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I. DEITIES AND PLACES OF WORSHIP

A. The supernatural realm lies beyond our senses, yet in almost every age and culture,
people have created diagrams, symbols, and pictures that express to some extent their
understanding of divinity.
1. Humans strive constantly to grasp divine realm through:
a. Rituals
b. oral tradition sacred writings meditation prayer
c. music
d. and art

II. RELIGIONS AND THEIR IMAGERY OF DEITIES AND HOLY BEINGS

A. Simple geometric shapes often symbolize God:

1. the sphere and dome in Islamic architecture stand for the heavens and the oneness of
God
2. the circle In the Hindu religion, symbolizes the unknowable Supreme Being
3. the triangle stands for the Christian Trinity
B. Animal features or natural phenomena can symbolize deities:
1. the sun can be a symbol for God.
2. Jesus is symbolized by a sacrificial lamb
3. the Holy Spirit by a dove or by fire.
4. Other religions are animistic, with natural elements or animals as deities.
5. In many religions, God is not pictured.
6. Most African religions and the Hindu religion recognize a completely unknowable
Supreme Being.
7. In the Islamic religion, Allah is never depicted.
8. Animism - all forces of nature are inhabited by spirits; a rock or tree can be carved
into an image to bring out the natural force.
9. The Venus of Willendorf (Figure 6.3) was believed to contain the spiritual force of
procreation, an important aid to ancient fertility rituals.
10. Polytheism - the belief in many gods.
11. The Earth Mother - first of the polytheistic gods, the giver of life, fertility and the
carrier of death.
12. In ancient myths the Goddess existed first.
C. The Snake goddess likely evolved from the Earth Mother; she represents male and female
regenerative powers.
1. The Snake Goddess, was a powerful goddess in the Minoan civilization:
a. open bodice and prominent breasts tied to early fertility goddesses
b. intense expression and upraised arms energize the figure
c. snakes may represent male sexuality
d. female fertility and regenerative powers connected to snake’s shedding skin
e. the leopard-like animal on her head may symbolize royalty
f. the tiered dress and hairstyle represented Minoan fashion
D. Ancient Greeks believed all life on earth began with Gaia, the Earth Goddess, the Greek
gods of Olympus were her descendants.
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1. Greek gods were always portrayed in human form according to the Greek aesthetic
rule of proportion.
2. Later Classic depictions had convincing anatomy and movement - were idealized and
flawless.
3. Zeus, (or possibly Poseidon), from the Classic period. Shown as:
a. chief among Greek gods
a mature male
ideal, godlike in his physique
b. larger than life size figure monumental, muscular, ideally proportioned
c. conveys action and energy poised and dignified
E. Deities of ancient Egypt were personifications of natural forces. Most were represented
as animals or as animal-human combinations.
1. The goddess Hathor, associated with the sky, stars, love, mirth, and joy.
2. Depicted as a human and a cow.
3. The goddess Hathor encompasses and hovers protectively over Psamtik, an Egyptian
official.
4. She is identified by:
a. horns which surround the head of a cobra, a sign of royalty
b. the combination of horns and sun disk which symbolize royalty and divinity
c. a calm, majestic face
F. Mesoamerican cultures often linked the gods with corn and water, because water was
essential and corn symbolically stood for all food.
1. The goddess, Xilone’s important function was to promote abundant growth of the
corn crops.
2. Xilonen was the protector of young corn plants.
a. head is rounded, humanlike, grandly adorned
b. head dress is adorned with ornamental bands and ears of corn
c. she wears a collar made of sunrays
d. heavy pendants decorate her ears
e. the jade necklace symbolizes crop fertility
3. Also from Mesoamerica, Tlaloc, the rain deity made crops flourish.
4. Tlaloc was traditionally shown with distinctive features:
a. circular eyes
twisted serpent nose fanged mouth headdress
large ear ornaments
b. flattened features rendered as geometric shapes
G. Pantheism - belief that a divine spirit pervades all things in the universe.
H. Hinduism - appears to have numerous gods, but it is pantheism, rather than polytheism.
1. All of their “gods” are manifestations, or “avatars,” of a divine universal spirit -
Brahman the Unbounded
2. Brahman is one, pure being, pure intelligence, and pure delight, and is therefore
unknowable.
3. Shiva, an avatar, is: good and evil
a. male and female
b. unity in which all opposites meet
c. the destroyer of life, who also recreates it
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d. terrible and, at the same time mild

4. Shiva has often been depicted as the Lord of the Dance.
a. his body, like a dancer, supple, sleek, graceful
b. he stands in perfect balance
c. he is the embodiment of cosmic energy
d. the balanced pose is the concept of eternal stillness.
e. multiple arms tell of his power
f. divine wisdom is shown by the third eye in the middle of his forehead
g. his far right hand holds an hourglass-shaped drum the beating stands for creation
and the passing of time.
h. the second right arm is
i. coiled by a snake symbolizing regeneration
j. the mudra is a sign of protection the far left hand balances a flame
k. that symbolizes destruction
l. the left foot is elevated in the dance, indicating release from this earth
m. right foot crushes ignorance
n. the circle of fire radiating around Shiva shows the unfolding and transformation of
the universe and its destruction
I. Buddhism - follows the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama.
1. For several hundred years after his death, Buddha was represented by a set of
symbols, but never as a human.
2. Later in Buddhism, its founder is depicted as the Enlightened One, the Buddha.
3. One symbol for Sakyamuni was the stupa, a sign of his death and of attainment of
nirvana.
4. Originally, a stupa was a mound tomb. It eventually was transformed into a
monument that contained the ashes or relics of a Buddha.
5. Stupa symbolism:
a. the form represented the cosmos, dwelling place of the ancient gods and sacred
womb of the universe
b. the low balustrade wall containing four heraldic gates, called toranas, are located
at the four cardinal points
c. the square enclosure on top of the dome symbolized the heavens
6. The mast with umbrellas, called chatras, united the world with the paradises above
7. Chatras signified the levels of human consciousness through which the human soul
ascends to enlightenment
8. The stupa as a symbol of Buddhahood spread throughout Asia, although there were
local variations in its design
9. Later sects emphasized a more personal Buddha.
10. Early sculptures were variations of older Hindu spirits, with Buddha- identifying
attributes:
a. the topknot of hair, a cranial bump indicating wisdom
b. a circle between the eyebrows.
c. earlobes were long, since he was once a bejeweled prince
d. In later images, the emphasis was on the serenity of Buddha:
e. the body seems almost weightless.
f. the torso and limbs are simplified graceful lines, elegant shapes
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g. clothing is sheer and clinging, unworldly in its draping and

h. perfection
i. tall arches of the brow, downcast eyes, quiet, sensual mouth a transcendent
serenity
j. seated in lotus position
k. abstracted foliage represents the Tree of Enlightenment
11. Over the centuries, Buddhist beliefs became more complex.
12. Bodhisattvas are living beings who have attained Buddhahood but have chosen to
remain on earth to help others.
13. Depictions of Guanyin vary radically, with 2 to 12 arms, crowned, sometimes with a
muscular male body or with an effeminate body.
J. Monotheism
Monotheism the belief in one god and that there is no other.
1. Judaism is one of the oldest monotheistic religions of the Western world and also the
foundation of Christianity and Islam.
2. It was thought that the making of images in the Jewish faith was forbidden because of
the 2nd Commandment.
3. But images have been found in scripture illumination and on the walls of ancient
synagogues.
4. The Synagogue at Dura-Europos, was transformed into a place of worship in the 2nd
C. CE.
5. The paintings on the walls:
a. illustrate stories found in the Hebrew Bible
b. figures have stylized gestures, lack expression, mass, and depth
c. stand in frontal rows action was not depicted Yahweh shown as a hand
6. Christianity - has many kinds of images of God. Some understand God as a single
being, others conceive of God as a Trinity.
7. As an actual historical figure, Jesus is the most commonly depicted:
a. as a shepherd
b. as a royal ruler
c. as miracle worker as a judge
d. as a teacher
e. as a beautiful child as a dying man
K. In Madonna of the Meadow , Jesus is the center, his cousin, St. John the Baptist, at the
left, and Mary, his mother.
a. the children sweet, but solemn
b. the cross portends their roles of savior and prophet
c. human, but dignified and divine
1. Mary and children fit into an implied triangle, the sacred shape of the Trinity
2. Mary completely contains the form of Jesus--she is His mother
3. She is a symbol for the church, the harbor implies protection Mary was known as the
Port of Salvation
4. The Isenheim Altarpiece, shows Jesus at death, a moment both of annihilation and of
redemption from sin.
5. The Isenheim Altarpiece conceptual rather than a realistic representation:
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a. the lamb holding a cross, bleeding into a chalice, symbolizes animal sacrifices of
the past and the current offering of bread and wine
b. people who were present at the Crucifixion are omitted
6. St. John the Baptist is shown, although he was dead
7. The painting consoled hospital patients. They could see the suffering of Christ and
relate it to their own suffering
8. Islam - founded by Mohammed in 7th C. Arabia.
9. Koran believes in complete submission to Allah, the same deity of the Jewish and
Christian and faiths.
10. Islam’s sacred scriptures, the Koran, contain the articles of faith.
11. Images of Allah are forbidden, but the Prophet Mohammed is sometimes shown in
art.
12. In a glorious array of fire and clouds, the veiled Mohammed ascends into heaven
accompanied by angels.

L. HUMANS RESPOND TO GOD

1. Religious ceremonies, prayers, rituals acknowledge God and request what is needed
for earthly or spiritual existence.
2. Many religions require humans to make offerings to the gods, as outward signs of
their devotion.
3. Art frequently is part of this process.
4. Ceremonies
5. The Kwakiutl of the Northwest coast built special houses for the winter ceremonies.
6. Performers in full masquerade told stories and became the supernatural beings of their
masks.
7. During the performance, the character changes from an earthly being to a
supernatural being.
8. The dancer turns and manipulates the mask with hidden strings and devices, and turns
into a completely different mask.
9. The intent of this magical event was to make humans fear the supernatural.
10. Through rituals using transformation masks like this one, the Kwakiutl people could
access the spirit world.

M. OFFERINGS

1. In central Mexico, believers leave small votive paintings called retablos at important
religious shrines, as a form of prayer and thanks.
2. Retablo of Maria de la Luz Casillas and Children
3. The translation reads:
a. I give thanks to the Holiest Virgin of San Juan de los Lagos for having made me
so great a miracle of saving me in a dangerous operation that was performed on
me for the second time on the 9th day of October 1960, in Los Angeles,
California. Which put me at the doors of death
but entrusted to so miraculous a Virgin I could recover my health, which I make
apparent the present retablo: in sign of thanksgiving . .
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4. Maria is seen twice, a helpless and vulnerable patient, as the supplicant with her
children
5. The Virgin looms large in the gray room, with golden rays,
6. Extraneous details are omitted to emphasize Maria’s helplessness and the Virgin’s
power.
7. Compare the retablo with the crafted offerings of the Balinese people.
8. The Balinese commemorate religious days by giving handmade offerings.
9. They regard these offerings as artworks and consider many of their people to be
artists.
10. Religion and art are integrated components of everyday life.
11. Sacrifices - various forms of religious blood sacrifices have been practiced
throughout the ages.
12. Judeo-Christian religions have a history of blood sacrifice.
13. One sacrifice tells of Abraham, who prepared to kill his son Isaac at God’s command
but at the last minute was allowed to substitute a ram.
14. The Sacrifice of Isaac shows: an emotionally intense moment
15. Isaac’s nude body as perfect, increasing the merit of the sacrifice a ram (not visible in
our detail), became an acceptable offering
16. This relief illustrates the ultimate test of faith in the Jewish and Christian religion.
17. In other cultures, human offerings to deities also involved blood sacrifice.
18. Various Mesoamerican cultures—Maya, Toltec, Aztec, and others practiced blood
sacrifice to the sun.
19. Shield Jaguar and Lady Xoc, an example of a bloodletting ceremony:
a. the Mayan ruler holds a torch over his principal wife
b. she pulls a thorny rope through a hole in her tongue
c. blood sacrifices had to be performed by a high ranking person
d. rank shown by wrist bracelets, necklaces, crowns, and garb
e. flattened foreheads were signs of beauty
1. More extreme forms of blood sacrifice were practiced, such as cutting out the hearts
of captured warriors or the captains of ball teams.
2. Prayer - a vehicle of communication between humans be and the gods, it can take
many forms.
3. The Hop is of North America, make small sculptures as a form of prayer.
4. They believe kachinas, or spirits of the dead, dwell in their community for 6 months
in winter and spring.
5. Kachinas ensure the welfare of the community and sufficient moisture for crops.
6. Male members of the Hopi community perform as kachinas during religious festivals.
7. They also carve dolls that reproduce the costume of specific spirits.
8. The colors on the dolls represent sacred directions:
a. North-blue or green West-yellow South-red East-white
b. the heavens- multicolor the nadir - black
9. During ceremonies:
a. children receive the dolls to educate them
b. women receive them as symbols of fertility
c. dolls are hung from rafters in houses as blessings and as prayers for rain and good
crops.
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10. The Power Figure is an art object used as a form of prayer to counter the evil
influence of enemies--- human, animal, or spiritual.
11. Shamans activate them, placing medicines in the figure’s abdomen or in the back or
head.
12. The figure’s power is released by driving in a metal nail or blade for each request for
help.

N. THE COSMOS

1. Artists in different traditions have made works that map the cosmos, showing:
a. the origin of the world
b. the structure of the universe
c. spiritual beings
d. the place of humans in relation to the gods
e. a diagram of time
2. Cosmic moments:
a. God depicted as a powerful, older man in pink robes separates light from darkness
b. God creates the sun and moon
c. He separates the water from land.
d. Creates Adam, then Eve
e. Adam and Eve break God’s commandment, create original sin
f. Expulsion from Paradise
3. The mandala, is a radially balanced, geometric diagram augmented by images of
deities, humans, and symbols of the universe.
4. The mandala reinforces the belief that the cosmos, including the physical and spiritual
worlds, is an uninterrupted whole of continually fluctuating energy states.

O. COSMIC MOMENTS:

a. the circle, symbolizes the void before creation

b. the image of the God will appear in this emptiness
c. the deity Samvara, rules and sets the universe into motion
1. Places of worship may:
shelter a congregation
a. house sacred objects
incorporate elements of nature
incorporate symbolic geometry
be sites of sacred ceremonies and pilgrimages
2. Housing Sacred Objects
3. Many places of worship were built specifically to house a sacred image, text, or
artifact.
4. In the Jewish religion, the most holy structure is called the Ark of the Covenant, a
special tabernacle to hold sacred objects.
5. Places of worship can be natural sites:
a. mountains - meeting places between heaven and earth
b. sacred trees or groves, dwelling places of divine beings
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c. rocks are containers or symbols for spirits and deities

d. earth and water are the sources/sustainers of life
fire, light, and the sun are divine symbols or spirits themselves
1. The Ziggurat at Ur is a sacred artificial mountain erected by the Sumerians of Ur to
honor their special deity.
2. The word ziggurat means “mountain” or “pinnacle.” Surrounded by flat land, this
terraced tower of rubble and brick seemed to reach into the heavens.
3. The Shinto religion teaches that forests and enormous stones are sacred dwellings of
the gods of nature, called the Kami.
4. The Kami are prevailed upon to enter the shrine, where their powers are worshiped
and their aid solicited.
5. Rebuilt every 20 years to exactly the same specifications.
6. Builders observe careful rituals and express gratitude as they take wood from the
forest.
7. The wood is left plain and unpainted to retain its natural character, and it is carefully
fitted and joined with pegs. Nails are not used.
8. Using Geometry Symbolically
9. Many cultures use geometry and symmetry to symbolize:
a. divinity totality perfection timelessness
10. Stonehenge is an altar and
a. an astronomical device mapping solar and planetary movement.
11. The arrangement marks the midsummer solstice, essential to an agrarian civilization.
12. The Pantheon is a shrine to the chief deities of the Roman Empire.
13. The structure is symmetrical and creates the impression of loftiness, simplicity, and
balance.
14. A 142-foot-diameter sphere fits into the interior space, making the width equal to its
height.
15. The dome, a perfect hemisphere.
16. The oculus, creates a shaft of sunlight that illuminates the interior.
17. Providing Sites for Sacred Ceremonies and Pilgrimages
18. Places of worship can be sites for sacred ceremonies and pilgrimages.
19. A pilgrimage is a journey to a shrine or sacred place for believers hoping to receive
special blessings or deepening of faith.
20. Muslims journey to Mecca Jews to Jerusalem Catholics to Lourdes Hindus to various
shrines
21. Mountains of France. The design recalls:
a. praying hands
the wings of a dove the shape of a boat
22. To accommodate large crowds on holy days, the church has an outdoor altar and
pulpit so that services could be conducted for twelve thousand pilgrims on the lawn.
23. The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem is a historic and sacred pilgrimage place for
Jews, Christians, and Muslims.
24. Built on a rock platform, it occupies the site believed to be: the burial place of Adam
a. the altar upon which Abraham’s son Isaac was saved by an angel
b. the Hebrew Temple destroyed by the Roman Emperor Titus
c. the stone from which Mohammed ascended to heaven
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25. These complexes incorporate the characteristics of sacred sites.

26. A religion that is firmly established and tied to political power can afford expensive,
labor-intensive, long- term projects.
27. Grand places of worship are expressions of:
a. temporal power religious power broad cultural values
28. Mathematical Proportions and Greek Philosophy
a. in tune with the heavens.
29. The Greeks were engaged in a search for perfection in science, geometry, art,
religion, and philosophy.
30. They believed that certain geometric ratios and certain musical intervals resonated
with the cosmic order and were
a. shaft
b. column
31. The Egyptian Temple
32. Egyptian temple design remained relatively constant for 3,000 years.
33. Temple Design
34. The Horus Temple at Edfu housed the sacred cult image of the sun falcon, Horus.
Because cult temples were believed to be the actual dwellings of the gods, they were
modeled after the residences of nobles and pharaohs.
35. Two covered rooms are located beyond the entrance courtyard at
36. Edfu. They were hypostyle halls, with parallel rows of columns that supported the
ceiling.
37. The columns are huge and closely spaced.
38. The shapes of the columns and capitals were derived from bundles of reeds used to
build early Egyptian buildings.
39. To express divine permanence and power, Egyptians translated that original organic
material into massive and monumental granite and limestone.
40. The Hindu Temple
Theology and Temple Design
41. Hinduism is based on 2 belief systems.
42. The first is nature-based and venerates the spirits responsible for the plant and animal
life.
43. The concept of reincarnation, an infinitely repeating cycle of life and death.
44. The second belief system is an understanding of the cosmos in symbolic, geometric
terms.
45. Temple architecture gives form to these spiritual beliefs. earliest temples were cave
temples carved into mountains, like opening the earth’s womb
a. later temples were freestanding, thick-walled cubes, containing a womb-chamber
that housed the cult image
46. The latest Hindu temples became much more elaborate, but the same basic formula of
womb-chamber and mountain remains.
47. Visual unity in the temple is maintained in the basic mountain-like form and the
simple umbrella shape (which represents the Unbounded) that tops the tallest tower.
48. The temple exterior is an instrument of meditation on reincarnation.
P. The Buddhist Temple
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1. Distinct versions of Buddhist temples sprang up in India, Southeast Asia, Indonesia,

China, Japan, and Korea.
2. The Temple is laid out on a north-south axis.
3. Altars and temples face south, the source of temperate weather and abundance.
4. Temple complexes were also carefully sited relative to the forces of wind and water.
5. Design of a Pagoda:
a. geometric shape, simplified mountain form
b. wide eaves provide shelter from sun and rain
c. gently curving, violet-blue tile roof, similar to the color of a dark blue sky
d. outside walls are deep red, with bands of gold
e. the interior is red lacquer with foliage patterns in gold and blue
f. 28 posts on the interior support the roof
g. 4 central posts represent the 4 seasons
h. other columns represent months of the year, the division of day and night
i. a marble slab with a the dragon and phoenix, symbols of the emperor and empress
Q. The Hebrew Temple
1. Ancient Hebrew peoples seldom had a permanent homeland in the early years of their
history, a tent was likely their early place of worship as well as a temporary temple.
2. In 957 BCE, King Solomon built the first Temple in Jerusalem, a grand structure
replacing the portable sanctuary of old.
3. It was destroyed in 586 BCE, and the second Temple was begun and dedicated in 515
BCE.
4. The Wailing Wall in Jerusalem is believed to have been a part of the remaining ruins
of the old Temple.
5. The wall is one of the foundations for the platform of the Dome of the Rock.
6. The synagogue has evolved as a community house of worship, assembly, and study,
and it also houses sacred objects.
7. The Gothic Cathedral - one of the most famous forms of a Catholic church.
8. Christians saw the church as the heavenly Jerusalem on earth.
9. Gothic cathedrals were all funded by and built in cities, indicating the rise of cities
and monarchies and a decline in feudalism.
10. The modern humanist view that values the individual was beginning to develop at this
time.
11. Gothic cathedrals towered over the towns around them.
a. spires symbolized the linking of heaven and earth
b. large windows are filled with tracery, lacy stone framework that holds glass in
place
c. blank spaces are covered with figurative sculptures or decorative carvings
d. flying buttresses create a visual pattern of forms that jog in and out
e. towers, pointed arches, buttresses, and arcades create vertical lines that continue
from ground to roof
12. The tall vertical design emphasized by its spires symbolizes the Roman Cath olic
Church’s role of linking heaven and earth.
13. Plan and Design
Gothic cathedrals towered over the towns around them,
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a. does not guarantee this page will contain current material or match the published
product.
14. The plan of Chartres is symmetrical, in the shape of a cross, symbolizing Jesus’
crucifixion as the act of salvation.
15. The emphasis on verticality continues inside, the piers, flow gracefully up the pointed
groin vaults.
16. The vaults seem to billow overhead rather than being stone structures that weigh tons.
R. Window Design
1. The large stained-glass windows were incredible technical achievements and
powerful symbols of heavenly radiance.
2. The Rose Window, on the north transept of Chartres shows Old Testament prophets
and kings surrounding Mary with her child Jesus.
3. Geometry was used to locate the small scenes in this window by inscribing and
rotating squares within a circle.
4. The window is shaped like a blooming rose, a symbol of Mary.
5. The stained glass filled the church with light. In the center are Mary and Jesus,
surrounded by
6. Old Testament prophets.
7. The Islamic Mosque – it is thought that the plan of Mohammed’s house in
8. Medina influenced the design of early mosques.
9. On the wall facing Mecca was the mihrab, a special marker niche.
10. A stepped pulpit called the minbar was usually located next to the mihrab.
The tall minarets could be seen from afar, giving hope to weary travelers.
11. There are no icons, statues, or images in Islamic worship or in mosques.
12. Later Developments in Mosque Design
13. One of the most beautiful mosques ever constructed is in Iran,
14. Masjid-i-Shah, or the Royal Mosque .
15. The Masjid-i-Shah has a very rough exterior, contrasting with the lavishly decorated
interior.
16. The spaciousness and symmetry of the mosque represent the infinity and
completeness of Allah.
S. Pattern
1. Ornamentation is profuse and serves several purposes:
a. it symbolizes Allah in its suggestion of infinity and
b. creation
c. it enhances the sacred character of the mosque
d. it identifies and makes visually distinct the various parts of the mosque
e. it disguises the mosque’s mass, although not the form
1. Calligraphic lettering become very elegant and almost indistinguishable from
geometric or foliage patterns.
2. The panels on either side of the doorway resemble Persian weavings and tapestries.
3. The entire complex is unified by the enormous, patterned turquoise dome that
dominates the skyline.
4. The circular dome stands for the heavens and symbolizes the oneness of Allah.
5. The Mesoamerican Temple - often took the form of a pyramid with a small structure
on top.
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6. History and Setting - 39 miles north of Mexico City, the

7. Teotihuacános, built a vast religious center in a city high on a plateau surrounded by
mountains called Teotihuacán, or “Place of he Gods”.
8. This huge part of an of temple
9. Temple Designs
10. In the middle of the Avenue of the Dead was the Pyramid of the Sun.
11. The pyramid is staggering in size, covering 7.5 acres and rising 215 feet. This huge
pyramidal temple is part of an expansive complex known as the Place of the Gods.
T. Temple Painting
1. Early temples had sculptural ornamentation, but after the third century, paintings
were used.
2. The deity is distinguished by her larger size, frontality, and the symmetrical patterns
that ornament her. The entire piece shows the Teotihuacános’ fondness for elaborate
symmetrical patterns.