of energy during the day, feeling tired in the early afternoon and/or evening
 Alertness and ability to function may also be diminished
 Some ACR sufferers may not notice a sleep problem but lose energy and feel tired or down
in the afternoon or evening time.

 Treatment:
 Specialized bright light is the only effective treatment for ACR. Bright light will inhibit the
release of melatonin for about 3 hours. Use bright light in the late afternoon and evening
and avoid bright morning light before 9:00 am. Where sunglasses if you need to be
exposed to bright light early in the morning and make your night time as dark as possible.
 Diseases & Disorders cont’d
 Precocious Puberty: An unusually early onset of puberty beginning before age 8 for girls and
before age 9 for boys.

 If left untreated, children will become able to reproduce and will stop growing too soon.

 One of the causes for precocious puberty is having lower than normal levels of melatonin. This
is a problem because melatonin is responsible for inhibiting the actions of the gonadotropins.

 Symptoms for girls are breast growth and a first menstruation

 Symptoms for boys enlarged testicles and penis, facial hair, and a deepening of the voice

 Symptoms for boys AND girls are pubic or underarm hair, rapid growth, acne, and adult body
odor

 If the children’s precocious puberty is caused by abnormally low melatonin levels, melatonin
supplements can be a very successful form of treatment.

 Treatment is very important because precocious puberty will prevent children from reaching their
full height because they stop growing too early.

 Going through puberty before anyone their age can also have negative psychological effects on
children, including low self-esteem and depression.
 Thymus Gland: Physical
Characteristics
•Pinkish-gray color in children and yellow in adults
•Soft & About 5 cm long at birth
•Continuously grows during childhood
•Begins to steadily atrophy after puberty until it is
ultimately replaced by adipose tissue
•Largest and most active in children
•Weighs between 20 and 37 grams, its maximum
weight, by puberty
•Made up of two identical lateral lobes
•Each lobe is composed of lobules that are held
together by delicate areolar tissue, and the thymus
as a whole is enclosed in a protective capsule
•The two lobes are slightly different in size and can
be joined together or separated
•Located in the thoracic cavity, just below the neck
and behind the sternum
•Divided into two parts, the outer cortex and inner
medulla.
Thymus Gland:  Made up of mucosa-associated
lymphoid tissue
Molecular
 Lymphoid tissue mostly consists of
Characteristics lymphocytes, but it is also rich in
macrophages and reticular cells

 The thymus is enclosed by a thin

connective tissue capsule

 Each lobule consists of medullary

tissue with numerous lateral
extensions, each of which is covered
by a layer of cortical tissue

 Between lobules are connective tissue

septa, extensions of the capsule
containing arterioles and veins.

 With age, there is a heavy

accumulation of fat associated with the
connective tissue
 Functions of the Thymus Gland
 The thymus produces and processes a  The thymus gland has a reputation for
white blood cell called a T-lymphocyte. becoming underactive which may lead
These T cells help cells recognize and to the development of
destroy invading bacteria, viruses, immunodeficiency diseases.
abnormal cell growth, and foreign tissue.
 Thymosin also plays a role in the
 The T cells travel from the bone marrow to initiation of the aging process.
the thymus gland where they remain until
they are activated. After they mature, the T
cells enter the blood stream and travel to
other lymphatic organs to act as a defense
mechanism against diseases.

 The thymus gland produces thymosin, a

hormone that stimulates T cells in other
lymphatic organs to mature. It also
produces thymopoietin, another hormone
which is protein present in the mRNA and
is encoded by the TMPO gene.
 Thymus Gland: Interactions with Other
Organs
 This gland is responsible for development of the
lymphatic system, which plays a major role in the
immune and waste removal systems.

 If the thymus’s development is hindered in any way in

the fetus, the whole of the immune system cannot
develop.

 The thymus also contributes to the immune system by

producing and processing T Lymphocytes (see
functions for T Cells’ duty)
 Thymus Gland: Diseases & Disorders
Thymus Cancer

 Thymus cancer develops when malignant cancer

cells form on the outer surface of the thymus gland.
There are primarily two kinds of cancer that can arise
in the thymus.

 The first type involves a thymoma, a tumor whose

cancerous cells look like normal thymus tissue.
 Thymomas are linked to autoimmune diseases
which cause the immune system to attack
healthy tissue.

 The second sort of thymus cancer includes thymic

carcinomas, tumors which contain cells that do not
look like thymus cells.
 Thymic carcinomas are exceptionally dangerous
because they grow more quickly and will more
probably extend to other tissues.

 Both thymomas and thymic carcinomas can be

present in an individual without triggering any
symptoms and may only be found in a routine chest
x-ray. But when symptoms do occur, it is most
commonly in the form of a continuing cough, chest
pain, and trouble breathing.
 Diseases & Disorders cont’d
 DiGeorge Syndrome (Thymic Dysplasia)
 DiGeorge syndrome is a rare congenital defect that causes dysfunction of a
number of different tissues.

 Patients with DiGeorge syndrome have a small deletion on their 22nd

chromosome, known as 22q11.2, which contains between 20 and 30 genes
responsible for the development of different parts of the body.

 Often, in DiGeorge syndrome, a symptom is having a very small or absent

thymus gland.

 As a result of having DiGeorge syndrome, patients will have very weak

immune systems and are extremely prone to infections.

 Patients may need to receive a thymus transplant or receive infusions of

immune cells to help prevent dangerous infections.
 Diseases & Disorders cont’d
 Myasthenia gravis is a chronic autoimmune neuromuscular disease characterized by varying degrees of weakness of the
skeletal muscles

 Myasthenia gravis is caused by a transmission malfunction of nerve impulses to the muscles.

 In myasthenia gravis, antibodies produced by the body’s own immune system obstruct, change, or destroy the receptors
for acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction, which inhibits the muscle from contracting.

 In adults with myasthenia gravis, the thymus gland remains large and is abnormal. It contains certain clusters of immune
cells indicative of lymphoid hyperplasia—a condition usually found only in the spleen and lymph nodes during an active
immune response. Some may develop thymomas which are generally benign, but can become malignant.

 The relationship between the thymus gland and myasthenia gravis is not yet fully understood. Scientists believe the
thymus gland may give incorrect instructions to developing immune cells, ultimately resulting in autoimmunity and the
production of the acetylcholine receptor antibodies, thereby setting the stage for the attack on neuromuscular
transmission.

 Thymectomy, the surgical removal of the thymus gland, reduces symptoms in some individuals without thymoma and
may cure some people, possibly by re-balancing the immune system.

 Most common in women under 40 and men over 60.