~
1378
A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF DIGITAL RELAYING ALGORITHMS
FOR THE DIFFERENTIALPROTECITON OF THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS
wchel Habib
Student Member
Department of Electrical Engineering
McGill University, Montreal,
Qukbec,Canada, H3A 2K6
Abstraci - In view of the numerous benefits of digital
relaying in terms of economics, performance, reliability, flexibility
and system interaction, significant efforts have been made in the
development of digital relaying algorithms.
This paper is a survey and a comparative analysis of various
algorithms introduced for the differential protection of three-phase
transformers. After a brief review of the concept, the problems
associated with the differential protection of transformers and the
existing solutions as implemented with conventional
(electromagnetic) relays, the algorithms introduced for digital
relaying are outlined. Some of these algorithms are derived from
conventional protection methods while others represent new
methods. They are analyzed in view of how well they address the
two subproblems of differential protection per se and
exciting-currentdetection.
Finally, a simple ranking procedure is introduced. Two
optimality performance indices, based on time and frequency, are
defined and used as a basis for a comparison of the algorithms
presented.
I”
Digital computers have been used extensively for power
system control, protection and monitoring in the last 15 years.
Since the appearance of the microprocessor in the mid-seventies,
digital relaying in particular has attracted much attention. Numerous
algorithms for the differential protection of three-phase
transformers have been proposed in the literature [l],[3-131 and
are presented and compared here, using a comparison procedm
intruduced by IREQ. First, however, the concept of transformer
differential protection is reviewed and the main problems associated
with this type of protection are discussed, as well as their
conventionalsolutions.
CONCEPTS. PROBLEMS A N D SOLUTIO^
Differentialprotection is a unit-typeprotection for a specified
zone or piece of equipment. It is based on the fact that it is only in
the case of faults internal to the zone that the differential current
(difference between input and output currents) will be high.
However, the differential current can sometimes be substantial even
without an internal fault. This is due to certain characteristics of
current transformers (different saturation levels, nonlinearities)
measuring the input and output currents, and of the power
transformer being protected (tap changes, A-Y and Y-A
connections, inrush and overexcitation conditions).
All these problems, except those of inrush and overexcitation
currents, can be solved by means of the percent differential relay,
which adds to the normal differential relay two restraining coils fed
by the zone-through current, by proper choice of the resulting
percent differential characteristic, and by proper connection of the
This paper was sponsored by the IEEE Power Engineering Society for
presentation at the IEEE Power Industry ComputerApplicationConference,
Montreal, Canada, May 18-21,1987. Manuscript was published in the 1987
PICA Conference Record.
0885-8950/88/08OO- 1378sO1.OO 0 1988 IEEE
IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, Vol. 3, No. 3, August 1988
Miguel A. Mm‘n
Senior Member
Institut de recherche d”ydreQu6bec
1800 Mont& Ste-Julie, Varennes,
Qukbec,Canada, SOL 2PO
current transformers on each side of the power transformer.
In order to deal with the problems of inrush and
overexcitation conditions, designers of conventional relays have
devised many solutions, of which two, harmonic restraint and
voltage restraint, are presented.
Harmonic restraint is based on the fact that the inrush current
has a large second-harmonic component, and the overexcitation
currrent a large fifth-harmonic component, which are used to
restrain the relay from tripping during those two conditions,
respectively. Voltage restraint is based on the fact that phase
voltages decrease only in the case of an internal fault, not under
inrush or overexcitation c,onditions. Therefore, the relay is
restrained from tripping if the phase voltages are above a certain
threshold.
These considerations suggest that transformer differential
protection algorithms may be divided into two subalgorithms: one
for differential protection per se , the other for inrush and
overexcitation conditions. This is reflected in the structure of the
algorithms proposed in the next section for differentialprotection of
three-phase transformers by digital relaying.
DIGITAL-RELAYING ALGORITHMS
Literature survev - Algorithms addressing the subproblem of
differential protection per se have been proposed by Rockefeller
[8], who adapted the concept of percent differential protection of
conventional relays to digital relaying, by McCleer and Mir [qwho
introduced the new concept of the time differential relay or delta
differential (or A-differential) relay and by Malik, Dash and Hope
[4], who introduced a unified approach valid for both impedance
and differential protection.
These algorithms must be complemented by those dealing
with the problems of inrush and overexcitation conditions.
Numerous algorithms have been proposed for detecting inrush
conditions, the majority based on the fact that the second-harmonic
component of the differential current is much larger in the case of
inrush than for a fault. They are thus derived from the conventional
harmonic-restraint approach. These algorithms differ by the
method used to isolate the fundamental and second-harmonic
components. Sykes and Morrison [9] use recursive band-pass
filtering for that purpose. Malik, Dash and Hope [5] use cross-
correlation methods, with both sinusoidal and square waves.
Larson, Schweitzer and Flechsig [3] use finite-impulse-response
(FIR) filters, Thorp and Phadke [ll] use the discrete Fourier
transform (DFT), Rahman and Dash [7] obtain the DFT from the
rectangular Fourier transform (FFR) and Degens [ 13 has proposed
a least-squares curve-fitting technique.
In addition to harmonic restraint, Rockefeller [8] has
proposed a method based on the waveshape of the differential
current, Sykes [9] a method based on the modeling of the
transformer in saturation, and Thorp and Phadke [12] a method
based on voltage restraint derived from the conventional tripping
suppressor method, and another based on flux restraint [13].
Most algorithmspresented for inrush-conditiondetection can
also be used for overexcitation. The proposed algorithms are
summarized in Table 1 and in more detail in appendix.
Since the problem of transformer differential protection is
divided into the two subproblems of differential protection per se
and exciting current detection, the following presentations and
comparisons will address these two issues separately. In some
cases, a qualitative analysis and comparison of the corresponding
algorithms will suffice in order to make a preferential choice but in
others, both qualitative and quantitative analyses will be required.
 1379
Differential motection Der se algorithms - There are three basic
algorithms for solving this subproblem: percent differential [8], Instantaneous trip zone
A-differential[6] and unified approach [4] (Table 1).
The percent differential relay adaptation consists in
computing through and differential currents, and comparing them
according to a percent differential characteristic (Fig. 1). The e
r
steeper slope, after 11, is to account for the additional uncertainty
introduced by current-transformer saturation and is a good example
e
L
Possible fault zone
1
of the increased flexibility permitted by digital relaying. This 0
algorithm has no memory, and the output at instant n depends
solely on the inputs at instant n.
The principle of the A-differential relay is to use only those
currents generated by an internal fault. Its advantage is its
sensitivity to high-impedance faults while maintaining the external
/
fault selectivity of standard percent differential relays. A memory
function of one cycle is required to retain a prefault reference
signal.
The unified approach is based on the cross-correlation of
transformer primary voltage and current. The behavior of the
resulting signal depends on the transformer operating condition: it Restraining current
is constant for normal operation, increases for external fault, and
decreases in the case of an intbmal fault or inrush. Here again, a Fig. 1. Percent differentialcharacteristic

AUTHORS APPROACH USE0 SUBPROBLEM ADDRESSED SAMPLING RATEIWINDOW LeNCTHl IMPLEMENTATION TYPE OF TESTS COHp(ENTS
LlBSPONSE TIHE (AVERAGE) TRANSFORMER
-
Rockefeller Percent dlfferential Differential protec- 2000 NzIN.A.Il0 ms Simulation of Single and Simulation Integrated software
(1969) protection + w a v e tion + inrush current relay three phase of trans- package €or complete
shape identifkation detection transformers former cur- substation protec-
rents tion
__
Sykes and Recursive band pas3 Inrush current detec- 1000 NzlN.A.173 ms Simulation of Single phase Simulation 50 HE fundamental

ri)-
Morrison filtering tion relay on IBM transformer of trans- frequency
(1971) 360150 in former CUI-
FORTRAN rents

~ liransformer Dodelling Traosforwr saturation Not availablelN.A.IZ to 6 ms Simulation of Three phase Laboratory 50 HE fundamental
condition detection relay transformer test m d e l

Halik et al. Cross correlation Inrush current detec- 960 Hz/fu:l cyClel9 08 Simulation of Single phase Simulation
with siousoidal or tion 480 Hzlfull cyclelll ms relay on transformer of trans-
square waves for sinusoidal waves (12 6 CDC 6400 former cuc-
15 PB respectively for square rents
waves )

Finite impulse re- Inrush current detec- 480 Hzlfull cycle116.6 ms Simulation of Single phase Simulation
(1977) sponse (FIR) filters tion relay i n FORTRAN transformer of trans-
former c u r

Larson et al. Percent differential Differential protec- 480 Hzlfull cycle/l9.1 ms Prototype built Single phase
rents

Laboratory
I I
(1979) protection + FIR tion + inrush current based on transformer test trans-
filters detection MC 6800 former

Halik. et al. Unified approach Differential protec 960 A d f u l l cycle17 ms Simulation of Synchronous Laboratory
(1979) tion 960 Hzlhalf cycle13 18 relay on W 2100 generator + test model
in assembler three phase
transforner
AUTHORS AYPKOACH USE0 SUBPROBLEH ADDRESSED SIvlpLING MTE/WINDOW LENGTH/ IMPLEMENTATION TYPE OF TESTS COMMENTS
RPSPONSE TIME (AVERAGE) TRANSFORMER
__-
McLeer b Mir Delta differential Differential protec- 720 &/full cycle/16.6 ms Prototype built Single phase laboratory Sensitivity to high
(1982) relay tion based on 8086 general circuit test impedance low CUP
circuitry rent faults

Thorp 6 PercenL differential Differential protec- 720 Hdhalf cycle/8 ms Simulation of Three phase Transformer
Phadke protection + voltage tion + Inrush current relay in FORTRAN transformer simulated
(April 1982) restraint detection on AEP
simulator

Degens Differential protec- Differential protec- 600 Hzlfull cycle/30 ms Prototype built Single phase Laboratory 50 Hz fundamental
(1982) tion + least squares tion + Inrush current baaed on 6502 transformer test trans- frequency
curve fit detection former

Thorp L Percent differential Differential protec- 720 HzlN.A.111 os Simulation of Three phase Transformer
Phadke protection + flux tion + Inrush and relay in FORTRAN transformer simulated
(1983) restraint overexcitation cur- on AEP
rents detection simulator
 1380
memory function of one cycle is required to perform the cross
correlhtion.
The requirement that the selected algorithm operates in real
time suggests the choice of the percent differential adaptation,
especially in view of the satisfactory performance of conventional
percent differential relays over years of service and the memory and
computational requiremenrs of the other two approaches.
Exciting-current detection aleorithms - Qualitative considerations
are now applied to the exciting-current detection algorithms and
will permit the selection of a subset of these algorithms.
The waveshape identification method [8] is considered first,
Referring to Fig. 2, it can be seen that transformer exciting current,
during overexcitation condition, does not satisfy any of the three
requirements used by this protection method to distinguish between
no fault (inrush or overexcitation) and fault (internal fault)
conditions. In other words, its succesive peaks do not occur at
about 7.5-10 ms, are of opposite signs and do not differ from each
other by more than 25%.It is, therefore, impossible to distinguish
between an internal-fault condition, which calls for relay operation,
and an overexcitation condition, which calls for relay restraint.
Considering now the harmonic-restraint-based algorithms
[1,3,5,7,9,11],it will be noticed that they only require transformer
input (primary) and output (secondary) currents. This is also true of
the percent differential protection algorithm.
On the other hand, flux- and voltage-restraint-based
algorithms [12,13] and the one based on transformer modeling [101
require the transformer primary voltage in addition to input and
output currents needed by the percent differential protection
algorithm. The additional potential, scaling and isolation
transformers, low-pass filter and A D Converter required by this
signal will increase the cost of this relay.
Finally, if the recursive bandpass filtering approach was not
chosen, it is because of the existence of poles in the transfer
functions of the corresponding filters. The poles may move outside
the unit circle because of coefficient quantization and result in
unstable fiiters [16].
These qualitativeconsiderations suggest the narrowing of the
choice of algorithms for exciting-current detection to
harmonic-resttaint-basedalgorithms (excluding recursive bandpass
filtering). These are: a) cross-correlation with sinusoidal or square
waves [5], b) discrete Fourier transform obtained from rectangular
Fourier transform [7], c) finite-impulse-response filters [3], d)
discrete Fourier transform [ l l ] and e) least-squares curve-fitting
[ 11. Yet, cross-correlation with sinusoidal waves and the
computation of the discrete Fourier transform are the same , as are
cross-correlation with square-waves and finite-impulse-response
filters. In addition, the two latter, d) and e), when extended to
isolate the fifth harmonic, must be transformed into the computation
of the discrete Walsh transform because odd and even square
waves do not constitute a complete basis of representation
functions.
In order to select the optimal algorithm among these, a
thorough evaluation procedure and two optimality criteria are used,
as described below.
Fig. 2. Exciting current [14].
EVALUATION OF ALGORITHMS
Evaluation methodology - A general evaluationprocedure for digital
protective relaying algorithms has been outlined by Kezunovic [2].
It consists of the following series of methodologicalsteps:
1. Generation of an accurate database of the faulted
waveforms to be used for algorithm testing.
2. Determination of transfer function models for instrument
and power transformers.
3. Consideration of the various sampling functions using
different types of data window.
4. Determination of transfer functions for various
input/output components, including isolation and scaling
transformers, anti-aliasing fiiters, and analog to digital converters.
5. Development of a common mathematical representation
for all the algorithms, considering them as various types of digital
filter. The z-transform of each filter should then be developed.
6. Frequency and time analysis of the cascaded interactions
given in 1 to 5.
7. Developmentof a ranking mamx which relates accuracy,
sampling rate and response time of the algorithm to the Same basic
characteristics of the power system.
8. Extensive field testing of the algorithms and
representations of steps 1 to 6 above to update the ranking matrix
mentionedin 7.
This methodology will now be applied to the harmonic
restraint based algorithms selected as a result of qualitative
considerations. The objective now is to arrive at an optimal choice
among these algcnithms. To accomplish this, steps 3,5,6 and 7
will be applied to the following algorithms (Table 1): discrete
Fourier transform [5,11], discrete Fourier transform obtained from
rectangular Fourier transform [7], discrete Walsh transform [3,5]
and least-squares curve fitting [ 11. The optimality criteria needed
for step 7 are introduced as follows.
Q~timalitvcriteria - Two performance indices will be used,
namely, a perjormance index 0, ,used to evaluate optimality in
time and defined as the total number of operations (additions,
subtractions, multiplications, shifts) required to compute the
desired frequency components, and aperjormance index Rf,used
to evaluate the optimality in frequency and defined as being equal to
the ratio of the sum of the magnitudes of the undesired frequency
components fu to the magnitude of the desired frequency
component fd, namely,
Rf = -20 log ( c (magnitude of fu) /magnitude of fd) dB.
Evaluation of harmonic-restraint-basedaleorithms - Step 3 of the
methodology deals with the sampling rate, which is determined by
Nyquist's law. Since the highest-frequency component of the
differential current needed by these algorithms is the fifthharmonic
component, which is used to determine whether the power
transformer is in overexcitation or internal fault conditions, the
theoretical minimum sampling rate is 600 Hz (60 x 5 x 2, 60 Hz
being the frequency of the fundamental). Actually, a sampling rate
of 720 Hz is chosen, to account for the nonideal transition
bandwidth of the anti-aliasing analog low-pass filter.
The time available to xecute the relaying algorithm is thus
1/(720 x. 3) = 4.62 x lo-' s = 462 ps. for the three-phase
transformer.
In order to compute the performance indices 0, and Rf the
z-transforms of these algorithms are to be found (Step 5). Table 2
shows the z-transforms for the five algorithms considered. Note
that two additional computing approaches have been considered,
the Fourier transform obtained from Walsh functions (FEW)and
the rectangular Fourier transform (RFI').
Tables 3 and 4 show the values of 0, and Rf calculated for
each of the frequency components in Table 2 respectively (Step
7).
The values of 0, were obtained from the z-transform
expressions in Table 2. The shift operation being the fastest, all
other operations were expressed in terms of it. For the INTEL 8086
16-bit microprocessor the following approximations were used.
1 multiplication = 10 shifts, 1 addition = 1 subtraction = 1 shift
~51.
The values of Rf were obtained from the magnitude
frequency responses of the filters (themselves obtained from the
z-transforms by setting z = do. 0 2 o < 2x), of which some are
shown in Fig. 3 (Step 6).
Detailed observation of Tables 3 and 4, summarized in Table
5, suggests the following conclusions: 1) the DWT,RFT and FFR
approaches display unsatisfactory frequency-domain behavior
compared to the DFT approach, and 2) the FFW and LSF
 1381
TABLE 2. z-trayforms for the different approaches
FREQUENCY DISCRETE DISCRETE FOURIER OBTAINED RECTANGULAR FOURIER OBTAINED LEAST SQUARES
COMPDNEWS FOURIER WALSH PROM WALSH FOURIER FROM RECTANGULAR CURVE FITTING
TRANSFORM (DFT) TRANSFORM (DWT) (FFW) TRANSFORM (FFR) (LSF)
N o t e : 16 s a m p l e s (RFT) N o t e : 13 samples
are used ace used

TABLE 3. Values of 0,for the different approaches TABLE 4. Values of Rf for the different approaches

1 I I I
I

I I I I I

O,(C 3-5 NOT NEEDED NOT NEEDED

op3-9 SbS5 WILL ne

COMPUTED Xi
)CdW&3 INOT NEEDED
IS USED ALONE 11s USED ALONE I
\NOT NEEDED IF MT NOT NEEDED IF RFI NOT NEEDKD
I
NECtSSAnY

Ot(C3-9 cfl5 WILL B

COMPUTED XI
NECESSARY
t I I I
Ot(RFT)- O,(PIR)- Ot(LSP)-
64 OtWT) 194 Note to Table 4.The frequency response of the FFW is the same
INCOMPLETE
~ 4 - as that of the DFT. The frequency response of the FFR,for the
I 108 I second and fifth harmonics, is the same as that of the RFT,which
is unsatisfactory.
approaches are unsatisfactory compared to the Dm approach with
respect to the execution time. The D R approach was therefore PROPOSED ALGOR m
selected as being optimal within the scope of this study.
From the foregoing discussion and conclusion, it was
decided to select the percent differential protection and the D f l
1382
'*601
.p" 1.20- g 4.20-
.-+
=I
.-
c
=I
Frequency ( Hz)
Magnitude frequency response of filter isolating Magnitude frequency response of filter isolating
the cosinusoidal component of the fundamental C1 the sinusoidal component of the fundamental S 1
sE 0.40
OO 100
Magnitude frequency response of filter isolating Magnitude frequency response of filter isolating
the third Walsh function C1 the RFT cosinusoidal component of the fifth
harmmic
Fig. 3. Frequency response of some filters
algorithms [ 111 for a digital differential-protection relay for
three-phase transformers. The proposed algorithm consists,
therefore, of three modules. 1) The initialization module is used for
entering the settings required by the relay algorithm, which are
determined by the characteristics of the protected transformer. 2)
The percent differential-protection module, implementing the
percent differential protection algorithm, is used to determine
whether the transformer is operating under normal or external-fault
conditions or internal-fault, inrush or overexcitation conditions;
however, it is not able .fo distinguish among the last three
conditions. 3) The harmonic-restraint module, which implements
the DFT-based harmonic-restraint algorithm, can distinguish
between inrush, overexcitation or internal-fault conditions.
The initialization module is used only when the relay is put
into service, to enter the settings corresponding to the transformer
protected by the relay. The percent differential protection module,
on the other hand, is continuously in operation, analysing the
information obtained following each sampling instant. Finally, the
harmonic restraint module operates when called by the percent
differential protection module, whenever the latter suspects the
possibility of internal fault.
CONCLUSTON
This p a p r presents a comparative analysis of digital relaying
algorithms for the differential protection of three-phase
transformers. Following a description of the fundamental concepts
and problems, and their conventional solutions, a literature survey
of digital relaying algorithms for transformer differential protection
is reported. A comparative analysis of the surveyed algorithms is
then conducted, in two steps: 1) application of qualitative
considerations for first screening, and 2) application of a
Frequency (Hz) Frequency ( Hz)
Magnitude frequency response of filter isolating
the second Walsh function SI
--I
400
Magnitude frequency response of filter isolating
the RET sinusoidal component of the fifth
harmonic
quantitative evaluation (adapted from Kezunovic [2]) to the
selected subset obtained as a result of step 1. This quantitative
evaluation is acomplished by computing two indices, 0,
(optimality in execution time performance) and Rf (optimality in
frequency performance).
Application of the qualitative considerations and the
Kezunovic methodology leads to the selection of the percent
differential-protection algorithm and the harmonic-restraint DFT
algorithm for the implementation of a digital relay for the
differential protection of three-phase transformers.
REFERENCES
[11 A.J. Degens, "Microprocessor-implemented digital
filters for inrush current detection," Electrical
Power and Enerev Sv. stems," Vo1.4, No.3, pp.
196-205, July 1982.
PI M. Kezunovic, "Digital protective relaying
algorithms and systems - an overview," Electric
Power Svstems Research,pp. 167-180, April 1981.
r31 R.R. Larson, A.J. Flechsig, E.O. Schweitzer, "An
efficient inrush current detection algorithm for
digital computer relay protection of
transformers,". Paper A77-510-2, IEEE Power
En!zineerine Societv Summer Meen'ng, 1977.
r41 O.P. Malik, P.K. Dash, G.S. Hope, "A unified fpproach
to differential and impedance protection, Paper
A79-547- 1, JEEE Power Eneineerinp. Societv
Winter Meeting, 1979.
r53 O.P. Malik, P.K. Dash, G.S.Hope, "Digital protection
of a power transformer," IEEE Publication
 1383
TABLE 5. Classification of approaches with respect [ll] J.S. Thorp, A.G. Phadke, "A microprocessor-based
to indices Rf and 0,. three-phase transformer differential relay," IE EE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Svstems,
Vol. PAS-102, No. 2, pp. 426-432, February 1982.
[12] J.S. Thorp, A.G. Phadke, "A microprocessor based,
voltage-restrained, three-phase transformer
differential relay," Proceedings of the Sout h
Eastern SvmDosium on Sv. stems Theory, pp.
312-316, April 1982.
[13] J.S. Thorp, A.G. Phadke, "A new computer based,
flux restrained, current differential relay . for
power transformer protection," IEEE Transactiou
n P w ratus and Svstems, Vol. PAS-102,
k-$$&%, . November
. 1983.
1141 Magnetic ClrCUltS and transformers,
Massachussets Institute of Technology, -_ The M.I.T.
Press, 1943.
[15] R. Rector, G. Alexy, The 8086 Book,
OsbomeMcGraw Hill. Berkelev. 1980.
[16] A.V. Oppenheim, .R.W. Schafer, Digital Signal
hocessine.Prentice Hall, Chapter 5, 1975.
Xl -A
The differential relaying algorithms are briefly presented in
this appendix. (See Legend at the end of the Appendix for meaning
of symbols used).

1
- Percen n. Id =
1P - Is; = Ip + Is; Id is compared to 1, according
to the percent differential characteristic of
Fig. 1
- Wave shape identification: Inrush conditions is
detected, and the relay is restrained from tripping,
if succesive peaks of the differential current Id
either fail to occur at about 7.5 - 10 ms, or
are not of opposite signs, or differ from each
other by more than 25%.
Svkes m d Morrison (1972) r91
rsive Ban ring
; : :1 (0.096(1??)~~1.810 z - -~0.905 Z-2) - Id(Z)
12(Z) = (0.045(1-~-'))/(1+1.580 Z-l - 0.953 Z-L) Id(Z).

Svkes (19721 riol

I VALUES OF PERFORMANCEINDEX Ot I ep = Rpip + Lpp (d id%) + Lps (d is/dt)
76CH1075-1 PWR, paper A76-191-7, JEEE Power
Engineering Societv W in ter Meet ing, pp. 1-7,
,January 1976.
[6] P.J. McCleer, M. Mir, "A new technique for
differential relaying: the delta differential relay,"
IEEE Transactions on Power A p p m t u s and
S v s t e m s , Vol. PAS-101, No. 10. pp.4164-4170.
October 1982.
[7] M.A. Rahman and P.K. Dash, "Fast algorithm for
digital protection of power transformers," LElE_
proceedinm - C. Generation. Transm ission and
Distribution, Vol. 129, Part C, No. 2, pp. 79-85,
March 1982.
[8] G.O. Rockerfeller. "Fault protection with digital
computer,"JEEE Transactions on Power ADD-
and. Svstemh Vol. PAS-88, no. 4, pp. 438-461.
Apnll969.
[9] J.A. Sykes, I.F. Morrison, "A proposed method of
harmonic-restraint differential p r o t y t i o n of
transformers by digital computer. IEEE
Transact ions on Power Avparatus and Svstems,
Vol. PAS-91, No. 3, pp. 1266-1276, May/June 1972.
[lo] J.A. Sykes, "A new technique for high speed
transformer fault protection suitable for digital
computer implementation," JEEE Power Engineenng
Societv Summer Meeting, 1972.
--
e, = LSp (d iddt) + Rs is + Lss (d is/dt)
ip, is, ep and e, are measured. The measured eP
and e, are compared to those computed by use of
the above equations. A large discrepancy indicates
saturation, i.e. inrush.
Malik et a1 (19761
-Cross-correlation with sinusoidal or sauare
Sn = ( l N &1,N ik sin ((2d"k-l)n)
cn = &=1,N ik COS ((27t/N)(k-l)n).
In=2&5q
Also, sine et cosine waves are replaced by odd and
even square waves, respectively.
1 -
- Finite.imDuIse response filters
SI = il+ i2+i3+i&-i6+g
C1 = il+i2-i3444546+i7+ig
S2 = il+i24344+i5+i&ig
C2 = il-i243+i4+i54647+ig.
In = (1~/16)
1384
Malik et a1 (1979) r41 Degens (1982) rll
- Unified aDDroacll -Least-Spllarbs curve-fir
= &1,N ip(k) ’$k). The differential current is decomposed into a
Fourier series. Samples of the differential current
The index Y is constant in case of normal are taken during inrush condition. Let A.X = Y,
operation, increases in case of external fault, and where Y iS the vector of the samples of Id , X is
decreases in case of inrush or external fault. the vector of the coefficients of the Fourier series
of Id , i.e. its sinusoidal and cosinusoidal
McCLeer and Mir (1982)
- Delta differentialrelay frecuency components, and A is the matrix of the
The principle of the A-differential relay is to use, sinusoidal and cosinusoidal functions of the
for relaying purposes, only those currents which Fourier series. Then, X = ((AT.A)-’AT).Y = B.Y,
are due to the fact that there is an internal fault (T=transpose), where the entries of matrix B
present. The percent differential characteristic are the filter coefficients needed to isolate the
corresponding to this approach is shown in Fig. frequency component of Id, i.e. the entries of
A l . Note the large buffer zone, in which no vector X .
operation can occur. The presence of this buffer
zone enables increased restraint, i.e. increased Thorn and Phadke (1983) r131
selectivity, by increasing the slope of the lower - n u x based restrain[
limit of the buffer zone, without a corresponding The flux A in the power transformer is computed
decrease in relay sensitivity.
by using
Rahman and Dash (1982) r72 A k = “k-1+ (Afl)[(’$k -k (%)k-ll - L [(ip)k-(ip)k-ll,
-Discrete Fourier transform obta ined from which is an approximation to the solution of the
rectanwlar Fourier transform
SI= SI- (1/3) 3 3 - (1/5) S5- equation e - L(di/dt) = (dA/dt). Depending on the
C1= cl
+ (1/3) e 3 - (1/5) C5, Sn=sn, Cn=en, for n=2&5 position of the point (A&) in the flux-differential current
where Sn- = &a,N-1 ik sign ( s i n ~ n n k / ~ ) ) plane (Fig. A2), the transformer is found to be in fault or no
c n = &ON-1 ik sign (co@znk/N)), fault condition. Actually, the derivative of the flux with
respect to the primary current is used in order to account for
sign(Y) = YAY1 for Yd,sign(Y) = 0 for Yd. the error introduced by the residual flux.
Thorn and Phadke (1982) rlll
--Dis F riertr f rm
1, =?&(I;) ~ ~ o o ik
, Nd ( 2 A k n / N ) I, where
d@=cos@ + j sin @.
Thorn and Phadke (1982) r 122
- 1 restrain
%’=”r””& &&/2- 1(ep)k e-j(2nk/N) 1
The relay is restrained from tripping if e,,r is
larger than the threshold eo . A transient monitor
function is introduced as an indication of the
distorsion in the computed ep , and the relay is ’
I I
restrained from tripping until the distorsion is V I
below a certain level.
No fault I
Fig. A2. Fault and no fault regions in id-A plane.
)1
Legend:
Internal Id, id is the differential current
fault )&I is the z-transform of the differential current
I,is the through current
.-
0.
I,(z) is the z-transform of the through current
I=
IP’. iP istheprimaqcurrent
Is is the secondary current
% and es are the primary and secondaryvoltages
ik is the k-th sample of the differentialcurrent
(ip)k is the k-th sample of the primary current
(ep)k is the k-th sample of the primary voltage
Sn,Cn are the sinusoidal and cosinusoidal, or odd
and even components, of Id
I n is the magnitude of the n-th frequency
component of Id
I&) is the z-transform of the n-th frequency component
of Id
Restraint N is the number of samples per window used to
Fig. Al. Operating characteristics of A-differentialrelay [6]. compute a frequency component.