DAMODARAM SANJIVAYYA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

SABBAVARAM, VISAKHAPATNAM, A.P., INDIA

PROJECT TITLE
OZONE DEPLETION

SUBJECT-SOCIOLOGY

NAME OF THE FACULTY-PROF.LAKSHMIPATI RAJU

Name of the Candidate-PRIYANKA SINGH

Roll No.-2017068
Semester-2nd

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher Prof. Lakshmipati Raju
who gave me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic ‘Ozone
Depletion’ which also helped me in doing a lot of Research and I came to know about so many
new things I am really thankful to them.

Secondly I would also like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a lot in finalizing
this project within the limited time frame.

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 ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION

Ozone depletion describes two related phenomena observed since the late 1970s: a steady
decline of about four percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth's stratosphere (the ozone
layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth's polar
regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. There are also springtime
polar tropospheric ozone depletion events in addition to these stratospheric phenomena.

The main cause of ozone depletion and the ozone hole is man-made chemicals, especially
man-made halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants, and foam-blowing agents
(chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs), HCFCs, halons), referred to as ozone-depleting substances
(ODS). These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by the winds after being
emitted at the surface

SELECTION OF PROJECT

This topic is selected by the researcher because it is of great importance to know about the
environmental problems in which a human being is living. How this problem is increasing
day by day and how to solve this problem is an important point to be taken into
consideration.

RESEARCH PROBLEM

The research problem is to get well versed with the topic and to know about the problem of
ozone depletion and its effects and causes.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

In this research, the researcher will refer to books, journals, articles related to Ozone
depletion.

The researcher will also surf the internet regarding the same.

IDENTIFICATION OF VARIABLES

Dependent variable

Ozone depletion

Independent variable

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Different types of pollution such as air pollution, noise pollution etc. , Release of CFC's

HYPOTHESIS

Depletion of ozone layer is increasing day by day so what steps should be taken to reduce it
and how to improve the condition of this layer?

TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS

The relation between the dependent and independent variable will be discussed here.

COLLECTION OF DATA

The researcher will collect data from books, journals and articles.

CLASSIFICATION OF DATA

The data will be classified other various heads.

INTERPRETATION OF DATA

The researcher will interpret the data in sociological terms.

CONCLUSION, SUGGESTIONS AND PREPARATION OF RESEARCH PROJECT

All these will be drawn for the analysis. Finally research will be prepared.

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 CONTENTS

 Introduction……………………………………………………………..6
 Objectives/Aims of the Study………………………………………….8
 Significance & Benefit of the study……………………………………8
 Scope of the Study……………………………………………………..9
 Review of Literature (Review of earlier studies)………………………9
 Research methodology………………………………………………….9
 Hypothesis……………………………………………………………...9
 Body of the project
1. Ozone…………………….…………………………………………...10
2. Ozone Layer………………………………………..…………………10
3. Ozone Hole………………………...…………………………………11
4. Mechanism of Depletion……………….…………………………….11
5. Mechanism of Hole Formation……….………………………………12
6. Current Status……………………………………………....................12
7. Ozone Layer Monitoring………………..............................................13
8. Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)…………………………………..13
9. Effects on Ozone Layer……….………………………………………13
10. Causes of Ozone Depletion…………………………………………...14
11. Effects of Ozone Depletion…………………………………………..16
12. Measures of Reduction………………………………………………...19
 Conclusion………………………………………………………………....24
 Bibliography……………………………………………………………….25

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INTRODUCTION

Ozone layer depletion is one of the most serious problems faced by our planet earth. It is also
one of the reasons which are leading to global warming. Ozone is a colourless gas which is
found in the stratosphere of our upper atmosphere. The layer of ozone gas is what which
protects us from the harmful ultraviolet radiations of the sun. The ozone layer absorbs these
harmful radiations and thus prevents these rays from entering the earth’s atmosphere.
Ultraviolet radiations are high energy electromagnetic waves emitted by the sun which if enters
the earth’s atmosphere can lead to various environmental issues including global warming, and
also a number of health related issues for all living organisms. Thanks to the ozone layer which
protects us from these harmful rays1.

From the 1970s the depletion of the ozone layer started to capture the attention of the scientists,
environmentalists, and the world community at large2. There had been a lot of research on this
topic over these years to find out all the possible causes that lead to this problem and the effects
of ozone depletion. There has been also a lot of research to find out possible solutions to this
problem. Let us see some of the important causes and effects of ozone layer depletion. Many

1
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2010) Ozone Layer Depletion 2010 Assessment.
2
Gleason, K.L. (2008) Stratospheric Ozone: Monitoring and Research in NOAA.
http://www.ozonelayer.noaa.gov/index.htm.

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of human activities are badly affecting the atmosphere. Ozone depletion is one of those
examples. Life is protected from UV rays by ozone layer which acts as a shield or sun screen.
Approximately 90% ozone is present in stratosphere at the height of 10 to 17 kilometer and is
called ozone layer while remaining 10% is present in troposphere. Medium frequency UV
radiations (200 nm to 315 nm) are absorbed 97 to 99% by the ozone layer3. Ozone (O3) is
colourless just like oxygen (O2) but it has very harsh odour. It is very rare as compared to
oxygen. It is estimated that out of 10 million air molecules about 2 millions are of O2 and *
Corresponding author. F. Anwar et al. 130 only 3 are of ozone. The process of ozone formation
is called as photolysis. When the UV radiations from sun strike the O2 molecules, it causes
splitting of O2. Oxygen molecules react with oxygen atoms in the upper atmosphere to form
ozone. Stratospheric ozone is measured from the ground in units called “Dobson Unit” (D.U)4.
Normal ozone concentration is between 300 - 350 D.U5. In our present study, we shall discuss
how ozone layer depletion is affecting human health and we shall also discuss some
recommendations to minimize ozone depletion and its adverse effects on human health.

The fact that environment influences terrestrial life is readily apparent. At the same time, it is
all too clear that humans and other constituents of the biosphere affect environment
significantly. Human activities during the last century involving particularly landscape
modification, resource exploitation and effluent flow have reached sufficient magnitude as to
bring unpredictable effects on eco-system. These anthropogenic changes have raised many
serious global environmental issues, particularly the destruction of earth's protective
stratospheric ozone layer by manmade chemicals (Frederic 1990 and Caldwell et al. 1989) like
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons (H), carbon-tetrachloride (CTC), 1,1,1-Trichloro-ethane
(TCA), methyl bromide and various others (Annex A and B). According to Mostafa K. Tolba,
former executive director United Nations Environment Programmes, "Life on Earth depends
on the presence of this ozone as it does on the presence of oxygen and water. Without it, lethal
levels of ultraviolet radiations would reach the Earth's surface, extinguishing life on the green
planet". One of the detrimental outcome is the appearance of ozone hole over Antarctic due to

3
Albritton and Daniel (1998) What Should Be Done in a Science Assessment In Protecting the Ozone Layer:
Lessons, Models, and Prospects.
4
Sivasakthivel, T. and Reddy, K.K.S.K. (2011) Ozone Layer Depletion and Its Effects: A Review. International
Journal of Environmental Science and Development, 2, 30-32.
5
Alternative Fluorocarbons Environmental Acceptability Study (AFEAS), Washington DC, 1995.

7
the release of these chemicals (Farman et al. 1985), thus shifting the natural radiation balance
and creating problems for existence.

The detailed mechanism by which the polar ozone holes form is different from that for the mid-
latitude thinning, but the most important process in both trends is catalytic destruction of ozone
by atomic chlorine and bromine6. The main source of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere
is photodissociation of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) compounds, commonly called freons, and of
bromofluorocarbon compounds known as halons. These compounds are transported into the
stratosphere after being emitted at the surface. Both ozone depletion mechanisms strengthened
as emissions of CFCs and halons increased.

6
"Part III. The Science of the Ozone Hole (http://www.atm.ch.cam.ac.uk/tour/part3.html) ". Retrieved on 2007-
03-05.

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 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

Objectives of the researcher in this research is to first observe the degree of ozone depletion in
the world and to tell how different chemicals are performing their roles in increasing the ozone
hole, different industries and factories are contributing towards its expansion. What measures
should be taken to stop degradation of ozone layer and to save our environment.

SIGNIFICANCE AND BENEFIT OF THE STUDY

It is an important environmental issue to be dealt with now-a-days. People need to realise the
importance of ozone layer in the environment as it play a very significant role in maintaining
the temperature of the earth. It protects us from the harmful UV radiations of the sun. It is the
need of the hour to protect the ozone layer.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

It has a very wide scope and we can’t focus on all the segments due to time constraint so we
are just concentrating on one segment that is the ozone depletion and its protection. Ozone
layer plays a significant role in protection of our environment.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

In this research, the researcher will refer the books, cases, articles, research studies, legislations.
The researcher will study all the matter available.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

We are going to use Doctrinal method of research particularly Descriptive or Explanatory

research.

The mode of citation used is OSCOLA.

HYPOTHESIS

The depletion of Ozone layer is a big threat to the environment. What are the things which are
causing this disaster and by what means the layer can be protected and the ozone depletion can
be stopped?

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Ozone

Ozone (O3) was first discovered by C. F. Schnbein in 1839. It is a triatomic allotrope of oxygen
(a form of oxygen in which the molecule contain three atoms instead of two as in the common
form). It is an irritating, pale-blue gas that is explosive and toxic, even at low concentration
(Encyclopaedia Britannica). It occurs naturally in small amounts in the Earth's stratosphere,
where it absorbs solar ultraviolet radiation. Under certain conditions, photochemical reaction
between nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbon in the lower atmosphere can produce ozone in
concentrations high enough to cause irritation of eyes and mucous membrane (Encyclopaedia
Britannica).

Ozone Layer

The ozone layer refers to a layer in the atmosphere, which spreads in the stratosphere and is in
high concentration. This layer has its maximum partial pressure in the lower stratosphere at a
level of 19-23 Kms above the Earth. The stratosphere contain 90 % of all ozone in the
atmosphere. If all the ozone molecules in the atmosphere were transferred to the Earth surface,
they would assume a thickness of only 2.5-3.5 mm at average surface temperature and pressure
(WMO 1992). Ozone, being a molecule composed of more than two atoms has many
absorption bands and particularly in the UV range at wavelengths less than 0.3 µm.
Stratospheric ozone layer plays a very important role for the protection of human life and the
whole ecosystem. It filters most of the ultraviolet beta radiations from the sun, buffer the
ecosystem from harmful ultraviolet rays and also absorbs the solar energy for warming the
stratosphere to maintain the present climate conditions familiar to the ecosystem.

The ozone layer is basically naturally occurring gas in the region of stratosphere where ozone
particles are accumulated. Ozone layer is also naturally broken down but there is a balance
between its formation and natural depletion. As a result the total amount of ozone remains
constant. But ozone layer thickness varies with altitude and seasonal change. Ozone
concentration is highest between 19 - 23 km. Most of ozone is formed at equator where there
is maximum sunshine but with winds it travels at high altitude and get accumulated in
stratosphere.

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Ozone Hole

Ozone hole is created in the region where ozone layer has been depleted. The term “Ozone
hole” is applied when the depletion level is below 200 Dobson Unit (D.U). Ozone holes are
first discovered in Antarctica in 1970. Few years ago ozone holes are also discovered in arctic
region. Since 2000 rate of ozone depletion is increasing 0.5 percent per year7 . Due to depletion
of Ozone UV rays are penetrating in troposphere and leading to more ozone formation in
troposphere which is causing injurious effects on our health as ozone is toxic for our body.

One of the adverse effects of this shift in the natural balance is the appearance of Ozone Hole
(Farman et al. 1985). The ozone hole over Antarctica, appears every austral spring since late
1970s. It is a region remarkably small in total ozone. In 1987 an ozone hole with the total ozone
decreased to less than 50 % of the mean value of the 1970s appeared around 750S. This ozone
hole is not confined to Antarctic. A UNEP report by Kelvin Fay, executive director of the
Alliance for a responsible CFC Policy, said "Ozone layer depletion is no longer confined to
Antarctica and the Northern Hemisphere in winter at mid-high altitudes, but now exists in the
middle and high latitudes of both hemispheres in spring, summer and winter. Ozone depletion
in the middle and high latitudes means it covers almost all of North America, Europe, the
Commonwealth of independent States, Australia, New Zealand and a sizeable portion of Latin
America".

Mechanism of Depletion

Stratospheric ozone is gradually broken down to O and O2 by the absorption of short

wavelength UV radiations, but are created simultaneously when this atomic oxygen combines
with other oxygen molecules, thus there exists an equilibrium between the rates of creation and
destruction. The growing body of scientific evidence which is clear that this equilibrium was
disturbed by the introduction of man made substances that increase the rate of conversion of
O3 back to O2. In 1974 Professor F. S. Rowland and Dr. M. J. Molina, University of California,
Irvine, in the United States, presented a report on the possible effects of Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) on the ozone layer, human beings and the ecological system. According to Dr. Robert
T. Watson adviser to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) "There is no doubt
that ozone depletion is occurring primarily because of the human activities". CFCs, because of

7
Rozema, J., Boelen, P. and Blokker, P. (2005) Depletion of Stratospheric Ozone over the Antarctic and Arctic:
Responses of Plants of Polar Terrestrial Ecosystems to Enhanced UV-B, an Overview. Environmental Pollution,
137, 428-442. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2005.01.048.

11
their thermal and chemical stabilities, rise to the stratosphere and are decomposed by UV-B
radiation from the sun, releasing free chlorine atoms. These free chlorine atoms react with
ozone and form short lived ClO and oxygen. This ClO again reacts with a free oxygen atom to
form oxygen molecule, leaving the free chlorine atom ready to decompose another ozone
molecule, thus shifting natural ozone balance.

Mechanism of Hole Formation

The mechanism of ozone hole formation is very complex. At south pole the polar vortex is
formed in winter and if the polar vortex grows sufficiently it restricts the exchange of air
between the inside and outside of the vortex. In winter the polar night region not exposed to
sunlight spreads around the pole and so the vortex temperature inside drops even upto -90oC
(Tomoyuki 1992). At -78oC, nitric acid and water in the stratosphere are frozen to form clouds
composed of ice particles of micron size i.e., Polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs)8. Laboratory
experiments confirmed that on the surface of these ice particles, chlorine nitrate react with
hydrogen chloride and water, to form chlorine gas and hypochlorous acid, thus increasing the
concentration of chlorine and hypochlorous acid in the stratosphere. These two are photo
dissociated to discharge active chlorine atom to deplete ozone, thus decreasing the ozone in the
polar vortex. The absorption of solar energy in the period from spring to summer gradually
raises the temperature, finally destroying the vortex and allowing the exchange between the air
inside and outside of the polar vortex, thus fritter away the ozone hole. The devastating effect
of the ozone depletion.

Current Status

The ozone values, in different parts of the world, recorded in 1992 are very alarming. The
regional average ozone in January over Northern Europe was 20% below the normal values,
Canada 16%, and Russia, during whole of February and March it was 15% (UNEP 1991). At
the end of January 1992, for a few days, total ozone values as low as 190-210 m atm cm were
observed over Central Europe and the European part of the Russia which is 40-45 percent
below the normal, thus showing a more negative deviation over the entire period of systematic
ozone measurements since 1950 (UNEP 1991).

8
Fears, T.R., Bird, C.C., Guerry, D., Sagebiel, R.W., Gail, M.H., Elder, D.E., Halpern, A., Holly, E.A., Hartge, P. and
Tucker, M.A. (2002) Average Midrange Ultraviolet Radiation Flux and Time Outdoors Predict Melanoma Risk.
Cancer Research, 62, 3992-3996.

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Ozone Layer Monitoring

Following the International Geophysical Year (IGY) in 1957 World Meteorological

Organization (WMO 1992) assumed the responsibilities of ozone observation and the Global
Ozone Observing System (GO3OS) was established. At present GO3OS plays a key role in the
international systematic observation of the ozone layer. The network of GO3OS conducts the
observation by a variety of instruments, at ground based and balloon born stations. These
include: 1. Dobson Spectrophotometer 2. Brewer Spectrophotometer 3. Ozonometer.
Measurement is also conducted by rockets, ground based UV-photometer, laser heterodying
system and microwave radiometry. (Mitra 1991). The observation stations of GO3OS include
about 140 ground observation stations, 121 total ozone observation stations and 40 Umkehr
observation stations in 60 countries round the world9. The observation data are collected at the
World Ozone Data Center (WODC), located in the Atmospheric Environment Service Toronto,
Canada. The center performs the basic quality checks of data stores, and distributes to the
relevant agencies.

Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS)

It is now clearly evident that Chlorofluorocarbons are the major substances responsible for the
depletion of ozone layer. These compounds have a multiple usage because of their properties
as refrigerants, aerosol propellants, solvents, blowing agents and fire extinguisher.

Effects on Ozone Layer

Observation of stratospheric bromine show that bromine is directly involved in the catalytic
destruction of the ozone layer in the lower stratosphere, and is considerably more effective than
chlorine in destroying ozone on a per molecule basis. The substantial role of bromine in polar
ozone loss, as well as in mid latitude ozone destruction has become clear through a variety of
direct observations. Although bromine is present in the stratosphere in concentrations a
hundred-fold less than chlorine yet after the elimination of long lived CFCs and Halons under
regulations, the release of short lived chlorine and bromine containing compounds becomes
more important in the depletion of ozone layer. Methyl bromide is the major contributor to the
stratospheric bromine. According to WMO estimate of 1992 if the global methyl bromide

9
Stang, A., Pukkala, E., Sankila, R., Soderman, B. and Hakulinen, T. (2006) Time Trend Analysis of the Skin
Melanoma Incidence of Finland from 1953 through 2003 including 16,414 Cases. International Journal of
Cancer, 119, 380- 384. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ijc.21836.

13
abundance was reduced by only 10%, the ozone layer protection achieved would be
approximately equivalent to an advance of the CFC phase out schedule by upto three years.
The mechanism of depletion is similar to that of chlorine. In the stratosphere methyl bromide
is decomposed by photolytic reactions, thus releasing the bromine that contribute to the
depletion of the ozone layer. The catalytic destruction of ozone layer by the bromine varies
significantly with latitude, altitude and seasons. Bromine is responsible for 20-30% loss of the
ozone during the formation of ozone hole in the Antarctic stratosphere.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

The term "fluorocarbon" is used for a group of alkane, which contain fluorine atom in their
molecules. It is completely halogenated i.e. containing chlorine, fluorine and no hydrogen.
They are very stable in the troposphere, then diffuse to stratosphere and decompose by
Ultraviolet beta radiation from the sun and deplete the ozone layer10. CFCs were introduced
for the first time to the world as a safe refrigerant, in 1930 by Toma Midgley, since then the
application have been steadily expanded.

Causes of Ozone Depletion

The main things that lead to destruction of the ozone gas in the ozone layer. Low temperatures,
increase in the level of chlorine and bromine gases in the upper stratosphere are some of the
reasons that leads to ozone layer depletion. But the one and the most important reason for ozone
layer depletion is the production and emission of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). This is what
which leads to almost 80 percent of the total ozone layer depletion.

There are many other substances that lead to ozone layer depletion such as hydro
chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Such substances are
found in vehicular emissions, by-products of industrial processes, aerosols and refrigerants. All
these ozone depleting substances remain stable in the lower atmospheric region, but as they
reach the stratosphere, they get exposed to the ultra violet rays. This leads to their breakdown
and releasing of free chlorine atoms which reacts with the ozone gas, thus leading to the
depletion of the ozone layer .

10
Lee, K.W., Meyer, N. and Ortwerth, B.J. (1999) Chromatographic Comparison of the UVA Sensitizers Present
in Brunescent Cataracts and in Calf Lens Proteins Ascorbylated in Vitro. Experimental Eye Research, 69, 375-
384. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/exer.1999.0709.

14
Compounds that contain chlorine and bromine molecules, such as methyl chloroform, halons,
and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), are stable and have atmospheric lifetimes long enough to be
transported by winds into the stratosphere.

1. Chlorofluorocarbons

Ozone depletion occurs when the natural balance between the production and
destruction of stratospheric ozone is disturbed. Although natural phenomenon can
cause ozone depletion but human activities such as CFCs are now accepted as major
cause of depletion11. All ozone depleting chemicals contain chlorine and bromine.
CFCs are highly volatile and non combustible so they are very quickly evaporated and
can easily reach in stratosphere where ozone is present here they start depleting ozone
molecules. These CFCs have also adverse affects on human health. According to the
chemical model for ozone destruction proposed about 20 years ago, the photolysis of
Cl2O2 is key to ozone depletion reaction. But now atmospheric researchers studied that
the rate of this reaction is not extremely high as it was thought previously so we can no
longer say that CFCs are the main cause of ozone depletion.

2. Unregulated Launches of Rockets

Another major cause of large scale ozone depletion is Rocket launches. It has been
studied that unregulated rocket launches can result in much more ozone depletion than
CFCs. It is estimated that if rocket launches will be let unregulated then it would cause
huge ozone loss by the year 2050 than the CFCs have done.

3. Global Warming

Global warming also leads to ozone layer depletion. Due to global warming and green
house effect most of the heat is trapped in troposphere which is the layer below the
stratosphere. As we all know ozone is present in stratosphere so heat don’t reaches
troposphere and it remain cold as recovery of ozone layer requires maximum sunlight
and heat so it leads to depletion of ozone layer.

11
Angell, J.K. and Korshover, J. (2005) Quasi-Biennial and Long-Term Fluctuations in Total Ozone. Monthly
Weather Review, 101, 426-43.

15
 4. Nitrogenous Compound

Nitrogenous Compounds emitted by human activities in small amount like NO, N2O
and NO2 are considered to be greatly responsible for the depletion of ozone layer.

Effects of Ozone Depletion

Ozone depletion is affecting the human health and environment negatively, as it allows the
penetration of UV radiations to reach the Earth. These radiations can cause severe diseases in
humans such as skin cancer, eye damage and genetic mutations etc. Furthermore the ozone
depletion is affecting the aquatic life, biogeochemical cycles, air quality and also contributing
in Global warming but in this review paper our main focus is on the effects of ozone depletion
on human health.

Let us see a few possible effects of the ozone layer depletion on the earth’s environment and
also on the plants and animals. The depletion of ozone layer allows entering of UV rays from
sun into the earth’s atmosphere which is associated with a number of health related and
environmental issues. Let us see its major impacts on human beings

Skin Cancer: exposure to UV rays from sun can lead to increased risk for developing of
several types of skin cancers. Malignant melanoma, basal and squamous cell carcinoma are
the most common cancers caused by exposure to UV rays.

Eye Damage: UV rays are harmful for our eyes too. Direct exposure to UV rays can lead to
Cataract problems, and also Photokeratitis or snow blindness.

Damage to Immune system: our immune system is also highly vulnerable to UV rays.
Increased exposure to UV rays can lead to weakening of the response of immune system and
even impairment of the immune system in extreme cases.

In humans, exposure to UV rays can also lead to difficulty in breathing, chest pain, and throat
irritation and can even lead to hampering of lung function.

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 1. Effects on Eyes

The major cause of blindness in this world is cataracts. There would be 0.3% - 0.6%
increase in risk of cataract if there will be 1% decrease in Ozone level . Eye lens can be
damaged by oxidative agents. Oxidative oxygen produced by UV radiation can severely
damage eye lens and cornea of eye is also badly damaged by UV radiation.
Photokeratitis, cataract, blindness all are caused due to UV rays.

2. Effects on Skin

Exposure to UV radiations can cause skin cancer. UV radiations alter the structure of
biomolecules and thus lead to different diseases12 Skin is the most often exposed part
of body to UV radiations There are two types of skin cancer, Melanoma and Non-
melanoma. Melanoma is most serious form of cancer and is often fatal, while non-
melanoma is most common type and less fatal. Depletion of ozone layer leads to both
Sun burn and skin cancer. UV radiations are also responsible for breast cancer and

12
Strouse, J.J., Fears, T.R., Tucker, M.A. and Wayne, A.S. (2005) Pediatric Melanoma: Risk Factor and Survival
Analysis of the Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results Database. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 23, 4735-
4741. http://dx.doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2005.02.899

17
 leukemia. Epidemiological studies of Melanoma indicate that the incidence of
melanoma is increasing in those countries having high ratio of cases . As UV radiations
can penetrate more easily in thin skin so there is greater number of incidence is found
in thin skinned people. It is found that the incidence of Melanoma is more in children
than adults. The chance of incidence of melanoma is correlated with UV exposure
furthermore the survival chance of melanoma is less in boys as compared to girls. As
the intensity of radiation increases in summer so the risk of melanoma in thin skinned
people is increased in summer and it is more in females as compared to males as their
skin is thinner than males13. There is considerable relationship between melanoma risk
and intermittent sun exposure and sunburn history14. There is also a direct relationship
between air travelling and melanoma incidence . However the studies revealed that
genetic factors contribute more for having melanoma disease than behavioral aspects.
The epidemiological studies of non melanoma skin carcinoma (NMSC) indicates that
its risk is more in young females in lower limbs and sunbathing increases its risk five
times in trunk region.

3. Effects on Human Immunity

Exposure to UV radiations can also result in suppression of immune response to skin

cancer, infectious diseases and other antigen. The immunosupression is due to changes
in skin photoreceptors and antigen presenting cells that are brought by UV radiations.
More increase in depletion of ozone results in more decrease in immune system.

4. DNA Damage and Lung Diseases

Short exposure to UV-B radiations can cause the DNA damage because UV radiations
can disturb biomolecules such as lipids, proteins and Nucliec acids. Due to UV-B
radiations there would be cryptic transposable elements which may lead towards the
mutations which is more dangerous than the immediate DNA damage. Excessive UV-
B radiation exposure results in the basal and squamous cells carcinomas. These types
of cancers are induced due to transcriptional errors during DNA replication which are
caused by changes in pyrimidine bases. The ultimate cause of this whole mechanism is

13
Boniol, M., Armstrong, B.K. and Dore, J.F. (2006) Variation in Incidence and Fatality of Melanoma by Season
of Diagnosis in New South Wales, Australia. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention, 15, 524-526.
14
Gandini, S., Sera, F., Cattaruzza, M.S., Pasquini, P., Picconi, O., Boyle, P. and Melchi, C.F. (2005) Meta-
Analysis of Risk Factors for Cutaneous Melanoma: II. Sun Exposure. European Journal of Cancer, 41, 45-60.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejca.2004.10.016

18
 found to be the prolonged exposure to UV radiations. It is estimated that there is
increase of 2% of incidence of these cancers by 1% depletion of ozone layer15 [33].
Exposure to UV radiations equally affects lungs. Bronchitis, obstruction of lungs,
Emphysema, asthma all can be resulted from UV radiations exposure.

5. Effects of Hydrogen Peroxide on Human Health

Due to stratospheric ozone layer depletion UV radiations are penetrating in earth

atmosphere which result in the production of reduced oxygen. Highly reactive species
like hydrogen peroxide is produced which has bad effects on human health. It is ideal
photochemical maker due to its long life and stability16[34]. Hydrogen peroxide is
toxicant and it pollutes drinking water especially in lakes and makes water toxic and
unfit for drinking. IT alters redox chemistry of metals that are used by our body like
iron copper and manganese.

6. Effect of Food Shortage on Human Population

Depletion of ozone layer is also causing the problem of food shortage to humans. UV
radiations are disturbing developmental and physiological processes which is
decreasing the productivity of crops. As humans are heavily dependent on crops for
food so there is a great chance if depletion of ozone layer is not checked it may cause
seriously shortage of food to human. Researches also show that UV radiations can also
be used to enhance yield of crops by the use and application of phytohormones.

Measures of Reduction

The Vienna Convention for the protection of the Ozone layer in 1985 and the Montreal Protocol
on Substances that deplete the ozone layer in 1987, were the starting points of global
cooperation for protection of the ozone layer in the stratosphere. Basic measures for reduction
of controlled substances include reduction in the short term and replacement with alternatives
and transitation technologies in the middle and long term.

16
Miller, W.L. (1994) Recent Advances in the Photochemistry of Natural Dissolved Organic Matter. In: Helz,
G.R., et al., Eds., Aquatic and Surface Photochemistry, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, 111-127.

19
The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer is a Multilateral
Environmental Agreement. It was agreed upon at the Vienna Conference of 1985 and entered
into force in 1988. In terms of universality, it is one of the most successful treaties of all time,
having been ratified by 197 states (all United Nations members as well as the Holy
See, Niue and the Cook Islands) as well as the European Union.

It acts as a framework for the international efforts to protect the ozone layer. However, it does
not include legally binding reduction goals for the use of CFCs, the main chemical agents
causing ozone depletion. These are laid out in the accompanying Montreal Protocol.

The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (a protocol to
the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer) is an
international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of
numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion. It was agreed on 16 September
1987, and entered into force on 1 January 1989, followed by a first meeting in Helsinki, May
1989. Since then, it has undergone eight revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992
(Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok), 1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), 1998 (Australia), 1999
(Beijing) and 2016 (Kigali, adopted, but not in force). As a result of the international
agreement, the ozone hole in Antarctica is slowly recovering17.[3] Climate projections indicate
that the ozone layer will return to 1980 levels between 2050 and 2070. Due to its widespread
adoption and implementation it has been hailed as an example of exceptional international co-
operation, with Kofi Annan quoted as saying that “perhaps the single most successful
international agreement to date has been the Montreal Protocol”18. In comparison, effective
burden sharing and solution proposals mitigating regional conflicts of interest have been among
the success factors for the ozone depletion challenge, where global regulation based on
the Kyoto Protocol has failed to do so. In this case of the ozone depletion challenge, there was
global regulation already being installed before a scientific consensus was established. Also,
overall public opinion was convinced of possible imminent risks.

The two ozone treaties have been ratified by 197 parties, which includes 196 states and the
European Union, making them the first universally ratified treaties in United Nations history.

17
Ewenfeldt B, "Ozonlagret mår bättre", Arbetarbladet 12-9-2014, p. 10.
18
"The Ozone Hole-The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer". Theozonehole.com.
16 September 1987.

20
These truly universal treaties have also been remarkable in the expedience of the policy-making
process at the global scale, where only 14 years lapsed between a basic scientific research
discovery (1973) and the international agreement signed (1985 & 1987).

Ozone layer depletion is not something that affects any specific country or region. The whole
world is vulnerable to its after effects. That makes it important for each and every one of us to
take actions to reduce ozone layer depletion. International agreements such as Montreal
protocol in 1987 have helped in reducing and controlling industrial emission of
Chlofluorocarbons. More and more of such international agreements between countries is
necessary to bring down ozone layer depletion. At individual level each and everyone also can
contribute towards reducing ozone layer depletion. Buying and using recycled products, saving
of energy, using of public transport can do a lot in combating ozone layer depletion. The most
important thing that we can do is spreading awareness. Our individual efforts will go a long
way in saving the earth’s blanket and keep our planet earth liveable for us and our future
generations.

The ozone layer is what saves the Earth and the living organisms from the harmful radiations
of the sun. It is necessary to understand its importance and work to control the depletion of this
layer.

Measures for Reduction of Carbontetrachloride (CTC)

Carbontetrachloride (CTC) finds limited use as a solvent in the manufacturing industry because
of its high toxicity. In case of other uses like intermediate for pharmaceutical and
agrochemicals, and catalyst sweetener in the oil industry, it is converted to substances which
are non-ozone depleting. Basic measures of reduction include increase in recovery and
recycling ratio, introduction of alternative solvents and development of alternative material .
Continued studies are essential to evaluate new substances to substitute CTC, at present, no
solvent with a performance identical to CTC has been found.19

Measures of Reduction for Fire Extinguishers

Many cases in which halones have been employed, alternative fire technologies or protection
methods can be used to reduce the risk, although it may not provide the same degree of fire

19
Shindell, D.T., Rind, D. and Lonergan, P. (1998) Increased Polar Stratospheric Ozone Losses and Delayed
Eventual Recovery Owing to Increasing Greenhouse-Gas Concentration. Nature, 292, 589-592.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/33385.

21
protection. For most applications considerable research and developmental work is required to
obtain acceptable agent which has the efficiency of the existing halones. Basic measures of
reduction include prevention of any accident like prevent leaks and faulty operations, use
during testing of the instrument, research or experiments, restrict use only during the fire
accidents and use of alternative fire extinguisher.

Specific Measures of Reduction

CFCs

CFCs are playing an important role not only in bringing about comfortable environment with
air conditioning equipment in hotels, homes and workshops etc., but also in transportation and
distributions systems. It is therefore difficult to accept the immediate ban on these compounds.

Refrigerants

No refrigerants that substitute R-11 and R-12 are available in the market with equal potential.
HCFCs are the transitional materials on the path to chlorine free, non-ozone depleting
refrigerants. HCFC-22 is used upto 10,000 tons of cooling capacity, where as the use of HCFC-
123 is restricted to chillers due to its low allowable exposure toxicity limits of 10 ppm. HCFs
like 134a contain no chlorine, therefore, no ozone depleting potential. This special factor makes
the HFC type refrigerant the most promising choice, although the price is high at present, HFC-
134a (S 7.00/lb) as compared to HCFC-22 (S 1.20/lb) and HCFC-123 ($ 5.60/lb). In order to
reduce the use of refrigerant various measures have to be taken in the short and long term. Short
term measures include reduction of leaks and least emission into the air when repairing or
charging air conditioners, improvement of equipment's (Air tightness, use of welded structure
where possible to prevent leakage, use of special material for sealing, filling and hoses, proper
fastening of the piping joints, over charging of the refrigerator and enhancement of the
efficiency of the heat exchanger. Where as long term plans include development of alternative
refrigerants, new equipments or alterations in the current system to cope with the alternatives
and research on new refrigerating systems.20

Blowing agents

20
Newsham, K.K. and Robinson, S.A. (2009) Responses of Plants in Polar Regions to UV-B Exposure: A Meta-
Analysis.

22
CFCs blown foam contributed significantly to energy saving purpose because of their heat
insulation properties. Both foams flexible and rigid yield many kinds of products which are
widely used in automobile, electric appliance plant and building goods for every day life.
Specific measures of reduction involve increase in the proportion of water blowing, use of
known alternatives, evaluate foaming with higher mold temperature, minimize and control
exhausting of CFC-11 in different steps, shift to high density products, use of HCFCs with low
ozone depleting potentials, evaluate foaming with water only, improvement of manufacturing
process to increase thermal insulating properties and improvement of instrument to cope with
the alternatives.

Aerosols

Reduction measures to reduce the use of ODS in aerosol products include use of substituted
propellant e.g. liquified petroleum gas, dimethylether, compressed gases and alternative
fluorocarbons, use of substituted solvents like petroleum solvent, alternative fluorocarbons,
introduction of substitute propelling mechanism and prevention of leakage from equipment
during manufacturing.21

Substitute propelling mechanisms like pumping package using rubber traction elasticity,
propelling mechanism with a two layered structure for generation of internal pressure, finger
pump and trigger pump and mechanical pressure dispenser system are available. Compressed
gases like CO2 and N2 are being used as propellants. HCFC-123, HCFC-141 and HCFC-225cb
and penta fluoropropyl alcohol have been studied as possible substitutes. The percentage of
inflammability of aerosol product could be increased. Liquified and compressed gasses can be
used as propellants in place of CFCs. The internationally available liquified petroleum gasses
are (LPG) and dimethylether (DME). LPG is a mixture of hydro-carbons, mainly composed of
propane, n-butane, isobutane. It is the most popular alternative propellant with moderate price
and preferable properties. It emits no odour and will not corrode containers or attached parts.
Thus it is appropriate for use in aerosol produced. The risk of flammability can be reduced by
improving the structural design of the aerosol. Dimethyl, because of its high solubility,
chemical stability and little odour, can be used alone or in combination with LPG specially in
hair spray and parts.

21
Davies, W.J., Zhang, J., Yang, J. and Dodd, I.C. (2011) Novel Crop Science to Improve Yield and Resource
Use Efficiency in Water-Limited Agriculture. The Journal of Agricultural Science, 149, 123-131.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0021859610001115.

23
 CONCLUSION

Ozone layer is continuously depleting which is highly alarming situation of today.

Chloroflourocarbons are major cause of ozone depletion. These substances should be banned
or we should use their alternatives so that in future we can protect ourselves from the harmful
effects of UV radiation. Human eye and skin are the most exposed part of the body to these
radiations. So there is high degree of incidence of blindness and skin cancer disease increasing
day by day with the depletion of ozone layer so we should use sunglasses and full body clothes
especially in summer when there is high intensity of sunlight so that we can protect our body
from harmful UV radiations. We should also use sun block creams to our most exposed parts
of body like face.

Ozone depletion describes two distinct, but related observations: a slow, steady decline of about
4 percent per decade in the total volume of ozone in Earth's stratosphere(ozone layer) since the
late 1970s, and a much larger, but seasonal, decrease in stratospheric ozone over Earth's polar
regions during the same period. The latter phenomenon is commonly referred to as the ozone
hole. In addition to this well-known stratospheric ozone depletion, there are also tropospheric
ozone depletion events, which occur near the surface in polar regions during spring. The
detailed mechanism by which the polar ozone holes form is different from that for the mid-
latitude thinning, but the most important process in both trends is catalytic destruction of ozone
by atomic chlorine and bromine.The main source of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is
photodissociation of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) compounds, commonly called freons, and of
bromofluorocarbon compounds known as halons. These compounds are transported into the
stratosphere after being emitted at the surface. Both ozone depletion mechanisms strengthened
as emissions of CFCs and halons increased.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. International Journal of Environmental Science and Development

2. United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2010) Ozone Layer Depletion
2010 Assessment.
3. Natural Resources Journal
4. www.nationalgeographic.com
5. www.conserve-energy-future.com
6. www.epa.gov
7. atmos.washington.edu
8. www.researchgate.net

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