ME617 - Handout 14

Vibrations of Continuous Systems

Axial vibrations of elastic bars
The figure shows a uniform elastic bar of length L and cross
section A. The bar material properties are its density ρ and elastic
modulus E. One end of the bar is attached to a fixed wall while the
other end is free. The force P(t) acting at the free end of the bar
induces elastic displacements u(x,t) along the bar

Δx
P(t)
x

L
u(x,t)
Fig. Schematic view of elastic bar undergoing axial motions

From elementary strength of materials consider

a) Cross-sections A remain plane and perpendicular to
the main axis (x) of the bar.
b) Material is linearly elastic
c) Material properties (ρ, E ) are constant at any given
cross section.

The relationship between stress σ and strain ε for

uniaxial tension is
∂u
σ = Eε =E (1)
∂x

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 1

 Consider the free body diagram of an infinitesimally small
piece of bar with length Δx ,

∂u
In the FBD, P ( x, t ) = A( x ) σ = A E is the axial force at a
∂x
cross section of the bar, and f ( x, t ) is a distributed axial force per
unit length,
Δx

P(x,t) f(x,t) P(x+Δx,t)

u(x,t)
Fig. Free body diagram of small piece of elastic bar

Applying Newton’s 2nd law of motion on the bar differential

element gives

∂2 u
∑x Fx = Δm ax = ( ρ A Δx ) ∂ t 2 (2)

∂2 u
( ρ A Δx ) 2 = P( x +Δx , t ) − P( x , t ) + f ( x , t ) Δx (3)
∂t

∂P
As Δx → 0 ⇒ P( x +Δx ,t ) ≈ P( x ,t ) + Δx (4a)
∂x

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 ∂2 u ∂ P
( ρ A Δx ) 2 = Δx + f ( x , t ) Δx
∂t ∂x

∂2 u ∂ P
ρA 2 = + f( x,t ) (4)
∂t ∂x

∂u
And replacing P ( x, t ) = A E
∂x
∂2 u ∂ ⎛ ∂u ⎞
ρ A 2 = ⎜ A E ⎟ + f( x,t ) (5)
∂t ∂ x ⎝ ∂x⎠

PDE (5) describes the axial motions of an elastic bar. For its
solution, one needs appropriate boundary conditions (BC), which
are of two types
(a) essential, u=u* , a specified value, at x=x* for all
times,
∂u ⎞
(b) natural, P(x*,t) = A E ⎟ specified
∂ x ⎠ x = x*
∂u ⎞
If P=0, then the natural BC is a free end, i.e. ⎟ =0
∂ x ⎠ x = x*

Note: PDE (5) and its BCs can be derived from the Hamiltonian
principle using the definitions for kinetic (T) and potential (V)
energies.

L 2 L 2
1 ⎛ ∂u ⎞ 1 ⎛ ∂u ⎞
T = ∫ ρ A ⎜ ⎟ dx; V = ∫ E A ⎜ ⎟ dx (6)
20 ⎝ ∂t ⎠ 20 ⎝∂x⎠

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 3

Free vibrations of elastic bars
Without external forces (point loads or distributed load, f=0), PDE
(5) reduces to

∂2 u ∂ ⎛ ∂u ⎞
ρ A 2 = ⎜ AE ⎟ (7)
∂t ∂ x ⎝ ∂x⎠

The solution of PDE (7) is of the form u( x ,t ) = φ( x ) v( t ) (8)

Note that
∂2 u d2 v
= φ( x ) 2 = φ( x ) v( t ) ;
∂t 2
dt
(9)
∂ u d φ
2 2
= 2 v( t ) = φ ′′ v( t )
∂x d x
2

With the definitions ( )=

. d
dt ; ( ' ) = d d x . For a bar with uniform
material properties (ρ, E) and cross section A, substitution of the
product solution Eq. (8) into PDE (7) gives

ρ ∂ 2 u ∂ 2u ρ
= → φ( x ) v( t ) = φ(′′x ) v(t ) (10)
E ∂t 2
∂x 2
E

Divide this expression by u( x ,t ) = φ( x ) v( t ) to get

v( t ) E φ(′′x )
= (11)
v( t ) ρ φ( x )

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 4

Above, the LHS is only a function of time, while the RHS is only a
function of spatial coordinate x. This is possible only if both sides
equal to a constant, i.e.

v( t ) E φ(′′x )
= = −ω 2
v( t ) ρ φ( x )
Hence, the PDE is converted into two ordinary differential
equations (ODEs), i.e.

v( t ) + ω 2 v = 0
φ(′′x ) + λ 2 φ( x ) = 0
(12)

where λ =ω ρ
E (13)

The solution of the ODEs (12) & (13) is

v( t ) = Ct cos (ω t ) + St sin (ω t ) (14)

φ( x ) = Cx cos ( λ x ) + S x sin ( λ x ) (15)

The coefficients (C, S) are determined from satisfying the

boundary conditions for the specific bar configuration and load
condition. Equation (15) is known as the fundamental equation
for an elastic bar, i.e. it contains the information on natural
frequencies and mode shapes.

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 5

Example 1.
A bar with one end fixed and
x the other end free.
L In this case, the boundary
u(x,t) conditions are

At x=0, u(0, t ) = 0 = φ(0) v( t ) ⇒ φ(0) = 0 ∀t

∂u⎤
At x=L, ⎥ = 0 = φ(′L )v( t ) ⇒ φ(′L ) = 0 ∀t (16)
∂ x ⎦ x=L

Hence, from the characteristic equation φ(0) = 0 → C x = 0 and

φ( x ) = S x sin ( λ x ) (17)

At x=L, φ(′L ) = 0 = λ S x cos ( λ L ) = 0 (18)

Note that S x ≠ 0 for a non trivial solution. Hence, the

characteristic equation for axial motions of a fixed end-free
end elastic bar is

cos ( λ L ) = 0 (19)
which has an infinite number of solutions, i.e.
π 3π 5π 2n − 1
λ L = , , ,...., ∞ = π , n =1,2,.....
2 2 2 2
And hence the roots of Eq. (19) are

λn =
( 2n − 1) π (20)
n =1,2,.....
2 L

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 6

And since λ = ω
ρ
E , the natural frequencies of the fixed end-
free end bar are

( 2k − 1) π ⎛ E ⎞
1/ 2

ωk = ⎜ ⎟ ; k =1,2,..... (21)
2 L⎝ ρ ⎠
1/ 2 1/ 2 1/ 2
i.e. ω1 = π ⎛ E ⎞ , ω2 = 3π ⎛ E ⎞ , ω3 = 5π ⎛ E ⎞ ....
2 L ⎜⎝ ρ ⎟⎠ 2 L ⎜⎝ ρ ⎟⎠ 2 L ⎜⎝ ρ ⎟⎠

Associated to each natural frequency, there is a natural mode

shape
φk = ψ k = sin ( λk x ) k =1,2,..... (22)

as shown in the figure below.

φ (x) 1
⎛⎜ 1.571 ⎟⎞
λ=⎜
4.712 ⎟ 1
0.5
⎜ 7.854 ⎟ L
⎜ 10.996⎟
⎝ ⎠
Function (x)

0.5

1
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
x/L
Mode 1
Mode 2
Mode 3

Fig. Natural modes shapes φ(x) for elastic bar with fixed end-free end

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 7

See more examples on page 13-ff.

The displacement function response u( x ,t ) = ( x ) v( t ) equals φ

to the superposition of all the found responses, i.e.

u( x ,t ) = ∑ φ ( x ) k v ( t ) k =
k
∞ (23a)
∑φ
k =1
( x )k ⎡⎣Ck cos(ωk t ) +S k sin (ωk t ) ⎤⎦

For example 1 (fixed end –free end bar)

∞
u( x ,t ) = ∑ sin ( λk x ) ⎡⎣Ck cos(ωk t ) +S k sin (ωk t ) ⎤⎦ (23b)
k =1
and velocity:
∞
u( x ,t ) = ∑ sin ( λk x ) ωk ⎡⎣ −Ck sin(ωk t ) +S k cos (ωk t ) ⎤⎦ (24)
k =1

The set of coefficients (Ck, Sk) are determined by satisfying the

initial conditions. That is at time t=0,

∞
u( x ,0) = U ( x ) = ∑ sin ( λk x ) Ck
k =1
∞ (25)
u( x ,0) = U ( x ) = ∑ ωk sin ( λk x ) S k
k =1

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 8

Orthogonality properties of the natural modes
Recall that the pair {λk ,ψ ( x ) } satisfy the characteristic
k =1,...∞ k

equation (12b), i.e.

ψ (′′x ) + λk2 ψ ( x ) = 0
k k k =1,2...∞ (26)

And consider two different eigenvalues λi and λ j each satisfying

Eq. (26), i.e.

ψ i′′+ λi2 ψ i = 0 & ψ ′′j + λ j2 ψ j = 0

Multiply Eq. on left by ψ j and Eq. on right by ψ i , and integrate

over the domain x ∈ {0, L} to get:
L L

∫ (ψ ψ ′′ dx ) + λ ∫ (ψ ψ dx ) = 0
2
j i i j i
0 0
L L

∫ (ψ ψ ′′ dx ) + λ ∫ (ψ ψ dx ) = 0
2
i j j i j (27)
0 0

Integrate by parts the term on the LHS to obtain

L L
ψ i′′ dx = (ψ j ψ i′ ⎤⎦ x =0 − ∫ψ ′j ψ i′ dx
x= L
∫ψ
0
j
0
(28)

And recall the boundary conditions for the fixed end-free end bar

(ψ j ⎦⎤ x =0 = 0 & ( ψ i′ ]x = L = 0 (29)

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 9

 L L
And write first of Eq. (27) as λ ∫ (ψ ψ dx ) = ∫ (ψ ′jψ i′ dx ) and
2
i j i
0 0

substituting λi = ωi ρ
E one obtains:

L L
ω ∫ ( ρ Aψ ψ dx ) = ∫ ( E Aψ ′jψ i′ dx )
2
i j i (30a)
0 0
L L
ω 2j ∫ ( ρ Aψ iψ j dx ) = ∫ ( E Aψ i′ψ ′j dx ) (30b)
0 0

Subtract Eq. (30b) from (30a) to obtain

(ω 2
j −ω i
2
) ∫ ( ρ Aψ ψ ) dx = 0 i j (31)
0
And since ωi ≠ ω j , it follows that
L L

∫ ( ρ Aψ ψ ) dx = 0 & ∫ ( E Aψ ′ψ ′ ) dx = 0
0
i j
0
i j i ≠ j =1,2,....∞ (32)

That is, the modal functions {ψ k }k =1,2... are ORTHOGONAL. For

i=j, the ith natural frequency follows from

Κ ∫ ( E Aψ ′ψ ′ ) dx i i

ω = i = 0L
i
2
(33)
Μi
∫ ( ρ Aψ ψ ) dx
0
i i

Where Κ i , Μ i are the ith mode equivalent stiffness and mass

coefficients.

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 10

Note that the set {ψ k }k =1,2... is a COMPLETE SET of orthogonal
functions

Now, consider the initial conditions, Eq. (25)

∞
u( x ,0) = U ( x ) = ∑ sin ( λk x ) Ck
k =1
∞ (25)
u( x ,0) = U ( x ) = ∑ ωk sin ( λk x ) S k
k =1
Multiply both sides of Eq. (25) byψ m = sin ( λm x ) x ρA and
integrate over the whole domain to obtain

∞
( ρ Aψ mU ( x ) ) dx = ∑ Ck ∫ ( ρ Aψ mψ k ) dx
L L
∫ 0
k =1
0

And since
L ⎧Μ m when m = k ⎫
∫ ( ρ Aψ mψ k ) dx = ⎨ 0 ⎬ (34)
⎩ ⎭
0
when m ≠ k
Then if follow that

( ρ Aψ U ( x ) ) dx
L

Cm =
∫ 0 m
, (35)
m =1,2,...∞
Μm

And similarly
( ρ Aψ U ( x ) ) dx
L

Sm =
∫ 0 m
, (36)
m =1,2,...∞
ωm Μ m

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 11

with Μ m = ∫ ( ρ Aψ ) dx and Κ = ∫
0
L
2
m m
L

0
( 2
)
E A ⎡⎣ dψ m dx ⎤⎦ dx (37)

This concludes the procedure to obtain the full solution for the
vibrations of a bar, i.e.
∞
u( x ,t ) = ∑ φ( x )k ⎡⎣Ck cos(ωk t ) +S k sin (ωk t ) ⎤⎦ (23)
k =1

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 12

 Example 2.
A bar with both ends free.
The boundary conditions are
x=0 L
u(x,t)

∂u⎤
At x=0, ⎥ ′ v( t ) ⇒ φ(0)
= 0 = φ(0) ′ = 0 ∀t
∂ x ⎦ x =0

∂u⎤
At x=L, ⎥ = 0 = φ(′L )v( t ) ⇒ φ(′L ) = 0 ∀t
∂ x ⎦ x=L

′ = 0 → S x = 0 and
Hence, from the characteristic equation φ(0)
φ( x ) = Cx cos ( λ x )

At x=L, φ(′L ) = 0 = λ C x sin ( λ L ) = 0

Note that λ = 0 denotes rigid body motion. Hence, the

characteristic equation for axial motions of a fixed end-free
end elastic bar is

sin ( λ L ) = 0
which has an infinite number of solutions, i.e.
λ L = 0, π , 2π ,3π ,...., ∞ = n π , n =0,1,2.....
π
λn = n n = 0,1,2,.....
L
And since λ = ω
ρ
E , the natural frequencies of the free end-
free end bar are

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 13

 π ⎛E⎞
1/ 2

ωk = k ⎜ ⎟ ; k = 0,1,2,.....
L⎝ ρ ⎠

Associated to each natural frequency, there is a natural mode

shape
φk = cos ( λk x ) k = 0,1,2,...

And shown in the figure below.

φ (x) 1

⎛ 0 ⎞
λ = ⎜ 3.142 ⎟
1
0.5
⎜ ⎟ L
⎝ 6.283 ⎠
Function (x)

0.5

1
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
x/L
Mode 1
Mode 2
Mode 3

Fig. Natural modes shapes φ(x) for elastic bar with both ends free. First
mode is rigid body (null natural frequency)

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 14

Example 3.
A bar with both ends fixed.
x The boundary conditions are
x=0 L
u(x,t)
At x=0, u(0, t ) = 0 = φ(0) v( t ) ⇒ φ(0) = 0 ∀t

At x=L, u( L , t ) = 0 = φ( L ) v( t ) ⇒ φ( L ) = 0

Hence, from the characteristic equation φ( x ) = Cx cos ( λ x ) + S x sin ( λ x ) ,

then φ(0) = 0 → C x = 0 and
φ( x ) = S x sin ( λ x )

At x=L, φ( L ) = 0 = sin ( λ L ) = 0

Note that λ ≠ 0 denotes rigid body motion. Hence, the

characteristic equation for axial motions of a fixed end-
fixed end elastic bar is

sin ( λ L ) = 0
which has an infinite number of solutions, i.e.
λ L = π , 2π ,3π ,...., ∞ = n π , n =0,1,2.....
π
λn = n n =1,2,.....
L
And since λ = ω
ρ
E , the natural frequencies of the free end-
free end bar are
π ⎛E⎞
1/ 2

ωk = k ⎜ ⎟ ; k =1,2,.....
L⎝ ρ ⎠

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 15

Associated to each natural frequency, there is a natural mode
shape
φk = sin ( λk x ) k = 0,1,2,...

And shown in the figure below.

φ (x) 1

⎛ 3.142 ⎞
λ = ⎜ 6.283 ⎟
1
0.5
⎜ ⎟ L
⎝ 9.425 ⎠
Function (x)

0.5

1
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
x/L
Mode 1
Mode 2
Mode 3

Fig. Natural modes shapes φ(x) for elastic bar with both ends fixed.

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 16

ME617 - Handout 14 (b)
Vibrations of Continuous Systems
Lateral vibrations of elastic beams
The figure shows a uniform elastic beam of length L, cross
section A and area moment of inertia I. The beam material
properties are its density ρ and elastic modulus E. One end of the
beam is fixed to a wall while the other end is free. The discrete
force P(t) acts at a fixed axial location while f(x,t) represents a
load distribution per unit length. The forces induces elastic
displacements on the beam and designated as v(x,t).

y f(x,t)
v(x,t) P(t)
x
L
Δx

Fig. Schematic view of elastic beam undergoing lateral motions

From elementary strength of materials consider

a) Cross-sections A remain plane and perpendicular to
the neutral axis (x) of the beam.
b) Homogeneous material beam, linearly elastic,
c) Material properties (ρ,E ) are constant at any given
cross section.
d) Stresses σy , σz << σx (flexural stress), i.e. along
beam.

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 17

 The graph below shows the free body diagram for
motion of a differential beam element with length Δx .

f(x,t)
S(x,t) S(x+Δx,t)
M(x,t) Δx
M(x+Δx,t)

v(x,t)
Fig. Free body diagram of small piece of elastic beam

In The FBD, S(x,t) represents the shear force and M(x,t)

denotes the bending moment. Apply Newton’s 2nd law to the
material element:

⎛ ∂S ⎞ ∂2 v
∑x Fx = Δm ax = S − ⎜ S + ∂ x Δx ⎟+ f( x,t ) = ( ρ A Δx ) ∂ t 2 (38)
⎝ ⎠

∂2 v ∂S
In the limit as Δ x → 0 : ( ρ A ) 2 = f ( x ,t ) − (39)
∂t ∂x

Apply the moment equation: ∑ M = ΔI g α ~ 0 (40)

neglecting rotary inertia ΔI g

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 18

 Δ x2
∑ M ≈ 0 = M ( x+Δx,t ) − M ( x,t ) − f 2 − S Δ x
Then
∂M Δ x2
=M + −M − f −S Δ x
∂x 2

∂M
In the limit as Δ x → 0 : = S ( x ,t ) (41)
∂x

Combining Eqs. (41) and (39) gives:

∂2 v ∂2 M
( ρ A ) 2 = f ( x ,t ) − 2 (42)
∂t ∂x

If the slope ( ∂v
∂x ) remains small, then the beam curvature
2

ρ =
∂ v
is 1
∂ x2
. From Euler’s beam theory:

EI ∂2 v
M= =EI 2 (43)
ρ ∂x

∫∫ ρ y dA is the beam area moment of inertia.

where I = w 2

Substitute Eq. (43) into (42) to obtain the equation for

lateral motions of an elastic beam:

∂2 v ∂2 ⎛ ∂2 v ⎞
( ρ A ) 2 = f ( x ,t ) − 2 ⎜ E I 2 ⎟ (44)
∂t ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠

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The PDE is fourth-order in space and 2nd order in time.
Appropriate boundary conditions are of two types:

Essential BCs:
- specified displacement, v = v*
- specified slope, ( ∂v
∂x ) =θ *
Natural BCs:
⎛ ∂2 v ⎤
- specified moment, M = M* = E I ⎜ 2 ⎥
⎝ ∂ x ⎦ x*
∂ ⎛ ∂2 v ⎞
- specified shear force, S = S* = ⎜EI 2 ⎟
∂x⎝ ∂ x ⎠x
*

Below are shown the most typical configurations:

∂v
Fixed end (cantilever): v = 0 & =0
∂x
x*

∂ 2v
Pinned end v = 0 & M = 0 → =0
∂ x2
x*

Free end
∂ 2v ∂ 3v
x* M =0 &S = 0 → =0& =0
∂ x2 ∂ x3

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 20

 Spring supported end
∂ 2v
v(x,t) M = 2 =0
x*
∂x
k ∂ ⎛ ∂ 2v ⎞
− S = k v* = − ⎜EI 2 ⎟
∂x ⎝ ∂ x ⎠x
*

Note: PDE (44) and its BCs can be derived from the Hamiltonian
principle using the definitions for kinetic (T) and potential (V)
energies of an elastic beam

L 2 L 2
1 ⎛ ∂v ⎞ 1 ⎛ ∂2 v ⎞
T = ∫ ρ A ⎜ ⎟ dx; V = ∫ E I ⎜ 2 ⎟ dx (45)
20 ⎝ ∂t ⎠ 20 ⎝∂x ⎠

Free vibrations of elastic beam

Without external forces (point loads or distributed load, f=0), PDE
(44) reduces to

∂2 v ∂2 ⎛ ∂2 v ⎞
( ρ A) 2 = − 2 ⎜ E I 2 ⎟ (46)
∂t ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠

The solution of PDE (46) is of the form v( x ,t ) = φ( x ) v ( t ) (47)

Let ( )=
. d
dt ; ( ' ) = d d x . Substituting Eq. (47) into Eq (46) gives

E I d φ( x ) E I 1 d φ( x )
4 4

v(t )
φ( x )v ( t ) = v ⇒ = = −ω 2
ρ A d x4 v ρ A φ( x ) d x 4

Above, the LHS is only a function of time, while the RHS is only a
function of spatial coordinate x. This is possible only if both are

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equal to a constant, i.e. −ω ( 2
) . Hence, the separation of variables
gives two ordinary differential equations

d 4φ
v ( t ) + ω v=0 &
 2
4
−λ2φ = 0 (48)
dx

⎛ ρ A⎞
where λ 2 =ω 2 ⎜ ⎟ (49)
⎝ EI ⎠

The solution of the ODEs is

v( t ) = Ct cos (ω t ) + St sin (ω t ) (50)

φ( x ) = C1cos ( β x ) + C2 sin ( β x ) + C3cosh ( β x ) + C4 sinh ( β x )

(51)1
1
⎛ ρ A⎞
4
1/2
β = λ =ω 2 ⎜
1
where ⎟ (52)
⎝ EI ⎠
has units of [1/length].

The coefficients (C,S) are determined from satisfying the

boundary conditions for the specific beam configuration. Equation
(51) is known as the fundamental mode shape for an elastic beam,
i.e. it contains the information on natural frequencies and mode
shapes.

1
The solution of ODE φ iv − λ 2φ = 0 = φ iv − β 4φ = 0 is φ = c e kx with
characteristic equation k − λ = 0
4 2

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Example 1. Pin-Pin beam

x=0 x=L The BCs are:

At x=0, v(0, t ) = 0 = φ(0) v ( t ) ⇒ φ(0) = 0 ∀t (53.a)

→ φ(0) = C1 + C3
′′ v( t ) ⇒ φ(0)
= 0 = φ(0) ′′ = 0
2
M =∂ v
∂ x2

→ ′′ = − C1 + C3
φ(0)

Hence, C1=C3=0 and φ( x ) = C2 sin ( β x ) + C4 sinh ( β x )

At x=L, v( L , t ) = 0 = φ( L ) v ( t ) ⇒ φ( L ) = 0 ∀t

→ φ( L ) = 0 = C2 sin ( β L ) + C4 sinh ( β L )

= 0 = φ(′′L ) v( t ) ⇒ φ(′′L ) = 0
2
M x= L = ∂ v
∂ x2
(53.b)
→ φ(′′L ) = 0 = − C2 sin ( β L ) + C4 sinh ( β L )

from this two equations, since sinh ( β L ) ≠ 0 , it follows that

φ( x ) = C2 sin ( β x ) (54)

iπ
where sin ( β L ) = 0 when β i = , i =1,2....∞ (55)
L

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and hence,
the natural frequencies of the pin-pin beam are
1 1
⎛ EI ⎞ i π ⎛ EI ⎞ 2 2
2 2

ωi = β ⎜ ⎟ = 2
2 ⎜ ⎟ ; i =1,2...∞ (56)
⎝ ρ A⎠ L ⎝ ρ A⎠
i

Associated to each natural frequency, there is a natural mode

shape
iπ x ⎞
φi = sin ( βi x ) = sin ⎛⎜ ⎟; i =1,2,..... (57)
⎝ L ⎠
as shown in the graph below.

φ (x) 1

⎛ 3.142 ⎞
β = ⎜ 6.283 ⎟
1
0.5
⎜ ⎟ L
⎝ 9.425 ⎠
Function (x)

0 π
β i := i⋅
L

0.5

1
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
x/L
Mode 1
Mode 2
Mode 3

Fig. Natural mode shapes φ(x) for elastic beam with both ends pinned.

The displacement function response v( x ,t ) = ( x ) v ( t ) equals to φ

the superposition of all the found responses, i.e.

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 24

 ∞
v( x ,t ) = ∑ φ ( x )k v ( t )k = ∑ φ( x )k ⎡⎣Ck cos(ωk t ) +S k sin (ωk t ) ⎤⎦
k k =1

∞
v( x ,t ) = ∑ sin ( β k x ) ⎡⎣Ck cos(ωk t ) +S k sin (ωk t ) ⎤⎦ (58)
k =1

and velocity:
∞
v( x ,t ) = ∑ sin ( β k x ) ωk ⎡⎣ −Ck sin(ωk t ) +S k cos (ωk t ) ⎤⎦ (59)
k =1

The set of coefficients (Ck, Sk) are determined by satisfying the

initial conditions. That is at time t=0,

∞
v( x ,0) = V( x ) = ∑ sin ( β k x ) Ck
k =1
∞ (60)
v( x ,0) = V( x ) = ∑ ωk sin ( β k x ) S k
k =1

RECALL:
φ( x ) = C1cos ( β x ) + C2 sin ( β x ) + C3cosh ( β x ) + C4 sinh ( β x )
φ ′ = − C sin ( β x ) + C cos ( β x ) + C sinh ( β x ) + C cosh ( β x )
β 1 2 3 4

φ ′′ = − C cos ( β x ) − C sin ( β x ) + C cosh ( β x ) + C sinh ( β x )

β2 1 2 3 4

φ ′′′ = C sin ( β x ) − C cos ( β x ) + C sinh ( β x ) + C cosh ( β x )

β3 1 2 3 4

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Example 2. Fixed end-Free end beam
The BCs. are

x=0 x=L

At x=0, v(0, t ) = 0 = φ(0) v ( t ) ⇒ φ(0) = 0 ∀t (61.a)

→ φ(0) = C1 + C3
θ = ∂ v ∂ x = 0 = φ(0)
′ v ( t ) ⇒ φ(0)
′ =0 (61.b)
→ ′ = C2 + C4
φ(0)

At x=L
= 0 = φ(′′L ) v( t ) ⇒ φ(′′L ) = 0
2
M x= L = ∂ v
∂ x2
(61.c)
→
φ(′′L ) = 0 = − C1cos ( β L ) − C2 sin ( β L ) + C3 cosh( β L) + C4 sinh ( β L )

= 0 = φ(′′′L ) v( t ) ⇒ φ(′′′L ) = 0
3
S x= L = ∂ v
∂ x3
(61.d)
→
φ(′′′L ) = 0 = C1sin ( β L ) − C2 cos ( β L ) + C3 sinh( β L) + C4 cosh ( β L )

Solution of Eqs. (a)-(d) gives

φ( x ) = cosh ( βi x ) − cos ( βi x ) − α i ⎡⎣sinh ( βi x ) − sin ( βi x ) ⎤⎦ :

(62)

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 26

 cosh ( β i L ) + cos ( β i L )
where αi = (63)
sinh ( β i L ) + sin ( β i L )
and
β1 L = 1.875104 → α1 = 0.734096
β 2 L = 4.694041 → α 2 = 1.018466
(64)
β 3 L = 7.854757 → α 3 = 0.999225
etc

φ ( β , x) := cosh( β ⋅x) − cos ( β ⋅x) − α ( β ) ⋅( sinh( β ⋅x) − sin( β ⋅x) )

φ (x) 2 ⎛⎜ 1.875 ⎞⎟
β = ⎜ 4.694 ⎟
1
⎜ 7.855 ⎟ L
1 ⎝ ⎠
Function (x)

⎛⎜ 0.734 ⎟⎞
0
α_ = ⎜ 1.018 ⎟
⎜ 0.999 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
1

2
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
x/L
Mode 1
Mode 2
Mode 3

Fig. Natural mode shapes φ(x) for cantilever beam (fixed-free ends)

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 27

Properties of the natural modes
Recall that the pair λk ,φ( x )k { } k =1,...∞
satisfy the ODE

φ iv − λk2 φ = 0
k k k =1,2...∞ (65)

⎛ ρ A⎞
where β k4 = λk2 = ωk2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ E I ⎠

As in the case of axial vibrations of a bar, it is easy2 to show that

the natural modes {φk }k =1,2... of a flexing beam satisfy the following
ORTHOGONAL properties:

L
⎧ Κ i for i = j
∫ ( E A φ ′′
φ ′′
i ) dx =j⎨
0 for i ≠ j
(66a)
0 ⎩

⎧Μ i for i = j
L

∫0 ( ρ Aφi φ j ) dx = ⎩⎨ 0 for i ≠ j (66b)

For i=j, the ith natural frequency follows from

Κ i ∫0
( E A (φi′′)
2
) dx
ωi = = L
2
(67)
Μi
∫ ( ρ Aφ ) dx
2
i
0
Where Κ i , Μ i are the ith mode equivalent stiffness and mass
coefficients.

2
Demonstration with integration by parts (twice).

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 28

Note that {φk }k =1,2... is a COMPLETE SET of orthogonal
functions

Now, consider the initial conditions for

∞
v( x ,t ) = ∑ φ ( x )k v ( t )k = ∑ φ( x )k ⎡⎣Ck cos(ωk t ) +S k sin (ωk t ) ⎤⎦
k k =1

∞ ∞
v( x ,0) = V( x ) = ∑ φk Ck ; v( x ,0) = V( x ) = ∑ φkωk S k (68)
k =1 k =1

Using the orthogonality properties, the coefficients (C m, S m)

follow from

( ρ Aφ V ) dx
L

Cm =
∫ 0 m ( x)
, (69a)
m =1,2,...∞
Μm

And similarly
( ρ Aφ V ) dx
L

Sm =
∫0 m ( x)
, (69b)
m =1,2,...∞
ωm Μ m

This concludes the procedure to obtain the full solution for the
lateral vibrations of a beam, i.e.
∞
v( x ,t ) = ∑ φ( x )k ⎡⎣Ck cos(ωk t ) +S k sin (ωk t ) ⎤⎦ (70)
k =1

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 29

Forced lateral vibrations of a beam
Consider a beam subjected to an arbitrary forcing function f(x,t).
The PDE describing the lateral motions of the beam is

∂2 v ∂2 ⎛ ∂2 v ⎞
( ρ A ) 2 = f ( x ,t ) − 2 ⎜ E I 2 ⎟ (44)
∂t ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠

Let {φk }k =1,2... be the set of natural modes satisfying the boundary
conditions of the beam configuration (pin-pin, fixed-free ends, etc).
A solution to Eq. (44) is of the form

∞
v( x ,t ) = ∑ φ( x )k q( t )k (71)
k =1

Since the set {φk }k =1,2... is complete, then any arbitrary function
f(x,t) can be written as

∞
f ( x ,t ) = ∑ φ( x )k Q( t )k (72)
k =1
where
( ρ Aφ f ( x ,t ) ) dx
L

Qm =
∫ 0 m
, (73)
m =1,2,...∞
Μm

Substitution of Eqs. (71, 72) into Eq. (44) ∂2 v ∂2 ⎛ ∂2 v ⎞

( ρ A) = f ( x ,t ) − 2 ⎜ E I 2 ⎟
∂t 2
∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠
gives

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 ∞

∑ ⎡⎣ ρ Aφ
k =1
k qk − φk Qk + E I φkiv qk ⎤⎦ = 0 (74)

but recall that each of the normal modes satisfies φk − λk φk = 0 ;

iv 2

and hence, Eq. (74) can be written as

∑ ⎡⎣ ρ A q
k =1
k − Qk + E I λk2 qk ⎤⎦ φk = 0

and, since the natural modes are linearly independent, then it

follows that

ρ A qk − Qk + E I λk2 qk = 0 k =1,2,....∞ (75)

⎛ ρ A⎞
Lastly, recall that λk = ω ⎜ ⎟ ; then λk E I = ω ρ A , and
2 2 2 2

⎝ EI ⎠
write (75) as
Qk
qk + ωk2 qk =
ρA ; k =1,2,....∞ (76)

Which can be easily solved for all type of excitations Q( t )k

[ See solution of undamped SDOF EOMS – Lectures #2]

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 31

Example 3. Free Ends beam
The BCs are:

x=0 x=L
′′ v( t ) ⇒ φ(0)
= 0 = φ(0) ′′ = 0
2
At x=0 M =∂ v
∂ x2

→ ′′ = − C1 + C3 (a)
φ(0)
′′′ v ( t ) ⇒ φ(0)
S x =0 = ∂ v ∂ x3 = 0 = φ(0) ′′′ = 0
3

→ ′′′ = − C2 + C4 (b)
φ(0)

At x=L
= 0 = φ(′′L ) v( t ) ⇒ φ(′′L ) = 0
2
M x= L = ∂ v
∂ x2
(61.c)
→
φ(′′L ) = 0 = − C1cos ( β L ) − C2 sin ( β L ) + C3 cosh( β L) + C4 sinh ( β L )
(c)
= 0 = φ(′′′L ) v( t ) ⇒ φ(′′′L ) = 0
3
S x= L = ∂ v
∂ x3
→
φ(′′′L ) = 0 = C1sin ( β L ) − C2 cos ( β L ) + C3 sinh( β L) + C4 cosh ( β L )
(d)

Solution of Eqs. (a)-(d) gives

φ( x ) = cosh ( βi x ) − + cos ( β i x ) − α i ⎡⎣sinh ( β i x ) + sin ( β i x ) ⎤⎦

cosh ( β i L ) − cos ( β i L )
where αi = (63)
sinh ( β i L ) − sin ( β i L )
and

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 32

 β1 L = 4.730041 → α1 = 0.982502
β 2 L = 7.853205 → α 2 = 1.000777
(64)
β3 L = 10.99560 → α 3 = 0.999966
etc

Note that the lowest natural frequency is actually zero, i.e. a

rigid body mode. β0=0 & φ0 = 1

φ ( β , x) := cosh( β ⋅x) + cos ( β ⋅x) − α ( β ) ⋅( sinh( β ⋅x) + sin( β ⋅x) )

φ (x) 3 ⎛⎜ 4.73 ⎟⎞
β = ⎜ 7.853 ⎟
1
2 ⎜ 10.996 ⎟ L
⎝ ⎠
1
Function (x)

⎛⎜ 0.983 ⎟⎞
0
α_ = ⎜ 1.001 ⎟
⎜ 1 ⎟
1 ⎝ ⎠
2

3
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
x/L
Mode 1
Mode 2
Mode 3

Fig. Elastic natural mode shapes φ(x) for beam with free ends)

MEEN 617 – HD#14 Vibrations of Continuous Systems. L. San Andrés © 2008 33

Characteristic (mode shape) equation for beams:

φ( x ) = C1cos ( β x ) + C2 sin ( β x ) + C3cosh ( β x ) + C4 sinh ( β x )

φ ′ = − C sin ( β x ) + C cos ( β x ) + C sinh ( β x ) + C cosh ( β x )
β 1 2 3 4

φ ′′ = − C cos ( β x ) − C sin ( β x ) + C cosh ( β x ) + C sinh ( β x )

β2 1 2 3 4

φ ′′′ = C sin ( β x ) − C cos ( β x ) + C sinh ( β x ) + C cosh ( β x )

β3 1 2 3 4

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