1.a.

The ozone layer is a region of the atmosphere located between 15 and 30 kilometers above
the earth's surface. Its main function is to provide a barrier to ultraviolet radiation by filtering out
these rays from the sunlight, therefore, preventing that travel to the earth's surface, protecting the
atmosphere.

b. China is the largest emitter of carbon dioxide gas in the world, with 10,668 million metric tons
emitted in 2020.

c. The Lapse Rate is the rate at which temperature changes with height in the Atmosphere. Lapse
rate nomenclature is inversely related to the change itself if the lapse rate is positive, the
temperature decreases with heightconversely if negative, the temperature increases with height.

d. Atmospheric stability determines whether or not air will rise and cause storms, sink and cause
clear skies, or essentially do nothing.  Stability is dependent upon the Dry and Saturated
Adiabatic Lapse Rates and the Environmental Lapse Rate.  

e. Climate change can also impact human health by worsening air and water quality, increasing
the spread of certain diseases, and altering the frequency or intensity of extreme weather events.
Rising sea level threatens coastal communities and ecosystems.

f. Types of Ecosystem
 Forest Ecosystem
 Grassland Ecosystem.
 Tundra Ecosystem.
 Desert Ecosystem.

g. A carbon footprint is the total amount of greenhouse gases (including carbon dioxide and
methane) that are generated by our actions. 
How to reduce my carbon footprint?
 Consume local and seasonal products (forget strawberries in winter)
 Limit meat consumption, especially beef.
 Select fish from sustainable fishing
 Bring reusable shopping bags and avoid products with excessive plastic packaging.
 Make sure to buy only what you need, to avoid waste.

h. UNFCCC: The United Nations Climate Change Conferences are yearly conferences held in
the framework of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

i.Solar power is pollution-free and causes no greenhouse gases to be emitted after installation.
Reduced dependence on foreign oil and fossil fuels. Renewable clean power that is available
every day of the year, even cloudy days produce some power. 

j. Biofuels are liquid fuels produced from renewable biological sources, including plants and
algae. Biofuels offer a solution to one of the challenges of solar, wind, and other alternative
energy source.
2a.Carbon Cycle

Carbon Cycle steps:

Step 1: Carbon enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide from respiration (breathing) and

combustion (burning). 

Step 2: Carbon dioxide is absorbed by producers (life forms that make their own food e.g. plants)
to make carbohydrates in photosynthesis.

Step 3: Animals feed on the plants and thus pass the carbon compounds along the food chain.
Most of the carbon these animals consume however is exhaled as carbon dioxide. This is through
the process of respiration. The animals and plants then eventually die.

Step 4: The dead organisms (dead animals and plants) are eaten by decomposers in the
ground. The carbon that was in their bodies is then returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
In some circumstances the process of decomposition is prevented. The decomposed plants and
animals may then be available as fossil fuel in the future for combustion. 

2b.Green House Gases

 The greenhouse effect is caused by the interaction of the sun's energy with greenhouse
gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and fluorinated gases in the Earth's
atmosphere. The ability of these gases to trap heat is what causes the greenhouse effect.
 Greenhouse gases are made of three or more atoms. This molecular structure makes it
possible for these gases to trap heat in the atmosphere and then re-emit it towards the
surface which further warms the Earth.
  This continuous cycle of trapping heat leads to an overall increase in global temperatures.
This process, which is very similar to the way a greenhouse works, is why the gases that
can produce this effect are collectively known as greenhouse gases.
 Carbon dioxide (CO2): Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere through burning fossil fuels
(coal, natural gas, and oil), solid waste, trees and wood products, and also as a result of
certain chemical reactions (e.g., manufacture of cement). Carbon dioxide is removed
from the atmosphere (or "sequestered") when it is absorbed by plants as part of the
biological carbon cycle.
 Methane (CH4): Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural
gas, and oil. Methane emissions also result from livestock and other agricultural practices
and by the decay of organic waste in municipal solid waste landfills.
 Nitrous oxide (N2O): Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities,
as well as during combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste.
 Fluorinated gases: Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur
hexafluoride (SF6), are powerful greenhouse gases that are emitted from a variety of
industrial processes.

3a.Ozone layer depletion:

 The scientific evidence, accumulated over more than two decades of study by the
international research community, has shown that human-produced chemicals are
responsible for the observed depletions of the ozone layer.
 The ozone-depleting compounds contain various combinations of the chemical elements
chlorine, fluorine, bromine, carbon, and hydrogen and are often described by the general
term “halocarbons”.
 The compounds that contain only chlorine, fluorine, and carbon are called
“chlorofluorocarbons”, usually abbreviated as CFCs. CFCs, carbon tetrachloride, and
methyl chloroform are important human-produced ozone-depleting gases that have been
used in many applications including refrigeration, air conditioning, foam blowing,
cleaning of electronics components, and as solvents.
  Another important group of human-produced halocarbons is the “halons”, which contain
carbon, bromine, fluorine, and (in some cases) chlorine and have been mainly used as fire
extinguishants. These halons are less in concentration but 3 to 10 time more destructive
than CFCs
 The natural causes for ozone depletion include Hydrogen oxide, Methane, Nitrogen
oxide, chlorine monoxide (during volcanic eruptions), stratospheric aerosols. Whereas
some of the major human causes are direct emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) by
supersonic transport flying above troposphere, increase in usage of nitrogenous fertilisers
which release NOx, Chloro fluoro carbons ( used in refrigerators, industrial solvents),
Halons like bromo-chloro-fluoro carbons and bromo-fluoro-carbons.
 The ultraviolet rays split a chlorine atom from a CFC molecule. That chlorine atom
breaks up ozone molecule making a hole in ozone layer. The molecules left behind are
chlorine monoxide and oxygen.
 The ozone depletion is more in Antarctic than in Arctic because of Polar Stratospheric
clouds (PSC’s) which are due to very low winter temperatures.

3b. Role of Ozone:

 The ozone molecules in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere) and the lower atmosphere
(troposphere) are chemically identical, because they all consist of three oxygen atoms and
have the chemical formula O3. However, they have very different roles in the atmosphere
and very different effects on humans and other living beings.
 Stratospheric ozone (sometimes referred to as "good ozone") plays a beneficial role by
absorbing most of the biologically damaging ultraviolet sunlight (called UV-B), allowing
only a small amount to reach the Earth's surface.
 The absorption of ultraviolet radiation by ozone creates a source of heat, which actually
forms the stratosphere itself (a region in which the temperature rises as one goes to higher
altitudes). Ozone thus plays a key role in the temperature structure of the Earth's
atmosphere. Without the filtering action of the ozone layer, more of the Sun's UV-B
radiation would penetrate the atmosphere and would reach the Earth's surface.
 Many experimental studies of plants and animals and clinical studies of humans have
shown the harmful effects of excessive exposure to UV-B radiation.
  At the Earth's surface, ozone comes into direct contact with life-forms and displays its
destructive side (hence, it is often called "bad ozone"). Because ozone reacts strongly
with other molecules, high levels of ozone are toxic to living systems. Several studies
have documented the harmful effects of ozone on crop production, forest growth, and
human health.
 The substantial negative effects of surface-level troposphere ozone from this direct
toxicity contrast with the benefits of the additional filtering of UV-B radiation that it
provides.

4a.Factors affecting dispersion of air pollutants

 Source characteristics
 Emission rate of pollutant
 Stack height
 Exit velocity of gas
 Exit temperature of the gas
 Stack diameter
 Meteorological conditions
 Wind velocity
 Wind direction
 Ambient temperature

4b. Vertical structure of atmosphere

 It is convenient to think of the atmosphere as being divided into various horizontal layers,
each characterised by slope of its temperature profile. Starting at the earth’s surface, these
layers are called as troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere
 The troposphere and mesosphere are characterised by decreasing in temperature with
altitude. Stratosphere and thermosphere show increasing temperatures. The transition
altitudes separating layers are called tropopause, stratopause, and mesopause.
 More than 80% of the mass of the atmosphere and virtually all of the water vapour,
clouds, precipitation occur in troposphere. At equator it extends up to 18km, whereas at
mid-altitudes, it extends up to 10 or 12km. At poles it may be about 5 to 6km. In
 troposphere temperatures typically decrease at 5 to 7 °C per km. It is very turbulent i.e.
strong vertical movement lead to rapid and complete mixing. This mixing is good for air
quality since it rapidly disperse pollutants.
 Above troposphere there is a stable layer of very dry air called the stratospherePollutants
find their way into stratosphere and may remain there for many years before drifting back
into troposphere, where they can be more easily diluted and removed by settling or
precipitation. In stratosphere, short wavelength UV energy is absorbed by ozone and
oxygen causing the air to be heated.
 The resulting inversion is what causes the stratosphere to be stable. The troposphere and
stratosphere combined account for about 99% of mass of atmosphere. Together they
extend up to 50km above earth surface which is equal to less than 1 % of earth radius.
Beyond stratosphere lies mesosphere, another layer where air mixes readily. Above that
is thermosphere.
 The heating of thermosphere is due to absorption of solar energy by atomic oxygen.
Within thermosphere there is a relatively dense band of charged particles, ionosphere.
5a. Composition of Atmosphere
 The atmosphere is a mixture of gases, with numerous suspended particles, some solids
and some liquids. The lower atmosphere is electrically neutral, containing few free ions.
Mostly it is composed of molecules. The upper atmosphere, by contrast, is extensively
ionised. Many gases are broken up into single atoms or into free radicals such as
hydroxyl (OH-).
 Because of its special role, water vapour (H 2O) is often dealt separately. The atmosphere
is then said to be made up of dry air and water vapour, together with suspended particles.
The table below shows the composition of earth’s atmosphere as it exists now, expressed
in volumetric fractions.
 Other trace gases include sulphur dioxide (SO 2), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of
nitrogen (NOx) and various pollutants.

Composition of atmosphere

Gas % by volume Environmental role

Active gases
Nitrogen (N2) 78.08 Inert as N2; Essential to life as N
Oxygen (O2) 20.95 Essential to life; Chemically
active
Hydrogen (H2) 5 x 10-5 Important in atmospheric
chemistry
Inert gases
Argon (Ar) 0.93 Inert
Neon (Ne) 1.8 x 10-3 Inert
Helium (He) 5.2 x 10-4 Inert, Escapes from atmosphere
Radon (Rn) 6.0 x 10-18 Radioactive; Variable in height
and time because of decay
Variable gases
Carbon dioxide Essential to life; optically active
(CO2)
Ozone (O3) Toxic; optically and chemically
active.
5b. Physical properties of atmosphere

 According to the homogeneity of atmospheric composition, two layers can be defined in

the atmosphere .The lower layer, up to an altitude of about 80 km above sea level is the
“homosphere”, where due to the continuous turbulent mixing the composition of the
atmosphere is relatively constant for chemical species which have long mean residence
times.

 This region is closed by a thin transition layer, called “turbopause”. Above the
turbopause, in the “heterosphere”, the molecular diffusion dominates and the chemical
composition of the atmosphere becomes stratified and varies according to the molecular
mass of chemical species.

 The lower heterosphere are dominated by nitrogen and oxygen molecules and the lighter
gases being concentrated in the higher layers. Up to 1,000 km the oxygen atoms and
above this height the helium and hydrogen are the dominant species.
Chemical properties of atmosphere:

 At any point on the Earth’s surface, the atmosphere exerts a downward force on the
underlying surface due to the Earth’s gravitational attraction. The downward force, (i.e.,
the weight) of a unit volume of air with density ρ is given by

F = ρ.g
Where g is the acceleration due to gravity
 Integrating above equation from the Earth’s surface to the top of the atmosphere, we
obtain the atmospheric pressure on the Earth’s surface ps due to the weight (per unit area)
of the air in the overlying column
∞
ps =∫ ρgdZ
0
 Neglecting the small variation of g with latitude, longitude and height, setting it equal to
its mean value of g0 = 9.807 ms-2, we can take it outside the integral, in which case, above
equation can be written as

ps =m g0

Where m=∫ ρdZ is the vertically integrated mass per unit area of the overlying air
0

 The atmosphere scatters the radiation that passes through it, giving rise to a wide range of
optical effects. The blueness of outer atmosphere is due to the preferential scattering of
incoming short wavelength (solar) radiation by air molecules.
 The whiteness of lower layers is due to scattering from cloud droplets and atmospheric
aerosols. Due to the presence of clouds and aerosols in the Earth’s atmosphere, 22% of
the incoming solar radiation is backscattered to space without being absorbed.

6a.Agricultural and ecosystems

 Heavy reliance on agricultural chemicals is one route by which the practices

associated with industrial agriculture can impact aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. To
 provide crops with nutrients, some farmers apply chemical fertilizers, manure or
treatedsewage sludge to fields.

 When these nutrients exceed plant needs, or are applied shortly before it rains, the
excess can leach down into groundwater or be carried by runoff into
nearby waterways.

 Nutrient pollution in aquatic ecosystems contributes to harmful algal blooms that deplete
oxygen from water, creating underwater regions that are devoid of most aquatic
life. These dead zones are common in the Gulf of Mexico, Chesapeake Bay and other
coastal regions. Globally,synthetic nitrogen fertilizers and increased intensity of meat
production are among the greatest contributors to nutrient pollution.

 Agricultural pesticides can also impact surrounding ecosystems. Among other harms,
pesticide use has been implicated in deformities and sex reversals in amphibians,
declining pollinator populations and compromised immune systems in dolphins, seals
and whales. Over time, many target species, including insects and plants, develop
resistance to the pesticides used against them.

 Chemical fertilizers can degrade soil fertility over the long term. These adverse
effects can create a “treadmill effect,” where farmers continually need to apply
more chemicals to achieve the desired result, worsening the harms posed by their use.
6b. The effects on key sectors, in the absence of countermeasures, are summarized as follows.

 Water: Drought affected areas are likely to be more widely distributed. Heavier precipitation
events are very likely to increase in frequency leading to higher flood risks. By mid-century,
water availability is likely to decrease in mid-latitudes, in the dry tropics and in other regions
supplied by melted water from mountain ranges. More than one sixth of the world‘s
population is currently dependent on melt water from mountain ranges.
 Food: While some mid latitude and high latitude areas will initially benefit from higher
agricultural production, for many others at lower latitudes, especially in seasonally dry and
tropical regions, the increases in temperature and the frequency of droughts and floods are
 likely to affect crop production negatively, which could increase the number of people at risk
from hunger and increased levels of displacement and migration.
 Industry, settlement and society: The most vulnerable industries, settlements and societies
are generally those located in coastal areas and river flood plains, and those whose economies
are closely linked with climate sensitive resources. This applies particularly to locations
already prone to extreme weather events and especially to areas undergoing rapid
urbanization. Where extreme weather events become more intense or more frequent, the
economic and social costs of those events will increase.
 Health: The projected changes in climate are likely to alter the health status of millions of
people, including increased deaths, disease and injury due to heat waves, floods, storms, fires
and droughts. Increased malnutrition, diarrhea disease and malaria in some areas will increase
vulnerability to extreme public health, and development goals will be threatened by long term
damage to health systems from disasters.

7a. Impact of climate change on human health

 Temperature Related Death and Illness — Future climate warming could cause up to
tens of thousands of additional deaths each year from heat in the summer, from loss of
ability to control internal temperature, and worsened chronic cardiovascular and
respiratory diseases
 Air Quality Impacts — The future could include limited productivity at work and
school due to exacerbated ground-level ozone (smog) health impacts from modified
weather patterns conducive to ozone formation, and worsened allergy and asthma
conditions from more airborne pollen and longer pollen seasons
 Vector-borne Disease — The seasonality, distribution, and prevalence of vectorborne
diseases, including Lyme disease and West Nile virus,  may change with changing
temperature and rainfall patterns due to altered geographic and seasonal distributions of
mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas
 Water-Related Illness — Risk of exposure to illnesses increases as the growth, survival,
spread, and toxicity of water-related pathogens and toxins is impacted by temperature and
extreme rainfall events, and aging water infrastructure is vulnerable to failure with
extreme events and storm surges
 Food Safety, Nutrition, and Distribution — Rising temperatures, changing weather
patterns, and extreme events have consequences for contamination, spoilage, and the
disruption of food distribution, whereas higher carbon dioxide levels lower nutritional
value of crops despite boosting plant growth
  Extreme Weather — Fatalities, injuries, and infrastructure damages are imminent with
increases in the frequency and/or intensity of extreme precipitation, hurricanes, coastal
inundation, drought, and wildfires
 Mental Health and Well-Being — Mental health conditions may develop with exposure
to disasters or worsen by extreme health
 Climate change affects the social and environmental determinants of health – clean
air, safe drinking water, sufficient food and secure shelter.
 Between 2030 and 2050, climate change is expected to cause approximately 250 000
additional deaths per year, from malnutrition, malaria, diarrhoea and heat stress.
7b. At the national level, increase of 0.4° C has been observed in surface air temperatures over
the past century. A warming trend has been observed along the west coast, in central India, the
interior peninsula, and north-eastern India. However, cooling trends have been observed in
northwest India and parts of south India.
 Rainfall: While the observed monsoon rainfall at the All India level does not show any
significant trend, regional monsoon variations have been recorded. A trend of increasing
monsoon seasonal rainfall has been found along the west coast, northern Andhra Pradesh,
and north-western India (+10% to +12% of the normal over the last 100 years) while a
trend of decreasing monsoon seasonal rainfall has been observed over eastern Madhya
Pradesh, north-eastern India, and some parts of Gujarat and Kerala (-6% to - 8% of the
normal over the last 100 years).
 Extreme Weather Events: Trends of Extreme Weather Events observed in multi-
decadal periods of more frequent droughts followed by less severe droughts. There has
been an overall increasing trend in severe storm incidence along the coast at the rate of
0.011 events per year. While the states of West Bengal and Gujarat have reported
increasing trends, a decline has been observed in Orissa. Scientists, while analysing a
daily rainfall data set, have shown (i) a rising trend in the frequency of heavy rain events,
and (ii) a significant decrease in the frequency of moderate events over central India from
1951 to 2000
 Rise in Sea Level: Using the records of coastal tide gauges in the north Indian Ocean for
more than 40 years, Scientists have estimated that sea level rise was between 1.06-1.75
mm per year. These rates are consistent with 1-2 mm per year global sea level rise
estimates of the IPCC
 Impacts on Himalayan Glaciers: The Himalayas possess one of the largest resources of
snow and ice and its glaciers form a source of water for the perennial rivers such as the
 Indus, the Ganga, and the Brahmaputra. Glacial melt may impact their long-term lean-
season.

8a.Features of Kyoto protocol:

 The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits state parties to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions, based on the scientific consensus that (part one) global
warming is occurring and (part two) that human-made CO2 emissions are driving it. The
Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into
force on 16 February 2005. There are currently 192 parties (Canada withdrew from the
protocol, effective December 2012) to the Protocol.
 The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to reduce the onset of
global warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to "a level
that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system"
(Article 2). The Kyoto Protocol applies to the six greenhouse gases listed in Annex
A: carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6).
 The Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities: it
acknowledges that individual countries have different capabilities in combating climate
change, owing to economic development, and therefore puts the obligation to reduce
current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are historically
responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
 The Protocol's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. All 36
countries that fully participated in the first commitment period complied with the
Protocol. However, nine countries had to resort to the flexibility mechanisms by funding
emission reductions in other countries because their national emissions were slightly
greater than their targets. The financial crisis of 2007–08 helped reduce the emissions
 The greatest emission reductions were seen in the former Eastern Bloc countries because
the dissolution of the Soviet Union reduced their emissions in the early 1990s. Even
though the 36 developed countries reduced their emissions, the global emissions
increased by 32% from 1990 to 2010.
  A second commitment period was agreed in 2012, known as the Doha Amendment to the
Kyoto Protocol, in which 37 countries have binding targets: Australia, the European
Union , Belarus, Iceland, Kazakhstan, Liechtenstein, Norway, Switzerland, and Ukraine.
Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine have stated that they may withdraw from the Kyoto
Protocol or not put into legal force the Amendment with second round targets.
Japan, New Zealand, and Russia have participated in Kyoto's first-round but have not
taken on new targets in the second commitment period.

8b. Global Climate Modeling(GCM)

 A global climate model (GCM) is a complex mathematical representation of the major
climate system components (atmosphere, land surface, ocean, and sea ice), and their
interactions. Earth's energy balance between the four components is the key to long-term
climate prediction.
 The climate modelling program at GISS is primarily aimed at the development of
coupled atmosphere-ocean models for simulating Earth's climate system.
 Primary emphasis is placed on investigation of climate sensitivity —globally and
regionally, including the climate system's response to diverse forcings such as solar
variability, volcanoes, anthropogenic and natural emissions of greenhouse gases and
aerosols, paleo-climate changes, etc.
 A major focus of GISS GCM simulations is to study the human impact on the climate as
well as the effects of a changing climate on society and the environment. The GISS
GCM is prominently featured in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
reports (the upcoming AR6 as well as past reports), and over 50 TB of climate model
results have been publicly archived for the 5th Coupled Model Intercomparison Project.
 This project has included simulations for the historic period, future simulations out to
2300, and past simulations for the last 1000 years, the last glacial maximum and the
mid-Holocene.

9a.Paris Convention:
  The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty on climate change. It was
adopted by 196 Parties at COP 21 in Paris, on 12 December 2015 and entered into force
on 4 November 2016.
 Its goal is to limit global warming to well below 2, preferably to 1.5 degrees Celsius,
compared to pre-industrial levels.
 To achieve this long-term temperature goal, countries aim to reach global peaking of
greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible to achieve a climate neutral world by mid-
century.
 The Paris Agreement is a landmark in the multilateral climate change process because,
for the first time, a binding agreement brings all nations into a common cause to
undertake ambitious efforts to combat climate change and adapt to its effects.
How does the Paris Agreement work?
 Implementation of the Paris Agreement requires economic and social transformation,
based on the best available science. The Paris Agreement works on a 5- year cycle of
increasingly ambitious climate action carried out by countries.
 By 2025, countries submit their plans for climate action known as nationally
determined contributions (NDCs).
9b.Montreal Protocol
 The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, also known simply
as the Montreal Protocol, is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by
phasing out the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone
depletion. Open for signature on 16 September 1987, it was made pursuant to the 1985
Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, which established the
framework for international cooperation in addressing ozone depletion.
 The Montreal Protocol entered into force on 1 January 1989, and has since undergone
nine revisions, in 1990 (London), 1991 (Nairobi), 1992 (Copenhagen), 1993 (Bangkok),
1995 (Vienna), 1997 (Montreal), 1998 (Australia), 1999 (Beijing) and 2016 (Kigali).
 The treaty is structured around several groups of halogenated hydrocarbons that deplete
stratospheric ozone. All of the ozone depleting substances controlled by the Montreal
Protocol contain either chlorine or bromine (substances containing only fluorine do not
harm the ozone layer).
 Some ozone-depleting substances (ODSs) are not yet controlled by the Montreal
Protocol, including nitrous oxide (N2O) For a table of ozone-depleting substances
controlled by the Montreal Protocol.
  For each group of ODSs, the treaty provides a timetable on which the production of those
substances must be shot out and eventually eliminated. This included a 10-year phase-in
for developing countries identified in Article 5 of the treaty.

10a.The local corporations have adapted different methods for the disposal of waste – open
dumps, landfills, sanitary landfills, and incineration plants. One of the important methods of
waste treatment is composting.

i. Open dumps:Open dumps refer to uncovered areas that are used to dump solid waste of
all kinds. The waste is untreated, uncovered, and not segregated. It is the breeding ground
for flies, rats, and other insects that spread disease. The rainwater run-off from these
dumps contaminates nearby land and water thereby spreading disease. In some countries,
open dumps are being phased out

ii. Landfills:Landfills are generally located in urban areas where a large amount of waste is
generated and has to be dumped in a common place. Unlike an open dump, it is a pit that
is dug in the ground. The garbage is dumped and the pit is covered thus preventing the
breeding of flies and rats. At the end of each day, a layer of soil is scattered on top of it
and some mechanism, usually an earth-moving equipment is used to compress the
garbage, which now forms a cell. Thus, every day, garbage is dumped and becomes a
cell. After the landfill is full, the area is covered with a thick layer of mud and the site can
thereafter be developed as a parking lot or a park.Landfills have many problems. All
types of waste is dumped in landfills and when water seeps through them it gets
contaminated and in turn pollutes the surrounding area. This contamination of
groundwater and soil through landfills is known as leaching.

iii. Sanitary landfills:An alternative to landfills which will solve the problem of leaching to
some extent, is a sanitary landfill which is more hygienic and built in a methodical
manner. These are lined with materials that are impermeable such as plastics and clay,
and are also built over impermeable soil. Constructing sanitary landfills is very costly and
they are have their own problems. Some authorities claim that often the plastic liner
develops cracks as it reacts with various chemical solvents present in the waste.The rate
of decomposition in sanitary landfills is also extremely variable. This can be due to the
fact that less oxygen is available as the garbage is compressed very tightly. It has also
been observed that some biodegradable materials do not decompose in a landfill
iv. Incineration plants:This process of burning waste in large furnaces is known as
incineration. In these plants the recyclable material is segregated and the rest of the
material is burnt. At the end of the process all that is left behind is ash. During the
process some of the ash floats out with the hot air. This is called fly ash. Both the fly ash
and the ash that is left in the furnace after burning have high concentrations of dangerous
toxins such as dioxins and heavy metals.
10b. Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
 The clean development mechanism has been designed to be a viable option for reducing
the industrialized countries’ carbon emissions. 
  This mechanism is built into the Kyoto Protocol, which was created after the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change came into existence.
 The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), defined in Article 12 of the Protocol, allows
a country with an emission-reduction or emission-limitation commitment under the
Kyoto Protocol (Annex B Party) to implement an emission-reduction project in
developing countries.
 India is the major recipient, accounting for around 31% of global carbon trading through
the clean development mechanism, which is estimated to generate at least -10 billion over
time.
 Gujarat Fluoro-Chemicals (GFL), based here in Vadodara, India, is the first Indian
company and one of only three in the world to have a reduction-of-emissions CDM
project certified after review by the heavily-regarded UNFCCC (Union Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change) Executive Board.
Carbon Trading:

 Carbon trade is the buying and selling of credits that permit a company or other entity to
emit a certain amount of carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases. The carbon credits
and the carbon trade are authorized by governments with the goal of gradually reducing
overall carbon emissions and mitigating their contribution to climate change.
 Carbon trade agreements allow for the sale of carbon credits in order to reduce total
emissions.
 Several countries and territories have started carbon trading programs.
 Carbon trading is adapted from cap and trade, a regulatory approach that successfully
reduced sulfur pollution in the 1990s.
 These measures are aimed at reducing the effects of global warming but their
effectiveness remains a matter of debate.
 Rules for a global carbon market were established at the Glasgow COP26 climate
change conference in November 2021, enacting an agreement first laid out at the 2015
Paris Climate Agreement.
11a. Technologies of Sustainable Energy
i. Solar Powered Trains :Thomas A. Edison, one of the most important inventors in the
electric power generation sector, said: “I’d put my money on the sun and solar energy.
What a source of power! I hope we don’t have to wait until oil and coal run out before we
tackle that.” It proves that there is a huge potential for solar energy. 
ii. Food waste solar panels:There are constant improvements in the energy sectors, one
that showcases another improvement in solar energy are solar panels made from food
waste. The revolutionary material was created using discarded fruit and vegetable
luminous particles. It was designed by an engineering student, Carvey Ehren R. Maigue,
who works for AuReus, and with his concept, he became a winner of the James Dyson
Award.
iii. Bladeless Wind Energy:A Spanish startup, Vortex Bladeless, projected the new design.
An elastic rod is used to secure the company’s 3m tall bladeless turbine vertically into the
ground. It is built to sway or oscillate within the wind’s speed range, and the vibration
that results from this produces energy. These bladeless turbines can be used in urban or
residential areas without the space required to construct conventional wind farms
 iv. Lithium-glass batteries:The importance of batteries in the renewable energy transition is
huge. In this article, we focused on the lithium-ion battery, John Goodenough’s
innovation. Goodenough is called the ‘father of lithium-ion batteries’ and he won a Nobel
Prize in Chemistry for this invention. These batteries have a much longer lifespan than
conventional batteries. They also work at lower temperatures, charge more quickly, cost
less, are safer (non-flammable), and store more energy over time.
v. Rechargeable Tyres:Goodyear is developing an innovative idea for electric vehicles to
reduce the time on changing tyres. The brand unveiled something it calls a “revolutionary
self-regenerating concept tyre that can adapt and change to meet individual mobility
needs.”
vi. 3D Printed solar energy trees:Instead of cutting down trees for energy, why not plant
them? Researchers at the VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland have created a
prototype of a tree that collects solar energy, kinetic and heat energy from its
surroundings, indoors or outdoors. It can store energy and convert it into electricity to
power small appliances like LED light bulbs, humidifiers, thermometers, and mobile
phones. 
vii. Waste power planes:One of the most carbon-intensive human activities is air travel.
Along with previously mentioned food solar panels made from waste, the ‘wet’ human
waste, like rotting food and sewage can be used for planes. These waste-powered aircraft
are propelled by waste-derived fuels, such as wood and household trash that react with
catalytic chemicals.
viii. Carbon nanotubes:Students from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have
discovered an innovative material consisting of carbon nanotubes that can produce
electricity by absorbing energy from its surroundings. Tiny carbon particles that can
generate a current just by reacting with the liquid around them can be used to produce
power. According to the researchers, the liquid, an organic solvent, pulls electrons from
the particles and creates a current that may be used to operate micro- or nanoscale
robotics or chemical reactions.
11b.Technology to mitigate climate change:
i. Renewables:Countries around the world are looking for renewable source of energy like
solar, hydro, and wind energy. With the application of geospatial technologies, suitable
sites for generation of the renewables can be identified, facilities management, economic
analysis and forecasting can be done by empowering a variety of geospatial data and
maps.
 i. Circular economy:The concept of Circular economy has opened floodgates for the
companies and government to optimize resource use. Technologies such as IoT, AI,
Blockchain and Big Data along with geospatial technologies play a significant role in
enabling circular economy, which helps in connecting suppliers and partners, monitoring
product lifecycle, and calculating the product’s environmental impact.

ii. Batteries and energy storage:Limited availability of natural resources, rising pollution
affecting the climate change and geopolitical conflicts across the globe such as the
Russian-Ukraine war, has created a space for innovation in the alternative energy sources.
This is where electric vehicles and innovations like gasification of high ash coals and
fluidized bed technology have found new growth opportunity.

iii. Building technologies (BIM):Construction is another booming industry and rightly so.
Due to growing population, it is important to build infrastructure to accommodate all. To
make the AEC sector more sustainable and environment friendly, combination of digital
technology along with geospatial technology is the only answer.

iv. Industrial-process innovation:Industries are constantly working on the process of

innovation to stay ahead and meet the demands of the future, industrial-processes need
sustainable solutions combined with geospatial technology into the innovation.Climate
technologies are assuming center stage due to the rising demand from nations to meet
net-zero emission targets.

v. Hydrogen:Hydrogen fuel has the potential to replace many electric generation process
for which either fossil fuels, solar or wind energy are used and in addition it is clean, non-
toxic and renewable source of energy, which is why it is suitable for vehicular
applications.

vi. Carbon removal, capture and storage:Technologies like satellite data, AI and ML are
used to monitor the earth’s surface and map the GHG emissions.According to the
International Energy Agency (IEA) to reach net-zero over 10 billion tons of carbon
dioxide will need to be captured per year by 2070.