Final Report Writing Syllabus

Department of English Language and Communication, Gollis University
Introduction
General Course objectives:
Upon completing the course, students will be able to:
 Know the concept of writing;

 Grasp the conventions of research and report writing;
 Write a rational, clear and persuasive report of their own following the principles and
guidelines they have been introduced to.
 Distinguish the different types of reports.
 Compile both short and long reports for different purposes.
 Differentiate the various types of research design;
 Understand how to conduct research in a report
 Examine critically different methods of data collection and analysis;
 Understand the different visual aids used in reports.
 Be able to prepare and deliver a good public speech and presentation.
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Enjoy Learning English Language Skills!
UNIT ONE
1. Basics of Report
1.1 Meaning of a Report
The word ‘report’ is derived from the Latin term ‘reportare’ which means to ‘carry back’
(re=back + portare =to carry). A report, therefore, is a description of an event carried back to
someone who wasn’t present on the scene.
A number of writers have made attempts to answer the question” what is a report”?
 C.A. Brown(1971) defines report, as:
A report is a communication from someone who has information, to someone who wants to
use that information.
 Philip S. Atkinson and Helen Reynolds(1970)wrote of a report as:
A Formal report represents in organized form the information that has been requested by an
authorized person.
 John Mitchell(1974) says:
A technical report is a written statement of the facts of a situation, project, process or test:
how these facts were ascertained; their significance; the conclusions that have been drawn
from them; the recommendations that are being made (Note: recommendations are not
required in all cases)
From the above definitions it is possible to draw the following essential points:
 A report is a formal statement of facts or information or an account of something.
 It is presented in a conventional form.
 It is written for a specific audience.
 It includes information about the procedure of collecting data and the significance of
such data.
 It often includes recommendations.
Keeping in view the above points we may define a report as follows:

A report is a formal communication written for a specific purpose; it includes a description
of procedures followed for collection and analysis of data, their significance, the conclusions
drawn from them, and the recommendations, if required.
 Many reports are based on extensive research, they are a result of careful
investigation, sound thinking, logical organization, and clear writing.
Difference between a Report and other forms of Writing:

A report differs from other compositions in as much as it is written in a more or less
conventional form to meet a specific need or requirement.
 A report differs from other forms of writing in that;
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 Other forms are subjective in nature. They reflect on the writers’ personality.
 Reports and projects generally draw on outside sources
 Reports present conclusions and recommendations based on investigation and
analysis of data obtained by observation of facts.
 Reports have a highly structured format.
 Each part of a report is numbered and captioned with headings and sub-headings.
 Reports use languages that are concise and concrete.
 Reports make use of tables and graphs.
 Reports are usually preceded by a summary.
 Reports can also be oral but essays are only written.
 Essays:
o An essay can be factual, but it remains subjective in its treatment and presentation.
The essayist neither offers evidence for his facts nor does the reader look for it. But
the reader of the report looks for facts.
o As a form of creative writing an essay’s purpose is largely self-expression of the
author and a source of delight for the reader.
o An essay’s source is the imagination, whereas a report’s source is investigation and
analysis. This is why an essay has a beginning, but it may not have reports logically
arrived at conclusion.
o An essay has no sign posts. Headings or sub-headings, or bullets to indicate coherent
structure, moving from the beginning and through the middle to an end as a report
has.
o We should, therefore, first understand that a report is distinct from an essay or any
other continuous form of writing.
1.2 Purpose of a Report

• A report can serve various purposes as follows:
 Report writing has intrinsic value. It trains the writer in planned and ordinarily
procedures and logical presentation of ideas and information.
 The skill of writing a report is necessary and good, it helps an executive perform
his/her functions of planning and evaluating men and material resources effectively.
 It helps an institution or government to make important decisions on the basis of the
information presented or recommendation made in reports.
 Preparation of reports on activities enables an institute to improve its working
through an analysis of its own processes of production, distribution etc. and
comparison with other similar organization
 A report can be used also for offering a solution to a problem. Its purpose can be:
 To give information about activities, progress, plans and problems;
 To record events for future reference in decision-making.
 To recommend specific action.
 To justify and persuade readers about the need for action in controversial situations.
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1.3 Objectives of a Report

 The study should be comprehensive. It should examine a problem and its solution
from all aspects.
Guidelines for Defining Report Objectives

 Consider the objectives of the report from the point of view of its recipients and ask
the following questions:
 For whom is the report written?
 What is their level of information and education?
 How much do they already know about the problem?
 Why do these people want the report?
 What do they want to know, and in what detail?
 How does the report’s result or conclusion help them?
 What do they want to understand, what action do they want to take, or what decision
do they wish to make?
Assigning a Report- Terms of Reference

The task of producing a report on a specific problem can be assigned to an individual or a team.
The problem, purpose, scope or limitations, budget, cultural consideration, if any, related to
ethical or ethnic values of the organization, and the date of submission or time- limit are clearly
given while authorizing the person responsible for submitting the report. These specifications
guide the report writer. They form what is called Terms of Reference. Someone who needs the
report to be prepared is supposed to set down these terms.
The process of writing a report is left entirely to the writer. Report writing involves research,
analysis and presentation. The reporter has to first investigate the problem, search for facts,
gather evidence for the facts observed, and then analyze before presenting observations,
conclusions and suggestions as solutions to the problem.
The writer can chose from various methods of enquiring into the problem e.g. visits, interviews,
questionnaires, data banks, study records related to the issue, consult existing literature and
documents as relevant sources of information.
The writer also needs to know the total context and background of the subject of investigation.
Back ground study and data collection may sometimes pose difficulties, but without this effort a
report will not be authentic.
1.4 Types of Reports

Report writing arises from a specific need and addresses of a specific audience. Technical reports
vary greatly in length, degree of formality, components or elements and purpose.
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Technical reports may be as short as a page or as long as hundreds of pages. They may be written
to describe, narrate, review, evaluate, instruct, analyze, recommend, or any combination of
purposes.
Three of the main purposes or objectives of technical reports are to inform, to analyze or
evaluate and to persuade. Reports with these goals as their major purpose are respectively
categorized as follows:
 Informational reports
 Analytical reports
 Persuasive reports
Informational reports
They describe situations without any analysis, interpretations, or recommendations, they present
readers with information so that they can do their own analyzing, interpreting and
recommending.
Analytical reports
They describe and analyze situations, but they do not make judgments for or present
recommendations to readers.
Persuasive reports
They also describe and analyze, but they take the final step in technical report writing and
present a clear recommendation for readers to consider and to act upon.
As shown in the table below, each type of report answers basic questions:
Act Persuasion
Decide Analysis
Know Information
The type of report usually answers these questions:
Informational How? What?
Analytical What? Why? So what?
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Persuasive What? Why? So what? What

next?
Informational reports
Informational reports convey facts. Such reports indicate what is or what was or; occasionally
what will be. They may tell how to do something. They don’t give the writer’s opinion of what
should be or should have been. They don’t assess, judge, justify, propose or recommend.
Readers expect informational reports to give them facts so they may proceed with some action or
make some decisions themselves.
Good informational reports typically tell a reader “how” and “what”. They do not say “why”
except in factual ways it can be verified.
Whatever you are reporting on, your attitude toward the material must be objective and neutral.
There are many kinds of informational reports, and their names vary from place to place and they
are as follows:
A) Progress and Project Reports:
Progress and project reports are time and task related documents. Sometimes referred to as status
reports, they may describe specific elements- especially the completed, continuing, and
anticipated work on a project that spans a time period of more than a few days.
As an employee, for example, you may have to report periodically on your accomplishments.
If you are in charge of a project that extends over months or years, you will be required to report
at specific intervals on the status of that particular project.
Readers of progress or project reports want answers to questions that relate to time and tasks as
follows:
oHow much work has been accomplished?
oWhich work is currently being done?
oHow much work is yet to be done?
oIs the project on schedule and within budget?
oAre there any foreseeable situations that might affect the completion of the project as
planned?
o Remarks, if any;
o Signature and designation of the reporting officer.
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1.5 Guidelines of Writing a Progress Report

People write progress reports to keep interested parties informed about what has been done on a
project and about what remains to be done. Often the reader is the writer's supervisor. As a result
the tone should be serious and respectful. Even though progress reports are often in the form of a
memo, the writer should be careful to write formal, standard prose. Progress reports represent not
only the writer's work but the writer's organizational and communication skills.
Progress reports can be structured in several ways. The following suggested pattern helps the
writer cover essential material.
Heading: If the progress report is a memo, it should contain the following standard elements:
Date: Date the memo is sent
To: Name and position of the readers
From: Name and position of the writer
Subject: A clear phrase that focuses the reader's attention on the subject of the memo
Purpose Statement:
Because the reader is busy, get right to the point. Imagine you are meeting the reader in the hall,
and you say, "I wanted to talk to you about this." Use the same strategy for the first line of the
memo's body. Try saying out loud, "I wanted to tell you that" and then start writing whatever
comes after that prompt. Often such a sentence will begin something like this: "Progress on
setting up the new program in testing is going very well." If there is a request in the memo, make
it explicitly up front; otherwise, your reader may miss it.
Background:
Usually in the same paragraph as the purpose statement, the writer gives the reader some
background information. If the occasion demands a written progress report instead of a quick
oral report, it is probably the case that the reader needs to be reminded of the details. Tell the
reader what the project is and clarify its purpose and time scale. If there have been earlier
progress reports, you might make a brief reference to them.
Work Completed:
The next section of a progress report explains what work has been done during the reporting
period. Specify the dates of the reporting period and use active voice verbs to give the
impression that you or you and your team have been busy. You might arrange this section
chronologically (following the actual sequence of the tasks being completed), or you might
divide this section into subparts of the larger project and report on each subpart in sequence.
Whatever pattern you use, be consistent.
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Problems:
If the reader is likely to be interested in the glitches you have encountered along the way,
mention the problems you have encountered and explain how you have solved them. If there are
problems you have not yet been able to solve, explain your strategy for solving them and give
tell the reader when you think you will have them solved.
Work Scheduled:
Specify the dates of the next segment of time in the project and outline a schedule of the work
you expect to get accomplished during the period. It is often a good idea to arrange this section
by dates which stand for deadlines. To finish the progress report, you might add a sentence
evaluating your progress thus far.
Progress Report Sample

DATE: September 28, 1992
FROM: Jersey Manu
TO: Dr. Jensen
SUBJECT: Progress on faculty workshop plans
Work Completed Plans for the faculty workshop on October 12 are nearly complete. The
committee met on September 19. We discussed what kind of subject we wanted and came up
with several names of possible speakers.
Since then, Greg Stephens has contacted Stan Brannan, president of Genesis Technology Center
in Wichita. He has agreed to come. Since then we have sent him a letter confirming the speaking
engagement, and Greg Stephens has talked to him personally. He will be flying in on October 12.
I contacted John Campbell at Boeing. He got in touch with Al Andrews in their CAD-CAM
division. Mr. Andrews has confirmed that either he or Tom McDabitt from his department will
come to speak. A letter has been sent to him as well confirming the speaking engagement. Both
letters were mailed Tuesday, September 27.
I have enclosed a copy of the letter sent to both Andrews and Brannan. We also included a
schedule for the workshop and directions to the campus, copies of which are also attached to this
memo.
Work Scheduled
There are a few things that remain to be done.
 I need to call Al Andrews, make sure he got his letter, and work out any remaining details
about his arrival.
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 We need to find out when Mr. Brannan will be arriving and have someone meet him at
the airport.
 We would like to send announcements to various business leaders, the news media, the
chamber of commerce, and the other post-secondary schools in town by the middle of
next week.
I have a few questions for you:

1. Will your office be responsible for sending out announcements, or do you want us to do that?
We do have some papers from Genesis that could be sent with the announcements. These would
help people know what Genesis is. I've enclosed one.
2. Will someone from your office meet Mr. Brannan or should one of us? You'll notice that my
letter suggests that Mr. Andrews go directly to your office if he arrives at noon.
3. Will you or Tim make the opening comments and introductions? Please see the enclosed
schedule.
4. How do we make arrangements to have coffee and rolls available in G.T. 103?
I think this will be an interesting workshop and I am confident that everything is working out
nicely. I don't foresee any problems that would throw off our plans.
B) Situation Reports:
They are related to events or conditions. They may detail what has happened in a particular
situation or they may describe a present condition or detail a “static situation”. If the subject is an
event, such as an accident in the work place, the document may be called an occurrence report.
Situation reports answer questions such as the following about an event, incident, or condition:
 What was the situation?
 What exactly happened?
 Was anyone involved?
 What was the specific time frame?
 What were the causes?
 What was done by responsible personnel?
 What were the consequences or results?
C) Site view Reports
• Site visit reports describe visits, trips, observations, or actions taken at a location other
than the writer’s own work site. Such visits are sometimes referred to as field trips
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because they require leaving one’s normal place of employment and going into the
“field”.
• Site visits are necessary when inspectors need to review local situations; when someone
is needed to assist temporarily at another site or location. People who make site visits
usually document what happened, what they saw and learned, and the impressions they
gathered.
• Site visits always relate to place and the reason for the visit. They answer questions such
as these:
 What site was visited?
 When was the site visited?
 Why was the visit made?
 Who was involved?
 What precisely was gained or accomplished?
Site Visit Report Template
[NAME OF COMPANY/WORKSITE]
Site Visit Summary:

Site Visit Team Members:
Places and Facilities Visited:
Date(s) of Site Visit:
Type/Number of Staff Interviewed:
Program Staff:
Management:
Employees:
Site documentation/reports/plans gathered:
Items for Follow up:
Narrative Summary:
I. Introduction
a. Size of workforce
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b. Type of jobs/industry
c. Employee characteristics
II. Program Administration and Management
a. Health program benefits or potential benefits

b. Program implementation and goals
c. Program costs
d. Program eligibility, promotion, and communications
e. Employee committees
III. Programs and Services

a. Current health, safety and health promotion activities (programs and services)
b. Training, education, and support
c. Assessment and data management, evaluation, program suggestions
IV. Policies
a. Including specific risk factor or health or safety issue areas
V. Employee Health Benefits
a. Health promotion benefits
b. Health insurance coverage
c. Incentives
VI. Environment
a. Findings from the tool for observing worksite environments (TOWE)
b. Barriers and Resources
VII. Community Linkages
VIII. Summary/Overall Impressions
Insert any relevant summary tables, figures, exhibits, or pictures
D) Process Descriptions or Instructional Reports
Reports that tell readers how something is done or how to perform some action are called process
descriptions or instructional reports. They describe a process so that readers understand the
methods and general procedures necessary to achieve a specific result. A process description
might present an overview of how equipment works or how a procedure is handled. Instructions
show precisely how to do something, how to proceed step by step through a series of sequential
actions. These informational reports rely heavily on showing as well as telling.
Process descriptions and instructions answer questions such as these:

 What are these instructions used for?
 What materials or supplies are needed?
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 What equipment is needed?

 What level of expertise is expected?
 What is the first step in the process?
 What are the second, the third, the fourth, and the final steps?
 What problems may occur?
 How are problems over come?
 What will be the final outcome?
Analytical Reports
Analytical reports build on information going beyond the mere giving of data. They interpret the
facts, they often try to find a cause or causes of a problem, and they may show long or short
range consequences.
Analytical reports may compare and contrast sets of data for the purpose of determining what
works best under what circumstances.
Analytical reports analyze and evaluate relevant data and typically contain conclusions based on
that data. Below are some types of analytical reports:
A) Evaluation Reports:
Evaluation reports present data and the writer’s judgment of that information. From the facts, the
writer draws inferences and then presents conclusions.
Evaluation reports review and judge projects, situations, organizations, and equipment and
answer questions such as these:
 Is the project meeting its objectives?
 How well or to what extent is it doing so?
 What improvements are needed?
 What factors are influential in determining the status of the project (time, money,
personnel)?
 Why is the project going well (on schedule, within budget)? Why is it not going
well?
Evaluation report Template
Evaluation report template is a sample document that shows the technical evaluation of projects
or program and gives a summary of results and key development to interest groups. A well
drafted evaluation report format can help program managers and business to produce a
professional evaluation report sample.
Evaluation Report Writing
Evaluation report writing needs to consider the target audience. When writing your evaluation
report, it is important to take your audience into consideration. Your report should be written in a
style appropriate to your audience. This may be community people, politicians, policy makers or
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the senior management team. Clear presentation and thoughtful design will enhance the impact
of your report.
Evaluation report needs to have a clear and concise executive summary of your key findings and
conclusions. The Executive Summary outlines what the reader should expect to find in the
report. The executive summary can help the readers to grasp the report's content without going
through your long report.
Evaluation Report Template Outline
The first key part in evaluation report template is the evaluation report introduction and rationale.
In the section, you need to give a brief description of your evaluation background and the
background of project or program. This aspect of evaluation is often taken for granted by people
running programs because they assume that outsiders would have this knowledge. For example,
the Program Introduction :___( State the program context); The Program Rational :___( State the
reasons and benefits of the program); The program objectives :___( state the program goals and
objectives); The Program Management :___( State the management team who is responsible for
the project).
The second key part in evaluation report format is evaluation methods. In the section, you need
to give a full description of the evaluation methods, the person took part in the evaluation, the
sampling methods, data collection and analysis, the comparison of different results and their
impacts. For example, the Evaluation Methods:____; The Team that participate in the
Evaluation:___; The Sampling Methods:___; Data Collection:____; Data Analysis ____;
The last key part in evaluation report sample is key findings. In the section, you need to show the
final evaluation results and key findings. For Example, the key findings of the evaluation: ___,
The data analysis results: ___; The main conclusions: ___; Evaluation Discussions and
Recommendations: ___.
B) Feasibility Reports:
Feasibility reports or studies assess the practicality of a proposed project or change. Questions
such as the following are usually addressed in any feasibility report:
 What is the current situation?
 Is sufficient need shown to warrant the action?
 Is sufficient capital available?
 What legal concerns must be considered?
 Is the technology available if needed?
 Are appropriate personnel available?
 What are the long-range benefits?
 What are the cost?
 What are the long-range problems?
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Persuasive Reports
• The main purpose of persuasive reports is to influence decisions in determining a course
of action. They are concerned with the action-oriented question “what next?” They must
contain data and they must give an interpretation of that data.
• Both data and interpretation, however, are presented with a clear intent of getting
something done in a certain manner or within a certain time or by a certain organization
or individual.
• Proposals and responses to requests for proposals are the two most frequently written
kinds of persuasive reports. Each is described below:
A) Proposals:
• Proposals do just what their name indicates: they propose – a change, a situation, an
action. A solicited proposal is written in response to an invitation. If a writer initiates a
proposal without an invitation, it is called unsolicited.
• Proposals point out a problem or need and state a suggested solution. The writer
(representing one person, a department, or an organization) wants something to be done.
For example, a department may want to re-organize; a radio station may want to change
its format.
A proposal is a strong statement that shows why, how, under what circumstances or conditions,
and with what results some action should be undertaken. As such it gives specific details
intended to convince the reader of the validity of a decision or action.
Readers expect proposals to answer many questions such as the following:
 Why is the proposal being made?
 What is the current situation?
 What are the benefits of accepting the proposals?
 How much financing is involved?
 How much time is required?
 How will the work be accomplished?
 How many people are involved?
 What facilities and equipment are required?
B) Responses to Requests for Proposals(RFPs)

A request for proposals (RFP) is a document sent from one business or government agency that
needs a specific product or service to another business that supplies the product or service. The
RFP describes the job that the requestor needs done and asks (solicits) the company or individual
receiving it to propose how the responder would do the job.
Responses to requests for proposals indicate specifically what an entity can do to meet a stated
need and specifically how it can do so.
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Responses to requests for proposals document expectations on the part of a company or agency,
often a government one, which wants a job done. They are invitations to submit bids.
When a response to requests for proposals is made, the problem or need has already been
recognized.
When a company needs a product and / or a service, an RFP is frequently the most effective
vehicle for communicating that need to someone who can satisfy it.
Kinds of Responses Requested:
An RFP requests these kinds of responses:
 Non-Negotiable Responses:
Some RFPs state exact specifications and frequently, include strict rules for all responses. The
requestor wants a specific product/ service with precise characteristics (size, capabilities,
capacity or time frame). Frequently, the requestor also wants information presented in a
predetermined format: specific sections with specific points to be included, arranged in a specific
sequence.
These rules and standards allow the requestors to compare similar products, equipment, or
services. For complex projects, when requestors know exactly what they want and need, this
kind of RFP is an efficient way of sorting through dozens (and sometimes hundreds) of
responses.
After some extensive reviews, the requestor will then award the job to the supplier who best
meets the technical and cost specifications.
 Negotiable Responses:
Some RFPs offer the responders more flexibility than non-negotiable responses. The requestor
states in the RFP the specific need and gives adequate details of the job to be done, but doesn’t
necessarily provide instructions for exactly how the need or job should be satisfied. The
responder is asked to propose a solution or an action.
The negotiable response is useful to requestors who, for example, are not certain of the latest
technologies or of all possibilities available- and who want creative solution/actions presented.
Content in Responses:
The specific content you should include in a response depends on the kind of RFP you receive.
Read the RFP carefully. Determine first the kind of response expected, and then check for any
instructions regarding the format of the response.
When the RFP indicates a negotiable response (one that allows some flexibility in content and
form), determine how much freedom is being granted and then develop an appropriate response.
Next, determine your plan to meet the needs described in the RFP.
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Major contents to include in responses:
 Include all information specified in the RFP.

 If “fill-in” forms (specification and cost sheets) are included with the RFP, use them.
Do not invent your own format or modify the RFPs in any way.
 Always respond within the acceptable page limit stipulated in the RFP.
 Determine if the front matter (title page, table of contents etc.) and illustrations on
separate pages will be included in the page count.
 Prepare all text on the specified paper size with the required margins and lines 0 text.
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Chapter two: Structure of Reports:
2.1Long Reports:
Topics to consider:
 Front matter
 Main Body
 Back Matter
 Arrangement of the Elements
 Basic and Subsidiary Parts of a Report
2.1.1Front Matter
 Cover
 Frontispiece
 Title page
 Copy right Notice
 Forwarding letter
 Preface
 Acknowledgements
 Table of Contents
 List of Illustrations
 Abstract and Summary
The front matter of the structure of a report refers to the first ten elements of the report found
before the actual part of the report. Each of these elements is discussed below in detail:
A. Cover:
The cover of a report is usually made of white or some soft, neutral colored card. It protects the
manuscript from damage and gives the report a neat appearance. Some organizations have
prepared covers which have their name and address printed. All one has to do is to write or get
typed:
 The title of the report;

 Its numbers(if any);
 The date and
 The classification (secret, top secret, etc.) if any.
These items of information help identify the report when it is in circulation or filed. Sometimes
the name of the author and the authority the report is written to is also mentioned.
The cover gives the first impression and you should, therefore, not crowd it with information.
Too many items are likely to distract the reader’s attention and spoil the attractiveness of the
layout.
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The inside of the front cover and both the inside and the outside of the back cover are usually left
blank. Sometimes the inside of the front cover is used for indicating the circulation list.
B. Frontispiece
Frontispiece appears in bound reports that are meant for wider circulation. It is a sort of window
display that ignites curiosity of the reader. The forms most often used for the purpose are
photographs, maps and artistic drawings.
C. Title page:
Usually the title page is the first right hand page of the report. In addition to all the information
given on the cover it may contain the following information:
 The title or subtitle of the report in short, clear and unambiguous way;
 Name and status of author;
 Department and date of issue;
 Name of the authority for whom the report was written;
 Contract, project or job number;
 Approvals
 Distribution list.
Sometimes you will be required to get your report approved by some other officer before
submission. When you do this, mention the name and designation of the approving officer on the
title page. Similarly, if your report is meant for circulation to officers other than the primary
recipient, indicate their names and official titles. Use a separate page for the purpose if the lists
of approvals and circulation are long.
D. Copy right Notice
If a report is published, copy right notice is given on the inside of the title page as:
©2006 Abdi Karim Ali Ahmed
Sometimes the following note is added:
“All rights reserved. No part of this report may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without permission in writing from the publisher”.
E. Forwarding Letter/ Letter of Transmittal.
There are two types of forwarding letters: Covering and Introductory and both are written for the
primary recipient of the report. The letter of transmittal is usually placed after the title page, it
functions as a greeting to the reader.
The letter covers a summary of the findings, conclusions and recommendations to give an idea of
the report. It is best written in a direct conversational manner as follows:
Begin directly by talking about the subject of the report.

Example:
Dear Ahmed Ali
Here is the report you requested on August 2, 2006 about a nice plot of land for your
proposed play school in Sha’ab Area.
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 Give a brief review of the contents of the report.

 Acknowledge the contribution of others to your study, if any.
 End the letter by thanking the authorizing person or body and expressing hope for
helping again.
 You should write this letter in the personal style of a business letter-use personal
pronouns, first person and active voice. The tone should reflect your sincerity.
Nowadays, a cover letter is generally preferred to a letter of transmittal.
F. Preface
It introduces the report (not the subject matter of the report) and offers it to the reader. It contains
almost all information that is given in the introductory type of letter of transmission.
The preface should not be confused with the forward. The author writes the preface, while an
authority or expert in the field commending the work done customarily writes the forward. Day
to day reports rarely have a forward.
G. Acknowledgments:
Unless you have given credit elsewhere, mention diligently the names of persons and
organizations that helped you in the production of the report. When you include published
material and the list of sources is very long, use a separate page for the purpose (see list of
reference or Bibliography)
You should thank everyone associated with the assignment and preparation of your report. Be
generous in expressing gratitude:
Sample:
I thank my organization PPL feedback Packaging Limited for giving me an opportunity to

conduct the research project. My special words of thanks also go to Mr. Abdirasak Yusuf Ahmed
(Director and Chief Executive), Ms Ayan Ali Hersi (General Manager) and executives of PPL
Feedback packaging Limited for giving me the necessary guidance and help in research work.
I also thank all the respondents of the survey who gave me invaluable information to carry out
the study.
Finally, I wish to thank my colleagues who contributed significant inputs to the research work.
H. Table of Contents:
If the report is long, say, more than ten pages, the table of contents is essential. Its function is to
give the reader an overall view of the report and help him locate a particular topic or subsidiary
topic easily. He will feel more at ease. It will, however, be superfluous to prepare a table of
contents for short reports of four or five pages.
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The table of contents indicates the hierarchy of topic and their sequence. It also mentions the
main sections of your report in the contents exactly as they are worded in the text.
Sample:
I. Table of Contents
Introduction 2
Existing Business of the Company 4
Background 6
3.1 Significance of the study 6
3.2 Research Problem 7
3.3 Research Objective 7
3.4 Research Problem in Detail 7
3.5 Scope of the Study 8
3.6 Data Sources 8
4. Theoretical Framework For study 9
4.1 Statistical methods 9
4.2 Survey methods 9

4.2.1. Expert- opinion Method 10
4.2.2. Consumer Interview Method 10
4.3 Market and Product Analysis 13
4.3.1. Buying Intentions 13
4.3.2. Market Tests 13
5. Design and Methodology of Study 15
5.1. Market Survey: Rice Bags 15
5.1.1. Data Collection 16
5.1.2. Description and Analysis of the study and Data 17
5.2. Market Survey: Consumer Shopping Bags 20
5.2.1. Data Collection 22
5.2.2. Description and Analysis of the study and Data 22
6. Results and Conclusions 25
6.1 Rice Bags 25
6.2 Shopping Bags 33
6.3 Recommendations 39
7. Bibliography 40
8. ANNEXURE 41
Annexure I i
Annexure II ii
Annexure III iii
Annexure IV iv
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J. List of Illustration
A separate list of illustration is given immediately after the table of contents if there are a large
number of (a dozen or more) tables and figures. Its layout is the same as that of the table of
contents and it gives information about the number, title and page reference of each illustration.
If the number of illustration is very large, it is better to divide it into two parts as list of tables
and of figures.
K. Abstract and Summary:
Most reports contain a synopsis called an abstract or a summary. The main difference between
both of them is that of function. An abstract tells in concentrated form what the report is about
where as a summary gives the substance of the report.
In fact, a summary presents the reports in a nutshell, without any illustrations and explanations.
A reader who is interested in knowing only the extent of coverage will be satisfied with an
abstract but if he also wants to know the method of analysis, the significant findings, the
important conclusions and the major recommendations, he will need a summary.
Normally, a report uses either an abstract or an executive summary, according to the length of a
report or expectations of the readers. A company practice may be to have both an abstract and
summary with long reports.
 A summary:
a) Should give the context of the report;
b) Provide most important findings, conclusions and recommendations;
c) Should act as a time saver for the busy management;
An abstract is a summary of the report’s most important points. An abstract can be either
descriptive or informative. It is generally written in about 200 words in just one paragraph.
An executive summary is a more detailed overview of a report than an abstract. It can run into
one or two pages. It presents the reader with a preview of a report’s main points, conclusions,
recommendations and the way the findings are likely to affect company planning. Often, we like
to know the contents of a report specially its conclusions and recommendations just by reading
detailed synopsis in the form of an executive summary.
Descriptive Abstract
Descriptive abstract mentions only the topics discussed in a report. It doesn’t give details; the
reader has to go through the report. Executives have little patience with such a skeletal account
of a report’s important conclusions and recommendations.
Informative Abstract
An informative abstract discusses the main subjects, presents conclusions and recommendations.
Formal reports and scientific and technical articles often use an informative abstract.
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Executive Summary
An executive summary covers all the major elements of a report’s content, such as;
 Background of the problem
 Major topics
 Important details
 Major conclusions
 Recommendations
2.1.2Main Body
Introduction
Though an abstract or summary is often the first important element to read, an introduction
provides a better starting point to the reader who is not familiar with the subject of the report.
The main function of the introduction is to say what the report is about, what work has already
been done on the subject and what new grounds are covered in the present study. In specific
terms the items of information that may be included in it are the following:
 Historical and technical background.

 Scope of study, specifying its limitations and qualifications
 Methods of inquiry(research methods used)
 Arrangement or grouping of data.
 Authorizing person or body requesting
 Terms of reference
 Definition of specific terms and symbols; if their number is small.
Discussion or Description
This section discusses or describes the main business of the report. It naturally fills most of the
report and contains almost all the illustrations. Usually it has several sections grouped under
different heading and sub-headings. It is however, not necessary to use the term “discussion” or
“description” itself as a heading; other apt words or phrases may serve this purpose better. The
pieces of information are developed in one of the ways given below:
 Chronological Development:
This is arranged in the order in which the events happened. This is the simplest method of
presenting information in its sequence of occurrence, like a story with:
A beginning a middle and end.
Chronological development requires little planning and organizing. The writer selects and
arranges the major topics in the order of their occurrence. Non- significant factors left out.
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This method is usually used for writing short reports such as; progress reports, describing
progress of a project, and investigative reports that discuss investigations conducted over a long
time and involved visits to different places to gather evidence.
By discussing each event step by step, the cumulative effect of a variable (factor/thing) can be
seen through the conclusions drawn at suitable intervals. The sequencing of information is easy
to determine for the writer. The writer is guided by the order in which the events actually take
place.
 Subject wise Development:

This information is arranged according to subjects. The subjects are grouped in a predetermined
order. This arrangement makes the presentation of information coherent and logical.
The writer has to choose the sequence according to the variable he/she wants to recommend.
He/she can move in increasing order of suitability or begin from the most suitable to the least
suitable. But before structuring information he should make his choice of order clearly known by
stating, whether he/she is following the ascending or descending order in discussing each
variable.
 Concept wise Development:

This information is organized “concept wise”. The writer develops his/her argument and
reasoning on the lines of his thought.
As a reporter, you can arrange the details of your topic by following the logical sequence of your
investigation. You can develop the topic by describing each step as a sequence to the step that
follows it, in a series of steps, which finally build your argument (topic). The logic of your
argument guides your organization of the subject. Each part or stage of a project is seen as a
well-linked procession of ideas forming a complete concept.
In the concept method you tell the reader how you arrived at results and why they are valid.
This method is to be employed when the topic is complex and reasoning is required to explain to
the reader the various ideas and their careful consideration in reaching the end result of the
investigation. When a selection of the best result can be made by a simple and direct analysis, the
subject development would be appropriate, not the concept method.
Whatever is your method of developing the main argument of your report, see that the report is
logically organized and the narration is interesting and convincing to the reader.
Conclusion:
It is generally used to refer to remarks at the end of a piece of writing. The function of such a
conclusion is to bring the discussion or description to a close and to signal to the reader
gracefully that he has reached the end. But as an element of the report, this term refers to the
body of logical inferences drawn and the judgments formed on the basis of analysis of data
presented in the report or to the findings and of the investigation made.
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Recommendations:
This part is the action center of the report and it:
a. States how the conclusions should be acted upon
b. Makes clear and definite recommendations
c. If further investigation is required, mention it as a condition for a more comprehensive
study of the problem.
In some reports conclusions and recommendations are combined because they are associated.
You should not do so unless your report is very short or you are required to combine them.
2.1.3Back Matter
Appendices:
They contain materials which are needed to support the main body of the report but they are too
detailed to be included in the text. They gather into one place all the information which might
help a reader seeking further assistance or clarification but which cannot be worked in the body
of the report without interrupting the reading flow: texts of interviews, pertinent correspondence,
large drawings, etc.
It should be such that the reader can safely omit reading it without any loss of understanding of
the contents of the report. Other items such as the following may be included in an appendix:
 Calculations
 Computer print outs
 Lists
 Questionnaires
 Specifications
 Test results
Include only one type of material in an appendix and precede it by a separate title page
labeled “Appendix”. If different kinds of items are included, develop separate appendices and
label each title page:
Example: Appendix A: Computer print outs.
Appendix B: Questionnaires
Number the pages in the appendices: A-1, A-2, A-3, and so forth; then
B-1, B-2, B-3; then C-1, C-2, C-3.
List of References:
It is essential to give credit to the works (published or unpublished) that are used or quoted in the
report. This is done by citing such works in the text and listing them in alphabetical order at the
end of the report.
Bibliography:
It is a serially numbered list of published and unpublished works which are consulted before or
during the preparation of a report. It is distinct from the list of reference in several aspects as
seen below:
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 The bibliography lists the works which the author has read and to which he is indebted
for ideas or information in general terms whereas the purpose of the list of references is
to point out the specific location of an idea or a piece of information in the original
source.
 The bibliography may contain works recommended for further study whereas the
reference doesn’t perform any such function.
 The bibliography may be annotated, that is, it may indicate briefly the content and
usefulness of the works cited, whereas the references indicate only the sources.
 The entries in the bibliography are in alphabetical order whereas the references may
sometimes be recorded in the sequences in which they have been cited in the text.
In using written material from secondary sources, we must mention the source of
information. Cite the sources of the material as a footnote. Failing to document sources
will amount to cheating.
A) Footnotes and Endnotes:

The writer can give reference as a footnote or can describe all references as endnotes in a list of
references at the end of the report. In both cases, the reader finds all details about sources
mentioned in the report, and he can check the correctness of the statements by consulting the
original sources.
Both footnotes and endnotes may be used in documenting sources. Endnotes are usually
preferred, as they are easy to refer to when desired. Also, footnotes create the problem of spacing
the material on a page.
B) Parenthetical method of references:

The APA style developed by the American Psychological Association is a method that indicates
the source of information within the body of the report by using parenthetical references,
mentioning the author, date, page number in the brackets placed immediately after matter quoted
or referred to.
Things to consider in the APA style:
 In quoting the material, we must show the page number with P for one page or PP. for
more than one page, immediately after the quotation.
 We should do it even if the sentence in which the quotation occurs doesn’t end. If the
sentence mentions the name of the author and year, we give only the page number within
brackets at the end of the sentence.
 We should include all three points of information in parenthetical reference, example
(Ahmed, 1998:P.120) put a comma after author name and colon after the year of
publication.
 If our sentence has author’s name already mentioned, then only year and page number are
to be given immediately after the name. Like Ahmed (1998:P. 120). The page number
can appear separately also. For example, Ahmed (1998) considers research “too narrowly
defined if it is restricted to the basic research variety” (P. 12).
 If the sentence includes the author and year, then only page number is to be given. For
example, Ahmed in Business Research Methods, 1998, says “………………...” (P.14).
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 The purpose of mentioning all three details- author, year and page, at the end of our
quoted or referred to material is to help the reader locate the material in the original
source of our information if required.
We can also follow the MLA style (Modern language Association), the APA style lists sources
alphabetically by the author’s name. MLA sequences the sources by number, the numerical order
in which the matter has been cited and indicated in the text.
Further, in APA style references mentions books in the following manner:
Name Date Title

Ahmed Hassan Ali (2000) Writing Technical Reports
Publishing information
Hargeisa: Gollis University
In MLA style in the list of sources books are mentioned as given below:
Name Title Publishing Information

Ahmed Hassan Ali Writing Technical Reports Hargeisa: Gollis University
Date Page
2000 347
C) Citing articles in APA style:
Articles quoted from periodicals, such as journals, magazines and newspapers are mentioned in
the list of references by giving details of four things; author, date, title of the article and
publication information. The publication in the case of articles gives periodical title, volume
number and page number.
Name Date Article Title

Abdirahman Abdille (2000) Transformational leadership
Periodical Title Volume number Page Number
Jamhuriya 12 64-78
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Some Guidelines for Bibliography Entries:
Reference to a book by one author: mention author’s name, date of publication, title of the book
(in italics or underlined), city of publication, publisher’s name (to be given in the same order).
Reference to a particular chapter in a book written by two authors: Author’s names (name of the
main author entered with surname first, and those of other authors written with given name or
initials, first), date of publication, “chapter Title” (in quotes), book title, city of publication,
publisher’s name.
Magazine article; This contains Author’s name, title of article, date of issue, magazine’s name,
volume and issue numbers, relevant page numbers.
Report or technical paper; Author’s name, title of report, report number, name of company or
organization publishing the report, date of report.
Correspondence: Name of sender and receiver, date of letter, and details of their respective
organization.
In A second edition of a book by more than two authors; here, enter only primary author’s
name and publisher’s name.
Note: (“et al” means “and others”)
Glossary:
Glossary is the list of technical terms or special terms used in a report/ technical paper and their
explanations. It alphabetically lists words or phrases that need special attention. It explains the
usage of technical terms peculiar to industry.
The writing of glossary depends on the people who are going to read the report. A glossary of
usage includes rules for forming compound words, abbreviating technical terms, and writing
unusual or difficult words.
A glossary also acts as a dictionary of some selected words, which often get confused, misused
or wrongly spelt, these are:
 Words often confused because they are similar in meaning; for example diplex and
duplex, ground floor and first floor, postpone and cancel or imply and infer.
 Common unnoticed errors of grammar, such as many a times(should be many a time),
one of the best option(in place one of the best options) comprised of( comprises of )
 Words that tend to be wrongly spelt; e.g. agism (ageism), accomodation
(accommodation), separate (should separate).
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 Words having more than one acceptable spelling; for example program and programme.
In case of words like symposiums and symposia where both are in use, both are given in
the glossary and a choice is indicated for one of them.
 Words like data, often wrongly used as singular or used as datas in the plural are
specially entered in the glossary and their usage is fully explained.
Index:
Index (plural indexes or indices) is the alphabetical list of subjects, names, and so on with
references to page numbers where they occur in the report or a book. It is usually placed at the
end.
In long reports and voluminous works, index helps the reader locate a subject easily in the text of
the report whenever it has been mentioned or discussed. For example, order refusals 115 entered
in a report’s index means we can find it mentioned on P.115.In a book’s index, an entry like
Research Question 34 a--- 675 would mean it appears on P.675 discussed under section 34a.
Normally an author’s note about the symbols used in indexing subjects appears at the beginning
of index entries, which helps the reader follow the way the entries are made. For example, see
the note given in a work.
2.1.4Arrangement of the elements:
There are two ways of structuring a report, these are:

 Normal arrangement: it is a structure in which the conclusions and recommendations
come after the discussion.
 Alternative arrangement: it is a structure in which the conclusions and recommendations
of the findings appear first. Detailed description of discussions may, therefore, appear
after the conclusions and recommendations.
 The order of elements in a formal business report may be as given below. The researcher
also keeps in mind the non-technical background of his readers and therefore demarcates
certain parts differently as shown below:
Summary Non- technical

Introduction
Conclusions Partly technical
Recommendations
Discussion
Appendix Fully technical
Different cultures also demand different kinds of detail as seen below:

 German report writers consider historical facts and in-depth explanations very crucial for
a proper understanding of the problems and its solutions
 French reports tend to present more abstract concepts and theories. The French are
theorists by nature and are known for their creative concept in all forms of art and
literature.
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 Latin Americans sometimes leave out negative information and potential problems may
not be reported and discussed.
 Indian report writers prefer to follow the conventional structure and offer expected
quantity of details, but when guided by the psychology of the reader, Indians modify the
form suitably.
2.1.5Basic and Subsidiary Parts of a Report:
The Basic Parts The Subsidiary Parts

1. Executive Summary 1. Cover
2. Introduction 2. Title page
3. Discussion 3. Table of Contents
4. Recommendations 4. Bibliography/references
5. Appendix 5.Glossary
Note: The subsidiary parts (3, 4 and 5) are used only in long formal reports. The cover and Title
page in short reports are replaced with the heading and other similar devices.
2.2In-text Citation
2.2.1Quotation
A quotation is an exact reproduction of spoken or written words. Direct quotes can provide
strong evidence, act as an authoritative voice, or support a writer's statements.
How to do it:
Make sure that you have a good reason to use a direct quotation. Quoting should be done
sparingly and should support your own work, not replace it. For example, make a point in your
own words, then, support it with an authoritative quote.
• Every direct quotation should appear between quotation marks
(" ") and exactly reproduce text, including punctuation and capital letters.
• A short quotation often works well integrated into a sentence.
• Longer quotations (more than 3 lines of text) should start on a new line, use single-line spacing,
be indented, and in italics.
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2.2.2Paraphrasing
What is paraphrasing?
Paraphrasing is a way of presenting a text, keeping the same meaning, but using different words.
Paraphrasing is used with short sections of text, such as phrases and sentences.
A paraphrase may result in a longer, rather than shorter, version of the original text. It offers an
alternative to using direct quotations and helps students to integrate evidence/ source material
into assignments.
Paraphrasing is also a useful skill for making notes from readings, note-taking in lectures, and
explaining information in tables, charts and diagrams.
• Start by reading a short text and highlighting the main points as you read.
• Rewrite each main point, sentence by sentence, using synonyms (Words or expressions that have
similar meaning) where possible.
• Change the sentence structure:
 Break up a long sentence into two smaller ones
 Combine two short sentences and simplify their structure
 Change the voice (active/passive).
 Change the order in which ideas are presented (as long
As they still make sense in a different order).
• If you use any unique or specialist phrases, use quotation marks (" ").
2.2.3Summarizing
What is Summarizing?
A summary is an overview of a text. The main idea is given, but details, examples and formalities are
left out. Used with longer texts, the main aim of summarizing is to reduce or condense a text to its
most important ideas.
Summarizing is a useful skill for making notes from readings and in lectures, writing an
abstract/synopsis and incorporating material in assignments.
How to do it:
The amount of detail you include in a summary will vary according to the length of the original
text, how much information you need and how selective you are:
30
• Start by reading a short text and highlighting the main points as you read.
• Reread the text and make notes of the main points, leaving out examples, evidence etc.
• Without the text, rewrite your notes in your own words; restate the main idea at the beginning
plus all major points.
2.2.4Plagiarism
Plagiarism is the act of taking another person's writing, conversation, song, or even idea
and passing it off as your own. This includes information from web pages, books, songs,
television shows, email messages, interviews, articles, artworks or any other medium. Whenever
you paraphrase, summarize, or take words, phrases, or sentences from another person's work, it
is necessary to indicate the source of the information within your paper using an internal citation.
It is not enough to just list the source in a bibliography at the end of your paper. Failing to
properly quote, cite or acknowledge someone else's words or ideas with an internal citation is
plagiarism.
Example
The original passage:
Students frequently overuse direct quotation in taking notes, and as a result they overuse
quotations in the report. Probably only about 10% of your final draft should appear as directly
quoted matter. Therefore, you should strive to limit the amount of exact transcribing of source
materials while taking notes. Lester, James D. Writing Research Papers. 2nd ed. (1976): 46-47.
A Legitimate Paraphrase:
Students often quote excessively, failing to keep quoted material down to a desirable level. Since
the problem usually originates during note taking, it is essential to minimize the material
recorded verbatim (Lester 46-47).
An acceptable summary:
Students should take just a few notes in direct quotation from sources to help minimize the
amount of quoted material in a research paper (Lester 46-47).
A plagiarized version:
Students often use too many direct quotations when they take notes, resulting in too many of
them in the final report. In fact, probably only about 10% of the final copy should consist of
directly quoted material. So it is important to limit the amount of source material copied while
taking notes.
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Practice quotation, paraphrase and summarizing (also show how it can be plagiarized)
There are a number of causes and negative effects of the problem of pollution. First of all, air
pollution is caused by smoke from factories and vehicles. It leads to health problems such as
irritation to lungs. Secondly, harmful chemicals used on farms produce soil and water pollution.
Consequently, trees and forest areas are destroyed and plants, animals and fish die. Finally,
people contract diseases such as cancer as a result of exposure to pollution. To sum up, all
countries should implement measures which prevent the development of pollution. Suzan Mamo
(2004)
Language used in Research Methodology
The methodology part is written in simple past tense and passive voice.
Example
The researcher collected the data from two telecommunication companies. ….I selected the two
companies using simple random sampling technique. …I administered the questionnaire for 30
respondents… (Using this kind of active voice expression is not recommended in research
writing; rather, it’s better if passive voice is used.) (Simple past active voice)
Look at this.
The data was collected from two telecommunication companies…the two companies were
selected using simple random sampling technique….the questionnaire was administered for 30
respondents…(simple past passive voice)
Results/findings and Discussion
The results section is usually written in past tense whereas the discussion section is written in
simple past tense form.
Example
 …25 (70%) of the respondents said … (results)

 This implies that… (discussion)
Analyzing tables, graphs and figures
There are certain expressions that we use to analyze tables, graphs and figures. We commonly
use these expressions at the beginning of the analysis. For example:
32
o As shown in figure 1, …
o As it can be seen in table 1, …
o Table 1 shows that…
o As it is indicated in table 1, …
Conclusion and recommendation
The conclusions and recommendations section is usually written in present tense.
 When writing recommendation, it is customary to use expressions like:
The company should fulfill the necessary materials which are up to the standard …
The government ought to improve….
The customers have to …
It is better if the concerned body….
The university should provide…
2.3Short Report Formats:

There are different kinds of short reports and all are recommended as long as the message
is put out right and also the nature of urgency and size determines the kind of format
which can be chosen.
A committee or a person in authority usually asks for a report. Information on the method
of enquiry that you used, what you found out, and what it means and possibly your
recommendations will be required.
The recommended layout is one that is ‘tried and tested’. It is formal but, if used
properly, it helps you to write an efficient, clear report. Although the headings are
different, they correspond in style to the content pattern.
The Introduction is:
 Title ( at the top of the report and often underlined)
 Terms of reference
 Proceedings/ procedure.
The Details are:
33
 Findings
 Conclusions
The Response is:

 Recommendations.
The Close is:

 Signature/ Name
 Date
Here are some notes on what each of the sections should contain:
 The title needs to state briefly what the report is about
 The terms of reference explain the purpose of the report, what exactly has been
requested, who has asked for the report, and when it is to be handed in. if no date
is mentioned in the question, then use any reasonable date. Often it will be ‘as
soon as possible’.
 The proceedings/ procedure lists and explain how the information was gathered
e.g. through interview, observation, questionnaire, visit etc.
 The findings are the facts clearly stated. ‘Under findings’ there should be no
opinions on what has been found out.
 The conclusions are explanations of the findings and a discussion of what they
mean to the firm or the person who has asked for the report.
 The recommendations contain suggestions for future action.
 The Signature/ Name are usually placed at the end of the report.
 The date is usually the one on which the report is written.
Note: Remember that this is not the only layout used you may wish to adopt any that you
prefer.
Here are notes on a few of the other possible layouts. All of them are acceptable:
A style often used for brief, formal reports can be:
 Heading
 Introduction which includes a ‘terms of reference’ statement
 Findings
 Conclusions
 Signature and date.
A further fairly common style, particularly for less formal report, is:
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 Introduction
 Analysis
 Solution
 Signature and date.
There are other equally acceptable formats. All of them should help the clarity of all
aspects of the report. There should be a sensible arrangement of ideas with linked
conclusions and recommendations. There must be no confusion about what the findings
are and what follows from them.
The language in a report needs to be clear, easy to follow, neutral and not emotional or
excited.
Sample Report One

Staff opinions on proposed ban on smoking at Mt. Carmel Industries
Terms of reference
The Management Committee has asked for a report with the aim of sounding staff views
on forbidding smoking in the factory and the offices. The report is wanted as soon as
possible.
Proceedings
Interviews took place with all 50 members of staff who were asked whether they
favoured:
1. A complete ban on smoking everywhere at Mt. Carmel Industries
2. Restricting smoking to one room which would be available at break times.
Findings
The interviews revealed:
 40% in favour of complete ban
 34% against a complete ban
 72% in favour of having a room available for smoking at break times
 16% against having a room available for smoking at break times.
The staff raised several supplementary considerations including:

 How the restrictions will be enforced
 What exceptions will be permitted?
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Conclusions
 There is not a substantial majority in favour of or against a full ban on smoking.
 There is strong support for a separate room to be made available to smokers.
 The details of the proposal are not fully clear.
Recommendations
1. Reconsider the proposal. A complete ban would not be universally acceptable.
2. Ask the staff committee to liaise with its members and to suggest solutions.
Name Date
Signature
Activity 1
Answer the following questions.
1. What is the difference between short and long report?
2. Discuss the different types of short reports.
Activity 2
Situation
Assume that you work in the Ministry of transport and works. At a recent staff meeting the
Executive Director requests you to write a report on the causes of increase in road accidents in
Somaliland and also provide possible solutions. The report is to be handed in on 20th October
2014. When carrying out your research you distributed and also interviewed randomly 250
respondents as seen below:
Findings
Most respondents attributed the causes to the following factors:
100 Drivers said :
 Bad roads
 Narrow roads
 Roads over-used and haven’t been repaired since the colonial days
 Same roads used for both big and small cars
120 passengers said:
 Cars are overloaded
 No limit on the number of passengers in the car( some people standing on the way
and others hanging in windows)
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 Drivers chew Qat while driving.

30 traffic police (officers) said:
 No street lights to aid drivers at night
 Poor traffic signs and faded
 Over-speeding
 Some cars on the Hargeisa roads are “DMCs” (Dangerous Mechanical
Conditions) e.g. have faulty brakes, bald tires, faulty headlights etc.
 We are paid less salary and our morale is low to contain the problem.
Write the Report. Note: Follow all the steps in the layout of a short formal report
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UNIT THREE:
3.1 Conducting Research

3.1.1 Introduction
Research is characterized by a wide range of meaning and activities. Some people may think of
research in terms of a well-equipped laboratory, bustling scientists, and a formula-laden
chalkboard. Others may think of research in terms of their own activities that of casually
reviewing newspapers, magazines, journals or asking a few question when convenient or using
some trail-and-error methods. These are the people who are likely to comment. “I’ve done a little
research on that “.
Students working on an advanced degree, are usually required to show proficiency scientific
procedure and presentation of the results. They probably view research as a graduate-student
ritual. Slightly wonder, since research probably appears to be the major hurdle to a graduate-
student’s achieving an advanced degree.
One has only to observe a typical student embarking on a research project, thesis or dissertation.
Very likely, the budding researcher ends up in the library reviewing completed theses and
dissertation to imitate their organization and style. The trouble is, all these authors, too, have
imitated their predecessors and so on the result is a perpetuation of a sterile, stereotyped, and
sometimes illogical presentation, ignorance is compounded. The old saying is “if you steal from
author, it is plagiarism, if you steal from many author, it is research”. The spectrum of meanings
of research, then, ranges from that of guesses or hunches based on a smattering of information
collected haphazardly to that conclusion reached by using scientific or systematic research
methods. Thus, the purpose of this chapter is to enable students to have knowledge about
research in general and every step forward in the progress of preparing research in any situation,
though in this chapter we are going to concentrate more on the research made in reports.
3.1.2Defining Research
You would probably find as many definition of research as you would the number of authors
writing about it. A review of these definition shows that most have the following elements or
terms in common:
Activity What Kind Why
Inquiry Systematic to discover facts
Investigation Studious to revise accepted principle or conclusion
Experimentation Critical to find new truths
Examination Diligent to avoid status quo
Creation Exhaustive
Orderly
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Objective
Logical
Research is an activity, a process, or a method; and two of the preceding lists are “what” and
“why” qualifiers of the activity. You can see that combination of these works will serve to define
research as is evident from definition of research in other published works. For example, a
research of words from the foregoing lists can result in combination such as these:
Research is
 A systematic, studious inquiry to discover facts, to find new truths, and to avoid the status
quo
 An orderly, exhausted investigation to revise accepted principle or conclusion
 A diligent, objective examination to find new truths and revise accepted principle or
conclusion.
A point is that you really can take your choice of definition, provided that you use the generally
accepted terms as listed here.
But can’t we have a better definition? Really, one important element in research is that of
curiosity. Research requires of a person an attitude of inquisitiveness, that of “I wonder
how……?” or “I wonder why…..” or “I wonder what…..” The researcher seeks to know reasons
and causes behind events and behavior. So, now we can say:
Research is an activity characterized by intellectual curiosity, using systematic planning to
collect facts, performing objective analysis through thinking and ending with a new truth or
verification of an existing one.
Yet, with all the definitions of research available, apparently something more is needed. The
wide ranges in quality evident in completed research project, theses and dissertations suggest
criteria need to be established for creditable research.
In simple words research means a search for facts-answer to question and solution to problems.
3.1.3 Selecting a Suitable Method of Solution
When conducting research in a report, it is always advisable to select a proper method of
collecting the required information from the following commonly used methods of research.
o Library Research
o Survey Research
o Observation Research
o Experimental Research
Research attempts to establish factual data on prevailing plans and schedule for development on
a realistic basis, Research studies bring out necessary facts for making sound decision before
committing resource.
Research studies seek to help planners evaluate alternative strategies and select the most suited
strategy for development of different sectors, such as Education, Agriculture, Industry, Health
and social welfare.
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Evaluation of studies of ongoing projects and schemes such as lead bank schemes and integrated
rural development programs are undertaken to indicate whether the plans need any modification
or new implementation strategies.
Keeping in mind the basic purpose, the researcher selects usually one or two four research
method mentioned above.
3.1.3.1 Library Research
In every research we need to know what others have already done. For collecting this
information and knowing other views related to our investigation, we consult the existing
literature. This kind of collection of information is known as Library Research, which is a part of
all other forms of research. It constitutes study of the background and involves the survey of all
existing body of knowledge in the field of the proposed study of research.
Library research helps us in the following ways:
 It avoids unnecessary repetition and duplication of effort and waste of valuable research,
time and funds.
 It established points for departure for new research work.
 It sets out direction and sales for doing research in the field proposed for study.
Because library research provides us with material already contributed by others, it is known as
“secondary source” and the information collected is called “secondary data”. Primary data is
what we gather through our own observation, surveys and experiments.
In using library research for collecting data, we should be careful not to create a heap of
information. Collect only relevant material. Also avoid piling up the entire data at one place. It
will be better to note and record information on separate sheets or cards under different headings
with exact details of their source: a book, journal, news bulletin, company’s specific, file and so
on, This will help you use the collected material properly at the appropriate places in your report.
You will be helped also in preparing your bibliography.
3.1.3.2 Normative Survey Research

In research this method is frequently used to know the actual status of the thing at the time of our
study. It uses survey tools; questionnaires, interviews and checklists to obtain information that
may add to information already collected through secondary sources or validity the finding
obtained from the library research. The surveys are called “Normative” because they lay sown
“norms” and “standard” or “what is” or determine the present status of a thing, or establish
customary behavior. The normative survey method is descriptive in nature. The limitation of this
research method is that findings through such surveys are to be considered valid only for the
present or not for the future, because the state of mind, attitude or situation of the subject of
study may change.
3.1.3.3 Observation Research
In the observational method of collecting information, the receiver observes the activities of a
subject or a group of persons a phenomenon or the nature of the thing without communicating
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with anyone. It differs from the survey method that involves an interrogation and response
process and is a method based on communication. The observation study uses the process of
monitoring. The researcher notes and records the results obtained from his observations of each
case. This is why the observational research is also called Statistical Research that involves
statistical analysis of one or more sets of data.
Suppose we want to know if there is any correlation between time and traffic jams at a traffic
intersection on a particular road, we will monitor the follow of traffic and record the count of
traffic flow in different direction at the different hours of the day determine the statistical
correlations between the two sets of data; the count of traffic flow and hours of day.
3.1.3.4 Experimental Research

We are familiar with experimental research since our school days. We took two test tubes and
filled them with exactly the same liquid. Then we added a new material to only one of them, the
content in the other tube was kept as it was (original). After adding the new material to one tube,
we noticed changes in that tube. It was obvious to us that any change that had taken place was
due to a new ingredient. We noted our observations. The experimental explained the
phenomenon of cause and effect.
A laboratory experiment is done under controlled condition. The two samples are identical. The
addition of a variable to one of the two samples causes certain changes in that sample. We
conclude that the change is duo to the variable, thus we can determine the causal relation
between a variable and the change in the state of something. Accordingly if we wish to bring
about a particular change in the state of something we can take help of related variable.
Although in social science experimental research is used to determine the effect of variable, there
are limitations to its applicability to the social science. Social behavior and human nature cannot
be controlled as it can possibly be done in physical science. Motivation, efficiency, or taste and
choices cannot be subjected to controlled observation of the effect induced by a variable in one
of the two otherwise identical groups of people. Although we keep on repeating the phrase
“Other things remain the same” as an essential condition for conducting experiment research in
social science, it is largely an assumption and may not be in fact, true.
Experiment research is however commonly used in agriculture to determine the effectiveness of
fertilizer or pesticide on crops. The study takes two plots of identical size, soil, fertility, quality
of seed, irrigation facilities and adds a different quality of fertilizer to one of them or leaves it
without manure. Then we record the yields of both plots of land. The different between the yields
of two plots is duo to the use of fertilizer.
3.1.4 Collecting Data
Reliability and validity of survey results is one of the major factors to be considered in the
process of gathering information/data. The survey may be done through personal interviews or
questionnaires. The findings are considered reliable when they are found close to what is
generally accepted as true. They are held valid, if they measure what they are supposed to
measure.
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Reliability also results from consistency in findings. A simple example of a situation in which a
result may be valid but not reliable is measuring a person’s temperature with a thermometer. We
get a reading of a fever that is valid because it is done with an instrument that measure what it
should measure. A thermometer is meant to record human temperature. But suppose we doubt
the correctness of the reading and we again at the moment record the temperature with some
other thermometer. We may get either the same reading or a different reading. Now we are
confused. We don’t know which readings are true, in order to determine which thermometer is
reliable, we should again take temperature with finally for say 3-5 minutes. If the readings are
not the same then the thermometer is not reliable in its calibration. If it lacks consistency, which
is the basic principle of the calibration of thermometer, the particular thermometer is unreliable.
Similarly, the principle of validity assumes that the results are true of not a specific group
interviewed or questioned but the total say students supposed to be covered by the study. In order
that the results are both reliable and valid we have to adopt the method of selecting a fairly true
represented sample or group of the school’s community. Population is the total number of
individuals (items) to be surveyed interviewed or questioned through mailed questionnaires. But
the whole (the population) may be in thousand (something unmanageable) hence we select a
smaller number of students as representing the whole population (all the students). This process
is called sampling.
3.1.4.1 Random Sampling
We need to do sampling to ensure that each and every individual member of the concerned
population is studied carefully. For making it possible, we use random sampling in which there is
no-zero chance for every individual to be included in the sample. This is of course a very
difficult task. In order to achieve it, we should take a fairly large number at random from a
population so proportionately, that is to say, the sampling group and the total population will
possess the same characteristics in the same proportions. Our sampling is valid if our sampling
group has the same percentage of the different age group, different sex, different grades, etc.
As the term “Random” suggest, we don’t choose, but allow an equal chance to all the members
in a population to be chosen. One of the ways to do it is first determine the size of the sample we
want. Write down each name of the population on a piece of paper and mix them under a cover.
Now, you draw from it the number of slips you want for your sample group. The name, thus,
drawn from the whole lot will be representative of the total population.
i. STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING

It is possible that the sample formed doesn’t reflect the same percentage of various
characteristics belonging to the population. Therefore, we do what is called stratified random
sampling. That is to say, we will go on drawing the lots so long as we don’t get from each
category, the sample group, in the same percentage as exists in the total population.
ii. SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING
Random sampling becomes systematic random sampling if we apply a system of picking out
names in definite sequence. For example, we write names from 1-10 and pick at random a name
that is listed at 8. Then we write down that number 8 name and choose every tenth name on that
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list: 8th, 18th, 28th, 38th, 48th and so on till we complete the required number for our sample group.
This method ensure the ‘no-zero’ chance for every individual in the population to get picked up
for the sample.
3.1.5.2 Instruments of Surveys/ Primary Data Collection Methods.
The survey is usually done with the instrument of personal observation, personal or telephone
interview and written questionnaires.
i. PERSONAL OBSERVATION
Observation is a purposeful, systematic and selective way of watching and listening to an
interaction or phenomenon as it takes place. Some reports will be based on your personal
observation. For example, you may be required to write a report on an experiment you conducted
in the laboratory, a job you performed or an event to which you were an eyewitness. Since in
these cases you will have to rely on your sensory perception and memory you must develop the
habits of careful observation and accurate recording, traits that even otherwise are helpful. Last
you should be caught unaware; it is advisable to keep a notebook and a pencil ready for jotting
down notes.
Types of Observation:
There are two types of Observation:
a) Participant Observation
This is when a researcher participates in the activities of the group being observed in the same
manner as its members, with or without them knowing that they are being observed.
An example;-
If you want to study the life of prisoners, you pretend to be a prisoner and live with them in order
to collect the information.
b) Non- Participant Observation.
Is when the researcher does not get involved in the activities of the group but remains a passive
observer, watching and listening to its activities and drawing conclusions from this e.g. If you
want to study the behaviour of nurses in a hospital, as an observer, watch, follow and record their
activities as they are performed.
Recording Of Observation:
 Narrative- description of the interaction.
 Scales- develop a scale to rate various aspects of the interaction.
 Recording on Mechanical devices e.g. Video tape.
Limitations of Using Observation:
 When individuals or groups become aware that they are being observed they may change
their behaviour. (expectancy bias/Hawthorne effect)
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 There is always the possibility of observer bias

 Interpretations drawn from observation may vary from observer to observer
 There is a possibility of incomplete observation and/or recording which varies with the
method of recording e.g. an observer may watch keenly but at the expense of detailed
recording. The observer may take detailed notes and may miss some of the interaction
3.1.4.3 Interview
Another method of collecting data is interview, personal, on telephone or Focus group.
Classification of Interviews:
i. Personal Interview
Interviewing is an art that demands intelligence, patience, tact, and courtesy on your part. Even
through you need one type of data, remember that all individual cannot be dealt with in an
identical manner. You need to be shrewd, observant and sensitive to the reactions of the person
you are interviewing. You should be quick to re-adjust your approach and attitude to suit each
case. The respondents must open up to you and cooperate in giving you the information you
want and all this depends on your own back of handling people.
How does one go about this business of interviewing people? First, you must do your own
homework well. You must first of all, break up your problem into significant component. It
becomes easier to handle it in this manner. Then carefully prepare a set of questions covering all
these aspect. Next, you must fix an appointment before calling on a person. Tell him/her
beforehand the amount of time you are likely to take. Before starting the interview, give him/her
a brief introduction to about yourself, your organization and the purpose for which you are
collecting dat. Do not embarrass him/her by asking personal questions or by seeking confidential
information If a person is hesitant about imparting a piece of information, do not press him/her.
If he/she would like to be anonymous, respect his/her wish, lead the interviewed but don’t talk
more than is essential to elicit the information. Maintain a comfortable atmosphere throughout
the interview and end the meeting gracefully. Do not prolong the interview unnecessarily.
Sometimes this method of collecting data is used to supplement information collected through
questionnaire. Through this method you can get qualitative data, data that cannot obtained from
yes/no answer or the choice alternative given in the questionnaire. Sometimes the answer given
may not be clear. Through personal interview you can put supplements question and get the
exact information you need. You get not only what is being said but also the exact fell of it. This
will help you draw your own conclusion better.
Advantages of Face to Face Interviews:
 Serious approach by respondents resulting in accurate information.
 Good response rate and more information obtained.
 Completed and immediate-non response minimized.
 Possible in depth questions.
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 Interviewer is in control and can help in clarifying.

 Can use recording equipment.
 Able to detect non- verbal cues.
Disadvantages of Face to Face Interviews:
 Costly with large and widely spread geographical samples.
 Certain respondents may not be approachable (e.g.: high income people and officials).
 Can introduce bias and subjectivity.
 Normally need a set of questions.
 Respondent bias possible-please/impress respondent.
 Time consuming.
ii. Telephone Interview
If the information you seek is of a routine nature and only brief answer are required from a small
number of people you may contact them on telephone, and save time on traveling. But often you
may not get as effective a feedback on the telephone as in the case of personal interviews.
Further the information you collect may be unrepresentative because all the persons you need to
contact maybe on the telephone. And if some of them are resident of other town, long distance
calls will be necessary and in that case this method will prove very expensive.
Advantages of Telephone Interviews:

 More flexible compared to the mailing method.
 Faster than other methods-quick.
 Cheaper than personal interview.
 Recall is easy, call backs are simple and economical.
 Responses can be recorded without causing embarrassment.
 Encourages cooperation because of anonymity.
Disadvantages of Telephone Interviews:

 Restricted to respondents with telephones. (Elitist bias)
 Possibility of bias of the interviewer is relatively high.
 Possibility of interference is high.
 Insufficient data could be collected due to cost constraint.
 Difficult for extensive geographical area.
 Questions have to be too short and to the point.
 Impersonal – respondents may not be honest with responses.
iii. Focus Group Interviews:
45
Focus group interview is conducted by a trained moderator in a non-structured and natural

manner with a small group of respondents. The moderator leads the discussion and the main task
of the interviewer is to confine the respondents to a discussion of issues which the researcher
seeks to study.
Features of Focus Group Discussion:
 It takes place with respondents known to have been involved in a particular experience.
 It refers to situations that have been understood a priory by the interview
 It proceeds on the basis of an interview guide specifying topics related to the research
hypothesis.
 The size should be 8 -12 members.
Planning an Interview:
 List the areas in which you require information.
 Decide on type of interview.
 Transform areas into actual questions.
 Try them out on a friend or relative.
 Make an appointment with respondent(s) – discussing details of why and how long.
 Try and fix a venue and time when you will not be disturbed.
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3.1.5 Questionnaires
When a wide geographical coverage is required and a large number of people have to be
contacted the most efficient and convenient method is to collect data through mail questionnaire.
You can send thousands of questionnaires at a comparatively low cost. Since you cannot seek
further clarification as in case of interviews, you should take utmost pains in preparing the
questionnaire. The following hints will be of help:
i. Each question should be clearly framed and should seek to elicit the information related
to the topic of your report.
ii. It should be precise and not vague. For example, if you ask. “Do you see films regularly”,
your respondent will not understand what you mean by “regularly”. And suppose
he/she says “yes” how will this answer help you? But if you say, “How often in a
mouth do you see a movie?”
He/she will understand what you want to know and his/her answer will be precise and
useful
iii. Avoid leading question, question that suggest or anticipate answer and thus condition or
prejudice the respondent’s mind. For example, “Do you read the Jamhuriya
47
Newspaper?” is an attempt to lead the respondent. A better question to ask would be,
“which daily newspaper do you read?”
iv. As in the case of interview, do not ask any questions which may embarrass the
respondent. Questions about sex habits, religious beliefs, personal income etc. are
better avoided. When you have to write a report touching on such matters obtain the
consent of the respondent beforehand, if possible, and keep the information you
secure confidential. In all situation asking questions that may hurt the respondent’s
self-respect, pride or ego.
v. Since you are making a demand on the time of strangers, ensure that your questions are
easy to answer and the questionnaire is brief and convenient to handle. Leave plenty
of space in it for answers. It would be irritating for the respondent to find that he/she
cannot write what he/she wants. Often questionnaires remain unanswered because of
this defect.
vi. Arrange your questions in a logical order and get them cyclostyled or printed neatly. Mail
the questionnaire in an attractive envelope, along with a covering letter, courteously
seeking the respondent’s attention, make him/her feel important and induce him/her
to fill in the questionnaire and return it to your promptly. Courtesy demands that you
should enclose a postage-paid envelope for reply.
After you have prepared the questionnaire, make out a list of respondents from whom you can
get the information you need. If the population is small, there is no problem. You can contact the
entire population. But, if the population is large, it is neither possible nor necessary to contact all
sources. In such a case you will have to depend on a representative sample. To ensure that the
data you collect are reliable you should choose a sufficiently large number of persons at random
from the population, having the same characteristics as the entire population. Any chance errors
in the samples chosen are eliminated because the errors offset each other.
Advantages of Questionnaires:
 Popular means of collecting data.
 Relatively cheap.
 Can cover a large number of people or organizations.
 Wide geographic coverage.
 No prior arrangements needed.
 Can be posted, emailed or faxed to the respondents
 Possible anonymity of respondent
 Researcher has control over the type of data collected
Disadvantages of Questionnaires:
 Design problems.
 Questions have to be simple.
 Time delay while waiting for response.
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 Historically low response rate.

 Several reminders may be required.
 Assumes no literacy problems.
 No control over who completes it.
 Problems with incomplete questionnaires.
Constructing Questions:
Closed Questions:
Closed questions are questions in which all possible answers are identified or provided to the
respondent.
Closed questions are particularly useful in obtaining factual information:
Sex: Male [ ] Female [ ]
Examples of Closed Questions:
Did you watch television last night? Yes [ ] No [ ]
Some ‘Yes/No’ questions have a third category ‘Do not know’.
Do you agree with the introduction of the Road checkups?
Yes [ ] No [ ] Do not know [ ]
Multiple closed question.
What was your main way of travelling to the hotel? Tick one box only.
Car[ ]Coach[ ]Motor bike[ ]Train[ ]Other means.
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Advantages of Closed Questions:

 Better suited for computer analysis.
 Answers are standard and can be compared from person to person.
 Easier to code and analyze
 The meaning of the questions are generally clearer, with less incidences of frustration,
which increases return rate.
 Answers are generally complete and there are a minimal number of irrelevant responses.
 Sensitive topics might receive a higher response rate when there are options.
 Generally it is easier for the respondent to answer since they just have to select it.
Disadvantages of Closed questions:
 It is easy for respondents to guess an appropriate answer or answer randomly.
 Respondents may feel frustrated since they cannot qualify their answer, especially when
the selection they want is not available.
 Sometimes there are too many categories and they must be collapsed, reducing the
amount of information elicited.
 Differences in interpretation may not be detected.
 Variations in responses may be eliminated since the choice categories are already pre-
determined.
Open ended questions:
Open ended questions are questions that allow the respondents to answer in any way they wish.
For example, students might be asked to respond to the following questions:'
What do you think is the best thing (s) about the course?’
Example 2; - ‘What are the essential skills a manager should possess?’
It is important to always include any ‘other’ category
Advantages of open ended questions:
 Flexibility. The respondent can answer in any way he/she wishes.
 They may be better means of eliciting true opinions/attitudes and identifying how
strongly attitudes are held or not.
Disadvantages of Open- ended Questions:
 They require more thought and time on the part of respondent and analyst.
 It is more difficult to pool opinion across the sample when questionnaires use open
questions.
 Respondents may answer in unhelpful ways.
 Many different answers have to be summarized and possibly coded.
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3.1.6 Organizing Data

Choose your method of data collection from the research methods discussed above according to
the nature and purpose of your proposed study. Before you write the report, evaluate the
information collected for its relevance and usefulness. Plan and organize the information. Group
the findings to form an outline of the report.
Planning your message before writing it in the form of reports will make your communication
ordered and clear. Planning involves organizing the ideas already collected and identified to be
communicated.
In case of a short and simple piece of writing such as a letter/memo, organize the material by
deciding what point to include and how to arrange them. When the material to be covered is vast
and complex, like long reports, plan not just the sequence of presentation, but also subordination
and coordination of ideas and facts in relation to each other and to the text as a whole. In
planning and organizing the data collected sequencing and outlining methods can be used.
3.1.6.1 Sequencing
Information can be arranged in three different ways:
 Randomly
 Sequentially
 Hierarchically
i. Random
Random organization, as the term suggests, has no visible relation among the ideas or facts
presented. The writer keeps expressing thoughts/ideas as they keep coming into his/her mind. It
is just a string, not a pattern of ideas.
ii. Sequential
Sequence is a set of things belonging to one another in sequential order. Each item has the same
relationship to each of the other items, for example, alphabetical, numerical or chronological
ordering.
iii. Hierarchical
Hierarchical organization is an ordering of items according to their relative importance. It is
based on multi-level relationships. In this pattern items have other items placed under them. The
hierarchical organization is best shown as a tree-structure given below.
1
2 2
3 3 3
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The hierarchical relation among ideas or items is what an outline shows. This is the form of
organization that helps a reader understand the information easily. The other two methods,
random and sequential, which are used in computer theory, are not so well suited for the purpose
of the reader. A reader would feel lost in the maze of unarranged and unpatterned ideas. Hence,
you should put related ideas in separate groups. This is known as grouping ideas.
Grouping of material for writing is done by considering levels of generality. One idea is more
general than another if it represents a larger category. For example, ‘literature’ is more general
than ‘novel’ or ‘communication’ is less specific than ‘Third Term Progress Report’, which is
again less specific ‘Third Term Progress Report of XYZ’. So, generality is a relative concept.
Each idea is to be viewed in the context of a whole relationship of ideas.
Considering levels of generality is useful as both general statements and specific details are
included in effective communication. For example, in informative and persuasive writing,
general statements have to be developed with specific facts, reasons, arguments and examples.
3.1.6.2 Outlining
An outline is a shape-giving device. It is a valuable planning strategy. By making an outline, we
structure the ideas gathered and grouped together in terms of their generality. It can be used at
different stages of writing a report. For instance, before a written version of a report or its oral
presentation, an outline helps arrange and organize material; or when revising, it can be used to
see how far the first draft is logically arranged and organized. An outline also points out any
weakness in the written document-missing points or digressions from the main point.
An outline is just a tentative plan or projection of what the final draft of a subject is going to say.
It is possible that your outline may get changed somewhat during the actual writing of the
subject. In that case, get back to your outline and change it accordingly. Then check, if the
changes made do not disturb the logic and order of your argument and ideas.
In a formal outline the content and format are arranged according to conventions formed to show
relationships among ideas clearly. A formal outline can be a topic outline or a sentence outline.
A topic outline consists of a word or a phrase, whereas in a sentence outline each item is a
complete sentence. But the two methods are never used together in the same formal outline.
However a sentence outline is found more helpful for writing purposes. For example,
“differences in arts” in a topic outline would give more details in a sentence outline-“arts differ
in terms of objects, manner and mode of imitation!”
Framing an Outline
1. Not using Introductory and Concluding Sentences for an outline
Introductory and concluding sentences do not form part of a formal outline. The thesis or the
topic statement is placed before the Roman numeral I sentence entry.
2. Numbers, letters and indentations
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The formal outline begins with capital Roman numeral I to number the main first idea, then
Roman numerals (capital II, III, so on) are used to indicate major subdivisions of the topic.
Indented capital letters (A, B, C …) are used to mark the next level of generality; similarly, small
letters (a, b, c …) indicate the further level of generality, if any.
This arrangement is based on the principle that each subdivision is placed above the next level of
specific detail given by the outline. It may be noted that in a sentence outline if an entry is longer
than one line, the second line is indented by one word. That line will begin under the second
word of the first line.
3. At least two entries at each level
In an outline at all points, there can be ‘I’ only if there is a ‘II’, and ‘A’ only when there is a ‘B’,
and like that in all cases. Without having at least two parts, no category can be divided.
Where a category has only one subdivision, it is either to be left out or to be expanded to at least
two subdivisions by adding more material to it.
For example:
Incorrect
A. Working women leaving children alone
1. Going to work place
Correct
A. Working women leaving children alone
1. Going to work place
2. Joining kitty parties
B. Couples getting separated
4. Levels of generality
All subdivisions have the same level of generality. A main idea and a supporting detail cannot be
placed at the same level of generality.
Incorrect
A. Starting an IT centre
B. Conducting computer courses
Correct
A. Starting an IT centre
B. Opening a health resort
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5. No overlap
Under each heading give a fresh point. Do not repeat the same idea. Hence, what is said in 1
should be quite different from what is mentioned in 2.
Incorrect
A. People moving away from villages
1. Going in search of jobs
2. Going to seek livelihood
Correct
A. People moving away from villages
1. Going in search of jobs
2. Changing outlook
6. Parallelism
All statements (divisions and subdivisions) are written in parallel construction (grammatically).
For example, if one item begins with the “-ing” form of verb, other following items will also
begin with verb “-ing”.
Incorrect
A. Negotiating peace
B. Promote understanding
Correct
A. Negotiating peace
B. Promoting understanding
7. Punctuation and capitalization

Only the first word or a proper noun is capitalized in each entry. Please note that you should use
full stop (.) at the end of each entry only when it is a sentence outline. But no punctuation mark
is put at the ends of entries in a topic outline.
Layout for Formal Outline of a Dissertation
Statement of Thesis
I. First main idea
A. First subordinate idea
1. First reason or illustration
2. Second reason or example
a. First supporting detail
b. Second supporting detail
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B. Second subordinate idea
II. Second main idea
As already shown, outlining is the key to the organization; it is essential for writing any form of
business communication, such as letters and reports. In order to determine the sequence of ideas
in any piece of writing (or presentation), we have to consider the level of importance of
information and also the order it is required to be known. For instance, while writing a report
mention the problem and then the method used to solve, it followed by findings and conclusions.
Since the reader of a report is more interested in knowing the findings and the conclusions, give
more importance to these elements in your report. The details of the problem and the nature of
methodology used receive less attention as they are of less interest to the reader of the report.
However, they provide necessary background for the finding and conclusions. We could have an
outline including all the four elements of report in the following form.
1. Introduction
A. Definition of the problem
B. Description of the methods used
2. Findings
3. Conclusions
As the statements of the problem and descriptions of research methodology carry lees interest for
the reader, they are put together as two elements under the same entry introduction, at ‘I’. But
the other two elements – Findings and Conclusions – are of major interest; hence they are
entered on the outline separately as item II and item III.
The effort and item devoted to the forming of an outline of an outline of the proposed draft are
rewarded by the writer’s gain in clarity and logical understanding of the interrelated levels of
significance of different elements in his composition.
3.1.7 Diagrams in Reports
Report writers use tables and graphics such as bar charts, line charts and pictograms to tell things
briefly and vividly. Diagrams, like all visual modes, communicate information clearly and
effectively. For example, consider the effectiveness of written instructions for opening Eye-
Drops and putting them into eyes supported with figures that illustrate the process of opening the
phial and squeezing drops into our eyes.
3.1.7.1 Use of tables
A table presents numerical or tropical data in rows and columns. Suppose we say, 3 plus 5 plus 6
plus 7 would equal 21. This is more simply presented as:
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3
5
6
7
21
We should know some of the techniques of preparing tables in which the content is presented
clearly. The most important technique is to label each table in a way that the reader can easily get
to the desired table. You may practice some of the techniques given below:
i. Numbering all tables
You should number all tables in your report consecutively by calling them. “Table 1”, “Table 2”,
“Table 3” and so on, and while referring to them, simply say given on the next page or the
following table. This practice will make your reference brief and simple. Write the number over
the table centering it.
ii. Labeling each table
Write a complete heading on each title, which clearly describes the contents of table for the
reader. As the headings, the table titles can be long but they should completely describe the
table’s presentation. The title can even run into two lines. It may mention sources of data;
numbers included in the figures given in the table and subject of the table, for example,
“Segmentation of market (5-20 kg) – on the basis of the usage of bags in the total market size of
3150 corers”. For emphasis this title of the table can be written in bold letters.
iii. Using caption head
Use the caption head when many columns, such as names of several trains or cities are given.
“North East” on each column of data as short heading to indicate the item, for example, “City”,
“Max”, “Min”, “Rain”. Similarly, indicate the meaning of the line (horizontal) columns by
identifying its content.
iv. Using footnotes
Use footnotes to explain items given in columns, if required.
v. Keeping space
It is necessary to keep sufficient space between columns so that the data remain well separated.
An example of a table with parts described by labels is given below to illustrate the layout, title
placement and captions for the vertical columns and horizontal rows effectively.
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Parameter Location Permissible (mg/m3) Actual (mg/m3)
SPM Piazza 100 2292
Respirable SPM Merkato 200 4772
Carbon Monoxide Gulele 100 8000
Sulfur Dioxide Bole 80 201
Nitrogen Dioxide Megenagna 80 174.8
Use the following checklist to evaluate a table

(1) Could the table standalone if it were removed from the report? Is it independent, with all
elements identified?
(2) Are the data closely related? Is it a logical unit?
(3) Have you used a comprehensive, clear, concise and accurate title? A table is a list of
something, and the title should name that of which the title is a list.
(4) Are all units specified and sources acknowledged?
(5) Have you captioned all columns?
(6) Does the table facilitate your analysis and the written presentation?
Notice that if the table is taken exactly from some other source, the source is mentioned.
3.1.7.2 Use of graphics

In reports, the following forms of graphic are commonly used:
 Bar chart
 Line chart
 Pie chart
 Pictograms
 Actual pictures
 Maps
These graphics are used also in oral presentation of reports. While using graphic presentation
of information, the writer or presenter of report considers how the use of graphic presentation
helps in grasping the information conveyed through words. Sometimes, reports use graphics
as a source of embellishment (beauty) and to add colors to words.
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Basic Principles
There are a number of general rules which must be borne in mind when planning and using the
graphical methods covered in this unit.
 Graphs and charts must be given clear but brief titles.
 The axes of graphs must be clearly labeled and the scales of values clearly marked.
 Diagrams should be accompanied by the original data, or at least by a reference to the
source of the data.
 Avoid excessive detail, as this defeats the object of diagrams.
 There should be a key or legend relating any shading or pattern used on a chart to what it
represents. In addition, or in place of a legend, labels can be used to mark what each bar,
segment or line represents.
 All bars and charts should display the source of information.
 It is also advisable to cross – reference all graphs and charts within the text such as see
figure X or see attached appendix Y.
As well as these general principles, you also need to be aware of the pitfalls that can occur and
ensure that you do not produce graphical displays that distort the meaning of the data.
 You need to use the correct form of presentation for the type of data.
 Information can be distorted if the axis on graphs and charts does not start from zero- for
example, trends on the top part of a chart maybe more exaggerated than if you see the
whole picture with zero at the bottom left hand corner.
 Distortions can also occur through varying the scale on the axes or comparing diagrams
which use different scales. For example, if you expanded or compressed the y axis
(vertical axis), you could make a curve showing sales steeper or flatter, which could
affect the way that sales performance is perceived. Spreading out or compressing the
distance between values on the x axis (horizontal axis) could cause the same effect.
 Computer packages offer you facility of producing graphs and charts that have a three
dimensional appearance. However, sometimes the cosmetic benefits of blocking out
areas of graphs and charts can be outweighed by the problems of readability. The
problem is that, it is difficult to see the how the 3-D lines and bars line up against the
relevant scale so data values are difficult to determine.
i. Bar charts
Bar charts are the most common method of presenting information in a visual way. They consist
of one or more bars in which the bar length indicates the quantity of the item it relates to (as
specified on the y axis).
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There are different types of bar chart. The bars can be presented vertically or horizontally, but
can also be stacked in component bar charts and grouped in multiple bars. Bar charts should not
usually have more than 12 bars or the chart can become confusing.
Figure 7.5: A Simple Bar Chart

Peterson’s London Office Costs
Source: XZY Management Consultancy

1) Simple bar charts are used to show the quantity of several items which may be compared.
For example, in Figure 7.5 it is easy to see the difference in office costs and identify that
costs are rising by looking at the differences in the bar lengths on the chat.
2) A component bar chart (Figure 7.6) breaks down the total quantity represented by each
bar into its components. This allows us to see the maker of any overall quantity- adding
information to the basic bar chart. In Figure 7.6, we can see that the total of office costs is
made up of the costs of offices in three different locations. It appears that the London
office is the most expensive, that is not very clear.
3) A further development is the multiple bar charts. Here, two or more separate bars are
used to present sub-divisions of information (Figure 7.7). Unlike the component bar
chart, the overall quantity is not shown, but it is easier to compare the totals of the
different divisions. Thus, in Figure 7.7, we can see clearly that cost of the Madrid office
is falling whilst those of Dublin and London are rising.
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Figure 7.6: A Component Bar Chart

Peterson’s Annual Office Costs
Figure 7.7: A Multiple Bar Chart

Peterson’s Annual Office Costs
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3.7.2.2 Line charts

Line charts are found useful for showing changes in quantitative data spread over some time.
Line charts also help in projecting trends.
Number of dropout students in the academic year 2004/05 in Hargeisa City.
Guidelines for constructing line charts

 Keep the vertical axis for amount and the horizontal axis for time.
 Begin the vertical (amount) axis at zero and divide the scale with white spaces according to the
size of the amount to be shown on the scale
 Make both vertical and horizontal graduations equal. That is, all spaces on the amount axis
should be the same, and all time scales should be the same. But it is not necessary that the time
space and amount spaces are equal.
 Use proper proportions in the size of vertical and horizontal measures so that the lines drawn are
marked by natural slopes. See the figure of the line chart drawn above.
ii. Pie charts

A pie chart represents the way a whole is distributed into various parts. The pie represents the
whole, and its segments represent parts of the whole. We use a pie chart to show the relationship
among parts only when there are more than two parts forming the whole. If only two parts are to
be described, their relationship can be simply stated in the report. However, when we want to
show at least three parts or more, we use pie chart to present them. We should cut the pie
clockwise, beginning with the largest part first on the right side, with other large parts following
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(clockwise). It is not necessary to cut the parts in descending order of size. We generally draw a
sufficiently large pie chart so that its segments can have labels and unit values clearly written
over them. Different colors are often used to emphasize and contrast the relationship among the
parts forming the whole.
Number of dropouts in the academic year 2004/2005 in Hargeisa city.
The number of school dropouts in the academic year 2004/2005 in Hargeisa city.
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The number of school dropouts in the academic year 2004/2005 in Hargeisa city.
iii. Histogram
Histogram is a graph of frequency distribution. A histogram consists of a series of rectangles,
each rectangle is proportional in width to the range of values within a class and proportional in
height to number of items covered by the class, that is frequency. If the class size is the same,
then each rectangle will be of the same width.
In drawing a histogram the variable is always shown on the X-axis and the frequency is
determined on the Y-axis. A histogram of a series of adjacent rectangles each is having a class-
interval distance as its width and the frequency distance as its height. The area of the histogram
represents the total frequency distribution across the classes. It is important to understand that
histogram is not just a bar diagram. In a bar diagram only the length of the bar matters, not its
width. But in a histogram both the length and the width are important. See the histogram given
below showing the marks-wise distribution of 320 students.
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Marks Students
0-10 15
10-20 25
20-30 35
30-40 40
40-50 55
50-60 60
60-70 50
70-80 25
80-90 10
90-100 5
Example of a Histogram:
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iv. Pictogram
Pictograms illustrate numerical relationship by using pictures to represent quantities. In a
pictogram, the same size figures should be used to represent amounts and relationships clearly.
For example, we want to represent merchant tonnage of four different countries, say USA,
China, Japan and India. We can use the picture of an airplane to symbolize merchant tonnage.
We can assign the value of 100 tons to each airplane and accordingly depict the difference in the
amounts of tonnage using different numbers of airplane in relation to different countries. For
example, if the merchant tonnage of USA is 4 times greater than that of India, we can illustrate
the numerical relationship between India’s and Unites States tonnage by using 4 same size
pictures of airplanes for USA and one picture of airplane for India vertically. And suppose
Japan’s and China’s amounts of tonnage double India’s, then we use 2 airplanes each against
both Japan and China. Remember that we do not show the four times increase in amount by
doubling the height and width of a picture of airplane. Changes in size of the picture of airplane
would be misleading. The pictures of the planes are placed along the Y-axis and the names of the
countries are labeled on X-axis.
See the pictogram representing the merchant tonnage of 4 countries: India, Japan, China and
USA
India Japan China USA
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3.1.7.3 How to use figures and diagrams

We would use figures and diagrams in the text of the report if they were not very large. If
they can be accommodated on a page within the running text without breaking the continuity
of reading of the text, they should be kept as part of the text; otherwise, tables, charts and
other diagrammatic representations should be placed as appendix. Each figure should be
serially numbered throughout the report in continuous (running) manner. We should first
introduce data and give interpretation of the diagram used, and then draw the reader’s
attention to the diagram by specifying the number of the figure given in the text or number of
appendix or annexure.
In general, select graphics to present the following:
To show: Use:
 Trend and movement of  Line charts
continuous data; growth or
change over a time period
 Gradual, regular movements or  Band, belt and surface charts
change
 Size of amounts at different  Bar charts and pictograms
times; relative size or amount of
several things at the same time;
comparisons  Flow chart or organization chart
 Steps or stages of a process or
plan  Map chart
 Geographical or spatial  Drawings, diagrams and
distribution abstractions, circuits, photographs
mechanical devices, principles,
relationships, visualization
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Practice questions
1. Assume you have information about the following topics which you wish to
communicate to colleagues at the next sales and marketing meeting. Choose and
prepare an appropriate visual presentation method for each of the following.
a) The sales figures of three different recipes of frozen pizza over the last
four years.
b) The performance of individual sales staff over the last six months.
2. Draw a pie chart to show the following data relating to the market share of the six
top-selling small cars in 1997. The data is taken from car market, May 1998.
Model Rover Renault Vauxhall Peugeot Nissan Ford

200 Clio Corsa 306 Micra Fiesta
Cars 40,000 60,000 80,000 50,000 38,000 125,000
sold
3. Draw a bar chart to show the following data relating to the recall of car
advertising in the past month. The data is taken from car market, July 1998.
Nissan 33
Vauxhall 38
Rover 17
Ford 44
Renault 27
4. Draw a multiple bar chart to show the following data relating to the number of
cars owed per home in 1997. The data is taken from car market, May 1998.
Cars Per All Head of Head of Head of
Home Homes household household household
aged under 45 aged 45-64 aged over 65
One 70% 65% 58% 80%
Two 25% 30% 30% 18%
Three 5% 5% 5% 2%
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ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE

1. (a) A line chart could be used to illustrate sales of frozen pizza over time.
(b) A multiple bar chart could be used to show the sales performance of staff.
2. Top six Selling Cars - 1997
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3. Recall of Advertising in past Month
4. Car ownership (Number Owned By Age of Head of Household )
3.1.8 The Language of research and report writing
Achieving a Scholarly Writing Style
The purpose of this section is to furnish a reference for good word choice and use and the
mechanics for presenting them in scholarly writing. As viewed here, the following factors are
involved in scholarly writing.
(1) Making writing clear;
(2) Eliminating deadwood in writing;
(3) Managing sentences and paragraphs.
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3.1.8.1 Making Writing Clear
A mature writing style and clear writing doesn’t just happen; it requires a deliberate effort
involving precisions, good taste, and good manners. A “good” style in writing may be defined as
that which accomplishes the writer’s purpose without calling attention to the words or
constructions used.
The words people choose in the writing are what readers use as a criterion in judging them.
Words represent the personality, character and education of the person using them.
Use the Right Word
One of the first requirements of words in scholarly writing is that be in “good use” which use
implies acceptance by the majority if authorities. To be accepted, the word choice must be exact,
reputable and modern. The following list contains the words that are frequently misused in report
writing.
Above, below
Don’t use above as an adjective in construction such as “the above statement”. “Too frequently
the above and the below references appear on the previous or following pages, which makes the
reference illogical. Better to say
“The foregoing statement”
Or
“The following list”
Affect, effect
To the means to produce an effect to have influence upon; effect means the immediate result,
that which is produce by a cause.
“The new curricula on the performance of teachers.”
“The effect on performance of the teachers was caused by the new curricula.”
Although, while
Although means “in spite of the fact that” or “even though.” While is generally accepted to mean
“during the time that” or “at the same time.”
“Although (not while) both banks are growing significantly in assets…” (But)
“These forms can be filled out while (at the same time) the teller is completing a transaction.”
Also note that while should not be used for coordination ideas that need And or But.
“Form ‘A’ serves only the function of evaluating the teachers but (not while) form ‘B’ often
provides too much information.”
Amount, number, proportion
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Amount refers to quantity, bulk, mass; number refers to countable units. Proportion us ratio the
relation of one part to another.
The amount of water in the ocean; the amount of energy expanded in a game.
Number of gallons; the number of people;
The proportion if men and women in the company’s employ.
And/or
And/or is a legalism; avoid using it. Don’t write;
“This change may cause a reduction in hours and/or pay”
Instead write:
“This change may cause a reduction in hours, or pay, or both.”
Anticipate, expect
Anticipate should not be used in place of expect. Synonymous for expect are hope and look.
“He anticipates the computer installation by completing a course in computer programming.”
“We expect that the time saving will release four employees for the work.”
As to
As to is a substitute for a simple preposition, and it shouldn’t be used to introduce words that
could stand without it.
NOT: “They aren’t sure 0f the proposed changes.”
BUT: “They aren’t sure about the proposed change.”
NOT: “There was doubt as to whether to adopt the policy.”
BUT: “There was doubt whether to adopt the policy.”
Author, writer
Stylistic preference today frowns on the use of “the author” or “the writer” to refer to the person
conducting an investigation or experiment. Simply restructuring the sentence can eliminate such
references.
NOT: “The author developed a questionnaire to…”
BUT: “A questionnaire was developed to….”
Balance, remainder
Balance should not be used as a substitute for remainder in formal writing except in accounting
terms. Balance has the meaning of equilibrium, whereas remainder means residue that left over.
“The account now has a credit balance.”
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“The remainder of the accounts was given to an attorney for collection.”

Believe, feel
To believe is to think, to judge, to have convictions. To feel is to touch, to examine, to be aware
of an impression.
“They believe (not feel) this year will be a good academic year.”
Better than, more than
Better than is colloquial when used in place of more than.
“More than (not better than) fifty trails were made.”
Bimonthly
Bimonthly means every two months. It has also come to mean twice a month. For clarity, discard
the word and write “every two months” or “twice a month.” Leave no room for doubt about what
is meant.
Case
The word case has many legitimate uses, but so often it is used when it contributes no meaning
to an expression. Case is a frequent source of jargon in writing
Don’t Write: Write:
In all cases Always
In case If
In case where When
In most cases Usually
In some cases Sometimes
In which case Then
This being the case Thus: so
Conclusion, summary
These words are not synonymous. Conclusion is an answer derived by reasoning; it is a decision
or opinion resulting from an investigation. A summary is a brief review of the main points in a
presentation. Thus in report writing, analysis and reasoning must be present to conclude; a
summary, though, is not dependent upon reasoning since it is a review only.
Data
Data is the plural of datum. Precision in writing requires the use of a plural verb with data except
when the meaning applies to a collection of data as a unit.
“These data indicate…”
“The data in this research comes from three sources (as a unit).”
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Different from, different than

“Different than” is considered substandard usage. Use “different from”.
“This machine is different from (not different than) the one used before.”
But, also notice:
“This machine is larger than the one used before.”
Enormity, enormousness
These words are not interchangeable. Enormousness means huge; a great size in number or
degree. Enormity means wicked, vicious, or immoderate. The use of enormity to mean vastness
or great size is considered substandard usage.
Etc.
Etc. means “and other things.” It is also used for “and so forth.” Proper usage would be at the
end of an almost completed list or for immaterial words at the end of a quote. Do not use etc. to
end a sentence beginning with “such as,” “for example,” or any similar expressions. Don’t force
your reader to fill in details you are unable or unwilling to do.
Fewer, less
In general, use fewer for number and less for degree or amount.
“Fewer (not less) people, fewer books, fewer dollars.”
“Less gasoline (but fewer gallons of gasoline), less time, less energy.”
Forego, forgo
To forego something means to precede it; to go before. To forgo something is to go without; to
abstain. Thus,
The salad foregoes the main course (precedes), and you may forgo the dessert (go without).
However
Prefer not to start a sentence with however when nevertheless is meant.
NOT: “However, these definitions are imprecise.”
BUT: “These definitions, however, are imprecise.”
Imply, infer
Imply is to involve as a necessary condition. Infer is to derive by reasoning. A speaker or writer
implies; the listener or reader infers.
I imply by what I say, and I infer from what I say.
Irregardless
It is nonstandard English: so use regardless.
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Method, Methodology, Procedure

Method is orderly procedure or manner of doing something. Methodology is a branch of logic
concerned with principles of procedure. Procedure is a manner or method of proceeding. A
method, therefore, is an application of methodology. No difference in meaning is evident
between method and procedure; so, the combined use of “methods and procedures” in a report is
redundant. The term methodology as is often used in reports is a genteelism- pompous phrasing.
On the other hand
Used by itself, this term is trite.
NOT: “On the other hand, their price is better.”
BUT: “On the one hand…on the other hand…”
Only
Misplacing the modifier only in a sentence can change meaning. Place only before the word it
modifies. Notice the changes in meaning in the following:
National Motors paints cars.
Only National Motors paints cars. (No other company paints cars)
National Motors only paints cars. (National Motors doesn’t repair or service cars)
National Motors paints only cars. (National Motors doesn’t paint boars or machinery)
Parameter, perimeter
A parameter is a variable, a characteristic, or a factor.
A perimeter is a boundary or a circumference. Parameter is frequently misused as meaning
“boundary.”
Presently, at present
Presently means soon: at present means now. Don’t write”
“Some students are presently studying at the library.”
Reason is because
Because means “for the reason that”; so one is actually saying “reason is for the reason that.”
NOT: “The reason we are not participating is because of the cost factor.”
BUT: “The reason we are not participating is the cost factor.”
That, which
The relative pronouns that and which are not always interchangeable. That restricts, limits, or
defines the word or phrase preceding it. “That” pertains to persons, animals, or things. “Which”
expands the meaning of the preceding word or phrase. “Which” pertains only to animals or
things.
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“The program that John developed has been in use for five years.”
The pronoun “that” restricts the meaning of the word program to the one that John developed.
The idea introduced by “that” could not be removed without losing the meaning of the sentence.
Notice that commas are not used to set off the “that” idea.
“The incentive program, which was developed five years ago, has increased production
32 percent”
Here the pronoun “which” merely expands the meaning by adding a new thought. The idea
introduced by which could be deleted without losing the meaning of the sentence. Also, notice
that commas are used to enclose the “which” idea.
True fact
A fact is generally defined as “something that actually happened or is true.” The term true fact,
then, is a redundancy because if something isn’t true, it isn’t fact.
3.8.1.2 Eliminating Deadwood in Writing
Most of us tend to give our readers more than they need. We write with a dull and pompous
style. Sometimes we know something is wrong but do not know what it is. The elements
involved generally, here are:
 Redundancies,
 Long connectives,
 Expletive beginnings,
 Clichés,
 Latin ad legal terms, and
 Stylish words.
3.8.1.2.1 Recognize Redundancies

A redundancy is a word or phrase that repeats an idea already expressed- a misused from the
emphasis. The following redundancies are found frequently in report writing:
Don’t write: Write:

Accordingly and consequently (one; not both)
Advance planning Planning
Assemble together Assemble
Basic fundamentals Fundamentals
But nevertheless (one; not both)
Close scrutiny Scrutiny
Conclude at the end Conclude
Consensus of opinion (one; not both)
Controversial issue Issue
Each and every (one; not both)
Evident and apparent (one; not both)
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Exactly identical Identical

First and foremost important (one; not both)
Important essentials Essential
Initial beginning Beginning
Lag behind Lag
Legal and lawful (0ne; not both)
Necessary requirement Requirement
New innovation Innovation
Other alternative Alternative
Past experience Experience
Refer back Refer
Rules and regulations (one; not both)
Still continues Continues
Sum total (one; not both)
True facts Facts
Whether or not Whether
3.8.1.2.2 Eliminate Long Connectives

Padded writing serves only to irritate a reader. Note how the phrases on the left are slow and
plodding. The substitutes on the right carry your reader along swiftly to your ideas with no loss
in meaning.
Wordy: Concise:
Almost never Seldom
Along the lines of Like
Are in agreement Agree
Are of the opinion that Believe
Arrived at the conclusion that Concluded
As related to For; about
At all times Always
At the present time Now
At this point in time Now
By means of By
Be in a position to Can
Despite the fact that Though
During the course of During
During the time that While
Each particular time Each time
Few and far between Seldom
For the period of For
For the reason that Since; because
In a position to Able
In light of the fact that Although
In the majority of instances Usually
In other words Thus; so
In view of the fact that Since
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It would appear Apparently

Most of the time Usually
Never before in the past Never
On or before By
Prior to Before
Sometime in the near future Soon
Subsequent to After
To summarize the above In summary
Until such time as Until
With the exception of Except
With regard to About
3.8.1.2.3 Avoid Expletive Beginnings
An expletive in writing is a word or phrase not needed for meaning but just used to fill out a
sentence. Expletive beginnings are slow and wordy; they put the subject far along in the sentence
and delay meaning for your reader. Some expletive sentence starts are: it is, it was, there is, there
are, and there were. Recast such sentences for clarity and conciseness.
NOT: “It is the purpose of this report….”
BUT: “The purpose of this report is….”
NOT: “There are five steps that should be taken…”
BUT: “Five steps should be taken….”
NOT: “It is the opinion of the surveyors that…”
BUT: “The surveyors believe….”
3.8.1.2. 4 Eliminate Clichés

Clichés are terms that have become wearisome and monotonous through their overuse or because
using them leads to other communication problems. They help to destroy clarity; so, avoid using
them by substituting a word for the cliché or by leaving them out. Some of the clichés found in
English include:
A well-known fact Educated guess Interesting to note

Along these lines Exception that proves the rule Needless to say
Any way, shape, or form Few and far between Last but not least
Ballpark figure Final analysis Needs no introduction
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Bone of contention Foregone conclusion goes Simple reason that

without saying
Bottom line In the business world of today Too numerous to mention
By the same token In the final analysis Viable alternative
Conspicuous by its absence In the foreseeable future
3.8.1.2.5 Discard Latin and Legal Terms

Latin and legal terms are of questionable use in scholarly because they usually are unfamiliar,
laborious, and pompous to a reader. They are likely to sound impressive but carry no meaning.
Help a reader by translating them.
Instead of writing: Why not write:
A priori From cause to effect
Ad hoc Temporary
And/or (forget it)
Be cognizant of Be aware of, know, notice
Ceteris paribus Other things being equal
Execute Complete
Exercise Use
Infra Below, following
In lieu Instead of
Modus operandi Procedure
Nota bene Notice well
Per annum Yearly
Per diem Daily
Pursuant to Following
Said This
Subject This
Supra Above, earlier
Vis-à-vis Face-to-face
Viz Namely
And, avoid using a pseudo legal style in writing:

NOT: “two (2) months’ supply”
BUT: “two months supply”
NOT: “eight (8) percent less”
BUT: “eight percent less”
NOT: “in the case of the Scottsdale area…”
BUT: “For the Scottsdale area….”
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3.8.1.2.6 Use Working Words

Stylish words (genteelism) cause writing to be dull, uninteresting, and difficult to read and
understand. Some people believe readers like elegant writing and that these readers will think
one is uneducated and undignified if the writing does not sound impressive. Stylish words are not
necessarily bad, but they are bad when a writer uses them to the exclusion of simple ones. Be
assured your IQ is not measured by the length of your words.
The following list provides examples of choosing a simple substitute for a multi-syllable word.
Note that the stylish words are three or more syllables, and the working words are one or two
syllables
Stylish words: Working words:
Accordingly So
Approximately About
Characteristic Trait
Compensation Pay
Concerning About
Consummate Close
Demonstrate Show
Discontinue Stop
Enumerate List
Expenditure Payment
Foundation Base
Fundamental Basic
Inadvisable Risky
Indication Sign
Indispensable Vital
Industrious Busy
Materialize Appear
Modification Change
Possibility Chance
Recapitulate Review
Remuneration Pay
Transformation Change
Unadulterated Pure
Verification Proof
3.8.1.3 Managing Sentences and Paragraphs

Writing good sentences requires patience, technique, and feeling; it’s a job for which we need
diligence, concentration, and practice. Good sentences and paragraphs do not result from just
stringing words together as they tumble from our minds; they must be controlled and fashioned
into acceptable form and style. The following principles are the ones violated frequently in report
writing:
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 Pronoun reference,
 Parallelism,
 Transitions,
 Emphasis,
 Sexism, and
 Punctuation.
3.8.1.3.1 Have a Clear Pronoun Reference
Every pronoun must stand for a word that has already been expressed; and what it stands for
must be evident immediately. A vague pronoun whose meaning appear later in the sentence
irritates a reader.
NOT: Sample latters should be selected periodically, and a critique of each letter should be
made.
This will require services of correspondence specialist.
BUT: Sample letters should be selected periodically, and critique of each letter should be made.
This critique will require the services of a correspondence specialist.
NOT: Approximately eight full-time employees are needed on the dietary staff. This is
indicated since standard (B) is not met.
BUT: Approximately eight full-time employees are needed on the dietary staff. This need is
indicated since standard (B) is not met.
NOT: The Company is apathetic about their customers.

BUT: The Company is apathetic about its customers.
3.8.1.3.2 Express Parallel Ideas in Parallel Form

Logic requires parallel grammatical construction for parallel ideas. Otherwise, the structure
causes momentary confusion and annoyance.
NOT: The property is still being used for farming and citrus grove.
BUT: The property is still being used for farming and growing citrus.
NOT: Writing is sometimes more effective than to give instructions orally.
BUT: Writing is sometimes more effective than giving instructions orally.
NOT: The duties of administration are to: (1) preside at all meetings, (2) call special
meetings, and (3) responsibility for appointing committees.
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BUT: The duties of administration are to: (1) preside at all meetings, (2) call special meetings,
and (3) and appoint committees.
3.8.1.3.3 Provide Transitions

Use road sings effectively for transition. Don’t force the reader to make the shifts alone.
 To add: further; moreover; besides; also; in addition
 To construct: but, however, yet, on the contrary.
 To compare: Similarly, in the same way.
 To show consequence: as a result, therefore, accordingly, thus, for this reason.
 To close: in summary, in brief, in short.
3.8.1.3.4 Use Emphasis Effectively

Some ways of emphasizing in report writing are:
 By underscoring words: “You think are right.”
 By placement: put key ideas in lead-off position or end position. Play down ideas by
putting them in on-emphatic middle spots.
 By saying something is important.
 By controlling the amount of space used. The more space devoted to an idea, the more
emphasis achieved.
 By sentence length and pattern.
In general, stylist recommended a twenty- word sentence average for easy reading. This figure
suggest that some sentences may be an only a few words and others may be forth or fifty words.
To tell writers to keep all sentences short would result on monotony and premier-style writing.
Sentence length or varieties in sentence pattern are closely related. Provide variety by using
simple, complex, compound and compound-complex sentence pattern. Do not end up with a
sausage-link string of subject-verb-object sentence structure: use some introductory phrase and
clause constructions too.
3.8.1.3.5 Avoid Sexist construction

Careful writers avoid sex-role stereotyping their writing; they afford men and women equal
treatment. Following are suggestion for reflecting sexually unbiased attitude in writing.
I. Drop male pronoun “he” and “his” from construction
NOT: The depositor retains his copy of the deposit slip.
BUT: The depositor retains a copy of the deposit slip.
II. Use a plural construction.
NOT: An executive is busy person. He appreciates brevity in what he must read.
BUT: An executive are busy people. They appreciate brevity in what they must read.
III. Use a genderless “person” or “one” construction.
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NOT: The wise report writer will use long words with caution. He will make certain the long
words he uses are well known to his reader.
BUT: The wise report writer will use long words with caution. That is, one must make certain
the long words one uses are well known to his reader.
IV. Avoid sex-role description such as girl, fairer sex, chairwoman, authoress, and
stewardess.
NOT: Ask one of the girls to type it.
BUT: Ask one of the secretaries to type it.
NOT BUT
Salesman Sales representative
Early man Primitive people
Businessman Business executive
And finally,
NOT: The good writers must become a student of words
He must learn the precise meaning of words
BUT: The good writers must become a student of words. The precise meanings of words must be
learned. (Guide 1)
OR: Good writers must become students of words. They must learn the precise meanings of
words. (Guide 2)
3.8.1.3.6 Punctuate correctly

Punctuation provides the signposts to meaning in sentence. Any punctuation (or the luck of it)
that causes a reader to back up and reread to get meaning has caused a problem. In some
sentences, only by correct punctuation can the meaning be obtained at all. Reviewed have are
some of the troublesome areas in punctuation:
I. Apostrophe
a. Possessive pronouns do not take an apostrophe (its, theirs, yours, ours).
b. Even though ownership is not involved, the apostrophe is used for a week’s time, a
day’s labor, two hours’ travel.
c. Show individual or alternative possession with an apostrophe on each element of the
series (students’ or teachers’ suggestion).
II. Colon
a. Use a colon to introduce any matter that forms a complete sentence, question or quotation.
The following question came up for discussion: What policy should be adopted?)
b. Use a colon on proportions or ratios. (The concrete was mixed 5:31. The ratio was 1:2:
3:6).
III. Comma
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Of all the punctuation marks, the comma causes the most trouble. Mainly, the comma serves
to show (1) Parallel construction and (2) Parenthetical elements.
Parallelism
a) Use a comma before the conjunction (and, or, but) in a compound sentence with two
independent clauses. (His stock is not birr 23, and it is not expected to go any lower).
b) Don’t use a comma between two verbs having the same subject.
NOT: “They obtained financing and built the shopping center”.
BUT: “They obtained financing and built the shopping center.”
c) Use a comma after each item within a series of three or more words, phrase, letters or
figures used with and, or, nor, or but (by the week, by the month, or by the season or red,
white and blue).
d) Use a comma after each of series of coordinates qualifying words (colorful, durable tile;
but, colorful floor tile). If you can insert ‘and’ between the elements or invert the order,
you need a comma.
e) Use a comma to set off a parenthetical element introduce by the conjunctions because, as,
if, although, when as soon as, and such as. (After I have read your report, I’LL make a
decision have made your decision, let me know.)
f) Use a comma to set of parenthetic element words, phrase, or clauses. (There high morale
might, he suggested, have caused them to win. But: the man who fell broke his back.)
g) Use commas to set off nonrestrictive phrases or clauses (Grammar which is dull subject,
is important.) if the statement would mean the same if the same phrase or clause was left
out, commas are needed.
h) Use commas to set off words or phrases in apposition or contrast. (Ali Bekele, the sales
manager, made the request.)
i) Use commas to set off a noun used in direct address. (Therefore, without us, you will
want to take action now.)
j) Use a comma to set off introductory elements in sentence. Without the comma, the
introductory portion would seem to run momentarily into the remainder of the sentence.
NOT: “At the instant of starting the motor draws more than 200 amperes.
BUT: “At the instant of starting, the, motor draws more than 200 amperes.
k) Use a comma to separate two words or figures that might otherwise be misunderstood.
(In 1989, 240 employees were dismissed, OR: To Ujulu, Kadir was ambitious.)
l) Don’t use a comma between month and year in dates (June 1989; March, April and
May1989).
IV. Dash
a. Use two hyphens to make a dash. Have no space before or after the dash (No examples in
a, b, c and d of this group.)
b. Use a dash to mark a sudden brake or abrupt change in thoughts. (If you are already using
this system – fine.)
c. Use a dash as strong parenthesis. (Some fuels currently are dominant – gas, oil, and
coal—but solid energy use is near.)
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d. Use a dash before a final clause that summarizes a series of ideas. (Ability, maturity,
and perseverance—these are the qualities sought.)
e. Don’t use a dash as a substitute for a period, a semicolon, or a comma.
V. Ellipsis
a) Use thee spaced periods to indicate and ellipsis and four spaced periods when a sentence
is brought to a close. Space before, between, and after the periods. (He run… and won
first place. OR: he run… and won…)
b) Use a full line of spaced periods to show omission of one or more lines.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……..
VI. Hyphen
a) Use a hyphen to join two or more words into a single unit of modifiers preceding a
noun (First- class plan; two-day affair; high-impact plastic; one-way street). Don’t use
a hyphen when the compound follows a noun. (The plan is first class. The plastic is
high impact.)
b) Omit the hyphen from compound adjectives when:
1. The adjective is made from a commonly two-word noun (An Addis Ababa
University student; an office machines salesperson).
2. The first word of a compound in an adverb ending in –ly (A poorly constructed
auto; a partly filled container).
3. The compound is the name of a chemical (a copper sulfate solution).
VII. Italic
a) If you are not using computer, show italics in typewriting by underlining.
b) Underline the title of a periodical, a book, a booklet published under its own cover, a
musical composition, the proper name of a ship, train, or airplane, or a foreign word
(Business Week; Elements of Style; Concorde; et cetera).
VIII. Quotation Marks

a) Place quotation marks outside the comma and period.
b) Use quotation marks to enclose any matter following the words entitled, the term,
marked, endorsed, or signed. (The check was endorsed “Mugula Isa. “
c) Use quotation marks at the beginning of each paragraph of a quotation, but at the
end of that last paragraph only.
d) Use quotation marks to enclose misnomers, slang expression, or ordinary words
used in an arbitrary way. (He spoke against the “lame duck” amendment).
e) Use quotation marks to marks to enclose titles of essays, stories, poems,
newspaper and magazines articles and chapters of books.
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IX. Semicolon
a) Use semicolon to separate clauses containing commas. (When the space
program was initiated, reentry was the principal difficult but this problem was
solved some time ago.)
b) Use a semicolon before and a comma after weak connectives when they connect
two complete and related ideas. Such weak connectives are; accordingly, also,
hence, however, moreover, nevertheless, so, still, the, therefore, thus, yet.
(Unfamiliar words destroy clarity; therefore, prefer the familiar word to the far-
fetched word.)
c) Use a semicolon in place of a coordinating conjunction. (Accounting is one of
the fastest growing professions today; the possibility of getting a job in
accounting is very good.)
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UNIT FOUR
4. Public Speech and Presentation
4.1 What is public speaking?
Public speaking is the process and act of speaking to a group of people in a structured, deliberate
manner intended to inform, influence, or entertain a listening audience.
"How on earth am I going to stand in front of all these people and do a speech?" Well, yes you
can, let’s go…
Presenting a good speech requires practice and knowledge. There are a few basics to get started.
4.2 Approaching the Speaking Situation: Audience, Occasion, Purpose
Communication, both spoken and written, is always addressed to an audience, a set of listeners
or readers you are intending to convey information to or have some effect upon. Public speaking
differs from written communication in that the audience is present, gathered for some occasion.
That occasion has norms and expectations that a speaker must recognize. Finally, a public
speaker has some purpose, something they are trying to accomplish or set in motion. Good
public speaking always accounts for these three components.
Audience
Speakers communicate differently to different audiences. To take a simple example, people tell
their grandmothers about their new “significant other” in a different way than they tell their best
friend. Similarly, people speak about trees differently with their high school biology teacher than
they do with their younger siblings; and speakers often need to make arguments about public
policy differently to Republicans than to Democrats. Two main questions guide audience
adaptation in a speaking situation: Who are they? What qualities about them are relevant?
Who are they? Distinguishing general from specific audiences is useful. A general audience is
everyone who will hear the speech or read the paper. A specific audience, on the other hand, is
that subset of the general audience who the speaker particularly wants to reach, or to reach in a
different way than the rest of the group. In an audience with varying degrees of knowledge on a
subject, for instance, a speaker might want to pitch their comments primarily to non-experts
(while at the same time not saying anything that a specialist would find objectionable). In the
classroom, students may be speaking to the entire group but making a special effort to address
the professor's expectations.
What qualities about them are relevant? Audiences vary in values, knowledge, and style of
communication, and intellectual capacity — among other qualities. Depending on the topic and
purpose, effectiveness could be influenced by whether the audience is young or old, rich or poor,
female or male, highly religious or less believing, college graduates or high school dropouts,
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ethnic minorities or majorities. In addition, audiences carry different expectations to a speaking

occasion: some want to be there, others do not; some want to be entertained, others are looking
to be informed; some are open to being persuaded while others are unlikely to change their
minds anytime soon; some expect a highly polished presentation with sophisticated visual aids
while others are looking for less formal comments. All of these expectations help shape a
speaking situation.
Occasion
Unlike much written communication, a public speaking situation occurs at a specific time and
place. With regard to time, the speech can be affected by events that have very recently occurred
(e.g. the morning's news may be fresh in your audience's mind); by the time of day (8:00 A.M.
lectures are different than 10:00 A.M. lectures); and by the fact that it comes after or before other
speeches. Place matters too--different-sized rooms make a difference for visual aids and
intimacy.
There is also a reason that the speech is happening, the occasion for which the audience has
gathered. Are you speaking at a wedding or a funeral, academic lecture series or a public meeting
of concerned citizens, a mandatory assignment for freshman communication students? Each of
these occasions has different norms for speaking, calling for speakers to operate in different
modes--from formal to informal, from light to heavy, humorous to serious, conversational to
highly practiced?
Purpose
Speakers hope to accomplish general and specific purposes when they communicate. For most
speaking in college and beyond, there are two general purposes: to inform or to persuade. The
line between informing and persuading is not absolute, and many speeches will do some of both.
Nonetheless, they are useful guides for speakers.
When a speaker seeks to inform, they want the audience to leave the speech knowing more than
they knew beforehand. Speakers may want to explain an idea or process, share new information,
or show how to do something.
When a speaker aims to persuade an audience, they want them to adopt a new position or belief,
to change their minds, or to be moved to action. Persuasion calls a speaker to advocate one
position among others that are possible and be willing to defend it against challenges.
In addition to a general purpose and speaker typically has a range of more specific goals for their
speech. They may want to get a few laughs, to build upon a classmate's speech, to reach a
selected group of listeners, to show themselves to be competent to potential employers, or to
create controversy. A successful speech requires a clear sense of general and specific purpose to
guide how selection and presentation of ideas and words.
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4.3 Structuring the Speech
Organizing speeches serves two important functions. First, organization helps improve clarity of
thought in a systematic way. Second, organization increases the likelihood that the speech will be
effective. Audiences are unlikely to understand disorganized speeches and even less likely to
think that disorganized speakers are reliable or credible. Speeches are organized into three main
parts: introduction, body, and conclusion.
The introduction of the speech establishes the first, crucial contact between the speaker and the
audience. For most classroom speeches, the introduction should last less than a minute. The
introduction needs to accomplish three things:
Focus your audience's attention. Speakers must have an “attention grabber” to interest the
audience—a joke, astonishing fact, or anecdote. (Rhetorical questions like “Haven’t you ever
wondered how…” are notoriously ineffective.) The introduction is the place where the main
claim or idea should be stated very clearly to give the audience a sense of the purpose of the
speech. Speakers need to orient the audience and make connections between what they know or
are already interested in and the speech topic.
Establish goodwill and credibility. Many people believe the most important part of persuasion
was ethos, or the character the speaker exhibited to the audience. The audience needs to see the
speaker as someone to listen to attentively and sympathetically. Ethos is generated by both
delivery style and content of the speech. Making eye contact with the audience and displaying
confidence in voice and body are two important ways to establish ethos. In addition, if you
express ideas that are original and intelligent, you will show “intellectual character.” Audiences
pay attention to habits of thought that are interesting and worth listening to.
Give a preview. Mentioning the main points to be covered in the body prepares the audience to
listen for them. Repetition is an important aspect of public speaking, for listening is an imperfect
art, and audience members nearly always tune out in parts--sometimes to think about previous
parts of the speech, sometimes for other reasons. The preview should end with a transition, a
brief phrase or a pause to signal to the audience that the speech is moving out of the introduction
and into the body.
The body follows and is itself structured by a mode of organization, a logical or culturally
specific pattern of thinking about ideas, events, objects, and processes. Having a mode of
organization means grouping similar material together and linking the component parts together
with transitions. Good transitions show the relation between parts of a speech. They display the
logic of the speech. Common transition phrases include: in addition to, furthermore, even more,
next, after that, then, as a result, beyond that, in contrast, however, and on the other hand. One
special type of transition is called the internal summary, a brief restatement of the main point
being completed.
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In the body, the fewer the main points the better. For short classroom speeches, under 10
minutes, speeches should not have more than three main points. For longer speeches, more than
five main points ensures that audiences will have trouble following and remembering the speech.
In the speech, main points should be clearly stated and "signposted," marked off as distinct and
important to the audience. Transitions often serve to signpost new points, as do pauses before an
important idea. Additionally, speakers might number main points—first, second, third or first,
next, finally. Always make it easy for the audience to recognize and follow key ideas.
There are several common modes of organizing the information in the body of your speech:
Temporal organization groups information according to when it happened or will happen. Types
of temporal patterns include chronological (in the sequence it occurred) and reverse
chronological (from ending back to start). Inquiry order is one special mode of temporal
organization useful in presenting some kinds of research: here you organize the body in accord
with the unfolding processes of thinking and gathering data, taking the audience from the initial
curiosity and questions to final results.
Cause-effect is a related mode of organization, showing how one event brings about another.
Cause-effect, like other temporal modes, may be used for past, present, or future events and
processes. Cause-effect can also be reversed, from effect back to cause.
Spatial patterns group and organize your speech based on physical arrangement of its parts. If a
speech is describing a place, a physical object, or a process of movement--downtown Mercer, a
plant cell, or the Battle of Shiloh--spatial patterns can be useful.
Topical designs are appropriate when the subject matter has clear categories of division.
Government in the United States, for instance, falls into federal, state, and local categories; or
into executive, legislative, and judicial branches; into elected and appointed officials. Categories
like these can help divide the subject matter to organize the main points.
Compare/contrast takes two or more entities and draws attention to their differences and/or
similarities. Sometimes speakers explain a difficult subject by comparing it with an easier, more
accessible one--to explain nuclear fusion with the stages of high school romance, for instance.
The use of analogies often assists in audience understanding.
Following a transition from the body of the speech, the conclusion follows. The conclusion
should be somewhat shorter than the introduction and accomplishes two purposes: summarize
main ideas and give the speech a sense of closure and completion. Good conclusions might refer
back to the introduction, offer an analogy or metaphor that captures the main idea, or leave the
audience with a question or a challenge of some type. Brief quotations can also make effective
conclusions (just as they can make effective openings for introductions).
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4.4 Speech Delivery Techniques

Basically, there are 4 types of speech delivery techniques.
i. Impromptu Method
It is the one delivered in the spur of the moment. It requires the least preparation; with little
advanced notice, the speaker is asked to speak for a few minutes on a specific subject.
The speaker relies on previous knowledge of the topic (and the language).The speaker have to
limit himself to a specific aspect that can be discussed in a few minutes.
ii. Memorized Method
It is written word by word and committed to memory. Few speakers are able to use this
methods effectively since it relies on memory skills. It is a speech that is read, it lacks
spontaneity. In addition, memory can fail during delivery and can cause embarrassment
(Disadvantage).
This type of speech should not be used in public speaking classes. Here are some guidelines
in giving a memorized speech:
=Stay focused on your specific purpose and on the key ideas you want to convey.
=Practice, practice, practice
iii. Manuscript Method (Read Speech)
A Read speech is written out and read. It is used when it’s important that the exact words
are used in a correct way, a read speech is appropriate. Political leaders read speeches for
accuracy and precision. It’s important for the speaker reading a speech to maintain rapport with
the audience.
Here are some guidelines in giving a manuscript speech:
=Only use a manuscript when what you are saying is of critical importance.
=Use good oral style.
=Practice, practice, practice.
=Develop body language and gestures that support what you are saying.
=Use effective vocal variety/contrast. Remain flexible.
iv. Extemporaneous Method
While other types of speeches can be effective modes of delivery, extemporaneous speaking is
the most adaptable and time efficient. Learning it is also an excellent way of sharpening critical
thinking. Extemporaneous speeches are developed through outlining ideas, not writing them out
word-for-word. They are practiced ahead of time, rehearsed and re-rehearsed (extemporaneous
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speeches are not impromptu), using a keyword outline of single words and short, 3-5 word
phrases. The speech is not memorized but instead is concentrating on the main ideas; each time a
speaker practices and delivers the speech, wording comes out a little differently.
Extemporaneous delivery gives the speech freshness, for it doesn't sound canned and over-
rehearsed. Additionally, this flexible form of delivery allows a speaker to make adjustments to
their speech in response to non-verbal signals from the audience--signs of confusion, displeasure,
curiosity, or excitement.
v. Extemporaneous delivery allows speakers to make eye contact with the

audience—one of the best ways to connect with them and keep them
involved in the speech.
This should be the commonly used method of speaking in most public speech circumstances.
vi. It is not read nor memorized. It is spontaneous and natural.
vii. The speaker has time to prepare the ideas they wish to convey and the
actual words are formulated at the moment of delivery.
viii. This type speech must also be practiced but the words and arrangement of
words are changed to something better and more effective.
In rehearsing and delivering, the speaker is simply guided by an outline. Power point can be used
as a way of preparing an outline for extemporaneous speech delivery technique.
 The speaker doesn’t memorize the speech, but the order of ideas should have coherence,
unity, organization, and clarity in speech.
 An extemporaneous speech: Requires careful preparation. It is based on a key word

outline.
 Allows the speaker to remain direct, involved, and flexible.
4.5 Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication Strategies

The right combination of verbal and non-verbal strategies helps to make a speech clear and
compelling to an audience.
Developing good vocal delivery means focusing first and foremost on being heard clearly: a
speaker must speak loudly enough to be heard by everyone, articulate words sharply so they can
be understood, and speak slowly enough so that the audience can easily take in the ideas. In
addition, avoid monotone delivery and be engaged enough with the speech to communicate
interest. Effective bodily delivery begins with this simple maxim: do not distract the audience
with extraneous movement. Nervous pacing, standing cross-armed or hands-in-pockets for long
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stretches, turning from the audience and talking into a visual aid, gestures unrelated to the verbal
message--all of these distract from the content of the speech and should be avoided.
Verbal (oral) communication
The spoken word differs from the written. Audiences for public speeches do not have the benefit
of being able to go back and re-read sentences. They cannot look at a page and see section
headings or new paragraph indentations. Public audiences have a more limited capacity to
comprehend complicated ideas and to take in long sentences and difficult or dense language.
Public speakers have to compensate for these limits by using the principles of repetition of
content, clarity of structure, and simplicity of language.
Repetition. Repetition is a fundamental part of most good public speeches. An old public
speaking adage goes something like: “tell ‘em what you’re going to tell ‘em, tell ‘em, and then
tell ‘em what you told ‘em.” By the end of a speech, an audience should have absolutely no
question about what the central idea or main claim is. To make sure that happens, state the idea
clearly in the introduction of your speech, tie the information and arguments of the body to it in
explicit ways, and restate the idea again in your conclusion. Audiences are more likely to miss or
forget important information if you do not repeat and restate it.
Clarity. Clarity of structure means that ideas are logically grouped into categories the audience
can easily understand. In addition, just as paragraph indents and underlining alert readers to new
or important ideas, transitions and signposts help listeners recognize new 'paragraphs' and key
points of the speech. Brief pauses can signal to listeners that the speaker is about to say
something important or is moving onto the next main point. Phrases like "most important," "I am
claiming that," "the crucial point is this," call your listeners' attention to what follows them and
act as verbal underlining.
Simplicity. Simplicity in language is crucial to conveying information effectively. Oral discourse

differs from written in its use of language. Oral discourse is often best when it uses the first
person, “I” and “we.” Such language gives the speech a sense of immediacy and helps the
speaker to connect with the audience. In addition, good speeches will often use less formal
language--contractions, sentence fragments, selected slang expressions. Finally, oral language
needs to be less dense and jargon-laden then some kinds of written language, especially
academic language. When written papers are read out loud, they almost never make effective
speeches.
Content knowledge …….it refers to the subject matter the speaker is going to present to the
audience. It is essential to read, research and prepare note very well so that you can have
confidence in what you are talking and answer any type of question you are asked from the
audience.
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Voice quality…it is about the volume of the sound the speaker produces. Generally, the speaker
is advised to balance his/her volume of sound according to the number of audience and situation.
The voice of the speaker should not always be very loud or low; it should be balanced. Besides,
the speaker should use different intonations so that the speech would not be monotonous.
Non-verbal communication
Nonverbal communication is usually understood as the process of communication through
sending and receiving wordless messages. i.e., language is not the only source of
communication, there are other means also.
Messages can be communicated through gestures and touch (Haptic communication), by body
language or posture, by facial expression and eye contact. Meaning can also be communicated
through object or artifacts (such as clothing, hairstyles or architecture-graves, for example),
symbols, and icons (or graphics).
Non-verbal messages primarily communicate emotions, attitudes.
The following are some of the most important non-verbal communication strategies a public
speaker is expected to use.
 Eye contact
Eye contact is an important way to establish a speaker's credibility and make a speech
compelling; when a speaker relies too much on notes, they are potentially losing their audience
and running the risk of looking unprepared.
 Eye contact is a direct and powerful form of non-verbal communication.

 For most Americans, eye contact demonstrates confidence, honesty and caring.
 It is a way of getting feedback from your audience.
 Gesture
A gesture is a non-vocal bodily movement intended to express meaning.

They may be articulated with the hands, arms or body, and also include movements of the head,
face and eyes, such as winking, nodding, or rolling ones' eyes.
 Posture
Posture is the way you present yourself to an audience. It is not advisable to rely on the podium
while presenting a speech.
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 Facial expression
Research findings shows that verbal cues provide 7% of the meaning of the message; vocal
cues, 38%; and facial expressions, 55%.
This means that, as the receiver of a message, you can rely heavily on the facial expressions of
the sender because his expressions are a better indicator of the meaning behind the message
than his words.
 Professional attire
Dress according to the context and situation. Generally, dressing well-black suit with tie is
acceptable attire in most public speaking events. However, it can be a bit adapted according to
the time and weather.
4.6 Speech Anxiety
Speech anxiety is best defined as the nervousness that a speaker feels before and/or during a
presentation.
Sweating palms, a shaky voice, a dry throat, difficulty breathing, and even memory loss are all
common symptoms of anxiety.
Anxiety levels vary greatly. Some speakers will report little to no anxiety while speaking; others
will confess that they are terrified at the thought of speaking in public.
Reasons for Speech Anxiety

• Thinking of self rather than having the mindset of helping the audience.
• Inadequate preparation - material and the organization of it, format, timing, visual aids,
sound system, practice.
• Fear of an unknown audience, not knowing what they know or need to know.
• Failure to appreciate the audience's viewpoint.
• A stressed state. Learn how to relax. Don't forget to breathe!
How Do I Overcome My Fear?

• There are many reasons why a speaker might feel anxious, but there are several steps you
can take to reduce your anxiety. First, remember everyone has experienced some level
of anxiety during a presentation. Knowing that you are not the only one feeling
nervous should help a bit.
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• Also, keep in mind that it is perfectly normal to feel nervous when you find yourself in an
unfamiliar setting or situation You probably felt nervous the first time you had to shoot a
foul shot in front of a large crowd of basketball fans. Or you might recall the anxiety you
felt during your first piano recital as a child or that first job interview. Think of this
nervous feeling as your body readying itself for an important activity.
• You might feel anxious as well if you have not adequately prepared for the
presentation. Preparing and practicing your presentation are two of the surest ways to
minimize nervousness. No one wants to feel embarrassed in public, but knowing that you
have done everything possible to ensure success should help you to feel more confident.
• If you are going for public speaking, then go ahead and stand on the podium from where
you going to give the speech. Keep practicing your stance, how you are going to hold
your notes and your hand gestures. Ask some of your friends to observe you, and ask
them to give you some constructive criticism.
It’s all in the mind.

 Nervousness is nothing but a state of mind. It comes along with unpleasant thoughts,
worries that plague a person and cause fear. When all these things overcome the mind,
you start feeling nervous and pained. For solving this problem, you will have to control
your mind.
 Remove all the negative thoughts, which are dwelling inside your head, and stop
thinking about nervousness. The more you think about how nervous you are, the more
you will be unable to reach your own thought process. Always focus on positive
thoughts. If you constantly think that you will fail, then you certainly will. Never let
negative thoughts overpower you. Instead of this, you must dwell on positive
reinforcements. For instance, think of the promotion that you will get once you deliver
the presentation perfectly. If you think positive then you will always have positive
results.
 Try to establish a good mantra. A mantra is nothing but a verbal repetition that will
help in transforming your mind. Make a good-mantra, like “I am confident and smart,
and I will get through this,” or “Crowds are nothing to be afraid of”. Every time you
notice that you are getting nervous, close your eyes and start chanting this mantra in your
head.
 Try mind exercises, for this you will have to train your mind for good concentration
and avoid all the nervous feeling on your big day. Focus on all the praise and
appreciation you will get from your boss and colleagues after the presentation.
Soothe your mood with music
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 If you can soothe the savage beast, then you surely can calm the nervous wreck.
Music is considered as the most of the best creations in the world. It is the perfect
harmony, fantastic rhythm and pleasant sounds, which can ease away all the worries and
negative emotions.
 Whenever you start feeling anxious, start listening to good songs, which can inspire
you. Always avoid sad songs or songs, which come with negative lyrics, because these
songs can bring your spirit down easily.
Avoid things that trigger nervousness

 Nervousness is an emotional state, there are many factors that can worsen it, and it
will make it more intense and difficult to bear.
Relax
 People tend to get engrossed in worries and negative thoughts and so it becomes
difficult for them to avoid the nervous feeling. Do not let things overpower you, relax,
stretch and breathe. Always keep one thing in mind that, whatever situation you are
facing, you will pass through it.
 Rationalize your fears. If you're very nervous, list each fear and consider whether it is
reasonable or what you could do to overcome it.
 Use relaxation exercises. Stretching, deep breathing, etc. can help you slow your
heart rate.
 Practice your presentation. Present in front of a mirror or with a small group of

friends or family.
 Remember to breathe and drink lots of water. Increased breathing and sweating
will dehydrate you quickly.
 Eat bananas. They are high in potassium and will help calm the butterflies in your
stomach.
 Know your facilities. Test all of your equipment in advance and know what your
presentation room looks like. This will help you visualize your presentation and alleviate
unnecessary worries about equipment failure.
 Have a backup plan. Know what you will do if the projector doesn’t work. Be
prepared to present without your visual aids and have chalk or markers available and a
plan for using them if you can’t use the visuals you prepared.
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 Arrive early. This is a great opportunity to get to know your audience as they filter
into the room.
*Extreme form of stage fright is called GLOSSOPHOBIA.
4.7 Starting a presentation
Prepare physically in the seconds before your start:

Take a few minutes to get ready before you begin. Give yourself something to do that will help
you focus and expend some excess energy, e.g., move the podium or adjust the visuals. Stand
erect. You will look confident, and your audience will sense your confidence. Establish eye
contact immediately. A responsive face will go far to put you at ease.
In modern English, Presentations tend to be much less formal than they were even twenty years
ago. Most audience these days prefers a relatively informal approach. However, there is a certain
structure to the opening of a Presentation that you should observe.
1. Get people's attention

2. Welcome them
3. Introduce yourself
4. State the purpose of your presentation
5. State how you want to deal with questions
Get people's attention
 If I could have everybody's attention.

 Perhaps we should begin?
 Let's get started.
Welcome them
 Welcome to Gollis University Charity Club.

 Thank you for coming today.
 Good morning, ladies and gentlemen.
 On behalf of Charity club, I'd like to welcome you.
Introduce yourself
 My name's Ismail Jamal. I'm responsible for travel arrangements.

 For those of you who don't know me, my name is Mohamoud Dawud.
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 As you know, I'm in charge of public relations.

 I'm the new president of English club.
State the purpose of your presentation
 This morning I'd like to present our new club chairperson.

 This afternoon, I'd like to report on my study into the Telecom business.
 What I want to do this morning is to talk to you about our new mobile
telephone system.
 What I want to do is to show you how we've made our first successful
steps in the potentially huge telecommunication market.
State how you want to deal with questions.
 If you have any questions, I'll be happy to answer them as we go along.

 Feel free to ask any questions.
 There will be plenty of time for questions at the end.
Of course, these are only suggestions and other language is possible. Even within this limited
group of phrases, just choose a few you feel comfortable with and learn and use those.
Activity
Answer the following questions.
1. Briefly explain audience, situation and purpose in public presentation.
2. What is the difference among the four types of speech delivery techniques? Which
one do you think is easier and nicer in public speech?
3. Discuss the various non-verbal communication strategies.
4. Explain speech anxiety.
5. Choose any one topic in your field of specialization; prepare and deliver a short
public speech in front of your classmates.
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References
1. David Chappell (1996).Report writing for Architects and Project managers;

Third Edition.
2. Jeremy Confort, Rod Revell and Chris Stott (1985).Business Reports in
English; Cambridge University Press.
3. John Bowden (2008). Writing a Report; Eight edition.
4. Willis Yuko and David Onen (2008).Writing Research Proposal and Report. A
hand book for beginning Researchers; Second edition.
END
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Final Report Writing Syllabus

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Department of English Language and Communication, Gollis University

Upon completing the course, students will be able to:

 Know the concept of writing;

Keeping in view the above points we may define a report as follows:

Difference between a Report and other forms of Writing:

1.2 Purpose of a Report

1.3 Objectives of a Report

Guidelines for Defining Report Objectives

Assigning a Report- Terms of Reference

1.4 Types of Reports

The type of report usually answers these questions:

Informational How? What?

Analytical What? Why? So what?

Persuasive What? Why? So what? What

1.5 Guidelines of Writing a Progress Report

Progress Report Sample

I have a few questions for you:

Site Visit Report Template

Site Visit Summary:

Items for Follow up:

II. Program Administration and Management

a. Health program benefits or potential benefits

III. Programs and Services

VII. Community Linkages

VIII. Summary/Overall Impressions

Insert any relevant summary tables, figures, exhibits, or pictures

D) Process Descriptions or Instructional Reports

Process descriptions and instructions answer questions such as these:

 What equipment is needed?

Evaluation report Template

Evaluation Report Writing

Evaluation Report Template Outline

B) Responses to Requests for Proposals(RFPs)

Kinds of Responses Requested:

An RFP requests these kinds of responses:

Major contents to include in responses:

 Include all information specified in the RFP.

Chapter two: Structure of Reports:

 The title of the report;

Begin directly by talking about the subject of the report.

 Give a brief review of the contents of the report.

I thank my organization PPL feedback Packaging Limited for giving me an opportunity to

4.2 Survey methods 9

K. Abstract and Summary:

 Historical and technical background.

A beginning a middle and end.

 Subject wise Development:

 Concept wise Development:

A) Footnotes and Endnotes:

B) Parenthetical method of references:

Further, in APA style references mentions books in the following manner:

Name Date Title

Name Title Publishing Information

C) Citing articles in APA style:

Name Date Article Title

Some Guidelines for Bibliography Entries:

Note: (“et al” means “and others”)

2.1.4Arrangement of the elements:

There are two ways of structuring a report, these are:

Summary Non- technical

Different cultures also demand different kinds of detail as seen below:

2.1.5Basic and Subsidiary Parts of a Report:

The Basic Parts The Subsidiary Parts

Language used in Research Methodology