Fórmulas de Cálculo Diferencial e Integral (Página 1 de 3) http://www.geocities.com/calculusjrm/ Jesús Rubí M.

Fórmulas de ( a + b ) ⋅ ( a − ab + b ) = a + b
2 2 3 3 Gráfica 4. Las funciones trigonométricas inversas
arcctg x , arcsec x , arccsc x : sin α + sin β = 2sin
1 1
(α + β ) ⋅ cos (α − β )
( a + b ) ⋅ ( a3 − a 2 b + ab 2 − b3 ) = a 4 − b 4
2 2
Cálculo Diferencial HIP
CO 4 1 1
sin α − sin β = 2 sin (α − β ) ⋅ cos (α + β )
( a + b ) ⋅ ( a 4 − a 3b + a 2 b 2 − ab3 + b 4 ) = a 5 + b5
e Integral ACTUALIZADO AGO-2007 θ 3
2 2
( a + b ) ⋅ ( a5 − a 4 b + a 3b 2 − a 2 b3 + ab 4 − b5 ) = a 6 − b 6
1 1
CA cos α + cos β = 2 cos (α + β ) ⋅ cos (α − β )
Jesús Rubí Miranda (jesusrubim@yahoo.com) 2 2 2
Móvil. Méx. DF. 044 55 13 78 51 94 1 1
⎛ ⎞ cos α − cos β = −2 sin (α + β ) ⋅ sin (α − β )
n
( a + b ) ⋅ ⎜ ∑ ( −1)
k +1
a n − k b k −1 ⎟ = a n + b n ∀ n ∈ impar θ sin cos tg ctg sec csc
1

2 2
⎝ k =1 ⎠
1. VALOR ABSOLUTO 0 0 1 0 ∞ 1 ∞
sin (α ± β )
0

⎛ n
⎞ tg α ± tg β =
( a + b ) ⋅ ⎜ ∑ ( −1)
k +1 12
⎧a si a ≥ 0 a n − k b k −1 ⎟ = a n − b n ∀ n ∈ par 30 3 2 1 3 3 2 3 2
a =⎨ ⎝ k =1 ⎠
-1
arc ctg x cos α ⋅ cos β
45 1 2 1 2 2 2
⎩− a si a < 0
1 1 arc sec x
arc csc x
1
⎡sin (α − β ) + sin (α + β ) ⎤⎦
5. SUMAS Y PRODUCTOS 60 3 2 12 3 1 3 2 2 3 -2
sin α ⋅ cos β =
a = −a 2⎣
-5 0 5

∞ ∞
n
+ a n = ∑ ak
90 1 0 0 1
a ≤ a y −a ≤ a a1 + a2 + 8. IDENTIDADES TRIGONOMÉTRICAS 1
k =1 ⎡ π π⎤ sin α ⋅ sin β = ⎡⎣cos (α − β ) − cos (α + β ) ⎤⎦
sin θ + cos 2 θ = 1
2

a ≥0 y a =0 ⇔ a=0 n y = ∠ sin x y ∈ ⎢− , ⎥ 2
∑ c = nc ⎣ 2 2⎦
1 + ctg 2 θ = csc 2 θ
cos α ⋅ cos β =
1
⎡cos (α − β ) + cos (α + β ) ⎤⎦
y = ∠ cos x y ∈ [ 0, π ]
n n

∏a = ∏ ak 2⎣
k =1
ab = a b ó k n n tg 2 θ + 1 = sec 2 θ
k =1 k =1
∑ ca = c ∑ ak
y = ∠ tg x y∈ −
π π tg α + tg β
sin ( −θ ) = − sin θ
k
n n k =1 k =1
, tg α ⋅ tg β =
a+b ≤ a + b ó ∑a ≤ ∑ ak n n n
2 2 ctg α + ctg β
cos ( −θ ) = cos θ
k
k =1 k =1
∑(a k + bk ) = ∑ ak + ∑ bk
y = ∠ ctg x = ∠ tg
1
y ∈ 0, π 9. FUNCIONES HIPERBÓLICAS
tg ( −θ ) = − tg θ
k =1 k =1 k =1
2. EXPONENTES x ex − e− x
sinh x =
n
a p ⋅ a q = a p+q ∑(a
k =1
k − ak −1 ) = an − a0 y = ∠ sec x = ∠ cos
1
y ∈ [ 0, π ] sin (θ + 2π ) = sin θ 2
ap x
= a p−q e x + e− x
n
n 1 ⎡ π π⎤ cos (θ + 2π ) = cos θ cosh x =
aq
∑ ⎣⎡ a + ( k − 1) d ⎦⎤ = 2 ⎣⎡ 2a + ( n − 1) d ⎦⎤ y = ∠ csc x = ∠ sen y ∈ ⎢− , ⎥
⎣ 2 2⎦ tg (θ + 2π ) = tg θ
2
(a )
p q
=a pq k =1 x
tgh x =
sinh x e x − e − x
=
n
(a + l ) Gráfica 1. Las funciones trigonométricas: sin x , sin (θ + π ) = − sin θ cosh x e x + e− x
(a ⋅b) = a ⋅b =
p p p
2 cos x , tg x : cos (θ + π ) = − cos θ 1 e x + e− x
p n
− n
− rl ctgh x = =
⎛a⎞ ap 1 r a
⎜ ⎟ = p ∑ ar k −1 = a
1− r
=
1− r
2 tg (θ + π ) = tg θ tgh x e x − e − x
⎝b⎠ b k =1
1 2
sin (θ + nπ ) = ( −1) sin θ sech x = =
1.5 n

k = ( n2 + n )
n
1
a = a ∑ cosh x e x + e − x
p/q q p
1

cos (θ + nπ ) = ( −1) cos θ

n
3. LOGARITMOS k =1 2 1 2
n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1)
0.5
csch x = =
k 2 = ( 2n3 + 3n 2 + n ) = tg (θ + nπ ) = tg θ sinh x e x − e − x
n
log a N = x ⇒ a x = N 1
∑ 0

log a MN = log a M + log a N k =1 6 6 sinh : →

-0.5
sin ( nπ ) = 0
k = ( n + 2n + n ) → [1, ∞
n
1 4
log a
M
= log a M − log a N ∑
k =1
3

4
3 2
-1

cos ( nπ ) = ( −1)
n
cosh :
N -1.5 sen x
tgh : → −1,1
tg ( nπ ) = 0
cos x

k 4 = ( 6n5 + 15n 4 + 10n3 − n )

n
1
log a N = r log a N ∑
r
− {0} → −∞ , −1 ∪ 1, ∞
tg x
-2
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 ctgh :
k =1 30 ⎛ 2n + 1 ⎞
π ⎟ = ( −1)
log b N ln N
→ 0 ,1]
n
log a N = = 1+ 3 + 5 + + ( 2n − 1) = n 2 Gráfica 2. Las funciones trigonométricas csc x , sin ⎜ sech :
log b a ln a ⎝ 2 ⎠
sec x , ctg x : csch : − {0} → − {0}
⎛ 2n + 1 ⎞
n
log10 N = log N y log e N = ln N n! = ∏ k cos ⎜ π⎟=0
4. ALGUNOS PRODUCTOS k =1 2.5 ⎝ 2 ⎠ Gráfica 5. Las funciones hiperbólicas sinh x ,
a ⋅ ( c + d ) = ac + ad ⎛n⎞ n! 2
⎛ 2n + 1 ⎞ cosh x , tgh x :
⎜ ⎟= , k≤n tg ⎜ π⎟=∞
⎝ k ⎠ ( n − k ) !k !
1.5

( a + b ) ⋅ ( a − b ) = a 2 − b2 1
⎝ 2 ⎠ 5

4
n
⎛n⎞ ⎛ π⎞
( a + b ) ⋅ ( a + b ) = ( a + b ) = a 2 + 2ab + b 2 ( x + y ) = ∑ ⎜ ⎟ x n −k y k
2 n 0.5
sin θ = cos ⎜ θ − ⎟ 3

k =0 ⎝ k ⎠ ⎝ 2⎠
0

( a − b ) ⋅ ( a − b ) = ( a − b ) = a 2 − 2ab + b 2
2
2
-0.5

⎛ π⎞ 1

( x1 + x2 + + xk ) = ∑
n! cos θ = sin ⎜ θ + ⎟
( x + b ) ⋅ ( x + d ) = x 2 + ( b + d ) x + bd x1n1 ⋅ x2n2
n -1
xknk
⎝ 2⎠ 0
n1 ! n2 ! nk ! -1.5

( ax + b ) ⋅ ( cx + d ) = acx 2 + ( ad + bc ) x + bd
csc x -1

sin (α ± β ) = sin α cos β ± cos α sin β

-2 sec x
6. CONSTANTES ctg x -2

( a + b ) ⋅ ( c + d ) = ac + ad + bc + bd
-2.5

π = 3.14159265359… cos (α ± β ) = cos α cos β ∓ sin α sin β

-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 senh x
-3 cosh x
tgh x

( a + b ) = a3 + 3a 2b + 3ab 2 + b3 e = 2.71828182846…
3 -4
Gráfica 3. Las funciones trigonométricas inversas tg α ± tg β -5 0 5

tg (α ± β ) = 10. FUNCIONES HIPERBÓLICAS INV

( a − b ) = a 3 − 3a 2b + 3ab 2 − b3
3 7. TRIGONOMETRÍA arcsin x , arccos x , arctg x : 1 ∓ tg α tg β

( a + b + c ) = a 2 + b 2 + c 2 + 2ab + 2ac + 2bc

2 sen θ =
CO
cscθ =
1 4 sin 2θ = 2sin θ cos θ (
sinh −1 x = ln x + x 2 + 1 , ∀x ∈ )
sen θ
( )
HIP
cos 2θ = cos θ − sin θ
2 2
cosh −1 x = ln x ± x 2 − 1 , x ≥ 1
( a − b ) ⋅ ( a 2 + ab + b 2 ) = a 3 − b3
3
CA 1
cosθ = secθ = 2 tg θ
HIP cosθ tg 2θ = 1 ⎛1+ x ⎞
( a − b ) ⋅ ( a 3 + a 2 b + ab 2 + b3 ) = a 4 − b 4 1 − tg 2 θ
2

sen θ CO 1 tgh −1 x = ln ⎜ ⎟, x <1

tgθ = = ctgθ = 2 ⎝1− x ⎠
( a − b ) ⋅ ( a 4 + a 3b + a 2 b 2 + ab3 + b 4 ) = a 5 − b5 cosθ CA tgθ 1
sin 2 θ = (1 − cos 2θ )
1

1 ⎛ x +1⎞
0
2 ctgh −1 x = ln ⎜ ⎟, x >1
⎛ n
⎞ 2 ⎝ x −1⎠
( a − b ) ⋅ ⎜ ∑ a n − k b k −1 ⎟ = a n − b n ∀n ∈ π radianes=180 1
cos 2 θ = (1 + cos 2θ )
⎝ k =1 ⎠ -1
arc sen x
2 ⎛ 1 ± 1 − x2 ⎞
sech −1 x = ln ⎜ ⎟, 0 < x ≤ 1
arc cos x
arc tg x
1 − cos 2θ ⎜ ⎟
-2
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 tg 2 θ = ⎝ x ⎠
1 + cos 2θ
⎛1 x2 + 1 ⎞
csch −1 x = ln ⎜ + ⎟, x ≠ 0
⎜x x ⎟⎠
⎝
Fórmulas de Cálculo Diferencial e Integral (Página 2 de 3) http://www.geocities.com/calculusjrm/ Jesús Rubí M.
∫ tgh udu = ln cosh u
11. IDENTIDADES DE FUNCS HIP d dv du 18. DERIVADA DE FUNCS HIPERBÓLICAS 22. INTEGRALES DE FUNCS LOG & EXP
( uv ) = u + v
cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x = 1 d du
∫ e du = e
u u
dx dx dx sinh u = cosh u
1 − tgh x = sech x d dw dv du dx dx ∫ ctgh udu = ln sinh u
( uvw ) = uv + uw + vw
2 2
au ⎧a > 0
∫ a du = ln a ⎨⎩a ≠ 1 ∫ sech udu = ∠ tg ( sinh u )
u
dx dx dx dx d du
ctgh 2 x − 1 = csch 2 x cosh u = sinh u
d ⎛ u ⎞ v ( du dx ) − u ( dv dx ) dx dx
sinh ( − x ) = − sinh x ∫ csch udu = − ctgh ( cosh u )
−1
⎜ ⎟= d du au ⎛ 1 ⎞
dx ⎝ v ⎠ ∫ ua du = ln a ⋅ ⎜⎝ u − ln a ⎟⎠
2
tgh u = sech 2 u
u
v
cosh ( − x ) = cosh x dx dx 1
= ln tgh u
tgh ( − x ) = − tgh x
d n
dx
( u ) = nu n −1
du
dx
d
ctgh u = − csch 2 u
du
∫ ue du = e ( u − 1)
u u 2
dx dx 26. INTEGRALES DE FRAC
sinh ( x ± y ) = sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sinh y dF dF du ∫ ln udu =u ln u − u = u ( ln u − 1)
= ⋅ (Regla de la Cadena) d
sech u = − sech u tgh u
du du 1 u
cosh ( x ± y ) = cosh x cosh y ± sinh x sinh y dx du dx dx dx 1 u ∫ u 2 + a 2 = a ∠ tg a
du 1 ∫ log udu =( u ln u − u ) = ( ln u − 1)
tgh x ± tgh y
a
= d du ln a ln a
tgh ( x ± y ) = csch u = − csch u ctgh u 1 u
dx dx du = − ∠ ctg
1 ± tgh x tgh y
2
dx dx u
∫ u log a udu = 4 ⋅ ( 2log a u − 1)
a a
dF dF du 1 u−a
sinh 2 x = 2sinh x cosh x 19. DERIVADA DE FUNCS HIP INV
=
∫ u 2 − a 2 = 2a ln u + a ( u > a )
du 2 2
dx dx du d 1 du u 2
cosh 2 x = cosh 2 x + sinh 2 x
dy dy dt f 2′ ( t ) ⎪⎧ x = f1 ( t )
senh −1 u = ⋅
1 + u 2 dx ∫ u ln udu = 4 ( 2ln u − 1) 1 a+u
∫ a 2 − u 2 = 2a ln a − u ( u < a )
dx du 2 2
tgh 2 x =
2 tgh x = = donde ⎨
1 + tgh 2 x dx dx dt f1′( t ) ⎪⎩ y = f 2 ( t ) d ±1 du ⎧+
⎪ si cosh u > 0
-1 23. INTEGRALES DE FUNCS TRIGO
cosh −1 u = ⋅ , u >1 ⎨
1 15. DERIVADA DE FUNCS LOG & EXP dx u 2 − 1 dx ⎪⎩− si cosh u < 0
-1
∫ sin udu = − cos u 27. INTEGRALES CON RAIZ
sinh 2 x = ( cosh 2 x − 1) du
∫ a 2 − u 2 = ∠ sin a
u
2 d
( ln u ) =
du dx 1 du
= ⋅
d
tgh −1 u =
1 du
⋅ , u <1 ∫ cos udu = sin u
1 dx u u dx dx 1 − u 2 dx
cosh x = ( cosh 2 x + 1) ∫ sec udu = tg u
2 2
u
d log e du d 1 du = −∠ cos
2 ( log u ) = ⋅ ctgh −1 u = ⋅ , u >1 a
cosh 2 x − 1 1 − u 2 dx ∫ csc udu = − ctg u
2
dx u dx dx
tgh 2 x =
cosh 2 x + 1 d log e du
( log a u ) = a ⋅ a > 0, a ≠ 1 d
sech −1 u =
∓1 du ⎪⎧− si sech u > 0, u ∈ 0,1
⋅ ⎨
−1

∫ sec u tg udu = sec u ∫

du
u 2 ± a2
(
= ln u + u 2 ± a 2 )
dx u dx −1
tgh x =
sinh 2 x dx u 1 − u 2 dx ⎪⎩ + si sech u < 0, u ∈ 0,1
cosh 2 x + 1
d u
( e ) = eu ⋅
du
d −1 1 du ∫ csc u ctg udu = − csc u ∫u
du 1
ln =
u
dx dx csch u = − ⋅ , u≠0 a2 ± u 2
a a + a2 ± u 2
e x = cosh x + sinh x dx u 1 + u 2 dx ∫ tg udu = − ln cos u = ln sec u
e − x = cosh x − sinh x
d u
( a ) = a u ln a ⋅
du du 1 a
∫ u u 2 − a 2 = a ∠ cos u
dx dx 20. INTEGRALES DEFINIDAS, PROPIEDADES ∫ ctg udu = ln sin u
12. OTRAS
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
d v
dx
( u ) = vu v −1
du
dx
+ ln u ⋅ u v ⋅
dv
dx
Nota. Para todas las fórmulas de integración deberá
agregarse una constante arbitraria c (constante de ∫ sec udu = ln sec u + tg u 1
= ∠ sec
u
a a
⇒ x=
−b ± b 2 − 4ac
16. DERIVADA DE FUNCIONES TRIGO integración).
∫ csc udu = ln csc u − ctg u u 2 a2 u
∫ { f ( x ) ± g ( x )} dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx ± ∫ g ( x ) dx ∫ a − u du = 2 a − u + 2 ∠ sen a
b b b 2 2 2
d du
2a ( sin u ) = cos u u 1
∫ sin udu =
− sin 2u
a a a 2
dx dx
b 2 − 4ac = discriminante
∫ cf ( x ) dx = c ⋅ ∫ f ( x ) dx c ∈ ( )
b b 2
2 4 u 2 a
∫ u ± a du = 2 u ± a ± 2 ln u + u ± a
2 2 2 2 2
d du
exp (α ± i β ) = e α
( cos β ± i sin β ) si α , β ∈ ( cos u ) = − sin u a a
u 1
∫ cos udu = 2 + 4 sin 2u
2
dx dx
∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f ( x ) dx
b c b
13. LÍMITES 28. MÁS INTEGRALES
d du
( tg u ) = sec2 u
a a c

∫ tg udu = tg u − u
2
e au ( a sin bu − b cos bu )
∫ f ( x ) dx = − ∫ f ( x ) dx
1 b a
lim (1 + x ) x = e = 2.71828... dx dx
∫e sin bu du =
au

a 2 + b2
∫ ctg udu = − ( ctg u + u )
x →0 a b
d du
( ctg u ) = − csc2 u
2

∫ f ( x ) dx = 0 e au ( a cos bu + b sin bu )
x a
⎛ 1⎞ dx dx
lim ⎜1 + ⎟ = e ∫e cos bu du =
a au
x →∞
⎝ x⎠ d
( sec u ) = sec u tg u
du
m ⋅ ( b − a ) ≤ ∫ f ( x ) dx ≤ M ⋅ ( b − a )
b ∫ u sin udu = sin u − u cos u a2 + b2
sen x dx dx 1 1
∫ u cos udu = cos u + u sin u ∫ sec u du = 2 sec u tg u + 2 ln sec u + tg u
a
=1
3
⇔ m ≤ f ( x ) ≤ M ∀x ∈ [ a, b ] , m, M ∈
lim
x →0 d du
x
( csc u ) = − csc u ctg u 24. INTEGRALES DE FUNCS TRIGO INV
1 − cos x dx dx 29. ALGUNAS SERIES
∫ f ( x ) dx ≤ ∫ g ( x ) dx
b b
lim =0
∫ ∠ sin udu = u∠ sin u + 1 − u f '' ( x0 )( x − x0 )
2 2
x →0 d du
( vers u ) = sen u
a a
x
ex −1 dx dx ⇔ f ( x ) ≤ g ( x ) ∀x ∈ [ a , b ] f ( x ) = f ( x0 ) + f ' ( x0 )( x − x0 ) +
=1 ∫ ∠ cos udu = u∠ cos u − 1 − u 2!
2
lim
∫ f ( x ) dx ≤ ∫ f ( x ) dx si a < b
17. DERIV DE FUNCS TRIGO INVER b b
f ( n ) ( x0 )( x − x0 )
x →0 x n

x −1 ∫ ∠ tg udu = u∠ tg u − ln 1 + u + +
a a 2
d 1 du : Taylor
lim =1 ( ∠ sin u ) = ⋅ 21. INTEGRALES n!
x →1 ln x dx 1 − u 2 dx f '' ( 0 ) x 2
∫ ∠ ctg udu = u∠ ctg u + ln 1 + u
2
14. DERIVADAS d 1 du ∫ adx =ax f ( x ) = f (0) + f ' ( 0) x +
( ∠ cos u ) = −
∫ ∠ sec udu = u∠ sec u − ln ( u + u )
⋅
f ( x + ∆x ) − f ( x )
2!
∆y 2
−1
∫ af ( x ) dx = a ∫ f ( x ) dx
df 1 − u 2 dx
Dx f ( x ) = = lim = lim dx
f ( n) ( 0 ) x n
dx ∆x →0 ∆x ∆x → 0 ∆x
+ + : Maclaurin
d
( ∠ tg u ) =
1 du = u∠ sec u − ∠ cosh u
d ⋅
∫ ( u ± v ± w ± ) dx = ∫ udx ± ∫ vdx ± ∫ wdx ± n!
∫ ∠ csc udu = u∠ csc u + ln ( u + )
(c) = 0 dx 1 + u 2 dx
u2 − 1 x 2 x3 xn
∫ udv = uv − ∫ vdu ( Integración por partes ) ex = 1 + x + + + + +
dx d 1 du
d ( ∠ ctg u ) = − ⋅ 2! 3! n!
( cx ) = c dx 1 + u 2 dx
u n +1
= u∠ csc u + ∠ cosh u 3 5 7
x 2 n −1
∫ u du = n + 1
x x x
n ≠ −1 + + ( −1)
dx n n −1
d 1 du ⎧+ si u > 1 25. INTEGRALES DE FUNCS HIP sin x = x − + −
( ∠ sec u ) = ± ⋅ ⎨ ( 2n − 1)!
( cx n ) = ncx n−1
d 3! 5! 7!
dx u u 2 − 1 dx ⎩− si u < −1 du ∫ sinh udu = cosh u
dx
du ⎧− si u > 1 ∫u = ln u
cos x = 1 −
x2 x4 x6
+ − + + ( −1)
n −1 x 2 n− 2
d du dv dw
(u ± v ± w ± ) = ± ± ±
d
( ∠ csc u ) = ∓
1
⋅ ⎨ ∫ cosh udu = sinh u 2! 4! 6! ( 2n − 2 ) !
dx dx dx dx dx u u 2 − 1 dx ⎩+ si u < −1
∫ sech udu = tgh u
2
x2 x3 x 4 n −1 x
n
d du d 1 du ln (1 + x ) = x −
+ − + + ( −1)
( cu ) = c ( ∠ vers u ) = ⋅
∫ csch udu = − ctgh u
2 2 3 4 n
dx dx dx 2u − u 2 dx 2 n −1
x3 x 5 x 7 n −1 x
∠ tg x = x − + − + + ( −1)
∫ sech u tgh udu = − sech u 3 5 7 2n − 1
∫ csch u ctgh udu = − csch u
Fórmulas de Cálculo Diferencial e Integral (Página 3 de 3) http://www.geocities.com/calculusjrm/ Jesús Rubí M.
30. ALFABETO GRIEGO
Mayúscula Minúscula Nombre Equivalente
Romano
1 Α α Alfa A
2 Β β Beta B
3 Γ γ Gamma G
4 ∆ δ Delta D
5 Ε ε Epsilon E
6 Ζ ζ Zeta Z
7 Η η Eta H
8 Θ θ ϑ Teta Q
9 Ι ι Iota I
10 Κ κ Kappa K
11 Λ λ Lambda L
12 Μ µ Mu M
13 Ν ν Nu N
14 Ξ ξ Xi X
15 Ο ο Omicron O
16 Π π ϖ Pi P
17 Ρ ρ Rho R
18 Σ σ ς Sigma S
19 Τ τ Tau T
20 Υ υ Ipsilon U
21 Φ φ ϕ Phi F
22 Χ χ Ji C
23 Ψ ψ Psi Y
24 Ω ω Omega W

31. NOTACIÓN
sin Seno.
cos Coseno.
tg Tangente.
sec Secante.
csc Cosecante.
ctg Cotangente.
vers Verso seno.
arcsin θ = sin θ Arco seno de un ángulo θ .
u = f ( x)
sinh Seno hiperbólico.
cosh Coseno hiperbólico.
tgh Tangente hiperbólica.
ctgh Cotangente hiperbólica.
sech Secante hiperbólica.
csch Cosecante hiperbólica.
u, v, w Funciones de x , u = u ( x ) , v = v ( x ) .

Conjunto de los números reales.

= {…, −2, −1,0,1, 2,…} Conjunto de enteros.

Conjunto de números racionales.

c
Conjunto de números irracionales.

= {1, 2,3,…} Conjunto de números naturales.

Conjunto de números complejos.