CHAPTER

6: AIR
POLLUTIO
N
Here is where our presentation begins
Learning Objectives:

By the end of this chapter, students will be able to

 Describe the composition and structure of the atmosphere.
 Explain the importance of the ozone layer, its depletion, and specific steps
taken to address it.
 Distinguish between indoor and outdoor air pollution and how these compare
among industrialized and less
industrialized
countries
 Identify natural and anthropogenic sources of air pollution
 Explain the effects of air pollution on human
and ecosystem health
 Explain how the Clean Air Act legislation works and describe its outcomes
TABLE OF CONTENTS
01 02 03
Composition & Ozone Outdoor Air
Structure of the Pollution
Atmosphere

04 05 06
Indoor Air Pollution Effects of Air Acid Rain
Pollution on Human
Health
07
Air Pollution
Legislation
 1. Composition & Structure of the Atmosphere
Atmosphere - refers to the layer of gases that surrounds Earth and is held in place by
Earth’s gravitational attraction (gravity). The mix of gases in the atmosphere forms a
complex system organized into layers that together support life on Earth.

Although there are numerous gases, as shown in Table 6.1, the top four gases make up
99.998 % of the volume of clean dry air (unpolluted air that does not contain water
vapor). Of this dry composition of the atmosphere nitrogen, by far, is the most common
(78%).

Nitrogen is also needed and used by living things to make proteins, though as nitrogen
gas, it is unavailable to most living things.

Oxygen is used by all living things to make molecules that are essential for life. It is
also essential for aerobic respiration as well as combustion or burning.
Argon is a non-reactive gas, and we use it in light bulbs, in double-pane windows, and to
preserve priceless documents such as the original Declaration of Independence and the
Constitution.

Carbon dioxide is an essential gas used by plants and other organisms to make sugar (food)
through photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide also acts as a blanket that prevents the escape of heat
into outer space.

Water vapor (water in a 'gas' state) is usually present up to about 4% of the total volume
depending on location. In the Earth's desert regions (30° N/S) when dry winds are blowing,
the water vapor contribution to the composition of the atmosphere will be near zero.
 Earth’s atmosphere is divided into four distinct layers based on
thermal characteristics (temperature changes), chemical composition,
movement, and density (Figure 6.1).

The Troposphere, the lowest layer, extends from the surface up to

approximately 18 km, though its height varies between 6 km and 20 km
depending on location. With gravity holding most air molecules close to
Earth's surface, the troposphere is the densest layer, containing roughly 75%
of the atmosphere's total mass.
 The Stratosphere extends from the tropopause to about 50-
53 km above Earth's surface. It shares similar gas proportions with the
troposphere but contains almost no water vapor and about 1,000 times
more ozone (O3). Despite constituting only 19% of the atmosphere's
mass, the stratosphere has significantly lower density than the
troposphere.
 Above the stratosphere is the Mesosphere which extends to about
85 km above Earth's surface and lacks ozone molecules. Oxygen and nitrogen,
along with other gases, become less dense with altitude in this layer.

Between about 85 km and 600 km lies the Thermosphere, known

as the upper atmosphere, readily absorbs high-energy ultraviolet and x-ray
radiation from the sun, causing its temperature to increase with altitude,
reaching up to 2,000°C (3,600°F) near the top depending on solar activity.
Despite the high temperature, the thin atmosphere in this layer would feel very
cold to our skin due to the low number of molecules.
2. Ozone
Ozone (O3) comprises three oxygen atoms bonded together, while the oxygen gas
we breathe is O2, consisting of two oxygen atoms bonded together. This property
renders ground-level ozone in the troposphere an air pollutant, but in the
stratosphere, ozone plays a vital role in safeguarding life on Earth. Stratospheric
ozone forms when high-energy ultraviolet (UV) solar radiation splits oxygen
molecules (O2) into separate oxygen atoms (O), which then combine with other
oxygen molecules to produce ozone (O3). Once generated, ozone absorbs UV
radiation, breaking down to regenerate oxygen molecules and oxygen atoms.
The Ozone Layer
Ozone, a minor component of our atmosphere, is mainly concentrated
in the ozone layer, situated approximately 17 to 30 km above the Earth's surface.
This layer acts as a protective shield by absorbing the harmful portions of high-
energy UV radiation from the sun, which are categorized into UV-A, UV-B, and
UV-C. When ozone absorbs UV radiation, it generates oxygen atoms and releases
heat, warming the upper stratosphere. While UV-B is the most harmful radiation
reaching the Earth's surface, its impact is significantly reduced as most of it is
absorbed by stratospheric ozone, which is the only known gas capable of
absorbing UV-B.
The stratosphere maintains a
delicate equilibrium between
ozone creation and destruction,
crucial for sustaining the ozone
layer. Any disturbance to this
balance, where ozone destruction
outpaces creation, leads to ozone
depletion. This depletion allows
more harmful UV-B radiation to
reach the Earth's surface, which is
the essence of the ozone problem
under discussion.
The Ozone Hole
The term "Ozone Hole" is a misnomer; it refers to an area where the ozone layer
is significantly depleted rather than a literal hole. This depletion occurs annually during the
Antarctic spring and was initially disclosed to the public by the British Antarctic Survey in
1985. Over time, the thickness of the ozone layer above Antarctica declined, and the
geographic extent of the ozone hole expanded, peaking in its lowest concentration in 1994
and its largest coverage in 2000. However, recent data indicates that ozone concentration
globally, as well as in the Arctic and Antarctic regions, is no longer decreasing.
Ozone Depletion
Global ozone levels undergo regular fluctuations due to natural cycles such as changing
seasons, winds, and long-term solar variations. Ozone concentrations in the atmosphere are
typically measured in parts per billion (ppb). Ground-based instruments have been used to measure
ozone since the 1920s, while satellite measurements began in 1970 and continue today.
Ozone depletion occurs when the rate of ozone breakdown exceeds its creation rate,
disrupting the dynamic balance that sustains the ozone layer and increasing the amount of harmful
UV-B radiation reaching Earth's surface. Initially observed over Antarctica, scientists proposed that
reactions involving man-made chlorine-containing compounds were responsible for stratospheric
ozone depletion, based on the properties of these compounds and atmospheric conditions.
The Montreal Protocol

International efforts to curb the production of ozone-depleting CFCs

culminated in the 1987 Montreal Protocol treaty, where signatory nations committed to
having CFC production by 1998. Subsequent agreements, totaling at least five, further
deepened production cuts, accelerated compliance schedules, and addressed additional
ozone-depleting substances such as halons, methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, and
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). Most countries worldwide have phased out the
production of substances covered by these agreements, with industries successfully
transitioning to safer alternative chemicals.
 Congress passed Clean Air Act amendments, tasking the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) with developing and enforcing regulations for the responsible
management of ozone-depleting substances within the United States. Under the Clean
Air Act, the EPA has established several regulatory programs to address various issues,
including:

• Phasing out the production of ozone-depleting substances.

• Ensuring proper recycling of refrigerants and halon fire extinguishing agents.
• Identifying safe and effective alternatives to ozone-depleting substances.
• Prohibiting the release of ozone-depleting refrigerants during the servicing,
maintenance, and disposal of air conditioners and other refrigeration equipment.
• Requiring manufacturers to label products containing or made with the most harmful
ozone-depleting substances.
3. Outdoor Pollution
Outdoor Air Pollution
Outdoor pollutants originate from either stationary (point) sources or mobile
(nonpoint) sources (see Figure 6.7). Stationary sources are fixed in location, such as
power plant smokestacks, construction sites, farmlands, and surface mines. Conversely,
mobile sources emit pollutants while moving from one place to another. Examples of
mobile sources include vehicles, aircraft, ships, and trains.
Criteria pollutants

Under the Clean Air Act, particularly in section 6.7.1, the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) establishes air quality standards aimed at safeguarding public
health and the environment. The EPA has defined national air quality standards for six
common air pollutants: 1) carbon monoxide; 2) ground-level ozone; 3) nitrogen dioxide;
4) sulfur dioxide; 5) lead; and 6) particulate matter. Among these pollutants, particle
pollution and ground-level ozone pose the most prevalent health risks. The EPA
categorizes these pollutants as "criteria" air pollutants because it regulates them by
formulating human health-based and/or environmentally-based criteria (science-based
guidelines) for determining permissible levels. The standards based on human health
considerations are termed primary standards, while those aimed at preventing
environmental and property damage are known as secondary standards.
National air quality standards for six common air pollutants:

1. **Carbon Monoxide (CO):** Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless gas emitted during combustion
processes, particularly incomplete fuel combustion. In urban areas, mobile sources predominantly contribute to
ambient CO emissions.

2. **Ground-level ozone (O3):** Ground-level ozone, a colorless gas with a faint sweet odor, forms through the
interaction of sunlight, heat, nitrogen oxides (NOx), and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).

3. **Nitrogen dioxide (NO2):** Nitrogen dioxide is among a group of highly reactive gases known as "oxides
of nitrogen" or "nitrogen oxides (NOx).“

4. **Sulfur Dioxide (SO2):** Primarily emitted from fossil fuel combustion in power plants (73%) and
industrial facilities (20%), sulfur dioxide belongs to the group of highly reactive gases known as "oxides of
sulfur."

5. **Lead (Pb):** Historically, major sources of lead emissions were motor vehicle fuels and industrial
activities.

6. **Particulate Material (PM):** Particulate pollution consists of solid particles and liquid droplets
suspended in the air.
Volatile Organic Compounds - Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are carbon-containing
chemicals emitted as gases from both natural and human-made sources. Natural sources include
plants, the largest contributor, as well as bacteria in the guts of termites and ruminant animals. In
the atmosphere, VOCs typically oxidize into carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. However, VOCs
are concerning because they serve as precursors for ozone formation, a secondary air pollutant.

Smog - Smog, a mixture of air pollutants like sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone, and
particulates, often blankets urban areas due to fossil fuel combustion. Coined from "smoke" and
"fog," smog creates a brownish haze, reducing visibility and impairing breathing for some
individuals.

Toxic pollutants - Toxic air pollutants, also known as hazardous air pollutants, are substances known or
suspected to cause cancer, reproductive issues, birth defects, or other serious health and environmental problems.
4. Indoor Pollution
Indoor air pollution poses a greater health risk than outdoor pollution
in both developed and developing nations.

Inadequate ventilation exacerbates indoor air quality issues by failing

to dilute emissions from indoor sources or expel pollutants. Outdoor air enters
buildings through infiltration, natural ventilation (windows, doors), or
mechanical systems (fans, ducts).
5. Effects of Air Pollution on Human Health
Air pollution is recognized by the World Health Organization (WHO) and other global
agencies as a significant threat to human health. Extensive scientific research has established a
strong correlation between air pollution and various health issues.
Air pollution reactions are influenced by age, preexisting medical
conditions, and individual sensitivity. People with heart and lung diseases,
diabetes, older adults, and children are more susceptible. Individual
sensitivity varies greatly.
6. Acid Rain
Acid rain is a form of precipitation, such as rain, snow, or fog, that contains elevated levels
of acidic compounds, primarily sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3). These acids
are formed when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) emitted from industrial
activities, vehicle exhaust, and other sources react with water vapor, oxygen, and other
atmospheric components in the presence of sunlight.

The sources of acid rain are primarily human activities that release sulfur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere, although natural sources such as volcanic eruptions
can also contribute to acid rain formation.
Environmental Effects of Acid Rain:

 Damage to Aquatic Ecosystems

 Harm to Terrestrial Ecosystems

 Corrosion of Buildings and Infrastructure

 Human Health Impacts

7. Air Pollution Legislation
The historical incidents you mentioned, such as the events in Belgium in 1930, Donora,
Pennsylvania in 1948, and the London fog in 1952, serve as stark reminders of the severe
health risks associated with air pollution.

In 1930, in Belgium, a phenomenon known as temperature inversion caused pollutants to

become trapped near the surface, resulting in elevated atmospheric sulfur levels. This event
led to the deaths of 63 people and sickness in 1000 others.

Similarly, in October 1948, Donora, Pennsylvania, experienced a thick cloud of air pollution
lingering for five days, which resulted in the deaths of 20 people and sickness in 6000
residents out of the town's population of 14,000.

One of the most infamous incidents occurred during the London fog of 1952, where acid
aerosols trapped in the lower atmosphere led to the deaths of approximately 4000 people.

These tragic events served as crucial wake-up calls regarding the serious threats that air
pollution poses to public health and underscored the urgent need for environmental
regulations and initiatives to mitigate its harmful effects.
Clean Air Act
• In the United States, several federal and state laws were passed, including the original Clean Air Act of 1963,
which established funding for the study and cleanup of air pollution.

• 1970 that Congress enacted a much stronger version of the Clean Air Act in response to growing
environmental concerns.

• That same year Congress created the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) andgave it the primary role in
carrying out the law.

EPA's Role
• EPA's mission is basic health and environmental protection from air pollution for all Americans. To achieve
this mission, EPA implements a variety of programs under the Clean Air Act that focus on:
 reducing outdoor, or ambient, concentrations of air pollutants that cause smog, haze, acid rain,
and other problems;
 reducing emissions of toxic air pollutants that are known to, or are suspected of, causing cancer
or other serious health effects; and
 phasing out production and use of chemicals that destroy stratospheric ozone.

• Under the Clean Air Act, EPA sets limits on certain air pollutants, including setting limits on how much can
be in the air anywhere in the United States.
State and local government’s role

•Indeed, assigning responsibility for implementing the Clean Air Act to state and local
air pollution agencies is logical and effective.
•State, local, and tribal governments also monitor air quality, inspect facilities under
their jurisdictions and enforce Clean Air Act regulations.

6.7.4 Outcomes of the Clean Air Act

For more than forty years, the Clean Air Act has cut pollution as the U.S. economy has
grown. The combined emissions of the six criteria pollutants has continued to decrease
while population, gross domestic product, energy consumption, and vehicle miles
travelled have all continued to increase

•From 1970 to 2012, aggregate national emissions of the six common pollutants alone
dropped an average of 72 percent while gross domestic product grew by 219 percent
(Figure 6.14).