EC6014 CR-Unit 1 To 5-1

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COGNITIVE RADIO
UNIT I
INTRODUCTION TO SDR
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Functions of Radio
General Digital Radio
● Antenna Section
● Two basic types:
1 . Receiving Antenna
2. Transmitting Antenna
● RF Front End Section

● Filters
● LNAs
● LO
● Down Conversion Mixers
● ADC and DAC Section
● DUC and DAC Section

● DUC – Baseband signal to IF signal
● DDC – IF signal to baseband signal
● Baseband Section
● Connection setup, Equalization,
● Frequency Hopping, Coding/Decoding
● Correlation, Scrambling
● Modulation, Spreading & Pulse Shaping
Software Defined Radio
“ Radio in which some or all of the physical

layer functions are software defined”
Basics
SCR – Software Controlled Radio
● Radio in which some or all of the physical
layer functions are software controlled.
SDR Functionality
Hardware Components
Baseband
RF-Front End ADC and DAC
Processor
Software Modules
Hardware Radio vs Software Radio

Constraint Conventional Radio Software Radio Cognitive Radio
Dynamically supports multiple

It supports only fixed It can create new
variable systems, protocols and
number of systems waveforms on its own
interfaces
Reconfiguration can be
It can interface with diverse
Application done only at the time of It negotiates new interfaces
systems
design
It adjusts operations to
It may support multiple
It provides a wide range of meet the QoS required by
services only at the time
service with available QoS. the application for the
of design
signal environment
More capable than Conventional More capable than SDR,
Traditional RF design
radio , Software architecture Intelligence
Design
Traditional Baseband Re-configurability, Provide Awareness, Learning and
design provisions for easy upgrades Observations
Hardware Radio vs Software Radio
Software Radio Classification
● Tier 0 : Hardware Radio

● The functions of the radio cannot be changed by software.
● Tier 1 : Software Controlled Radio (SCR)
● SCR Controls limited functions
● Changes of attributes [mode or frequency] cannot be done without
changing hardware.
● Tier 2 : Software Defined Radio (SDR)
● Performs wideband or narrow band operation.
● Capable of storing large number of waveforms or air interfaces.
● Separate antenna system, Wide band filtering, Amplification and Down
conversion
● Digital to Analog Conversion, analog up conversion, filtering and
amplification.
● Tier 3 : Ideal Software Radio (ISR)

● Provides the capabilities of SDR.
● Eliminates analog amplification and heterodyne
● Tier 4 : Ultimate Software Radio (USR)
● Does not require external antenna.
● No restrictions on operating frequency.
● Perform a wide range of adaptive services for user.
Advantages of SDR
● Interoperability ● Ease of Design
● Efficient use of resources ● Research and

under varying conditions development
● Opportunistic frequency ● Flexible to incorporate

reuse (cognitive radio) additional functionality
● Reduced obsolescence ● Fewer discrete

(future-proofing) components
● Lower cost ● Multimode Operation
Disadvantages of SDR
● Difficulty in writing the software for various
target systems.
● Need for interfaces to digital signals and
algorithms.
● For very wide frequency coverage, the RF
hardware - need to be built in separate
portions of circuitry.
● Poor dynamic range in some SDR design.
● A lack of understanding among designers as
to what is required.
● Software reliability may define overall radio
reliability, rather than hardware limitations.
Benefits of SDR
● Reprogrammable units and
infrastructure are flexible or
reconfigurable.
● Multiband or multimode operation has
some reduced obsolescence.
● Different standards can co-exist due to
ubiquitous connectivity.
● Enhances or facilitates experimentation.
● Combines both analog and digital
communication.
Issues of SDR
● Wideband radio need,
▪ Broad spectrum coverage
▪ Dynamic re-configurability
▪ Interference mitigation
▪ Adaptation of open system
architectures.
● Wideband power amplifier has
some constraints such as linearity,
bandwidth and efficiency.
● Cost to initiate SDR is very high
Software Radio Architecture Evolution
Software Radio Architecture

Evolution
A. It moves ADC as close to the receiving

antenna as possible.
B. It substitutes software for hardware

processing.
C. Facilitates a transition from dedicated to

general-purpose hardware.

Year Description
E-System Inc. - term Software Radio.
1984
A prototype digital baseband receiver.
First military radio was implemented
Its physical layer components in software
Example :
1. U.S Military SPEAK easy I & SPEAK easy II radios:
 A Compact radio
 Fully developed SDR with sufficient DSP resources
1991
 Tactical military communications from 2MHz to 2GHz
 Interoperability between different air-interface standards.
2. U. S. Navy’s Digital Modulator Radio (DMR):
 Generate many waveforms and modes which can able to be remotely
controlled with an Ethernet interface.
Year Description
1992 Joe Mitola published a paper on software radio.
A digital radio - reconfigures which changes the software codes running

1993
on it.
Modular Multi-funtion Information Transfer System (MMITS) - First

1996
SDR Association
 SDR was implemented for commercial purpose.

1997 to  Cellular networks include a general-purpose, more economic
1999 hardware platform, future proofing and easier bug fixes through
software upgrades.
Year Description
 Creation of Joint Tactical Radio System (JTRS)
1997
 Software Communication Architecture (SCA) was formed
 Automated code generation for embedded SDR.

1998  Joe Mitola - term Cognitive Radio
 MMITS forum was renamed into SDR forum.
2001  GNU radio was implemented

Year Description
 FCC first time gave approval for commercial SDR.
 Vanu Inc. & Anywave BS.

2004
 Physical processors - baseband processors running on pico-chip of
frequencies.
 Texas Instruments and Xilinx
2006  Product was equipped with ARM, DSP, FPGA, Frontend tunable
receivers (200MHz to 1GHz).
2009 LIME Microsystems - Commercial Single chip RF Frontend receiver
2010 SDR forum - renamed - wireless innovation forum.

Aspects of Software Defined Radio
● Multi-band
● Multi-carrier
● Multi-mode
● Multi-rate
● Variable Bandwidth
Functions of the SDR
SDR Functions
● Channel Set
Include Multiple RF bands
PCS BS and military radios uses fiber cables
Encompasses RF/Channel access, IF processing and Modem
● RF / Channel access
Consists of Multi band antennas and RF conversion
Also includes interference suppression
● IF Processing
Includes filtering, frequency translation, polarization,
frequency diversity, digital beam forming
● Modem
Multimode radios generate multiple air interface waveforms
SDR Functions
● Bit stream processing
Includes FEC and soft decision decoding
● InfoSec (Information Security)

Doesnot required by many applications
Authentication reduces fraud
Stream enciphering ensures privacy
● Source Set
Includes voice, video, data, fascimile and multimedia
● Service and Network support

Services are remote from radio node
Connection can be done via SDH, LAN ot other network
SDR Functions
● Multiple Software Personalities
Waveforms - Different bands and modes
Combination of one band and one mode - form one type
of multiple personality
Each personality combines RF band, channel set, air
interface waveform, protocol and related functions
● Joint Control
Multithreaded and Multiple processor software managed
by this joint control.
Assures system stability, error recovery, isochronous
streaming of voice and data.
● Evolution support
Defines the wavefrm personality
Each new personality is safe before being activated
Applications of SDR
● Military Application
Infrastructure Network Adhoc Network

Applications of SDR
• Monitoring System
Applications of SDR
• Disaster management
Applications of SDR
• Disaster management
Applications of SDR
• Deep Space Communications
Technology Tradeoffs
● Antenna - Number and BW of RF channels
which constraints number and BW of ADCs
● Dedicated ASICs instead of ADCs
● Provide multithread, multitasking and
multiprocessing ability due to the usage of

FPGAs, DSPs or GPPs
Technology Tradeoffs
● Antenna Tradeoff
● RF and IF processing tradeoff
● Interference Suppression
● RF MEMS
● Digital Architecture
Technology Tradeoffs - Antenna Tradeoff
Four Narrowband Antenna / RF Channels
Dual Broadband Antenna / RF Channels
Unitary Antenna / RF Channels
● JTRS (Joint Tactical Radio System)
JTRS Antenna / RF channels per service Band
● JTRS (Joint Tactical Radio System)
JTRS Antenna / RF channels per service Band
Technology Tradeoffs - RF and IF Processing

Tradeoff
RF tradeoffs minimize artifacts with
constraints
Technology Tradeoffs - RF and IF Processing

Tradeoff
IF tradeoffs minimize artifacts with constraints
Technology Tradeoffs - Interference

Suppression
Workable Situations for Roofing Filter
Technology Tradeoffs – RF MEMS

● RF requires off-chip resonators, inductors
and capacitors.
● RF-MEMS
- Replace on-chip resonator called as
TFR
● PIN diode switching circuits are used
- To select the RF path and it
substantially reduces size,
weight and power which improves
the performance.
● MEMS switches and tunable capacitors
operate upto 40GHz.
Technology Tradeoffs – Digital

Architectures
Architecture Implications
● Architecture: Definition and Goals
❖ Supports the evolution of new services,
software and hardware platforms.
❖ Also supports enterprise-level component
reuse.
● Industry-wide component reuse is called “Plug and
Play”.
● Plug and Play acts as a universal hardware driver.
● Hardware modules
❖ Physical and logical interfaces to host
hardware platforms
● Software modules
❖ Comprehensive and simple interface to the
software-operating environment.
● Layering and Virtual Machines
● Protocol layering
Ex: Wireless Application Protocol –
Wireless Internet Services.
● Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)

● An interface layer between applications
and the radio platform.
● Adv: Limited data rate, connectivity ,
computation, display limitations
● Java provides more than WAP, but less than C
software.
● Java Virtual Machine

❖ A general purpose computing engine
❖ Hides the details of the Instruction Set
Architecture (ISA).
❖ No primitives to modulate a sine wave
or tune a receiver.
● Object Oriented Analysis
● Extended Java with classes
● Access or implement such radio primitives
● Ada, C, C++ - used to implement radio

functions
● Motorola Speak easy II API defines set of

software objects
● Implements the entities of SDR forum
● SDR forum entities – Antenna, RF, Modem,

baseband processing, Infosec,
internetworking, system control, human &
computer interface.
● To implement SDR forum entities –

requires more than WAP and Java
● WAP supports only Modem and IF

processing
● Java is inefficient when compared to C
● SDR forum entities
● implemented by C
● Processors – FPGA, ASIC
● ORB provides interface between software

modules
● CORBA IDL – implement efficient interfaces

among software objects
● CORBA CF – used to access radio facilities and

computational resources
● CF includes framework control, repository of

software resources, file manager and resource
manager
 SDR forum core framework
COGNITIVE RADIO
UNIT II
SDR Architecture
Software Defined Radio (SDR)

•Software defined radio (SDR)
• Hardware (e.g. mixers, filters, amplifiers,
modulators/demodulators, detectors, etc.) are
rather implemented by means of software on a
personal computer or embedded system.
• Software
radio is introduced to improve the
performance of the existing hardware radio.
•SDR allows multi-mode, multi-band and/or

multi-functional operations that can be enhanced
using software upgrades.
Essential Functions of SDR
Essential Functions of SDR

1 . Source Coding and Decoding
2. Channel encoding
3. Multiband technology
4. Multimode Radio
5. INFOSEC (Information security)
6. Service and Network Support
7. Joint control
8. Agile beam-forming
9. Air Interface
1 0. Evolution support
1 1 . Plug-and-Play architecture
1)Source Coding and Decoding

The source set includes voice ,data,
facsimile, video and multimedia.
The source coding process used to

compress or shrink the message before
transmission.
Source Decoding process used to

reproduce or expands the message at the
receiver side.
2) Multiband Technology
The Channel set contains multiple RF

bands. It includes PCS BS, Mobile
Military Radios.
SDR support to access more than one RF

band communication channels at a time.
It Provides faster data service and

decrease the possibility of call drops in
voice communication.
Multiband Technology
 The components are the multiband radio,
the multiband antenna, and the multiband
scanner, as well as accessories like filters and
other types of audio accessories.
 Used for public safety services and emergency

response situations like fires, floods,
earthquakes, or medical emergencies.
3)Multimode Radio:
Software Radios are able to generates multiple
air Interface waveforms with different frequency.
The waveforms are demodulated in different

frequency bands. This property is called
Multimode Radio.
4) Channel Encoding
Channel encoder used to perform
multiple functions. It includes
i) RF/ Channel access
ii) IF processing
iii) MODEM.
Channel Encoding
 RF Channel access:
RF signals are received using Multiband
Antennas and RF conversion units.
 RF functions include interference
suppression.
 IF Processing:
Intermediate frequency processer performs
various functions. It includes filtering,
frequency translation, space/time Diversity
processing, beam forming and related
functions.
Channel Encoding
MODEM
The Modulator-Demodulator (MODEM) supports for

multiple Radio frequency bands. It generates waveforms
for different frequency band.
INFOSEC
 The Information security process provide secured data
communication.
 The processes are i) Authentication, ii) Stream

encipherment, iii) Transmission security (TRANSEC).
 Transmission security (TRANSEC) hides the data

transmission using spread spectrum techniques.
INFOSEC
 Authentication process reduces the
possibility of unauthorized access.
 It reduces the fraud activities. Stream
encipherment provides more privacy to
data transmission.
6) Service and Network Support

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) is a
Local Area Network (LAN) used to connect /
remote sources includes data, facsimile, videos
and multimedia source with radio node.
7) Joint Control
Joint Control integrates all functions in the Software
defined Radio to provide a reliable
telecommunications service.
Joint Control provides system stability, error

recovery, timely date flow and isochronous streaming
of voice and video.
The Advancement of Radio, increase the complexity

of the Joint Control.
It evolves toward autonomous selection of band,

mode and data format.
8) Agile Beam Forming
Beam forming is a Radio Frequency (RF)

management technique in which an access
point uses multiple antennas to send out the
same signal.
The feedback from users the wireless network

can adjust the signals it sends out and
determine the best path the signal must to be
taken in order to reach a user device.
Agile Beam forming:

Agile beam forming is a faster process supports
more users and enhances quality of service.
Dedicated processors, DSP processor used for

analyzing the user feedback and determine the
best path for transmission.
9) Air Interface
The radio communications link between

the mobile station and the active base
station is called Air Interface.
New Air Interface personalities may used

in Software Radio for modifying any
aspect of the Air Interface.
Air Interface
It includes waveform hopping, spreading, or
construction. The required resources
(Bandwidth, memory and processing capacity)
must to be maintaining those available.
10) Evolution Support:
The Evolution support is an existing

information about the personalities of SDR.
It used to define the waveform personalities

and to download them (e.g., over the air).
Each new personality is safe before being

activated.
11) Plug-and -Play Architecture
The Plug and play architecture supports

to connect various modules into the
environment and removed.
Here modules are connected with the

environment and removed, when it
requires.
Plug-and -Play Architecture

The major challenge of the architecture is the
interface points for plug and play hardware and
software modules.
SDR forums are in the process of identifying
such interface points through generalized
application programmer interfaces.
Basic SDR
II) The Hardware Architecture

of an SDR
Traditional digital receiver signal
processing block diagram.
Receive Mode:
The RF front end (RFFE) functions are
(i) Antenna matching unit,
(ii) Low noise amplifier,
(iii) Filters,
(iv) local oscillators,
(v) analog to digital (A/D) converters (ADC).
ADCs are capture the desired signal and suppress

the undesired signals to a practical extent.
In the receive mode operation, the modem shifts

the carrier frequency of the desired signal to a
specific frequency.
Receive Mode
The digital filter offers a high level of
suppression of interfering signals which not
within the bandwidth of the desired signal.
The modem contains an equalizer to correct the

variance of multipath signals and for filtering
and delay distortions
The modem compares the received symbols

with the possible received symbols and create a
best possible estimate of which symbols were
transmitted.
Traditional digital transmitter signal

processing block diagram.
Transmit Mode:
In transmit mode the RF Front end (RFFE)
includes (i) digital to analog converter (DACs),
(ii)local oscillators, (iii) filters, (iv) power amplifiers
and (v)antenna matching circuits.
The important operation of these circuits is to
synthesize the RF signal without introducing the
noise and spurious emissions at any other
frequencies, that might interfere with other users of
the spectrum.
The modem takes bits of information to be
transmitted and groups the information into
packets, then adds a structured redundancy to
provide for error correction at the receiver.
The modem must to control the power amplifier

and the local oscillators to produce the desired
carrier frequency.
Modem must to control the antenna matching
unit to minimize the voltage standing wave ratio
(VSWR).
The modem also control the external RF
element including transmit versus receive mode,
carrier frequency and smart antenna control.
The cryptographic security function performs
encryption any information to be transmitted.
The Digital Encryption Standard (DES) and the
Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) used for
cryptographic processing.
III) Computational Processing Resources in

an SDR
The computational resources needed to

implement the most complex application in
SDR.
The computational resources may consist of
GPPs, DSPs, FPGAs, and occasionally will
include other chips that extend the
computational capacity.
Generally, the SDR vendor will avoid inclusion
of dedicated-purpose non-programmable chips
because the flexibility to support waveforms and
applications is limited, if not rigidly fixed, by
nonprogrammable chips.
General Purpose Processor (GPP)

Nowadays most of the SDR developers
using the PowerPC GPP.
The PowerPC is available from several
vendors. This class of processor is readily
programmed in standard C or C++
language, supports a very wide variety of
addressing modes, floating point and
integer computation, and a large memory
space, usually including multiple levels of
on-chip and off-chip cache memory.
These processors currently perform more
than 1 billion mathematical operations per
second (mops). Visit : www.EasyEngineeering.net
Digital Signal Processors (DSP)
●The SDR architecture include DSP-type

hardware multiply accumulate functions, so
that the signal processes can be performed at
high speed, and GPP-type processors for the
protocol stack processing.
●The DSP internal architecture is optimized to
be able to perform multiply accumulates very
fast.
●They have one or more multipliers and one or
more accumulators in hardware.
●It can fetch two operands simultaneously and
also be able to fetch the next software
instruction in parallel with the operand fetches.
Digital Signal Processors (DSP)
●DSPs are perform fractional mathematics (integer)
multiply accumulate instructions at rates of 1 GHz,
and floating point multiply accumulates at 600
MHz.
● DSPs are available with many parallel multiply
accumulate engines, reporting rates of more than 8
Gmops.
●The DSP has far fewer and less sophisticated
addressing modes.
●DSPs frequently utilize modifications of the C
language to more efficiently express the signal
processing parallelism and fractional arithmetic,
and thus maximize their speed.
●As a result, the DSP is much more efficient at signal
processing but less capable to accommodate the
software associated with the network protocols.
Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA)

FPGAs capable of providing tremendous
amounts of multiply accumulate operations on
a single chip, surpassing DSPs by more than an
order of magnitude.
By defining the on-chip interconnect of many
gates, more than 1 00 multiply accumulators
can be arranged to perform multiply
accumulate processes at frequencies of more
than 200 MHz.
In addition to the DSP, FPGAs can also provide
the timing logic to synthesize clocks, baud rate,
chip rate, time slot, and frame timing, thus
leading to a reasonably compact waveform
implementation.
Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA)

very complex waveforms can be implemented
in one chip.
Complex signal processes that are not
efficiently implemented on a DSP, such as
Cordic operations, log magnitude operations,
and difference magnitude operations, can all
have the specialized hardware implementations
required for a waveform when implemented in
FPGAs.
Today’s SDRs provide a reasonable mix of these
computational alternatives to assure that a wide
variety of desirable applications can in fact be
implemented at an acceptable resource level.
IV) The Software Architecture of an SDR
The Software Architecture of an SDR

●The software architecture in an SDR is to place
waveforms and applications onto a software-
based radio platform in a standardized way.
●To make the waveform and application
interfaces standardized, the hardware platform
present a set of highly standardized interfaces.
●The vendors can develop their waveforms
independent of the knowledge of the
underlying hardware.
●The hardware developers can develop a radio
with standardized interfaces, which can
subsequently be expected to run a wide variety
of waveforms from standardized libraries.
On top of the hardware, several standardized

layers of software are installed. This includes
the boot loader, the operating system (OS);
the board support package (BSP, which
consists of input/output drivers that know
how to control each interface); and a layer
called the hardware abstraction layer (HAL).
The HAL provides a method for GPPs to

communicate with DSPs and FPGA
processors.

The method by which a waveform is installed
into a radio, activated, deactivated, and de-
installed, and the way in which radios use the
standard interfaces must be standardized so
that waveforms are reasonably portable to
more than one hardware platform
implementation.
The SDR radio is decomposed into a stack of
hardware and software functions, with open
standard interfaces.
The stack starts with the hardware and the one
or more data buses that move information
among the various processors.
V) Top-Level Component Interfaces

Topological model of dual band handset
streams.
Interfaces constrain topological properties
Attributes of Top-Level Software Radio
Functional Components
Functional
Attributes Remarks
Component
Source coding& Ubiquitous standard algorithms
Audio, video, fax and data interfaces
decoding (e.g., ITU, ETSI .)
Service
Multiplexing: setup and control, data Wireline and internet standards
&Network
services, internetworking. including mobility.
support
Transmission security, authentication,
Information May be null but in increasingly
non repudiation, privacy, data
security essential in wireless applications.
integrity.
Base band modem, timing recovery,
Channel coding
equalization, channel waveforms, INFOSEC, modem and IF
& decoding
predistortion black data processing interfaces are not standardized.
MODEM.
etc.,
Beam forming, diversity, combining, Innovative channel decoding for
IF processing
characterization of all IF channels. signal and QoS enhancement.
IF interfaces are not
RF Access Antenna, diversity, RF conversion
standardized.
Automatically employ multiple
Simultaneity,multiband
Channel set(S) channels or modes for managed
propagation,wireline interoperability.
QoS.
Multiple Simultaneous
Multiple Multiband, multimode, agile services,
personalities may cause
personalities interoperable with legacy modes.
considerable RFI.
Evolution Local or network support.
Define & manage personalities.
support
Joint control Joint source/channel coding, dynamic Integrates user and network
(over channel QoS, VS load control, processing interfaces multi-user, multiband
set) resource management. and multimode capabilities.
Top-level Interface Topologies

Interface Key characteristics Topological properties
Infinite dimensional; filtering
Analog Stream Audio, video, facsimile stream.
constraints comprise open ball(s).
Coded bitstreams and packets, Finite dimensional; frame and data
Source ADCs define a finite window structure defines subspaces. Finite
Bitstream into a quantized discrete time precision defines a dynamic range
sampled waveform. subspace for the ADS.
Framed, multiplexed, Forward

Finite dimensional; FEC subspaces
Clear Bitstream Error Controlled (FEC)
have rich algebraic properties.
bitstreams and packets.
Protected Random challenge, Finite dimensional; randomized
Bitstream authentication responses, public streams; complex message passing for
key, enciphered bitstreams and downloads, If null interface reverts to
packets. clear bits.
Base band Discrete time synchronous Digital waveform properties
waveform quantized sample streams (one determine fidelity of analytic
per carrier). representation.
IF waveform Composite, digitally pre- Analog IF has infinite dimensional
emphasized waveform ready for topology. Digital IF may have base
up conversion. band product topology.
RF waveform Power level, shape, adjacent Analog RF has infinite dimensional
channel interface etc., are topology, includes spatial and
controlled. temporal dimensions.
Network Packaged bitstreams may Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
Interface require ATM, SST or ISO (SDH), Signaling system 7 (SS7)
protocol stack processing. subspaces.
Joint Control Control Interfaces to all Parameter space; non-linear logic
hardware and software, subspace.
initialization fault-recovery.
Software Download from evolution Represents binaries, applets includes
Objects support systems. self descriptive language subspaces.
Load/Execute Software objects encapsulation. Download Topologies are highly
nonlinear.
Radio Knowledge Representation Language
(RKRL)
 RKRL used to define topological spaces of software
defined radio.
 RKRL used to study the general properties of the
interfaces and computational components.
Domain:
Class : Analog-stream
Implementation : Hardware
Signal-Interface : coax_DC_coupled
Impedance: 50 ohms…
Carrier Frequency : Base band
3dB Bandwidth : 350 KHz
Signals : { Predetected_signal }
Interface_signal : X(t)
Control parameters:
Gain : 0dB to 20dB
Gain control: AGC…… Visit : www.EasyEngineeering.net
VI) Interface topologies among plug and
play modules
●Interface Topologies -Definitions
●Space: Space is the boundless three-
dimensional area in which objects and events
have relative position and direction.
●Set: A set is a well-defined collection of
distinct objects, considered as an object in its
own right.
●Subset: The Subset is a set that is a part of a
larger set.
●Topological Spaces: Topological Spaces are a
space which has an associated family of
subsets that establish a topology.
Topological Spaces
The topological space, denoted as (X, Ox), is a
set X and a family of subsets Ox, the open sets,
that includes X and the empty set Ф, and that
are closed under countable union and finite
intersection.
The topology is the family of subsets Ox that

has the geometric and algebraic structure.
In a topological space the users can represent

the geometric properties of interfaces
between software radio modules.
Interface waveform topology A

permitted and B prohibited
(a) Time domain (b) frequency domain.
Finite Interface Topologies
If a set X has a finite number of elements

|X| then all subsets are open sets (and are
also closed sets).
If |X| = M, then the number of topologies

which induce a topological space on X is,
a double exponential.
Rigid Topology
Rigid topology is not a topological space
because it lacks the empty set.
The empty set is not a valid member of the

interface set if the interface will not work if
no pins are present.
If the system will work with the connector

unplugged (e.g. resort to a default or fail-soft
mode) then the empty set is a member of the
interface topology. These principles apply to
software.
Flexible API topology

The empty set included in the topology
because the interface works even if no
arguments are provided.
Thus Ox= {X, {RF}, {W}, Ф}, the set of all

subsets of X or power set, that is a
topological space.
This power set topology is the discrete

topology.
Function call parameter topologies
●Simplex :The simplex is an ordered set of

points in a topological space which are
adjacent in some sense, such as sharing a
relation R.
●Complex : The simplicial complex is a

union of simplexes which includes the
union of all of the lower dimension
simplexes of giving simplex
Q Connected
 The three vertices of a plane triangle [A,B,C]

in Figure, Comprise a two-dimensional
simplex, adjacent in the sense that they are
connected by the points in the plane.
 Each line segment joining these vertices
comprises a one-dimensional simplex (e.g.
[A,C]), denoted by the pairs of vertices.
Plug and Play Interface Geometry
Plug and Play Interface Geometry

The plug and play interface defines an
interoperable subset of the interface space.
The physical interface subspaces must

change as a function of the hardware in that
the service is delivered.
The logical interface subspaces may have to

change as a function of the software modules
configured to deliver the services.
To be fully extensible, plug-and-play

modules have to be combined dynamically.
COGNITIVE RADIO
UNIT III
INTRODUCTION TO CR
Cognitive Radio
 Cognitive Radio (CR) is an adaptive, intelligent radio and
network technology that can automatically detect
available channels in a wireless spectrum and change
transmission and reception parameters which enables more
communication to run concurrently and also improve radio
operating behavior.
 Federal Communications Commission(FCC) defines CR as: “A
Cognitive Radio is a radio that can change its transmitter or
receiver parameters based on interaction with the
environment in which it operates.
Dynamic Spectrum Management’
 A new spectrum sharing paradigm that allows secondary

users to access the abundant spectrum holes or white spaces
in the licensed spectrum bands
 Key issues:
 Awareness
 Intelligence
 Learning
 Adaption
 Reliability and
 Efficiency.
Relationship between different advanced wireless

technologies
 Adaptive Radio
 To monitor and to modify their
performance and Operational
Parameters
 Cognitive Radio
 Communication systems are aware of
their internal state and environment
(location and RF)
 Intelligent Radio
 Capable of machine learning
Characteristics of CR
1. Reconfigurability
2. Intelligent Adaptive Behavior
Capabilities of CR
1. Flexibility and Agility
2. Sensing
3. Learning and Adaptability
Evolution of Cognitive Radio
Year Description
1984 Software Defined Radio was implemented by Esystem Inc.,
Later on Cognitive Radio research work was started by Mitola and

Magurie
CR research focused fully on DSA.More research projects are done based

on this DSA based CR. Example: URA, SPECTRUM, MILTON
2000
-
Most important project in spectrum management and policy research was
2003
Next Generation (XG) project
Different working groups on CR and SDR are: IEEE 802.22, SCC41
working groups, ETSI’S re-configurable radio systems technical
committee.
IEEE 802.22 aims to provide DSA to vacant TV spectrum.
CR started using TVWS for opportunistic access of spectrum bands.
Evolution of Cognitive Radio
2004 FCC proposed to allow opportunistic access to TV bands.
Adaptrum, I2C, Motorola, Microsoft and Philips were forwarded some

demands to FCC for using prototype cognitive radios in TV bands.
2008
In November, FCC ordered to establish rules to allow the operation of
cognitive devices in TVWS on secondary basis.
U.K.Regulator, Ofcom were proposed FCC to allow license exempt use of

interleaved spectrum for cognitive devices.
In February, Ofcom published a new consultation which provides further

2009
details of its proposed cognitive access to TVWS.
Making Radio Self aware

 Antenna, RF Section, Modem, INFOSEC, Baseband / protocol
processor and User interface - Software Defined Radio (SDR)
or programmable digital radios (PDR).
 The base band processor hosts the protocol and control

software.
 The modem software includes the modem with equalizer,

and its related things.
 The SDR forum has defined these interfaces using the

CORBA-IDL.

 Variable bindings - between the equalizer model and the software
equalizer establish the interface between the reasoning capability
that applies these RKRL frames to solve radio control
problems gives the radio its cognitive ability.
 SDR forum - support machine based reasoning about these

interfaces.
 CRI rapid - prototype tightly integrates RKRL frames into the

model based reasoning architecture.
 Radios model - support system level interactions with the network
Cognitive Techniques
Position Awareness
 Introduction:
 CR Position and Time
Efficient Member of a Network
Conserve precious spectrum resource
 From Position & Time, a radio :
• Calculate the antenna pointing angle
• Velocity and Acceleration can be inferred.
• Placing transmit packet on the air at the time
slot to minimize the interference
• No need of manual adjustment or modification to
maintain compliance.
• Space and Time aware scheduling of tasks improves the
efficiency of CR operations
Radio Geolocation and Time Services

 Radio Transmission services supports
- Geolocation
- Accurate Time tracking
 Difficulty – To determine the Transmission Time
 Example transmitters used to determine Txn time in

different areas:
1. Aircraft – VOR Transmitter (Very high frequency
Omnidirectional Ranging)
2. Ships (at sea) – Long Range Navigation (LORAN)
Transmitter
3. Cellular Phone System – GeoPositional Services(GPS)
Transmitter
Contd…
 Geolocation also done using WLAN-IP
Address
 SDR Participation to know geolocation

and time is:
•To aid its network
• To aid its use of spectrum
• To aid its user.
I. Geo Positional Services (GPS)

 Best known location system
 Satellite Navigation System funded and controlled
by the US-DoD and DoC
 Comprises a constellation of satellites, ground
control stations and GPS receivers.
 GPS – Satellite System Architecture:
1. Space
2. Control
3. User
GPS - SSA
1. Space Segment:
− 24 active GPS satellites
− Orbit period : 12 hours
− 24 satellites are evenly distributed in six orbit
plane with 60 degree separation between each of
the four satellites in each plane
− Inclination – 55 degrees off the equator
− Five and eight satellites can be viewed from any
point on the earth
− LOS is needed to process the signals and calculate
location.
GPS – Space Segment
GPS - SSA
2. Control Segment:
− Ground Tracking Stations
− Master control location is located at

schriever Air force Case in Colorado.
− Monitors satellite signals, incorporate

them into orbital models and calculate
consolidated data
− Data's are transmitted back to space

vehicles and also to GPS receivers.
GPS – Control Segment
GPS - SSA
2. User Segment:
− GPS receivers and their operators
− GPS receivers:
• Process the signals form 4 or more satellites
into 3D position and time
• Communicates with another GPS receiver and
measure the accuracy
• Produce a precise one-pulse-per-second signal.
− Drawback: Each satellite experiences
propagation time delay.
− Solution: Sophisticated receiver reproduce one
pulse per second signal to compensate
propagation time delay.
− Accurate time of the output pulse is around 340ns
GPS – User Segment
Accuracy and Coordinate System

 Two classes of GPS Geolocation:
1. PPS (Precise Positioning Service)
2. SPS (Standard Positioning Service)
PPS SPS
• Capability requires cryptographic • Capability available to any user
technology
• Achieves
• Achieves  100m horizontal accuracy
 22m horizontal accuracy  156m vertical accuracy
 27.7m vertical accuracy  340ns time accuracy
 200ns time accuracy
GPS-Satellite Signals
 Transmit 2 spread spectrum signals:
1. @ 1575.42 MHz (represented as L1 for PPS)
2. @ 1227.60 MHz (represented as L2 for PPS)
• Unique Gold Code for each satellite
A spreading code synthesized by exclusive Oring of the

output of two LFSR and PN sequence generator.
Contd…
 Gold Code is also known as Precision code (P-Code)
 This P-Code is superimposed on L1 and L2 frequencies.
 Encrypted P-code is Y-Code.
GPS – Navigation Message

 Date Frame is transmitted every 30s and consists of five 300bit
subframes.
Subframe 1: Telemetry word|Handover word|Space vehicle
clock correction data.
clock Ephemeris Data Part 1
clock Ephemeris Data Part 2
Subframe 4: Telemetry word|Handover word|Other data
Subframe 2: Telemetry word|Handover word|Almanac data
for all space vehicles
• Almanac data and other data are spread over 25 data
frames and take 12.5 minutes to transmit.
Differential GPS
 Position accuracy is processed by correcting
bias errors
 Location receiver measures its position and
calculates a correction for each satellite.
 Requires:
 More capability at both the reference and mobile
GPS receiver.
 Data link between reference receiver and mobile
receiver.
 Measurement of Carrier phase and used in
surveying and generate accuracies over short
distances.
GPS-Summary
 GPS receiver in CR is a one way to detect
the CR in application.
 This geolocation information of a CR
enables other CR’s to know where a
particular CR is located.
Network Localization
 Geolocation Enable Routing
 Improves Radio Network Functionality
 REM (Radio Environment Map)
– Consolidated or distributed database
containing information on the radio environment.
– Infrastructure to enable Cognitive network
functionality.
 Routing functionality of an adhoc network and
cellular network handovers are used in CR.
Geolocation Approaches
1. ToA – Time of Arrival
2. TDoA – Time Difference of Arrival Strong

LOS is
3. AoA – Angle of Arrival needed
4. RSS – Received Signal Strength
 1 & 2 requires a high resolution system clock and
based on propagation speed of light and LOS.
Geolocation – ToA Approach
 Ability to time-tag a transmitted signal and measure the

exact ToA of that signal.
 Propagation Time – LOS propagation.
 Round Trip Timing and Distance Measuring Equipment:
 Uses DME transponders – easy to measure the round trip
time of interrogation and arriving response.
 Ex: Sinking Ship, Wrecked Aircraft
 Then subtracts the response time of the transceiver’s
Receiver-Detector-Transmitter
 Using this, Total distance between the two radios can be
estimated
Round trip time Response Time of the

Total distance
(Interrogation pulse transceiver’s
between two = -
and Arriving (Receiver-Detector
radios
response) Transmitter)
Contd…
 If the transponder uses 3 or more antennas – Estimates
both AoA amd distance to the distressed point
Contd..
 In case of Cellular Base Stations,
 Each BS estimates the range to the subscriber.
 Combines the range estimates form each BS – To accurately

locate the subscriber.
 Conclusion:
• Eliminates the separate GPS installation in each subscriber

unit
• Shifts the location complexity to BS
• Minimizes the subscriber unit cost
Geolocation – TDoA Approach

 Measures the time difference between the signal
reception at one location and reception time of the
same signal at another location
 Produces Hyperboloid surface
 Requires,
 3 Surfaces to geolocate one transmitter in a 2D plane
 4 Surfaces to geolocate one transmitter in 3D
Geolocation – AoA Approach

 This approach requires Antenna Array at the receivers.
 Multiple receivers estimate the AoA.
 Simple Triangulation: Combine the Signal with the
known location of multiple receivers.
 Geometry of AoA Approach
 Geometry effects:
 Affects result if receiver baseline does not have
large angle
 Range will be longer if there is poor accuracy
 Interprocessor communications data volume is
low.
Contd.. Geometry affects – AoA
Network Based Approaches

 Database that allows a table lookup translation
from IP Address to Geolocation
 Database provides the accurate geolocation
position of subscriber
 For WLAN devices it is possible on if its within
the radius of 100m.
Boundary Decisions
 Regulatory Region selection
 Capability is – based on map database it contains a
boundary set for each geopolitical region
 Border Database Representation Analysis
 Objective is to minimize memory resources to
represent the regions
 Using borders, 3 methods are used to determine the
current GPS location
1. Successive Tilting using latitude and longitude,
in which the aggregated things are defined in the
geopolitical region.
2. List of endpoints of successive line segments
3. Set of nearest neighbors position points.
Boundary Decisions Contd…

 Policy Servers and Regions
 Possible sources of policy are:
1. A periodic broadcast
2. A load from a certified source
3. A wired database server.
 Using these policies the device must
proactively Acquire, Interrogate and Capture
Interfaces to Other Cognitive

Technologies
 Interfaces that occur between Geolocation
Engine and other Entities in a CR are

1. Policy Engine
2. Networking Functions
3. Planning Engines
4. User
Interface to Policy Engines

 Best possible interface between Geolocation
engine (Server) and the policy engine (User) –
Client-Server Model.
 Ex: Client requests:
 A server location (latitude, longitude, altitude)
 A coded geopolitical narrow region
 Another interface – Interference Analysis

 Requires the relative location of other users
to process the message.
Interface to Networking
Functions
 Uses similar client server model
 Request the relative position of other CR and non

CR Devices.
 Request absolute position
 And the database of services contained in the

networking engine
 Networking function could request the location of the
closest service provider, if the database of services is
contained in the geolocation engine
Interface to Planning Engines

 This executes a Traveling Salesman
Algorithm.
 Distances returned could be a
straight line or distances, paths and

it is obtained from the Internet.
Interface to User
 It is simple – i.e., used to select a digital map
segment
 This capability is very useful for navigation
 Integrated with time and space management
functions
Cognitive Radio
Location and
Environment
Awareness
Introduction
• Prominent features of CRs and CRNs
• Learn and Interact with the operating environment
Classifying these two awareness in two field:
1. In Nature
2. In Wireless Systems
Location and Environment

Awareness in Nature
• Defined as a sensible of Location and Associated
environment
• Some creatures in nature already having these

location and environment capabilities
• These capabilities are incorporated to electronic

devices
contd...
• Example:
1. Bat - Echolocation
- Emits HF ultrasonic signals from mouths
(Txr)
and listens the echoes from environment
using ears (Rxr)
- Echoes are processed by these bats for
navigation, object
recognition and ranging.
2. Human Beings - Multiple sensors-Ears, Eyes,Skin
- Collected optic and acoustic
signals through these
contd..
Bat Echolocation
contd..
Human being Sensors
• contd..
Conceptual Model of Location and Environment
Awareness
Location and Environment

Awareness in Wireless Systems
 Limited to Positioning Systems and Location Based Service
 CR has sensing, awareness and Adaptation features
Proposed
Architecture
Fig: Conceptual model

for CR with Location
and Environment
Awareness Cycles
Contd..
 Spectrum Awareness Engine is included
 Receives tasks form cognitive engine and it report

back it to the cognitive engine
 Spectrum Awareness Engine and Cognitive Engine

can utilize various sensors to interact with and
learn the radio environments
 Environmental Awareness Engine senses the

environmental parameters and provide these
information to location awareness engine
 Similarly, Spectrum awareness engine senses the

spectrum and provide the information to location
Sensing Interface
 Two components: 1. Sensors
2. Associated data post processing
methods
 Sensors - converts acquired environmental signals into

electrical signals
- Acquired signals can be in different formats-EM,
Optic and Sound
 Three types of sensors used : EM, Image, Acoustic sensor
 Sensing Mechanisms:
1. Radio Sensing – Sensing technique utilizing EM
sensors and the
associated post processing schemes
2. Radio Vision – Sensing approach using image
a) Radio Sensing Sensors

 Radio sensing sensor used here is Antenna
 Antenna – Acts as transducer that converts EM signals
into electrical signal
and vice versa
 ToA, AoA, RSS approaches are used to estimate the
positioning of these sensors
 CR - Have the meteorological information of the
operating environment
- It is acquired from a central server or embedded
sensors such as
thermometer and barometer Visit : www.EasyEngineeering.net
b) Radio Vision Sensors

 Image Sensor – A device that captures optic
signals from
environment and converts them to
electrical signals
 These sensors are already used in digital cameras
and computer
vision systems
 Cognitive Vision Systems
• Have a capability to convert the acquired
scene state into text, image or voice
formats
• This should be done based on the
applications.
• Challenge is placing image sensor toward
c) Radio Hearing Sensors

 Utilizes acoustic sensors for interacting
with the environment
 CR acquires these signals and use it as a

pattern
 Captured sound pattern is noted and

compares with the spectrum patterns
stored in the database – to infer location
Location Awareness Engine

A) Location sensing methods
Estimate the location information of target object in
a given format.
1)Radio sensing methods
 Antenna based location sensing algorithms
categorized under three groups
 Range based schemes
 Range free schemes
 pattern matching based schemes
 Antenna based location algorithms do not have
cognition capabilities
2) Radio vision methods

 Image sensors are used for visual location
sensing schemes.
 Location of observer is estimated based on the
images acquired from the image sensors.
 Images are processed using advanced digital
image and Signal processing techniques.
 Scene analysis- one of the well known visual
location sensing technique.
Drawbacks
1) Requires Image database
2) Extensive image processing power
3) Radio hearing methods
 Utilize Acoustic sensors for interacting with

environment.
 CR can acquire sound signal and use it as a

pattern.
 The spectrum of the captured sound pattern

is noted and
compare it with spectrum pattern stored in
the database.
b)Location Awareness Core

 Objective - To perform critical tasks related
to location information such as learning,
reasoning and making decisions.
 It is composed of
 Seamless positioning and interoperability
 Security and privacy
 Statistical learning and tracking
 mobility Management and location aware
applications.
Seamless positioning and

interoperability
 A system keeps the position accuracy at a predefined
level regardless of changes in channel environment.
 Two approaches
1) Waveform based methods
- Based on utilization of
appropriate waveform or
technology depending on the
environ ment.
2) Environment sensing based methods
– Based on sensing channel radio
parameters.
(e.g : RSS based location
estimation algorithm for Visit : www.EasyEngineeering.net
Security and Privacy

 CR have a capability to support advanced
geographic privacy and secure positioning
methods.
Location aware applications
1) LBS-Location based services
2) Location assisted network optimization
3) Location assisted transceiver optimization
4) Location assisted environment
identification
C) Adaptation of location aware

algorithms
 Adaptation algorithms and parameters used
for satisfaction of the users.
 Parameters are accuracy, Integrity,
continuity and availability.
 Autonomous location aware applications
requires range accuracy adaptation methods
that can provide accuracy anywhere and
anytime.
Environment Awareness
Engine
 One of the most extensive and complicated task in CR
– channel environment is the bottleneck of wireless
systems
 Example :
1. Bats – Utilize Echolocation to identify,
detect and track for object and target
2. Human beings – Has different sophisticated
senses such as observing and
learning the surrounding environment
Conceptual Model for Environment
Awareness Engine
Environment Sensing
Topographical Object Recognition

Information and Tracking
Environment
Awareness
Core
Meteorological Propagation
Information Channel
Characteristics
Environment Adaptation
a) Topographical Information
 Topography – The Science or
practice of describing a particular
place, city, town or track of land;
The accurate and detailed definition
and description of any locality
 Ex: Google Maps
b) Object Recognition and Tracking

 Objects – Human made entities present in the target
environment temporarily or permanently
 Ex:
1. Large and Permanent - Buildings and Bridges
made structures
2. Small and Movable - Vehicles, home and
entities office appliances
 Object detection, Identification and Tracking are the
important features of Environment Awareness Engine
 Cognitive Radar and Cognitive Sonar – Technologies to
represent such capabilities in CR
c) Propagation Characteristics
 Provides Information on the characteristics of
signal progression through a medium

 Two characteristics : Propagation and Statistical
 Propagation characteristics of channel
environment shows that how the channel

affects the transmitted signal
Contd… Propagation Characteristics
 Statistical Characteristics of wireless channel

 Two groups of statistics: 1. Large Scale
2. Small Scale
1. Large Scale statistics
– Provide Information on path loss behavior of
channel environment
2. Small Scale statistics
– Determine the drastic variations of received
signal in time and frequency due to short
displacements.
 Statistical parameters are obtained after
propagation channel modeling process

(Performing extensive measurements and data
processing)
 Propagation Statistical process – obtained in
different ways in CR such as Proposed location

awareness based wireless systems
 Proposed method
– Three steps: 1. Environment Recognition and

Classification
2. Statistical Propagation based model
parameters extraction
3. Channel Environment Adaptation
 Various propagation characteristics acquisition
methods can be developed
d) Meteorological Information
 Provides information on the weather of
target local region – affects signal

propagation.
 Current & future weather parameters –
rain, snow, temp, humidity and pressure
 These can be acquired either by using
radio auxiliary sensors or from central

cognitive BS Visit : www.EasyEngineeering.net
Conclusion – Environment awareness

engine
 Main task – Acquires the information on
topography, objects, propagation
channel and meteorology of the
target local region
 Provides these information to other CRs to be
used for different applications
Contd….
 Three potential environment aware application
areas :
1. Object and environment identification
2. Seamless Positioning
3. LOS – NLOS identification
 CR is envisioned to have environment awareness
capability – leads to the development of Advanced

LBSs
Design Considerations –
Implementation Options
 Accomplish 3 ways to interact with
surrounding
1. Co-Operative
2. Self
3. Composite
1. Cooperative Location
Awareness
 Two Cognitive Radios collaborate to learn
distance between them – Estimates ranging
Contd..
 One of the CR transmit signal through the
channel and the other CR extracts the
ranging information from the received signal.
 It is done in Cognitive positioning systems
 Both CRs negotiate ranging parameters.
 Achieves accuracy through cognitive ranging
protocol
 This protocol consists of 3 stages:
a) Ranging parameter
setup,
b) Two way ToA ranging,
c) Time-stamp report
Cognitive Ranging Protocol
2. Self Location Awareness

 This approach enables a CR to perform location
awareness without the need of another CR on
infrastructure
 This can be achieved in two ways : Active and
Passive
 In active self location awareness
– Both Txr and Rxr are utilized and co-located.
– Ex: Bat-Echolocation
 This is accomplished using Cognitive Radar and
Cognitive Sonar
 In Passive self location awareness
– Observe and acquire the signals from
the environment
without transmitting any signal
– This approach requires only receptor Visit : www.EasyEngineeering.net
Conceptual model for Self Location

Awareness
Contd…
 Having the capability to provide absolute and
relative ranging and positioning information
 Implementation of closed-loop feedback in

cooperative location awareness architectures is
simple than that of self location awareness
architectures
 CR can control the strengths of both cooperative

and self location awareness methods –
Composite Location Awareness for supporting
advanced autonomous location aware
applications
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)

TECHNIQUES
Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs)

 A computing system made up of a number of simple, highly
interconnected processing elements, which process
information by their dynamic state response to external
inputs.
 Idea of ANNs is based on the working of human brain
 Imitated using silicon and wires as
living neurons and dendrites
 ANNs are composed of multiple nodes
 Output at each node is called its activation or node value
 Each link is associated with weight
Simple ANN
FeedForward ANN (FF-ANN)
• The information
flow is
unidirectional
• There are no
feedback loops
• They have fixed

inputs and outputs
FeedBack ANN (FB-ANN)
• The information
flow is not
unidirectional
• feedback loops are

allowed.
Machine Learning in ANNs

 Supervised Learning
 Example: the teacher feeds some example data about which the
teacher already knows the answers. (Example:Pattern
Recognizing).
 Unsupervised Learning
 no example data set with known answers. For example, searching for
a hidden pattern
 Reinforcement Learning
 strategy was built on observation. The ANN makes a
decision by observing its environment
Applications of Neural Networks

1.Aerospace 9.Telecommunications
2.Automotive 10.Transportation
3.Military 11.Software
4.Electronics 12.Time Series
5.Financial Prediction
6.Industrial 13.Signal Processing
7.Medical 14.Control
8.Speech 15.Anomaly Detection
Hidden Markov Model (HMM)

 a processing tool that uses past data to predict future actions
such as implementation of Bayes law
 Two-state Gilbert - Elliot model that describes a channel as

in either a good state or bad state.
 When in one state, there is a probability of either staying in

that state or moving to the other state.
 used as a sensor and for decision making
Bayesian Network
 Example: Lung Cancer
Step 1: Gather Relevant Information of Problem
Step 2: Identify Interesting Variables
Possible nodes and values for the lung cancer example
Node Name Type Value Nodes Creation
Pollution Binary {Low, High, Medium}
Smoking Boolean {True, Fasle}
Lung-Cancer Boolean {True, Fasle}
X-Ray Binary {Positive, Negative}
 Step 3: Create Arcs

between Nodes
 Step 4: Specify Topology
 Step 5: Conditional
Probabilities
 Probability values
for each node
Fuzzy Logic Systems

Architecture Membership
Functions
Evolutionary
Algorithms
(Genetic Algorithm)
 Expert Systems Case - Based Reasoning

(CBR)
 The concept of expert

system on cognitive radio
is, it mentions the ideas of
“Knowledge Engineering
bottlenecks and software
of limited flexibility” and it
was addressed by Mitola.
Unit-4
COGNITIVE RADIO ARCHITECTURE
Cognitive Radio Components
Cognitive Radio Components-Modules

• Hardware: Antenna, RF, Modem, INFOSEC,
Baseband, User Interface.
• Software: Baseband Modem, Back end
control, Equalizer Algorithm.
• Cognition: RXML Language-Defines SDR
components.
• RXML Language – includes Priori Radio
background, user stereotypes, Knowledge of
RF.
AACR Node Functional Components
AACR-Aware Adaptive and Cognitive Radio.
• Six Functional Components

• 1)User SP(Sensory Perception) - includes haptic, acoustic,
Video sensing and Perception Functions
• 2)Local Environment sensors - location, temperature,
accelerometer, compass etc.
• 3)System Applications - media Independent Applications (E.g.
Network Games)
• 4)SDR Functions - RF sensing and SDR Applications.
• 5)Cognition Functions - System control, Learning, Planning.
• 6) Local effector Functions - Speech synthesis, text ,graphics
and multimedia displays.
Design Rules Include Functional

Component Interface
The Cognition Components

• Radio Knowledge – RXML : RF
• User Knowledge – RXML : User
• The Capacity to Learn
Radio knowledge
• Radio knowledge is a computationally accessible
structured Knowledge about radio.
• RXML language formalize the radio knowledge
and enable the structuring of sufficient RF and
user world knowledge to build advanced wireless
enabled or enhanced information services.
• Radio knowledge must comprehensive,
addressing the majority of radio bands and
modes available to an MBMMR(multi band
multimode radio).
Radio Knowledge in the Architecture
User Knowledge in the Architecture
User Knowledge
• User knowledge is defined in RXML with RF
knowledge, the capabilities required for an
AACR node .
• User Knowledge give the ability to CR to
acquire relevant information about services ,
from its owner and other designated users.
Flexible functions of the Component
Architecture
The Cognition cycle
The Cognition cycle

• This cycle implements the capabilities
required of ideal cognitive radio (iCR) in a
reactive sequence.
• iCR Continuously observes(senses and
perceives) the environment, orients itself,
creates plans, decides, and then acts.
• Wake epoch: The entire process in cognition
cycle is called wake epoch, because the
primary reasoning activities are reactive to the
environment.
• Dream epoch : The process used for

performing computationally intensive pattern
recognition and learning.
• Prayer epoch: This process used for interacting
with a higher authority such as network
infrastructure.
• Sleep epoch: The cognition cycle enters sleep
mode during power down conditions.
Observe (Sense and perceive)

 The CR observes its environment by parsing incoming
information streams.
 In the observation Phase, CR also reads its location,
temperature, other parameters.
 The iCR senses and perceives the environment by
accepting multiple stimuli in many dimensions
simultaneously and by binding these stimuli all
together – to prior experience, subsequently detect
time-sensitive stimuli and generate plans for action.
Orient:
 The orient phase determines the significance of an
observation by binding the observation to a
previously known set of stimuli of a scene.
Binding :
 It is a process used to apply the prior experience to
current situation, when conditions are met.
 Binding also determines the priority associated with
stimuli.
Plan:
 Plan phase enable the synthesis of RF and
information access behaviors in a goal-oriented way
based on perceptions from the visual, audio, text,
and RF domains and previously learned user
preferences.
 Open source planning tools enable the planning
subsystems into the CRA, enhancing the plan
component.
Decide:
 The decide phase selects among the candidate
plans.
 The Radio might have the choice to alert the user to
an incoming message or to defer the interruption
later.
Act:
 Acting initiates the selected processes using effector
modules.
 Effectors may access the external world or the CR’s
internal states.
Learning :
 Learning is a function of perception, Observations,
decisions and actions.
 Initial Learning is mediated by the observe phase
perception hierarchy.
 Learning also occurs through the introduction of
new internal models in response to existing models
and case based reasoning bindings.
Self Monitoring:
 Self monitoring process used to maintain execution
time or various phases and restrict its computations
to not consume more resources than the
precomputed upper bound.
The Inference Hierarchy

 The Inference hierarchy is the part of the algorithm
architecture that organizes the data structures.
 The Pattern of accumulating elements into sequences begins
at the bottom of the hierarchy.
NL in the Inference Hierarchy

• NL(Natural language) used to make interactions
between computers and human languages.
• Speech and text channels may be processed via such
NL facilities with substantial a priori models of
language and distance.
• The use of those models entail mapping among the
word, Phrase, dialog and scene levels of the
observation phase hierarchy and the encapsulated
component(s).
NL in the Inference Hierarchy
Observe-Orient links for Scene

Interpretation
Observe-Orient links for Scene

Interpretation
 CR may use an algorithm – generating language with
which one may define self-similar Inference
processes.
Proc 1: Partitions characters into words.
Proc 2: Detects novel words and aggregates known
words into Phrases.
Proc 3: Detects novel phrases, aggregates known
Phrases into dialogs.
Proc 4: Aggregates dialogs into scenes.
Proc 5: Detects known scenes.
Observe-Orient links for Radio Skill

Sets.
Observe-Orient links for Radio Skill Sets.

 Radio Knowledge may be embodied in components
called radio skills.
 These skill sets may either be reformatted into
serModels directly from the a priori knowledge of an
RKRL frame, or they may be acquired from training or
sleep/dreaming.
 Each skill set may also save the knowledge it learns
into an RKRL frame.
General World Knowledge
General World Knowledge

 An AACR needs substantial knowledge embedded in
the inference hierarchies.
 It needs both external RF knowledge and Internal
Radio knowledge.
 Abstractions include informal and formal meta level
Knowledge from unstructured knowledge of
concepts to the more mathematically structured
models of space, time, RF and entities that exist in
space-time.
Architecture Maps
CRA Topological maps

 The input map consists of components that transform
external stimuli to the internal data structure sensory
data.
 The Transformation consists of entity recognition (via
acoustic, optical and other sensors) ,lower level software
radio waveform (SWR) interface components and so
forth, that create streams of primitive reinforced
sequences.
 Reasoning Components include the map that
identifies the best match of known sequences to novel
sequences.
 Generalized word-and phrase-level bindings are
interpreted by the components to form dialog states.
CRA Topological maps

 The components of create action requests from
bindings and dialog states.
 Context-Sensitive plans are created by the
component that evaluates action requests in the
plan phase.
 The decision phase processing consists of map
that maps plans and scene context to actions.
 The map E consists of the effector Components that
change the PDA’s internal states, change displays,
synthesize speech, and transmit information on
wireless networks using the SWR personalities.
Behaviors in the CRA

CRA entails three modes of behavior.
1)Waking
2)Sleeping
3) Praying
1)Waking Behavior:
Waking behavior is optimized for real-time
interaction with the user, isochronous control of SWR
assets, real time sensing of the environment.

2)Sleeping and Dreaming:
 Coginitive PDAs detect conditions that permit or
require sleep and dreaming.
 During the dreaming epochs, The CPDA
processes experiences from the waking behavior
using non incremental ML algorithms.
 In the CRA all sleep includes dreaming.
3)Prayer Behavior:
 Attempts to resolve unsolved conflicts via the
mediation of the PDA’s home network may be
called prayer behavior.
Building the CRA on SDR Architectures

SWR Principles apply to Cellular radio-base station
Review of SWR and SDR principles

 Software radio(SWR) is the ideal digital radio
in which the analog-to-digital converter( ADC)
and Digital –to-analog converter(DAC) convert
digital signals to and from RF directly, and all
RF channel modulation, demodulation,
frequency translation and filtering are
accomplished digitally.
 The ideal SWR would have essentially no RF
conversion , just ADC/DAC blocks accessing
the full RF spectrum available to the antenna
elements.
Building the CRA on SDR Architectures

SWR Principles: ADC and DAC at the antenna may not apply
SDR Design Space
SDR Design Space

 The SDR design space consists of the combination of
digital access bandwidth and programmability.
 ASICs Cannot be changed at all, so the functions are
dedicated in silicon.
 FPGAs can be changed in the field, but need to
upgrade the hardware .
 DSPs are less expensive to program and are more
efficient in power use than FPGAs.
 GPPs, RISCs are most effective to change in the field.
SDR Forum Information transfer thread

architecture
Radio Architecture
 The SDR Forum defined a very simple, helpful
model of radio in 1997.
 This model highlights the relationships among
radio functions at the tutorial level.
JTRS SCA Version 1.0
The SCA
 The US DOD developed the SCA for its Joint Tactical Radio
System (JTRS) family of radios.
 The APIs define access to the PHY layer, to the MAC layer,
to the LLC layer, to security features, and the I/O of the
physical radio device.
 The Physical Components consist of antennas and RF
conversion hardware ,that typically lack the ability to
describe themselves to the system.
 Most other SCA Components are capable of describing
themselves to the system to enable and facilitate plug
and play among hardware and software components.
 In addition, the SCA embraces the portable operating
system interface(POSIX) and CORBA.
SDR Forum UML Model of radio services
SDR Forum UML Model of radio services

 UML based object oriented model define Waveforms
of different load modules that provides wireless
services, so from designer’s perspective the
waveform is the key applications in a Radio.
 In the UML model Amp refers to amplication
services, RF refers to RF conversion.
 interface management refers to both avoiding
interference and filtering it out of one’s band of
operation.
SDR Forum UML Management and computational

architectures
SDR Forum UML Management and

computational architectures
 The UML model contains a sophisticated set of
management facilities, provides better human-
machine Interface and secured communication.
 The CR will direct virtual channel management (VCM)
and will learn from the VCM function. What radio
bands are available, such as what bands the radio
can listen to and transmit on and how many bands it
can use at once.
Functions-transforms model of a wireless node
Functions-transforms model of a wireless node

 The CRA uses a self-referential model of a wireless
device, the functions-transforms model, to define
the RKRL and to train the CRA.
 In this model,Radio knows about sources,source
coding,networks,INFOSEC, and the collection of
front-end services needed to access RF channels.
 Its knowledge also extends to the idea of multiple
channels and their characteristics and the radio part
may have many alternative personalities at a given
point in time.
The Ontological structure of Functions

Transform Model
Radio Transition towards Cognition

 For Radio, as the number of bands and modes
increases ,the SDR becomes a better candidate for the
insertion of Cognition Technology.
 In the future, SDR PDAs could access satellite, Mobile
services, Cordless telephone, WLAN,GSM and 3G bands.
 ideal SDR access three bands, 0.4 to 0.96 GHZ,1.3 to
2.5 GHZ,2.5 to 5.9 GHZ.
 When a radio device accesses more RF bands than the
host network controls, it is time for CR technology to
mediate the dynamic sharing of spectrum
Fixed Spectrum allocations versus pooling
with CR
Radio Evolution toward the CRA:
• In 2003, a report and order (R&O) made unused TV

spectrum available for low-power RF-LAN applications,
making the manufacturer responsible for ensuring that
the radios obey this simple constraint.
• DARPA’s XG (neXt Generation) program developed a
language for expressing spectrum use policy.
• The six component AACR architecture may be
implemented with minimal SP, minimal learning and no
autonomous ability to modify itself.
• The Introduction of new services will drive the
introduction of new capabilities and additional APIs,
perhaps informed by the CRA.
NeXt Generation Wireless Networks
1
Outline
 Introduction
 Cognitive radio
 The xG network architecture
 Spectrum Sensing
 Spectrum Management
 Spectrum Mobility
 Spectrum Sharing
 Upper Layer Issues
 Cross-Layer Designs
 Conclusions
2
Introduction
 Today’s wireless networks are regulated by a fixed spectrum
assignment policy
 The spectrum is regulated by governmental agencies;
 The spectrum is assignment to license holders or services on a
long term basis for large geographical regions.
 According to FCC, temporal and geographical variations in
the utilization of the assigned spectrum range from 15% to
85%.
3
Spectrum Usage
 The signal strength distribution over a large portion of the
wireless spectrum
4
Introduction (cont’d)
 Problem of the fixed spectrum management
 Some bands were allocated to services which have not been utilized at
all, but it has been just left unused over a decade (e.g. ERMES paging
system, TFTS in-flight phone)
 Unbalanced allocation due to miss-prediction of the demand (e.g.
limited band for 3G system)
 Difficulty for new applications/services to gain access
 The limited available spectrum and the inefficiency in the
spectrum usage necessitate a new communication paradigm
to exploit the existing wireless spectrum opportunistically.
5
 Dynamic spectrum access is proposed to solve the spectrum
inefficiency problems.
 DARPAs approach on Dynamic Spectrum Access network,

the so-called NeXt Generation (xG) program aims to
implement the policy based intelligent radios know as
cognitive radios.
 The inefficient usage of the existing spectrum can be improved
through opportunistic access to the licensed bands without
interfering with the existing users.
6
 The key enabling technology of xG networks is the cognitive
radio (CR).
 Cognitive radio techniques provide the capability to use or share the
spectrum in an opportunistic manner.
 Dynamic spectrum access techniques allow the cognitive radio to
operate in the best available channel.
7
Introduction – Main Functions of CR

(cont’d)
 The main functions for cognitive radios in xG networks:
 Spectrum sensing
 Detecting unused spectrum and sharing the spectrum without harmful
interference with other users
 Spectrum management
 Capturing the best available spectrum to meet user communication
requirements
 Spectrum mobility
 Maintaining seamless communication requirements during the transition
to better spectrum
 Spectrum sharing
 Providing the fair spectrum scheduling method among coexisting xG
users
8
Introduction – xG Network
Communication Functionalities (cont’d)
9
Cognitive Radio
A “Cognitive Radio” is a radio that can change its
transmitter parameters based on interaction with the
environment in which it operates.*
 Cognitive capability
 to capture or sense the information from its radio environment
 to identify the portions of the spectrum that are unused at a specific time
or location
 Reconfigurability
 The CR can be programmed to transmit and receive on a variety of
frequencies and to use different transmission access technologies by its
hardware design.
10
Cognitive Radio (cont’d)

 The CR enables the usage of temporally unused spectrum,
which is referred to as spectrum hole or white space.
11
Cognitive Radio - Physical Architecture

(cont’d)
 In the RF front-end, the received signal is amplified, mixed and A/D

converted.
 In the baseband processing unit, the signal is modulated/demodulated
and encoded/decoded.
12
Cognitive Radio - Physical Architecture

(cont’d)
 The novel characteristic of CR transceiver is a wideband

sensing capability of the RF front-end.
 RF hardware should be capable of tuning to any part of a large range
of frequency spectrum.
13
Cognitive Radio – Key Challenge of

Physical Architecture (cont’d)
 Limitations
 The wideband RF antenna receives signals from various transmitters
operating at different power levels, bandwidths, and locations.
 The RF front-end should have the capability to detect a weak signal in
a large dynamic range.
 The capability requires a multi-GHz speed A/D converter with high
resolution, which might be infeasible.
 Solutions
 Reduction of dynamic range of the signal, e.g., tunable notch filters
 Multiple antennas such that signal filtering is performed in the spatial
domain rather than frequency domain, e.g., beamforming.
14
Cognitive Radio – Cognitive Capability

 Cognitive Cycle
15
Cognitive Radio – Reconfigurability

 Reconfigurability
 is the capability of adjusting operating parameters for the
transmission on the fly without any modifications on the hardware
components.
 Operating frequency
 Modulation
 Reconfigure the modulation scheme adaptive to the users requirements and
channel conditions.
 Transmission power
 If higher power operation is not necessary, the CR reduces the transmitter
power to a lower level to allow more users to share the spectrum and to
decrease the interference
 Communication technology
16
The xG Network Architecture [5]
17
The xG Network Architecture

- Primary Network
 An existing network infrastructure is generally referred to as
the primary network, which has an exclusive right to a
certain spectrum band.
 Primary user
 Primary base-station
 The primary base-station does not have any xG capability for sharing
spectrum with xG users.
 The primary base-station may be requested to have both legacy and xG
protocols for the primary network access of xG users.
18
The xG Network Architecture

- xG Network
 xG network (cognitive radio network, Dynamic Spectrum
Access network, secondary network, unlicensed network)
does not have license to operate in a desired band.
 The spectrum access is allowed only in an opportunistic manner.
 xG users
 xG base-station
 provides single hop connection to xG users without spectrum access
license
 Spectrum broker
 can be connected to each network and can serve as a spectrum
information manager to enable coexistence of multiple xG networks
19
The xG Network Arch.

- Access Types
 xG network access
 xG users can access their own xG base-station both on licensed
and unlicensed spectrum bands.
 xG ad hoc access
 xG users can communicate with other xG users through ad hoc
connection on both licensed and unlicensed spectrum bands.
 Primary network access
 The xG users can also access the primary base-station through
the licensed band.
20
xG Network on Licensed Band

 xG networks is deployed to exploit the spectrum holes
through cognitive communication techniques.
21
xG Network on Licensed Band (cont’d)

 The challenges is due to the existence of the primary users.
 the detection of the presence of primary users
 the interference avoidance with primary users
 The channel capacity if the spectrum holes depends on the interference at
the nearby primary users.
 spectrum handoff
 If primary users appear in the spectrum band occupied by xG users, xG
users should vacate the current spectrum band and move to the new
available spectrum immediately.
22
xG Network on Unlicensed Band

 Open spectrum policy has caused an impressive variety of
important technologies and innovative uses.
 However, due to the interference among multiple heterogeneous
network, the spectrum efficiency of ISM band is decreasing.
 xG networks can be designed for operation on unlicensed
bands such that the efficiency is improved in this portion of
spectrum.
 Intelligent spectrum sharing algorithm can improve the efficiency of
spectrum usage and support high QoS.
23
xG Network on Unlicensed Band

(cont’d)
 xG uses focus on detecting the transmissions of other xG users.
 All xG users have the same right to access the spectrum
 No spectrum handoff is triggered by the appearance of other primary users
 If multiple xG network operators reside in the same unlicensed band,
fair spectrum sharing among these networks is also required.
24
xG Network Applications
 Leased network
 The primary network can provide a leased network by
 allowing opportunistic access to its licensed spectrum with the agreement
with a third party without sacrificing the service quality of the primary
users.
 e.g., Mobile Virtual Network Operator (MVNO)
 Cognitive mesh network
 xG networks have the ability to add temporary or permanent
spectrum to the infrastructure links used for relaying in case of high
traffic load.
 Emergency network
 Military network
25
The xG Network Architecture - Examples

 Spectrum Pooling [61][62]
 CORVUS (Cognitive Radio approach for usage of Virtual Unlicensed
Spectrum) [8][14]
 exploit unoccupied licensed bands
26
The xG Network Architecture – Examples

(cont’d)
 IEEE 802.22 (Wireless Regional Area Networks)

 The first worldwide standard based on the cognitive radio technology.
 Focus on constructing fixed point-to-multipoint WRAN that will
utilize UHF/VHF TV bands between 54 and 862 MHz.
 Specific TV channels as well as guard bands will be used for
communication in IEEE 802.22.
27

(cont’d)
 DIMSUMnet (Dynamic Intelligent Management of Spectrum for

Ubiquitous Mobile-access network) [10][35]
 argued a case for coordinated, real-time dynamic spectrum access instead of
opportunistic, uncoordinated methods common in ad-hoc military
applications.
 Recent work focuses on the spectrum pricing and allocation functions
for spectrum brokers. [11]
28

(cont’d)
 DRiVE project (Dynamic Radio for IP Services in Vehicular

Environments) [75]
 focus on dynamic spectrum allocation in heterogeneous network
(broadcast technologies and cellular system) by assuming a common
coordinated channel.
 OverDRiVE (Spectrum Efficient Uni- and Multicast Services

Over Dynamic Radio Networks in Vehicular Environments)
[26]
 aims at UMTS enhancements and coordination of existing ratio
networks into a hybrid network to ensure spectrum efficient
provision of mobile multimedia service.
29

(cont’d)
 Nautilus [73][74][15]
 is designed to emphasize distributed coordination enabled
spectrum sharing, without relying on centralized control.
 OCRA network (OFDM-based Cognitive Radio) [5]

 introduces multi-spectrum transport techniques to exploit the
available but non-contiguous wireless spectrum for high
communications.
30
Spectrum Sensing
 The most efficient way to detect spectrum holes is
 to detect the primary users that are receiving data within the
communication range of an xG user.
 In reality, however, it is difficult for a cognitive radio to have
a direct measurement of a channel between a primary
receiver and a transmitter.
 Thus, the most recent work focuses on primary transmitter

detection based on local observations of xG users.
31
Classification of Spectrum Sensing

Techniques
 Transmitter detection approach

 is based on the detection of the weak signal from a primary
transmitter through the local observations of xG users.
 Basic hypothesis
the AWGN
transmitted signal of the primary users

32
the amplitude gain ofVisitthe channel
: www.EasyEngineeering.net
Transmitter Detection Problem

 Transmitter detection problem
 Receiver uncertainty (a)
 Shadowing uncertainty (b)
33
Cooperated Spectrum Sensing

 Cooperated spectrum sensing methods where information
from multiple xG users are incorporated for primary user
detection.
 allow to mitigate the multi-path fading and shadowing effects, which
improves the detection probability in a heavily shadowed environment.
The primary receiver uncertainty problem caused by the lack of the primary
receiver
34 location knowledge is still unsolved.
Interference-based Detection
 The interference temperature model [21] shows the signal of a radio
station designed to operate in a range at which the received power
approaches the level of the noise floor.
35
Spectrum Sensing Challenges

 Interference temperature measurement
 There exists no practical way for a CR to measure or estimate the
interference temperature at nearby primary receivers.
 Primary receivers are usually passive devices
 Spectrum sensing in multi-user networks
 Current interference model do not consider the effect of multiple xG
users
 Detection capability
 Detect the primary users in a very short time.
36
Spectrum Management
 Since xG networks should decide on the best spectrum band
to meet the QoS requirements over all spectrum bands,
 new spectrum management functions are required for xG networks
 considering the dynamic spectrum characteristics
 Functions of spectrum management

 Spectrum analysis
 Spectrum decision
37
Spectrum Analysis
 The available spectrum holes show different characteristics
which vary over time.
 Spectrum analysis enables the characterization of different
spectrum bands,
 which can be exploited to get the spectrum band appropriate to the
user requirements.
 In order to describe the dynamic nature of xG networks,
each spectrum hole should be characterized considering
 not only time-varying radio environment and
 but also the primary user activity and the spectrum band information.
38
Spectrum Analysis – Parameters

 Interference
 From the amount of the interference at the primary receiver, the
permission power of an xG user can be derived, which is used for the
estimation of the channel capacity
 Path loss
 The path loss increases as the operating frequency increases.
 Therefore, if the transmission power of an xG user remains the same,
the its transmission range decreases at higher frequencies.
 Wireless link errors
 Depending on the modulation scheme and the interference level of
the spectrum band
39
Spectrum Analysis – Parameters

(cont’d)
 Link layer delay
 To address different path loss, wireless link error, and interference,
different types of link layer protocols are required at different
spectrum bands.
 results in different link layer packet transmission delay
 Holding time
 refers to the expected time duration that the xG user can occupy a
licensed band before getting interrupted.
 The longer the holding time, the better the quality would be.
40
Spectrum Analysis – Capacity Estimation

 Usually SNR at the receiver has been used for the capacity estimation.
 Since SNR considers only local observations of xG users, it is not enough to
avoid interference at the primary users.
 Spectrum characterization is focus on the capacity estimation based on

the interference at the licensed receivers.
 Interference temperature model
 A complete analysis and modeling of spectrum in xG networks is yet to
be developed.
41
Spectrum Decision
 Once all available spectrum bands are characterized,
 appropriate operating spectrum band should be selected for the
current transmission considering
 the QoS requirements and
 the spectrum characteristics
42
Spectrum Management Challenges

 Decision model
 how to combine these spectrum characterization parameters for the
spectrum decision model
 Multiple spectrum band decision

 The multi-spectrum transmission shows less quality degradation
during the spectrum handoff.
 Transmission in multiple spectrum bands allows lower power to be
used in each spectrum band.
 As a result, less interference with primary users is achieved.
 how to determine the number of spectrum bands and how to select
the set of appropriate bands
43

(cont’d)
 Cooperation with reconfiguration
 The CR technology enables the transmission parameters of a
radio to be reconfigured for optimal operation in a certain
spectrum band.
 For example, if SNR is fixed, the bet error rate can be adjusted
to maintain the channel capacity by exploiting adaptive
modulation techniques.
44

(cont’d)
 Spectrum decision over heterogeneous spectrum bands
 In licensed bands
 Consider the activities of primary users in spectrum analysis and decision
in order not to influence the primary users transmission.
 In unlicensed bands
 All the xG users have the same access rights, sophisticated spectrum
sharing techniques are necessary.
45
Spectrum Mobility
 xG networks target to use the spectrum in a dynamic manner
by allowing CR to operate in the best available frequency
band.
 Spectrum mobility is defined as the process when an xG

users changes its frequency of operation.
 Spectrum mobility arises when current channel conditions become
worse or a primary user appears.
46
Spectrum Mobility (cont’d)

 Each time an xG user changes its frequency of operation, the
network protocols are going to shift from one mode of
operation to another.
 The purpose of spectrum mobility management in xG
networks is to
 make sure that such transitions are made smoothly and as soon as
possible
 The applications running on an xG users perceive minimum
performance degradation during a spectrum handoff.
47
Spectrum Mobility Challenges

 Algorithms are required to decide the best available spectrum
based on the channel characteristics of the available spectrum
and the QoS requirements of the applications.
 Design new mobility and connection management
approaches to reduce delay and loss during spectrum handoff.
 Novel algorithms are required to ensure that applications do
not suffer from severe performance degradation during the
transitions.
48
Spectrum Mobility Challenges (cont’d)

 Inter-cell handoff and vertical handoff
 Spectrum mobility in time domain
 The available channels change over time, enabling QoS in this
environment is challenging.
 Spectrum mobility in space
 The available bands also changes as a user moves from one place
to another.
 Continuous allocation of spectrum is a major challenge.
49
Spectrum Sharing
 Spectrum sharing can be regarded to be similar to generic
medium access control (MAC) problems in the existing
systems.
 The coexistence with licensed users and the wide range of

available spectrum are two of the main reasons fro the unique
challenges.
50
Spectrum Sharing Process

 Spectrum allocation
 The allocation not only depends on spectrum availability, but it is also
determined based on internal (and possible external) policies.
 Spectrum access
 The access should be coordinated in order to prevent multiple users
colliding in overlapping portions of the spectrum.
 Transmitter-receiver handshake
 Spectrum mobility
51
Classification of Spectrum Sharing
overlay underlay
52
Inter-network and Intra-network Spectrum

Sharing
53
Inter-network Spectrum Sharing

 Centralized approaches
 Common Spectrum Coordination Channel (CSCC) etiquette protocol [33]
 for coexistence of IEEE 802.11b and 802.16a
 Spectrum policy server [32]
 Each operator bids for the spectrum indicating the cost it will pay for the duration
of the usage.
 The SPS then allocates the spectrum by maximizing its profit from these bids
 Distributed approaches
 Distributed QoS based Dynamic Channel Reservation (D-QDCR) [43]
 A base station of a WISP competes with its interfere BSs according to the QoS
requirements of its users to allocate a portion of the spectrum.
54
Intra-network Spectrum Sharing

 Cooperative approaches
 Local bargaining (LB) [15]
 to ensure a minimum spectrum allocation to each users and hence focuses
on fairness of users
 Dynamic open spectrum sharing MAC (DOSS-MAC)[40]
 When a node is using a specific data channel for communication, both the
transmitter and the receiver send a busy tone signal through the
associated busy tone channel.
 Non-cooperative approaches
 Device centric spectrum management (DCSM) [73]
 The communication overhead is minimized by providing five different
system rules for spectrum allocation.
55
Spectrum Sharing Challenges

 Common control channel
 CCC facilitates many spectrum sharing functionalities
 Transmitter receiver handshake
 Communication with a central entity
 Sensing information exchange
 A fixed CCC is infeasible in xG networks
 When a primary user chooses a channel, this channel has to be vacated
without interfering.
56
Spectrum Sharing Challenges (cont’d)

 Dynamic radio range
 Radio range changes with operating frequency due to attenuation
variation.
 When a large portion of the wireless spectrum is considered, the
neighbors of a node may change as the operating frequency changes.
 Control channels
 in the lower portions of the spectrum where the transmission range will
be higher
 Data channels
 in the higher portions of the spectrum where a localized operation can be
utilized with minimized interference
57
Spectrum Sharing Challenges (cont’d)

 Spectrum unit  three-dimensional
 Time dimensional resource-space
 The time required to transfer
information
 Rate dimensional
 The data rate of the network
 Multi-code or Multi-
channel
 Power/code dimensional
 The energy consumed for
transmitting information
throughput the network
58
Upper Layer Issues - Routing

 Common control channel
 Intermittent connectivity
 In xG networks, the reachable neighbors of a node may change rapidly.
 The available spectrum may change or vanish as licensed users exploit the
networks
 Once a node selects a channel for communication, it is no longer
reachable through other channels
 The connectivity concept used for wireless networks depends on the
spectrum.
 Re-routing
 Queue Management
59
Upper Layer Issues – Transport Layer

 The performance of TCP depends on the packet loss probability and round
trip time.
 Wireless errors and the packet loss probability depends on
 the access technology
 the frequency in use
 interference level
 the available bandwidth
 RTT of a TCP connection depends on
 the frequency of operation
 packet retransmissions due to higher frame error rate at particular frequency
bands
 spectrum handoff latency
 the interference level
 the medium access control protocol
60
Cross-layer Designs
61
Conclusions
 xG networks are being developed to solve current wireless
network problems resulting from
 the limited available spectrum
 the inefficiency in the spectrum usage
 xG networks, equipped with the intrinsic capabilities of the
cognitive radio, will provide an ultimate spectrum-aware
communication paradigm in wireless communications.
62

EC6014 CR-Unit 1 To 5-1

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General Digital Radio

General Digital Radio

● RF Front End Section

General Digital Radio

● ADC and DAC Section

● DUC and DAC Section

Software Defined Radio

“ Radio in which some or all of the physical

Hardware Radio vs Software Radio

Dynamically supports multiple

Hardware Radio vs Software Radio

Software Radio Classification

Software Radio Classification

● Tier 0 : Hardware Radio

Software Radio Classification

● Tier 3 : Ideal Software Radio (ISR)

● Efficient use of resources ● Research and

● Opportunistic frequency ● Flexible to incorporate

● Reduced obsolescence ● Fewer discrete

● Lower cost ● Multimode Operation

Software Radio Architecture

A. It moves ADC as close to the receiving

B. It substitutes software for hardware

C. Facilitates a transition from dedicated to

Software Radio Architecture Evolution

Software Radio Architecture Evolution

1992 Joe Mitola published a paper on software radio.

A digital radio - reconfigures which changes the software codes running

Modular Multi-funtion Information Transfer System (MMITS) - First

 SDR was implemented for commercial purpose.

Software Radio Architecture Evolution

 Automated code generation for embedded SDR.

2001  GNU radio was implemented

Software Radio Architecture Evolution

 Vanu Inc. & Anywave BS.

2009 LIME Microsystems - Commercial Single chip RF Frontend receiver

2010 SDR forum - renamed - wireless innovation forum.

Aspects of Software Defined Radio

● InfoSec (Information Security)

● Service and Network support

Infrastructure Network Adhoc Network

• Deep Space Communications

● Antenna - Number and BW of RF channels

which constraints number and BW of ADCs

● Dedicated ASICs instead of ADCs

● Provide multithread, multitasking and

multiprocessing ability due to the usage of

● RF and IF processing tradeoff

Technology Tradeoffs - Antenna Tradeoff

Four Narrowband Antenna / RF Channels

Technology Tradeoffs - Antenna Tradeoff

Dual Broadband Antenna / RF Channels

Unitary Antenna / RF Channels

Technology Tradeoffs - Antenna Tradeoff

● JTRS (Joint Tactical Radio System)

JTRS Antenna / RF channels per service Band

Technology Tradeoffs - Antenna Tradeoff

● JTRS (Joint Tactical Radio System)

JTRS Antenna / RF channels per service Band

Technology Tradeoffs - RF and IF Processing

Technology Tradeoffs - RF and IF Processing

Technology Tradeoffs - Interference