CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

Filtration is a fundamental unit process that is commonly used to help remove: particles present in
surface water, precipitated hardness from lime-softened water, microorganisms (bacteria, viruses,
and protozoan cysts), precipitates of aluminum and iron used in coagulation, and precipitated iron
and manganese present in many well water supplies.

Filtration can be compared to a sieve or micro-strainer that traps suspended material between the
grains of filter media. However, since most suspended particles can easily pass through the spaces
between grains of the filter media, straining is the least important process in filtration. Filtration
primarily depends on a combination of complex physical and chemical mechanisms, the most
important being adsorption. Adsorption is the process of particles sticking onto the surface of the
individual filter grains or onto the previously deposited materials. Forces that attract and hold
particles to the grains are the same as those that work in coagulation and flocculation. In fact,
coagulation and flocculation may occur in the filter bed, especially if coagulation and flocculation
before filtration was not properly controlled. Incomplete coagulation can cause serious problems in
filter operation.

1.1 Types of Sand Filter

Generally, there are two types of sand filter

 Slow Sand Filter

 Rapid Sand Filter

1.2 Slow Sand Filter

Slow sand filtration is a type of centralised or semi-centralised water purification system. A well-
designed and properly maintained slow sand filter effectively removes turbidity and pathogenic
organisms through various biological, physical and chemical processes in a single treatment step.
Only under the prevalence of a significantly high degree of turbidity or algae-contamination, pre-
treatment measures (e.g. sedimentation) become necessary. Slow sand filtration systems are
characterised by a high reliability and rather low lifecycle costs. Moreover, neither construction nor
operation and maintenance require more than basic skills. Hence, slow sand filtration is a promising
filtration method for small to medium-sized, rural communities with a fairly good quality of the
initial surface water source.

1
 Figure 1.1 Diagram of Slow Sand Filter
1.2.1 Filtration Process
The basic principle of the process is very simple. Contaminated freshwater flows through a layer of
sand, where it not only gets physically filtered but biologically treated. Hereby, both sediments and
pathogens are removed. This process is based on the ability of organisms to remove pathogens.

1.2.2 Advantages of Slow Sand Filter

 Very effective removal of bacteria, viruses, protozoa, turbidity and heavy metals in
contaminated fresh water.
 Simplicity of design and high self-help compatibility: construction, operation and
maintenance only require basic skills and knowledge and minimal effort
 If constructed with gravity flow only, no (electrical) pumps required
 Local materials can be used for construction
 High reliability and ability to withstand fluctuations in water quality
 No necessity for the application of chemicals
 Easy to install in rural, semi-urban and remote areas, Simplicity of design and operation.
 Long lifespan (estimated >10 years)

1.2.3 Disadvantages of Slow Sand Filter

 Minimal quality and constant flow of fresh water required: turbidity (<10-20 NTU) and low
algae contamination. Otherwise, pre-treatment may be necessary
 Cold temperatures lower the efficiency of the process due to a decrease in biological activity
 Loss of productivity during the relatively long filter skimming and ripening periods
 Very regular maintenance essential; some basic equipment or ready-made test kits required to
monitor some physical and chemical parameters
 Possible need for changes in attitude (belief that water that flows through a green and slimy
filter is safe to drink without the application of chemicals), Chemical compounds (e.g.
fluorine) are not removed
 Natural organic matter and other DBPs precursors not removed (may be formed if chlorine is
applied for final disinfection)
 May require electricity
2
  Requirement of a large land area, large quantities of filter media and manual labour for
cleaning, Low filtration rate

1.3 Rapid Sand Filter

Rapid sand filtration is a purely physical drinking water purification method. Rapid sand filters
provide rapid and efficient removal of relatively large suspended particles. Two types of are typically
used: rapid gravity and rapid pressure sand filters. For the provision of safe drinking water, RSFs
require adequate pre-treatment (usually coagulation-flocculation) and post-treatment (usually
disinfection with chlorine). Both construction and operation is cost-intensive. It is a relatively
sophisticated process usually requiring power-operated pumps, regular backwashing or cleaning, and
flow control of the filter outlet. Rapid sand filtration is common in developed countries for the
treatment of large quantities of water where land is a strongly limiting factor, and where material,
skilled labour, and continuous energy supply are available.

1.3.1 Treatment Process and Basic Design Structure

The major parts of a gravity rapid sand filter are:

 Chamber: filter tank or filter box

 Filter media (sand)
 Gravel support
 Under drain system
 Wash water trough

Figure 1.2 Diagram of Rapid Sand Filter

The filter chamber is usually made out of reinforced concrete, filled with sand and gravel to the
height of 1.5-2 metres. The water is supplied to the top of the sand-bed and filtered as it flows
through the layers of graded sand and gravel. A system of perforated pipes on the bottom drains the
chamber. The filter chamber can be constructed as open tanks (rapid gravity filters) or closed tanks.
3
This filtering process is determined by two basic physical principles. First, relatively large suspended
particles get stuck between the sand grains as they pass the filter medium (mechanical straining).
Second, smaller particles adhere to the surface of the sand grains caused by the effect of the van der
Waals forces (physical adsorption). A chemical filter-aid (i.e. coagulant or flocculant) might be
added to promote additional adhesion.

In the course of these processes, more and more particles accumulate in the filter medium,
increasingly causing clogged filters and decreased performance. Initial filtering performance can be
re-achieved through a cleaning of the filter bed. This is usually conducted through backwashing: the
flow of water is reversed, so that treated water flows backwards through the filter. The sand is re-
suspended and the solid matter is separated in the surface water. Often, air is injected additionally to
support the cleaning process. As soon as most particles are washed out and the backward flowing
water is clear, the filter is put back to operation. Clearly, relatively large quantities of sludge are
generated through backwashing and require some form of treatment before discharge into the
environment.

1.3.2 Advantages
 Highly effective for removal of turbidity (usually < 0.1-1 NTU)
 High filter rate (4’000 – 12’000 litres per hour per square metre of surface), small land
requirements
 No limitations regarding initial turbidity levels (if coagulant or flocculant is available and
correctly applied)
 Cleaning time (backwashing) only takes several minutes and filters can be put back into
operation instantly
1.3.3 Disadvantages
 Not effective in removing bacteria, viruses, fluoride, arsenic, salts, odour and organic
matter (requires pre- and post-treatment)
 High capital and operational costs
 Frequent cleaning (backwashing) required (every 24-72h)
 Skilled supervision essential (e.g. for flow control and dosage of disinfectant)
 High energy input required
 Backwashing water and sludge needs treatment; sewage system or stabilisation ponds
required

4
 CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW

[1] Bibhabasu Mohanty [2017] Various experiments were performed for water i.e., pH, Turbidity
and Total dissolved solids to determine the initial and final concentration. pH of the sample helps to
determine the acidic or basic characteristics. Generally the pH scale varies from 0 to 14. 0 to 7 is
acidic, 7 are neutral and 7-14 is alkali in nature. According to drinking point of view it plays an
important role. Continuous use of acidic or alkali water create the serious health issues. Two models
were fabricated for experimental point of view. One is conventional sand filter and other is modified
sand filter. For conventional sand filter the materials base material is gravel and filter material is
sand. For modified filter along with gravel and sand, ferric chloride and PVC granules also used.
[2] Alvaro E. Gil and Kevin M. Passino (July 19, 2004) The purification of drinking water is
typically achieved via adding a disinfectant. Chlorine is the most common disinfectant used in
drinking water purification systems because it is inexpensive and destroys a large number of
pathogens. The effluent turbidity control of a deep bed rapid sand filter run by a direct filtration
method. The operation of this filter depends on the physical and chemical properties of raw water,
flow rate, bed depth, grain size of the media, and the type of coagulant used. Direct filtration differs
from conventional filtration by eliminating the flocculation and sedimentation stages, resulting in
cost savings and plant size reduction.

[3] C.H.Wagh and A. Z. Chitade ( April, 2016) The coagulation through backwash water also
needs to be investigated to obtain desired reduction in value of turbidity spike. In the next stage,
combination of both ways during ripening and backwash will be employed to determine the optimum
dose of coagulants. The optimum dose and its way of adding are to be considered for preserving
desired initial filtrate quality. All experimental studies will be carried out on the lab scale model and
result shall be applied to existing water treatment plant. The configuration of filter media column
shall be designed similar to prevailing rapid sand filters in India. The usual operation of filtration and
backwashing shall be carried out along with monitoring of head losses, turbidity as well as duration
of different cycles.

[4] Amirtharajah and Westein ( 1980) The initial degradation of effluent quality for a granular
media filter and its important application for the design of rapid sand filter. It was hypothesized that
when the bed was brought back to the fixed bed state, the collision between media particles would
release some of the suspended solids remaining on the media to the water within the pores of the
media. It was anticipated that this release would cause the greatest degradation of initial effluent
quality during the next filtration run. Assuming the phenomenon to be a mechanism contributing to
the initial degradation, it was also hypothesized that enhancement of the collisions by sudden valve
closure would increase the magnitude of the peak.

[5] Ranjeet Sabale and Sahil Mujawar(October 2014) It is observed that as filtration rate affects
length of filter run resulting in shorter filter run length. Filtration efficiency mainly depends on
porosity of media used for filtration work. Filtration efficiency of capped filter is about 95% while
that of conventional filter is about 89%. Backwashing is done more effectively in capped filter than
5
conventional filter. So reduction in back wash water requirement is observed up to 35%. Capping
proves an efficient technique for improving performance of rapid sand filters in terms of head loss
development, filter run length and turbidity removal efficiency. Capping with PVC granules with
3cm depth gives turbidity removal up to 92% while Capping with 5cm depth gives turbidity removal
up to 96%. Filter run length of capped rapid sand filter increases up to 2 to 2.5 times than that of
conventional rapid sand filter. Backwash water requirement for capped rapid sand filter is about 40%
that of conventional rapid sand filter i.e. back wash water requirement is reduced by 60%.

6
 CHAPTER-3
OBJECTIVE

Objective of the project

1. Design the Rapid Sand Filter for Greater Noida city

2. Increase the filtration rate of rapid sand filter by using PVC granules as capping material and
ferric oxide as coagulant.
3. To increase the efficiency of conventional rapid sand filter
4. Summarize the findings and draw conclusions as to how well the solution meets specific
design criterion.

7
 CHAPTER-4
METHODOLOGY

4.1 Selection of city/town

We have selected the Greater Noida city for designing of rapid sand filter project. In this, the city is
selected for filteration based on certain criteria and information of Greater Noida like raw water
quality, capacity of plant, demand fluctuation of water,population of that city etc. Greater Noida
City is a north Indian city with a population in excess of 100,000, located in the Gautam Budh
Nagar district of the northern state of Uttar Pradesh. The city was created under the UP Industrial
Area Development Act, 1976. Greater Noida Notified Area - 38000 Ha Comprising 124 villages
(308 km2) Noida's infrastructure was carefully laid out. The idea was to create a world-class city
approximately 25 km from Noida. As per provisional data of the 2011 census, Greater Noida had a
population of 107,676, with 58,662 males and 49,014 females. The literacy rate was 86.54%, 91.48%
of males and 80.65% of females. Greater Noida has a similar climate to Delhi: very hot and dry
during summer, hot and humid during monsoons, pleasant and dry during spring and autumn, and
cool to cold during winters.

4.2 Population Forecasting

Methods 1 (Average growth rate of neighbouring DMA towns method)
A study of surrounding NCR towns having similar industrial and administrative characteristics
namely Noida, Faridabad and Gurgaon is done before projecting the population. By studying the
Growth patterns, it is observed that the decadal growth rate for take off phase for these towns is in
the range of 150 to 300 percent. Since Greater Noida is at a comparatively farther distance from
Delhi, a lower decadal growth rate of 150 percent could be adopted for the projection of population.
As proposed in Outline Development plan, 2001, the population for Greater Noida for the year 2001
is 3 lakh (to be achieved by 2003). Assuming this population as the base, Population for Greater
Noida for 2011=6.6 lacs for the first phase.

After the take off phase, the growth rate is expected to slow down and stablise.Therefore, average
growth rate of Faridabad and Noida, which are similar towns around is studied for the year 1981-91
and 2001-11 respectively, which suggests a decadal growth rate of about 93 percent in the second
phase. On this basis, the population for the year 2021 works out to be = 12.70 lacs. On this basis, the
population for the year 2021 works out to be = 12.70 lacs. On this basis,the decadal growth of 90%
the population for the year 2031 works out to be = 24.13lacs.

Method 2 (Industrial workforce method)

According to a sample survey done by the National Industrial Development Corporation Ltd. For 41
industries, 6418 persons were working in the surveyed industries in a total area of 245.29 ha.
8
Therefore on this basis the total industrial workers in 1596.96 Ha industrial area can be assumed for
the year 2001 (in 1596.96 ha) = 41,784.

The industrial workers density comes to 26 ppha. The low density is on account of high-tech,
capital intensive industries located here, which have less labour requirement but large land
requirement. Assuming that the units have scope for future expansion within their area, the density
may increase marginally to 30 ppha.

With the pressure of demand of more Industrial land in proximity to Delhi and the policy of
restricting industrial development in Delhi and DMA, the present trend of land allotment may
continue it can be assumed that the industrial area will be developed @ of approx. 100 ha gross area
per year. The total industrial area will be approx. 2600 ha. By the year 2011.

Assuming a workers density of 30 pph, total industrial workers come to 80,000. Assuming this as
40% of total work force, the total workers will be 80,000/40 x 100 = 2.0 lakhs. Assuming a WFPR
of 33% (as per UDPFI guidelines), total population for the year 2011 works out to = 6.06 lacs. In
2021 – a decadal growth of 93% the total population for the year 2021 will be 11.7 lacs. . In 2031 – a
decadal growth of 90% the total population for the year 2031 will be 22.23 lacs.

Method-3 (By area developed and allotted)

According to study done by M/s Feedback Infrastructure Ltd. Regarding provision of various
infrastructure facilities, based on assessment of areas developed and allotted, population proposed for
the year 2001 = 11,110 and, population proposed for the year 2011 = 4,95,820. Taking this as base
and for second phase taking the same decadal growth rate of 93%, population for the year 2021 =
9,56,933. Taking this as base and for third phase taking the same decadal growth rate of 90%,
population for the year 2031 = 1818172.7.

Comparative Analysis of Method 1-3.

Methods Projected Population (Lakhs)
2011 2021 2031
Method1 6.60 12.74 24.13
Method 2 6.06 11.70 22.23
Method 3 4.96 09.57 18.18
For the final projection, the average for the above mentioned figures are taken which comes to 5.87
lakhs, 11.34 and 21.51 for the year 2011, 2021 and 2031 respectively. Apart from the urban
population growth based on above mentioned methods, there is bound to be migration from the
villages in the notified area (outside the urbanisable area) due to better living conditions in the urban
area. The rural population for the villages in notified area is projected to 3.15 lakhs. It is assumed
that about 30% of the population will move to urban settlements and there will be an addition of 1.0
lakh in the population on this account. Hence the total projected population for the year 2011 comes
to 6.87 lakhs rounded off to 7.0 lakhs.
9
Similarly, for the year 2021 assuming a decadal growth rate of 93%, the population will be 12.34
lakhs say 12.0 lakhs.

Similarly, for the year 2031 assuming a decadal growth rate of 90%, the population will be 22.8
lakhs say 23 lakhs.

4.3 Per Capita Water Demand

Per capita water demand of mega city like greater noida according to the ministry of drinking water
and sanitation, government of india is 150 lpcd, Litres per Capita per Day.

4.4 Water supply demand

Water supply demand of a greater noida is based on the population over there,the average population
of greater noida year 2011 is 5.87 lakhs. So the water supply demand will be 88.05 mlpd.

The average population of greater noida year 2021 is 11.34 lakhs. So the water supply demand will
be 170.1 mlpd

The average population of greater noida year 2031 is 21.51 lakhs. So the water supply demand will
be 322.65 mlpd

10
 CHAPTER-5

DESIGNING OF RAPID SAND FILTER

5.1 Designing of rapid sand filter for (2021) year

Water required per day = 185 M.L.

Assuming that 4% of filtered water is required for washing of the filter,everday,we have
Total filtered water required per day
=185 ML/0.96 = 192.4 = 192.4 M.L/day.

Now,assuming that 0.5 hour is lost everyday in washing the filter, we have filtered water
required per hour
=192.4/23.5 M.l./hour = 8.187 M.L/hr.

Now,assuming the rate of filtration to be 6000 litres/hr/sq.m, we have,area of filter

required
=8.187 x 106 m2= 1364.5 m2
6000
Now,assuming the length of the filter bed (L) as 1.5 times the width of the bed (B), and two
beds, the total area provided
17 x (L.B) = 1364.5 m2
17x(1.5 B) (B) = 1364.5 m2

B2 = 53.50 m2

B = 7.31 m
L = 1.5 B = 1.5 x 7.31 = 10.96 m

Hence, we take 17 filter unit of (10.96x7.31)m2

Hence, adopt 17 filter units, each of dimensions
10.96 m x 7.31 m. Ans.
.
Design of under-drainage system.

Let a "manifold and lateral system" be provided below the filter bed, for receiving the filtered water,
and to allow back washing for cleaning the filter.This consists of a central manifold pipe, with
laterals having perforations at their bottom.

To design this system, let us assume that the total area of the perforations in all the laterals is 0.2% of
the total filter area.
Total area of the perforations
11
 = 0.2% x Filter area
= 0.2% (10.96 x 7.31 ) m2 =0.160 m2

Now, assuming the area of each lateral

= 4 times the area of perforations in it
(for 13 mm dia perforations), we have

Total area of laterals = 4 x Total area of perforation.

= 4 x 0.160 m2= 0.64 m2.
Now, assuming the area of the manifold to be about twice the area laterals, we have
The area of manifold
2 x 0.64 = 1.281 m2.
Dia of manifold (d) is given by
( 3.14/4)xd2 = 1.281 or d= 1.278 m
Hence, use a 1.3 m dia manifold pipe laid length wise along the centre Of filter bottom. Laterals
running perpendicular to the manifold (i.e. Widthwise) eminating from the manifold may be laid at a
spacing of say 30 cm(max. 30 cm).
The number of laterals given as
= ( 10.96 x 100 )/30 = 37

on either side of the manifold. Hence, use 74 laterals in all, in each unit .
Now, length of each lateral unit.
= Width of filter - Dia of manifold
2 2
= 7.31 – 1.3 = 3 m.
2 2
Now, adopting 13 mm dia perforations in the laterals, we have Total area of perforations =
0.160 m2
= 1600cm2 = n x (3.14/4)x(1.3)2
where n= Total no. of perforations in all 70 laterals

n= 1600 x 4/(3.14x1.32) = 1206.

No. of perforations in each lateral
=1206/74 = 16.
Area of perforations per lateral
16 x [(3.14/4) x(1.3)2] cm2 = 21.2cm2.

Now, area of each lateral

= 4 x Area of perforations per lateral
= 4 x 21.2 = 85 cm2

Dia of each lateral = 10.4 cm

12
Hence, use 74 laterals each of 10.4 cm dia,@ 30 cm c/c, having 16 perforation of 13 mm size, with
130 cm dia manifold.

CHECK:

Length of each lateral = 300 cm = 28.8

Dia of lateral 10.4 cm
(which is less than 60, and hence O.K)

Now, let us assume that the rate of washing of the filter 80 cm rise/minute or 0.80 m/minute.
The wash water discharge
= 0.80 x (10.96 x 7.31) m3/sec = 1.068 m3/sec
60
Velocity of flow in the laterals for wash water

= 1.068 = 1.69 m/sec

74 x 0.00849

Similarly, velocity of flow in the manifold

= Discharge = 1.068 = 0.805 m/sec
Area 1.327

= 0.0805 which is less than 1.8 to 2.4 m/sec . hence O.K

Design of wash water troughs.

Wash water troughs, as said earlier, are generally kept at about 1.5-2 m apart. So in a width of
7.31m of filter bed,
let us provide 4 troughs, at 7.31 = 1.827 m apart.
4
Now, the total wash water discharge of 1.068 m3/sec enters in these 4 troughs.
Discharge in each trough
= 1.068 = 0.267 m3/sec.
4
The dimensions of a concrete V-bottom trough are now designed by using an empirical formula

Q = 1.376 b.y3/2
where Q = discharge in m3/s
b = width of trough in m = y (assume)
y= water depth in the trough in m

Let

13
 0.267 = 1.376 .y.y3/2

Or y5/2 = 0.267 = 0.194

1.376
y = (0.194)2/5= 0.519 m = 51.9 cm.

Keeping 5 cm freeboard, adopt the depth of trough

= 52+5 = 57 cm.
Hence, 4 wash water troughs of size 52 cm x 57 cm may be used

5.2 Designing of rapid sand filter for (2031) year

Water required per day = 345 M.L.

Assuming that 4% of filtered water is required for washing of the filter,everday,we have
Total filtered water required per day
=345 ML/0.96 = 359.37 M.L/day.

Now,assuming that 0.5 hour is lost everyday in washing the filter, we have filtered water
required per hour
=359.37/23.5 M.l./hour = 15.29 M.L/hr.

Now,assuming the rate of filtration to be 6000 litres/hr/sq.m, we have,

area of filter required
=15.29 x 106 m2= 2546.6 m2
6000
Now,assuming the length of the filter bed (L) as 1.5 times the width of the bed (B), and two
beds, the total area provided
23 x (L.B) = 2546.66 m2
23 x (1.5 B) (B) = 2546.66 m2

B2 = 73.81 m2

B = 8.59 m
L = 1.5 B = 1.5 x 8.59 = 12.885 m

Hence, we take 23 filter unit of (12.8 x 8.59)m2

Hence, adopt 23 filter units, each of dimensions
12.8 m x 8.59 m. Ans.
.

14
Design of under-drainage system.

Let a "manifold and lateral system" be provided below the filter bed, for receiving the filtered
water, and to allow back washing for cleaning the filter.This consists of a central manifold pipe,
with laterals having perforations at their bottom.

To design this system, let us assume that the total area of the perforations in all the laterals is 0.2% of
the total filter area.
Total area of the perforations
= 0.2% x Filter area
= 0.2% (12.8 x 8.59 ) m2 =0.219 m2

Now, assuming the area of each lateral

= 4 times the area of perforations in it
(for 13 mm dia perforations), we have

Total area of laterals = 4 x Total area of perforation.

= 4 x 0.219 m2= 0.876 m2.
Now, assuming the area of the manifold to be about twice the area laterals, we have
The area of manifold
2 x 0.876 = 1.752 m2.
Dia of manifold (d) is given by
(3.14/4)xd2 = 1.752 or d= 1.493 m
Hence, use a 1.5 m dia manifold pipe laid length wise along the centre Of filter bottom. Laterals
running perpendicular to the manifold (i.e. Widthwise) eminating from the manifold may be laid at a
spacing of say 30 cm(max. 30 cm).
The number of laterals given as
= ( 12.8 x 100 )/30 = 42.66; say 43

on either side of the manifold. Hence, use 86 laterals in all, in each unit .
Now, length of each lateral unit.
= Width of filter - Dia of manifold
2 2
= 8.59 – 1.5 = 3.54 m.
2 2
Now, adopting 13 mm dia perforations in the laterals, we have Total area of perforations =
0.219 m2
= 2190cm2 = n x (3.14/4)x(1.5)2
where n= Total no. of perforations in all 70 laterals

n= 2190 x 4/(3.14x1.52) = 1240.

No. of perforations in each lateral
=1250/86 = 14.53; say 15.
Area of perforations per lateral
15
 15 x [(3.14/4) x(1.5)2] cm2 = 26.5 cm2.

Now, area of each lateral

= 4 x Area of perforations per lateral
= 4 x 26.5 = 106 cm2

Dia of each lateral = 11.61 cm

Hence, use 86 laterals each of 11.61 cm dia,@ 30 cm c/c, having 15 perforation of 13 mm size, with
150 cm dia manifold.

CHECK:

Length of each lateral = 354 cm = 30.47

Dia of lateral 11.61 cm
(which is less than 60, and hence O.K)

Now, let us assume that the rate of washing of the filter 80 cm rise/minute or 0.80 m/minute.
The wash water discharge
=0.80 x (12.8 x 8.59) m3/sec = 1.466 m3/sec
60
Velocity of flow in the laterals for wash water

= 1.466 = 1.61 m/sec

86 x 0.01

Similarly, velocity of flow in the manifold

=Discharge = 1.466 = 0.829 m/sec
Area 1.767

= 0.829 m/sec which is less than 1.8 to 2.4 m/sec . hence O.K

Design of wash water troughs.

Wash water troughs, as said earlier, are generally kept at about 1.5-2 m apart. So in a width of
7.31m of filter bed,
let us provide 4 troughs, at 8.59 = 2.147 m apart.
4
Now, the total wash water discharge of 1.466 m3/sec enters in these 4 troughs.
Discharge in each trough
= 1.466 = 0.366 m3/sec.
4
16
 The dimensions of a concrete V-bottom trough are now designed by using an empirical formula

Q = 1.376 b.y3/2
where Q = discharge in m3/s
b = width of trough in m = y (assume)
y= water depth in the trough in m

Let

0.366 = 1.376 .y.y3/2

Or y5/2 = 0.366 = 0.2663

1.376
y = (0.2663)2/5= 0.589 m = 58.9 cm.

Keeping 5 cm freeboard, adopt the depth of trough

= 59+5 = 64 cm.
Hence, 4 wash water troughs of size 59 cm x 64 cm may be used

17
 CHAPTER-6
FABRICATION OF MODAL

Models was fabricated for experimental point of view. It is modified sand filter. For
conventional sand filter the materials base material is gravel and filter material is
sand. For modified filter along with gravel and sand, ferric chloride and PVC
granules also used.
Gravels
 Used as supporting material for filter.
 3 layers of gravel, larger at bottom and smaller at top.
 Gravels sieved at 13.2 mm, 9.5 mm and 8 mm.

Figure 6.1 Gravels

Sand

 Used as filter material.

 Layers of sand filter for filtration activity.
 Sand collected and sieved by 710 micron sieve.
 Properly cleaned and oven dried at 105 º C.

Figure 6.2 Sand

PVC Granule

 Used as capping material.

 Collected from local vendor of size 2-4mm.
 Washed properly and oven dried at 50º C.
 2 layers in between the filter material.

18
 Figure 6.3 PVC Granules

Material arrangement in modified filter

Layer-1 Base Gravel 7.5 cm

material thickness

Layer-2 Capping PVC 2.5 cm

material granule thickness

Layer-3 Filter Sand 3 cm

material thickness

Layer-4 Capping PVC 3 cm

material granule thickness

Layer-5 Filter Sand 3.5 cm

material thickness

Table 6.1 Layers Of Filter Media

Figure 6.4 Layering of filter media

19
Under Drainage System

 It is intended to collect the filtered water and to distribute the wash water during back washing,
 It mainly consist a main pipe i.e. manifold and laterals with perforation.

Figure 6.5 Manifold and Laterals

Washwater trough

 It placed above the filter media to collect the backwash water.

 The upper edge of the wash water trough should be placed sufficiently nearer to the surface of
sand so that a large quantity of dirty water is not left above the filter sand after back washing.

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 Figure 6.6 Backwash trough

 This is usually conducted through backwashing: the flow of water is reversed, so that treated
water flows backwards through the filter. The sand is re-suspended and the solid matter is
separated in the surface water. Often, air is injected additionally to support the cleaning process.
As soon as most particles are washed out and the backward flowing water is clear, the filter is put
back to operation. Clearly, relatively large quantities of sludge are generated through
backwashing and require some form of treatment before discharge into the environment.

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 CHAPTER-7
OBSREVATION AND ANALYSIS OF MODEL

 Filtration efficiency mainly depends on porosity of media used for filtration work. PVC granule
capping depth – 5.5cm (2.5 and 3 cm), compared to sand and so larger particles remains on top
after backwashing it also provides larger depth for filtration and improves performance by
removing larger suspended particles at initial stage.
 Due to porous nature maximum throughout volume can be achieved and also run length is
increased. This is the reason due to which modified sand filter has a better efficiency in terms of
removal of turbidity.

 When the raw water is passed through the sand particles, the water gains some turbidity. Ferric
chloride also used as a admixture to modified filter. This also helps to achieve the efficiency of
removal.

 The porosity of the filter media is increased due to double layers of sand and PVC granule and
due to this, the rate of filtration increases significantly.

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 CHAPTER-8
CONCLUSION

The conclusion can be drawn from this project work is:

 Instead of providing one sand layer of for filtration work, sand layer with two capping is also
useful to carry out efficient filtration work.
 Capping with PVC granules with 2.5 cm and 3 cm capping layer increases turbidity removal
efficiency.
 By using PVC granules as capping material, the washing period for sand filter can be increased.
Because capping material helps to prevent the direct contact between sand and water, hence the
sand particles didn’t get clogged immediately.

By using ferric chloride as admixture (0.15 mg/L) following points are achieved:
 Very effective in the removal of high and low turbidity.
 Works over a wide pH range.
 Low cost.

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 REFERENCES

[1] Ben Aim, R., Sahnoun, A., Chemin, C., Hahn, L., Visvanathan, C. and Vigneswaran, S., New
filtration media and their use for water treatment, Proceedings, World Filtration Congress, Nagoya,
Japan, 1993.

[2] Cleasby, J. L., Declining rate filtration, Water Science and Technology, 27(7-8), 11, 1993.

[3] Conley, W. R. and Hsiung, K., Design and application of multimedia filters, J. AWWA, 61(2),
97, 1969.

[4] Gadkari, S. K., Raman, V. and Gadkari, A. S., Studies of direct filtration of raw water, Indian J.
Environ. Health, 22(1), 575, 1980.

[5] Tate, C. H. and Trussel, R. R., Recent developments in direct filtration, J. AWWA, 72(3),
165,1980.

[6] Vigneswaran, S. and Ngo, H. H., Trends in water treatment technologies, Proceedings of Korea-
Australia Joint Seminar on the Recent Trends in Technology Development for Water Quality
Conservation, Seoul, Korea, June 1993, 145-155, 1993.

[7] Visscher, J. T., Slow sand filtration: Design, operation and maintenance, J. AWWA, 82(6), 67,
1990.

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