United States

Department of
Agriculture Wood —
Forest
Service
Colors and Kinds
Agriculture
Handbook
Number 101
 CONTENTS

October 1956
Approved for reprinting August 1981

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents. U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, D.C. 20402
 WOOD—COLORS AND KINDS
Prepared by Forest Products Laboratory, Forest Service
A key element in any business transaction in-
volving wood is the proper identification of species.
Literally scores of different woods are bought and
sold daily for hundreds of uses. A New England
home may be framed with Douglas-fir from Ore-
gon, floored with red oak from Arkansas, sided
with California redwood, and trimmed inside with
Michigan yellow birch. Its furniture may be
veneered with Pennsylvania black cherry over
Wisconsin basswood and fitted with drawers of
Indiana sycamore and backs of Carolina sweetgum.
It is apparent that familiarity with only locally
grown species is not enough in today’s lumber
markets.
Often, any one of several species is suitable for a
specific use. Other species, however, may be en-
tirely unfit for that use. Of those suitable, some
are better than others because they are stronger,
perhaps, or more attractive, or hold paint better.
Others may be superior because they are harder,
shrink less, resist decay, or are more easily cut and
joined. It follows, then, that correct identification
is essential to insure selecting the right wood for a
given job.
As the official wood identification agency of the
United States Government, the Forest Products
Laboratory annually receives thousands of re-
quests for identification service from industry,
other branches of the Federal Government, units
of State and local governments, and the general
public. This service is requested in connection
with business transactions, civil lawsuits, criminal
cases, building codes for homes and other struc-
tures, industrial standards, and Government pur-
chase specifications. The Laboratory has also
been called upon to identify wood from tombs of
Egyptian Pharaohs, sunken pirate ships, pre-
historic forests, and the beam that supports the
Liberty Bell.
In the great majority of day-to-day transac-
tions, however, wood identification is a relatively
simple problem. By acquiring a little know-how,
many lumbermen, dealers, builders, manufactur-
ers, consumers, students, and home-workshop hob-
byists could solve their identification problems on
the spot. Consequently, this publication was pre-
pared as an aid to those persons concerned with
identifying the more common native species of
wood.
Characteristics that are apparent to the naked
eye and that distinguish our native woods from
each other are described for each of 32 species.
Because color is an important identifying char-
acteristic of many woods, special attention has been
paid to describing the natural color of a freshly cut
surface of the wood.
Descriptions of species are accompanied by full-
color illustrations showing grain pattern and other
characteristics. Beginning at the top of the
illustration, end-grained, edge-grained (quarter-
sawed), and flat-grained (plainsawed) surfaces are
all displayed. This is done because certain
identifying characteristics show up best on each
surface. The terms “edge-grained” and “flat-
grained” are used in reference to softwood lumber,
while quartersawed and plainsawed refer to hard-
wood lumber.
The manner in which it is sawed from the log will,
of course, determine whether a piece of wood shows
flat-grained or edge-grained patterns of annual
growth rings on its wide surfaces. Lumber is
manufactured in both forms.
Each color plate presents two species. Where
possible, closely similar species are shown together
on one plate, so that distinguishing characteristics
can be more conveniently examined. In other
cases, species are paired on one plate because they
are often marketed in mixture or used inter-
changeably.
Certain species are not distinguishable from
close relatives by the wood alone, even under the
microscope. Thus, for example, the wood of many
different species of red oak is identical in structure
and appearance even though the trees from which
it comes may differ markedly in leaf, bark, and
fruit. From the wood user’s standpoint’, however,
botanical differences in trees usually do not matter
so long as their wood is consistent in properties
and appearance. Where appropriate in the de-
scriptions, differences are mentioned that distin-
guish a species from closely similar ones not
shown. The general range of growth, properties,
and common uses of each species are also given.
Obviously, many other species could have been
included with the 18 hardwoods and 14 softwoods
described in this publication. Those chosen are
the species most commonly found in retail lumber
markets.
To assist the reader in getting the utmost help
from this booklet, the terms used in the descrip-
tions are defined in a glossary. These terms are in
common use among wood technologists, and the
features of wood to which they apply are regularly
used for identification and other purposes at the
Forest Products Laboratory. The common and
botanical names of species conform to the official
Forest Service nomenclature for trees. Cubic-
foot weights of species described are averages
taken at 12 percent moisture content; specific
gravity is based on volume when green and weight
when ovendry.
For information on botanical differences among
species, such as the shape of leaves, patterns of
bark, and form of fruit, the reader is referred to
Trees, the 1949 Yearbook of the U. S. Department
of Agriculture.
1
 HARDWOODS (Broad-Leaved Species)
American beech (Fagus grandifolia)
Range.—The natural range of beech in the
United States extends from Maine to northern
Florida and westward from the Atlantic coast
into Wisconsin, Missouri, and Texas. It usually
grows in mixture with other species, although
pure stands of considerable extent occur in the
Blue Ridge Mountains, especially in North
Carolina.
Properties.— One of the heavy woods, American
beech has an average weight of 45 pounds a cubic
foot and, with a specific gravity of 0.56, is classi-
fied as hard. It is rated high in strength and
shock resistance and is readily bent when steamed.
Beech is subject to very large shrinkage and
requires considerable care during seasoning if
checks, warp, and discoloration are to be avoided.
Heartwood ranks low in resistance to decay.
The wood wears well and stays smooth when
subjected to friction, even under water. Although
ranking high in nail-withdrawal resistance? it
has a tendency to split when nails are driven
into it. When pulped by the soda process, beech
American sycamore (Platanus
Range.—American sycamore grows in scattered
groups or singly from southern Maine westward
to Nebraska and southward to eastern Texas and
northern Florida. It grows best on flatlands where
there is a good supply of ground water and along
the edges of streams. lakes. and swamps. At least
half of the stand of American sycamore is in the
central and southern portions of its range in
Alabama, Arkansas, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana,
Mississippi, Missouri, and Tennessee.
Properties.— In weight, American sycamore is
ranked as a moderately heavy wood, averaging
34 pounds a cubic foot. A moderately hard wood,
with a specific gravity of 0.46, it has a close texture
and an interlocking grain. It is moderately strong,
moderately stiff, and has moderately good shock
resistance.
Sycamore has large shrinkage while drying, is
inclined to warp, and is somewhat difficult to
season. Also, it is not durable when exposed to
conditions favorable to decay. The wood turns
well on a lathe and keeps its shape well when bent
to form after steaming. It is only intermediate in
nail-withdrawal resistance but because of its
2
yields a short-fibered pulp that can be mixed with
longer fibered pulps to obtain paper of satisfactory
strength.
Uses.—American beech is used for lumber,
distilled products, veneer, railroad ties, pulpwood,
cooperage, and fuel. The lumber is used largely
in the manufacture of boxes, crates, baskets,
furniture, handles, flooring, woodenware, general
millwork, and novelties. Beech is especially
suitable for food containers, since it does not
impart taste or odor.
Description.— Heartwood is white with a red-
dish tinge to reddish brown. Pores are not visi-
ble but wood rays can be seen on all surfaces.
On the end grain, the rays appear to be irregularly
spaced, while on quartersawed surfaces they ap-
pear to be of different heights along the grain.
On the plainsawed surfaces, the rays also appear to
be of different height, but they look much nar-
rower in this view. Beech is readily distinguish-
able from other native species by its weight, con-
spicuous rays, and tiny pores. (Illustration, p. 11.)
occidentalis)
interlocking grain ranks high in its ability to with-
stand splitting. Sycamore wood does not impart
taste, odor, or stain to substances that come in
contact with it.
Uses.-The principal uses of American syca-
more are for lumber, veneer, railroad ties, cooper-
age, fence posts, and fuel. The lumber goes largely
into furniture and boxes. Considerable sycamore
veneer is used for fruit and vegetable baskets and
berry boxes. Although generally used for the
cheaper grades of furniture, sycamore is used in
one form or another in practically all grades. Other
products made from the lumber include flooring,
scientific instruments, handles, and butchers’
blocks.
Description.— Heartwood is reddish brown or
flesh brown in color. Pores are very small and not
visible to the unaided eye. Rays are visible on all
surfaces. They appear uniformly spaced on the
end grain and of uniform height on quartersawed
surfaces. Plainsawed surfaces show rays that
appear more numerous and more closely spaced
than in beech. (Illustration, p. 11.)
 Rock elm (Ulmus
Range.—Rock elm grows from New Hampshire
to Nebraska and as far south as Tennessee.
Much of the commercially important rock elm is
located in Wisconsin and Michigan and more
than 80 percent of rock elm lumber and veneer
comes from these 2 States.
Properties.— Rock elm is a heavy wood, averag-
ing 44 pounds a cubic foot. The wood is clas-
sified as hard, with a specific gravity of 0.57. It
is stronger, harder, and stiffer than any of the
other commercial elms. With the exception of
hickory and dogwood, rock elm has higher shock
resistance than any other American hardwood.
Although rock elm undergoes large shrinkage
when drying, it tends to shrink somewhat less
than the other commercial elms. As with all the
elms, care must be taken to prevent warp during
seasoning. Rock elm is somewhat difficult to
work with hand or machine tools, and the heart-
wood has low to moderate resistance to decay.
However, all the commercial elms have excellent
bending qualities.
American elm (Ulmus
Range.—American elm grows throughout the
eastern United States except in the Appalachian
highlands and southern Florida. About three-
fourths of the stand of sawtimber size is located in
the Lake States and the Mississippi Delta region.
Wisconsin, Michigan, Louisiana, Arkansas, Ohio,
and Indiana have large volumes of elm.
Properties.— American elm is moderately heavy,
averaging 35 pounds a cubic foot, and moderately
hard, with a specific gravity of 0.46. It rates as
moderately weak, but is moderately stiff and has
good shock resistance.
The wood of American elm has large shrinkage
and care must be taken to prevent warping as it
seasons. Like all of the commercial elms, it has
excellent bending qualities. Its heartwood has
low to moderate resistance to decay. The wood
is slightly below average in woodworking proper-
ties, but is among the top woods in ease of gluing.
In nail-withdrawal resistance, it has an inter-
mediate rank.
thomasii)
Uses.—Elm lumber is used principally for
containers and furniture. In some cases, the
different species of elm are employed indiscrim-
inately, but when hardness or shock resistance is
required to a high degree, rock elm is preferred.
Rock elm veneer is used in considerable quantities
in manufacturing various types of containers,
especially fruit and vegetable boxes and baskets.
Large quantities of rock elm also go into
crating for heavy articles, such as furniture, glass,
and porcelain. The strength and toughness of
this wood make it very serviceable for certain
types of containers that must stand rough usage,
such as market baskets and bushel baskets for
home use. Considerable quantities are used in
the manufacture of furniture, especially the bent
parts of chairs.
Description.— Heartwood is brown to dark
brown, sometimes with shades of red. Summer-
wood pores are arranged in concentric wavy lines
that appear lighter than the background wood.
The springwood pores in rock elm are visible
only upon magnification. (Illustration, p. 12.)
americana)
Uses.—American elm lumber is used principally
in the manufacture of containers, furniture, and
dairy and poultry supplies. Because of its excel-
lent bending properties, the wood has been much
used for barrels and kegs. Considerable quan-
tities of veneer go into the manufacture of fruit
and vegetable boxes and baskets. American elm
also is used a great deal for crating heavy articles,
such as furniture, glass, and porcelain products.
It is used in sizable quantities in the furniture
industry, particularly for the bent parts of chairs.
Description.— Heartwood is brown to dark
brown, sometimes containing shades of red.
Although the summerwood pores are not visible
as individuals, they are arranged in concentric
wavy lines within the boundaries of the growth
rings. The wavy lines appear lighter than the
background wood. American elm shows a spring-
wood pore zone with a single row of large and
easily visible pores. (Illustration, p. 12.)
3
 Black walnut (Juglans nigra)
Range.—Black walnut grows naturally over a
large area extending from Vermont westward to
Nebraska and southward to southern Georgia and
southern Texas. The area of greatest commercial
production is limited to the central part of this
natural range.
Properties.—Black walnut is classified as a
heavy wood, averaging 38 pounds a cubic foot.
The wood is hard, with a specific gravity of 0.51,
is strong and stiff, and has good shock resistance.
Even under conditions favorable to decay, black
walnut heartwood is one of our most durable
woods. It can be satisfactorily kiln-dried or air-
dried, and holds its shape well after seasoning.
Black walnut works easily with handtools and has
excellent machining properties. The wood finishes
beautifully with a handsome grain pattern. It
takes and holds paints and stains exceptionally
well, can be readily polished, and can be satis-
factorily glued.
Black cherry (Prunus serotina)
Range.—Black cherry’s natural growth range is
throughout Maine westward to eastern North
Dakota and southward to central areas of Florida
and Texas. It also occurs in the mountain ranges
of western Texas. The largest supplies of black
cherry are believed to be located in the Appalach-
ian Mountains in New York, Pennsylvania, and
West Virginia.
Properties.—Black cherry is a moderately
heavy wood with an average weight of 35 pounds
a cubic foot. The wood is also moderately hard,
with a specific gravity of 0.47. Stiff and strong,
it ranks high in resistance to shock.
Although it has moderately large shrinkage,
black cherry stays in place well after seasoning
and is comparatively free from checking and
warping. It has moderate resistance to decay.
The wood is difficult to work with handtools but
ranks high in bending strength. It can be glued
satisfactorily with moderate care.
Uses.—Nearly all the black cherry cut is sawed
4
Uses.—The outstanding use of black walnut is
for furniture. Large amounts are also used for
gunstocks and interior finish, while smaller quan-
tities go into railroad tics, fence posts, and fuel-
wood. In the furniture industry, it is used either
as solid wood cut from lumber or as veneer and
plywood. It also is extremely popular for interior
finish wherever striking effects are desired. The
wood of black walnut is particularly suitable for
gunstocks because of its ability to stay in shape
after seasoning, its fine machining properties, and
its uniformity of texture.
Description.— Heartwood is chocolate brown
and occasionally has darker, sometimes purplish,
streaks. Unless bleached or otherwise modified,
black walnut is not easily confused with any other
native species. Pores are barely visible on the end
grain but are quite easily seen as darker streaks
or grooves on longitudinal surfaces. Arrangement
of pores is similar to that in the hickories and
persimmon, but the pores are smaller in size.
(Illustration, p. 13.)
into lumber for various products. Much goes into
furniture and considerable amounts are used for
backing blocks on which electrotype plates, used
in printing, are mounted. Other uses include
burial caskets, woodenware and novelties, patterns
and flasks for metalworking, plumbers’ woodwork,
and finish in buildings and railway coaches.
Description.— Black cherry, which is not easily
confused with other native species because of its
distinctive color, has light to dark reddish brown
heartwood. Although individual pores are not
visible to the naked eye, their pattern is some-
times distinctive. On end-grain surfaces, the
pores may appear to form lines that parallel the
growth rings, while on plainsawed surfaces, they
may follow the outline of the growth-ring boundary.
The wood rays of cherry are barely visible on
end-grain surfaces and tend to produce a distinc-
tive flake pattern on true quartersawed surfaces.
They are higher along the grain than those of
walnut and hence show more prominently on
quartersawed surfaces. (Illustration, p. 13.)
 Hickory (Carya)
Species names.—True hickories: shagbark hick-
ory (Carya ovata), shellbark hickory (C. laciniosa),
pignut hickory (C. glabra), and mockernut hickory
(C. tomentosa) .
Range.—The true hickories grow throughout
most of the eastern United States except in
northern New England, the northern portions of
Michigan and Wisconsm, and southern Florida.
Close to 40 percent of the total stand of true
hickory is located in the lower Mississippi Valley
region.
Properties.— The wood of the true hickories is
very heavy, averaging from 42 to 52 pounds per
cubic foot, and very hard, with a specific gravity
ranging from 0.56 to 0.66. It also is very strong
as a post or beam, very stiff, and exceedingly high
in shock resistance. Some woods are stronger
than hickory and others are harder, but the com-
bination of strength, toughness, hardness, and
stiffness possessed by hickory has not been found
to the same degree in any other commercial wood.
White ash (Fraxinus americana)
Range.—White ash grows throughout the entire
eastern half of the United States except along the
Atlantic Coastal Plain, the gulf coast, and Florida.
It is cut commercially everywhere except in the
extreme outer limits of this range and the lower
Mississippi Valley.
Properties.— White ash is a heavy wood with
an average weight of 42 pounds a cubic foot.
Ranked as a hard wood, it has a specific gravity
of 0.55. It also is classified as strong and stiff,
and has good shock resistance.
The wood of white ash is noted for its excellent
bending qualities. In ease of working, tendency
to split, and ability to hold nails and screws, it
has moderately high rank. White ash lumber
can be rapidly and satisfactorily kiln-dried, and
it holds its shape well even under the action of
water. The wood remains smooth under con-
tinual rubbing but is low in decay resistance.
Uses.—The use of white ash that dwarfs all
others is its utilization for handles. It is the
standard wood for D-handles for shovels and
spades and for long handles for forks, hoes, rakes,
Hickory has very large shrinkage and must
be carefully dried to avoid checking, warping,
and other seasoning defects. It has low decay
resistance but can be glued satisfactorily.
Uses.—Nearly 80 percent of the true hickory
used in the manufacture of wood products goes
into tool handles, for which its hardness, tough-
ness, stiffness, and strength make it especially suit-
able. Other uses include agricultural imple-
ments, athletic goods, and lawn furniture.
Description.— Heartwood is brown to reddish
brown. Pores are visibly, but the zone of large
pores is not sharply outlined as in oak and ash.
Pores grade in size from one side of the annual
ring to the other. Wood rays are very small and
seen without magnification only on quartersawed
surfaces. Tyloses frequently plug the pores,
making their outlines indistinct. Under mag-
nification, the end grain shows numerous white
lines paralleling the growth ring. (Illustration,
p. 14.)
and shovels. The wood is used too in the manu-
facture of furniture, where it is especially valuable
for the bent parts of chairs. Its good bending
qualities also make it useful for cooperage. White
ash is used almost exclusively for many types of
sports and athletic equipment, such as long oars
and baseball bats.
Description.—Heartwood is brown to dark
brown, sometimes with a reddish tint. As in
black ash, the zone of large pores is visible and
usually sharply defined. The white dots or lines
that indicate summerwood pores are usually
more prominent in white than in black ash.
The small wood rays are generally visible only
on quartersawed surfaces.
White ash is sometimes confused with hickory,
but the two species are readily distinguishable.
The zone of large pores is more distinctive in
ash than in hickory. Also, the summerwood
zone in ash shows white dots or lines that are
visible to the unaided eye, but in hickory these
dots or lines are visible only upon magnification.
(Illustration, p. 14.)
5
 Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides)
Range.—Quaking aspen grows throughout most
of the northeastern and western United States.
The eastern part of its range extends from Maine
southward to Tennessee and westward to the
Dakotas. It is also found throughout the western
United States except in the extreme Southwest.
Commercial stands of aspen are located principally
in the Lake States and the Northeast, with smaller
amounts in the central Rocky Mountain region.
Properties.— One of the lightweight hardwoods,
quaking aspen averages 26 pounds a cubic foot.
The wood is classified as soft, with a specific grav-
ity of 0.35, and is weak, limber! and moderately
low in shock resistance.
Although aspen has moderately large shrinkage,
it can be seasoned satisfactorily by air-drying or
kiln-drying. In fact, few of the hardwoods shrink
as little as aspen. The wood ranks low in decay
resistance. It also is low in nail-withdrawal resist-
ance, but has little tendency to split under the
action of nails or screws. It is worked easily with
hand or power tools and is fairly easy to finish to a
American basswood (Tilia
Range.— Basswood grows throughout the east-
ern half of the United States from Maine westward
to North Dakota and southward to Florida and
eastern Texas. More than half of the total stand
is located in the Lake States, and another quarter
is in the east central part of the range.
Properties.— Basswood is a lightweight hard-
wood with an average weight of 26 pounds a cubic
foot. The wood is weak, moderately stiff, and low
in resistance to shock. Its specific gravity of 0.32
classes it as soft.
Although it has large shrinkage, basswood is
fairly easy to air-dry or kiln-dry and stays in place
well after seasoning. It has low nail-withdrawal
resistance, but. well resists splitting while being
nailed. In decay resistance, it is low. The wood
is easy to work with tools, takes and holds paint
well, and is easily-glued. When pulped by the soda
process, basswood yields a soft, short-fibered, easily
bleached pulp.
6
smooth surface. Aspen glues easily with a variety
of glues and under a wide range of gluing condi-
tions. In painting properties, it ranks with the
best of the hardwoods.
Uses.—Aspen is used principally for lumber,
paper pulp, excelsior, and matches. The largest
present-day use of the lumber is for boxes and
crates. It is probably most heavily used for pulp-
wood, chiefly in the manufacture of book and
magazine paper and corrugating and insulating
boards. Aspen has long been one of the preferred
woods for the manufacture of high-grade excelsior.
Description.—Heartwood is white to very light
brown, with occasional brown streaks associated
with defects. Pores are very small and generally
not visible to the unaided eye. Growth rings are
usually faint. Wood rays are small, uniform in
height along the grain, and visible only on quarter-
sawed surfaces. Aspen is similar to cottonwood,
but cottonwood tends to have barely visible pores.
The growth rings in aspen are generally narrower
than those in cottonwood. (Illustration, p. 15.)
americana)
Uses.—Most of the basswood cut in this country
is first made into lumber for a variety of items.
The largest amounts are used for crates and boxes.
The manufacture of sash, doors, and general mill-
work also accounts for much of the basswood
lumber produced each year. In addition consider-
able lumber and veneer is used in the furniture
industry, especially as core material overlaid with
high-grade furniture veneers, such as walnut and
mahogany.
Description.— Heartwood is creamy white to
creamy brown or sometimes reddish. Pores are
very small, as in aspen, and growth rings on plain-
sawed surfaces are generally faint. Wood rays are
broader and higher than in aspen, and the two
species can be readily distinguished by comparing
their quartersawed faces. While the rays of aspen
are low and uniform in height, some of those in
basswood are distinctly higher than others and
frequently darker than the background wood.
(Illustration, p. 15.)
 Sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua)
Range.—Sweetgum grows from southwestern
Connecticut westward almost to Kansas and
southward to eastern Texas and central Florida.
The commercial range in the United States is
confined largely to the moist lands of the lower
Ohio and Mississippi Basins and to the lowlands
of the southeastern coast.
Properties.— Sweetgum is a moderately heavy
wood with an average weight of 36 pounds per
cubic foot. The wood is hard, with a specific
gravity of 0.46, moderately strong when used as
a beam or post, moderately stiff, and has moder-
ately high shock resistance.
Sweetgum has very large shrinkage in drying,
and the sapwood and heartwood require different
drying processes. The heartwood has low to
moderate decay resistance. In nail-holding ability
and in ability to resist splitting by nails and screws,
sweetgum is rated intermediate. The heartwood
requires special treatment before gluing can be
done with best results.
Black tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica)
Range.-Black tupelo grows in all States east
of the Mississippi River and as far west as central
Texas in the southern part of its range. In the
northern and eastern parts of its range, it grows
under a wide variety of conditions ranging from
swamps to dry mountainsides, but in the South
it is largely confined to well-drained locations.
The largest commercial cuts of black tupelo
lumber are made in the Southeastern States.
Properties.— A moderately heavy wood, black
tupelo has an average weight of 35 pounds a cubic
foot. It is rated as hard, with a specific gravity
of 0.46, and the heartwood is low to moderate in
resistance to decay. The wood is moderately weak
when used as a beam or post, moderately limber,
and moderately high in ability to resist shock.
Black tupelo has large shrinkage and a tendency
to warp while seasoning because of its interlocking
grain. Considerable care is required in the drying
process to produce straight, flat lumber. The
Sweetgum ranks above average in turning,
boring, and steam-bending properties but some-
what below average in the other machining prop-
erties. Its heartwood can be finished in a wide
variety of color effects and the sapwood can be
readily stained if a darker color is desired.
Uses.-The principal uses of sweetgum are for
lumber, veneer, plywood, and slack cooperage.
The lumber goes principally into boxes and crates,
furniture, interior trim, and millwork. Veneer is
used mainly for boxes, crates, baskets, furniture,
and interior woodwork. Some sweetgum is used
for crossties and fuel, and comparatively small
amounts go into fencing, excelsior, and pulpwood.
Description.—Heartwood is reddish brown and
occasionally variegated with streaks of darker
color. Pores are so small that they are not
visible except upon magnification. Growth rings
are usually indistinct or inconspicuous. Rays
are visible on quartersawed faces. (Illustration,
p. 16.)
wood generally requires special treatment before
gluing to obtain the best results and it ranks below
the average of 25 southern hardwoods in machin-
ing properties. In nail-withdrawal resistance and
resistance to splitting under the action of nails,
black tupelo has an intermediate rank. It can be
readily pulped by the chemical and semichemical
processes.
Uses.—Black tupelo is used mainly for lumber,
veneer, and paper pulp, and to some extent for
railway ties and cooperage. The lumber goes
largely into shipping containers and furniture.
Black tupelo has been used for many years in the
manufacture of book and similar grades of paper.
Description.—Heartwood is pale to moderately
dark brownish gray or dirty gray. Pores are very
small, as in sweetgum. Growth rings are generally
inconspicuous to moderately distinct. Rays are
visible on quartersawed surfaces, but show up less
prominently against the background color of the
wood than the rays in sweetgum. (Illustration,
p. 16.)
7
 White oak (Quercus)
Species names.—The white oak group includes
white oak (Quercus alba), chestnut oak (Q. prinus),
post oak (Q. stellata), overcup oak (Q. lyrata),
swamp chestnut oak (Q. michauxii), bur oak
(Q. macrocarpa), chinkapin oak (Q. muehlenbergii),
swamp white oak (Q. bicolor), and live oak
(Q. virginiana).
Range.—White oaks grow mainly in the
eastern half of the United States, although some
species are found as far west as eastern Oregon,
Washington, and California. Commercial white
oaks grow east of a line from western Minnesota
to western Texas.
Properties.— The white oaks are heavy woods,
averaging 47 pounds a cubic foot, and are very
hard, with a specific gravity ranging from 0.57 in
chestnut oak to 0.81 in live oak. Led by live
oak, they rank high in strength properties.
The wood of the white oaks is subject to large
shrinkage and seasoning must be done carefully
to avoid checking and warping. Pores of the
heartwood, with the exception of chestnut oak,
are usually plugged with tyloses, a frothlike
growth that makes the wood impervious to
Red oak (Quercus)
Species names.—The red oak group includes
northern red oak (Quercus rubra), black oak (Q.
velutina ), scarlet oak (Q. coccinea), shumard oak
(Q. shumardii), pin oak (Q. palustris), Nuttall oak
(Q. nuttallii), southern red oak (Q. falcata), water
oak (Q. nigra), laurel oak (Q. laurifolia), and
willow oak (Q. phellos) .
Range.—Red oaks grow quite generally east of
the Great Plains except for a narrow coastal strip
along the Gulf of Mexico and in Florida. The
largest amounts of commercial timber are cut in
Tennessee, Arkansas, Kentucky, and Missouri.
Properties.—The red oaks are similar in many
properties to the white oaks. A major difference
is that red oak, because it lacks tyloses in its
pores, is extremely porous. A heavy wood, it
averages 44 pounds a cubic foot and the average
specific gravity of the more important species
ranges from 0.52 to 0.60. The wood is hard, stiff,
and has high shock resistance.
Red oak undergoes large shrinkage while drying,
and seasoning must be done carefully to avoid
checking and warping. It is considerably above
8
liquids. The heartwood itself is comparatively
decay resistant, generally more so than that of
the red oaks. White oaks are above average in
all machining operations except shaping.
Uses.—Most white oak is made into lumber
for flooring, furniture, general millwork, and boxes
and crates. Large amounts are used for flooring
and furniture and it is the outstanding wood for
tight barrels, kegs, and casks because of the
nonporous heartwood. It has long been the
leading wood for the construction of ships and
boats.
Description.— Heartwood is grayish brown.
The outlines of the larger pores are indistinct
except in chestnut oak, which has open pores
with distinct outlines. On smooth-cut, end-grain
surfaces, the summerwood pores are not distinct
as individuals. Wood rays are generally higher
than in red oak, the larger ones ranging from ½ to
5 inches in height along the grain. As in red
oak, rays appear lighter in color than the back-
ground wood on end-grain surfaces and darker
than the background wood on side-grain surfaces.
(Illustration, p. 17.)
average in all machining operations except shap-
ing, and the heartwood ranks low to moderate in
decay resistance.
Uses.—Most of the red oak cut in this country
is converted into flooring, furniture, millwork,
boxes and crates, caskets and coffins, agricultural
implements, boats, and woodenware. Consider-
able lumber is also used in building construction,
and some is exported. The hardness and wearing
qualities of red oak have made it an important
flooring wood for residences. Preservative-treated
red oak is used extensively for crossties, mine
timbers, and fence posts.
Description.—Heartwood is grayish brown with
a more or less distinctive reddish tint. Pores are
commonly open, and the outlines of the larger
pores are distinct. On smoothly cut end-grain
surfaces, the summerwood pores can be seen as
individuals and readily counted when examined
with a hand lens. Wood rays are commonly
¼ to 1 inch high along the gram. On end-grain
surfaces, rays appear as lines crossing the growth
rings. (Illustration, p. 17.)
 Yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis)
Range.— Yellow birch grows in the Lake States,
New England, New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl-
vania, and along, the Appalachian Mountains into
southern Georgia. It reaches its best development
near the Canadian border, and more than half of
the stand is located in Michigan. The largest
amounts of lumber are produced in Michigan and
Wisconsin.
Properties.— Yellow birch is heavy, averaging
43 pounds a cubic foot, and hard, with specific
gravity averaging 0.55. The wood is strong, stiff,
and has very high shock resistance.
Yellow birch has very large shrinkage and must
be seasoned carefully to prevent checking and
warping. Like all commercial birches, it is low in
decay resistance. Although the wood is difficult
to work with handtools, it can be readily shaped by
machine and ranks high in nail-withdrawal re-
sistance.
Uses.—Yellow birch is used principally for
lumber, veneer, distilled products, and crossties.
Sugar maple (Acer saccharum)
Range.-Sugar maple grows from Maine to
Minnesota and southward to eastern Texas and
northern Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia.
The largest stands are in the Lake States and the
Northeast. The tree grows singly or in groups
in mixed stands of hardwoods.
Properties.— Sugar maple is heavy, averaging
44 pounds a cubic foot, and hard, with a specific
gravity of 0.56. Strong and stiff, it has high
resistance to shock. Although it has large shrink-
age and presents some difficulties in drying, the
wood can be satisfactorily seasoned. Its resist-
ance to decay is low to moderate.
Sugar maple ranks high in nail-withdrawal
resistance and intermediate in ease of gluing.
The wood takes stain satisfactorily and is capable
of a high polish. Although generally straight-
grained, sugar maple occasionally occurs with
curly, wavy, or bird’s-eye grain. The wood turns
well on a lathe, is markedly resistant to abrasive
wear, and is without characteristic taste or odor.
The lumber and veneer go mostly into furniture,
boxes, baskets, crates, woodenware, interior finish,
and general millwork. It is because of its pleasing
grain pattern and ability to take a high polish, that
yellow birch is widely used in the furniture in-
dustry. Spools, bobbins, and other turned articles
are also important products.
Yellow birch is one of the principal woods used
for hardwood distillation to produce wood alcohol,
acetate of lime, charcoal, tar, and oils. It is used
in smaller quantities for pulpwood and cooperage.
Description.— Yellow birch heartwood is light
reddish brown. Pores are very small, sometimes
just barely visible on smoothly cut end-grain
surfaces, and are uniformly distributed through
the annual ring cross section. Pore lines are visible
on longitudinal surfaces as very fine grooves that
may even be seen through natural finishes. Wood
rays may be seen only on quartersawed surfaces,
where they appear to be of one size and of uniform
height along the grain. Growth rings are moder-
ately distinct on plainsawed surfaces. (Illustration,
p. 18.)
Uses.—Sugar maple is used principally for
lumber, distilled products, veneer, crossties, and
paper pulp. Probably 90 percent of the lumber
is manufactured into such products as flooring,
furniture, boxes and crates, handles, woodenware,
and novelties. It is especially suitable for bowling
alleys, dance floors, and other flooring that is
subjected to hard use. Sugar maple is one of the
principal woods used in the hardwood distillation
industry for the production of charcoal, acetic
acid, and wood alcohol.
Description.—Heartwood is light reddish brown
and sometimes shows greenish-black streaks near
injuries. Pores are extremely small and not visi-
ble on any surface. Wood rays may be seen on
the end grain and especially on quartersawed
faces, where the higher rays are distinctive
because of their color and size and smaller rays
appear as fine lines between them. The wood
rays may also be seen on plainsawed surfaces as
very small darker colored flecks that are parallel
to the grain of the wood. (Illustration, p. 18.)
9
 Yellow-poplar (Liriodendron
Range.-Yellow-poplar grows in all the States
east of the Mississippi River except Maine, New
Hampshire, Vermont, and Wisconsin, and in parts
of Oklahoma and Missouri. Virginia, North
Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama
contain more than half of the yellow-poplar saw-
timber in the United States.
Properties.— Moderately light in weight, yel-
low-poplar averages 30 pounds a cubic foot. The
wood is classed as moderately soft, with a specific
gravity of 0.40, and is moderately low in bending
and compressive strength, moderately stiff, and
moderately low in shock resistance. Although it
undergoes moderately large shrinkage when dried
from a green condition, it is not difficult to season
and stays in place well when seasoned. The heart-
wood is low to moderate in resistance to decay.
Yellow-poplar ranks intermediate in machining
properties. Although low in nail-withdrawal
resistance, it has little tendency to split when
nailed. Also, the wood has an excellent reputation
Cottonwood (P o p u l u s)
Species names.—Eastern cottonwood (Populus
deltoides ), swamp cottonwood (P. heterophylla),
and black cottonwood (P. trichocarpa).
Range.—Eastern and swamp cottonwood grow
in small scattered stands or in mixture with other
species. They range from southern New England
westward to the southern part of the Lake States
and southward to northern Florida and eastern
Texas, except in the Appalachian highlands from
New York to Georgia and in the Ozark Mountains
of Arkansas and Missouri. Black cottonwood
grows in the Pacific Coast States and in western
Montana, northern Idaho, and western Nevada.
Properties.— The cottonwoods are moderately
light in weight, ranging from 24 to 28 pounds a
cubic foot. With a specific gravity of 0.37,
eastern cottonwood is classified as moderately
soft, while black cottonwood’s specific gravity of
0.32 classifies it as soft. The cottonwoods are
moderately weak in bending and compression,
moderately limber, and moderately low in shock
resistance.
Moderately large shrinkage is a characteristic
of cottonwood and it requires careful seasoning if
10
tulipifera)
for taking and holding paint, enamel, and stain
and can be glued satisfactorily. Yellow-poplar
containers do not impart taste or odor to food-
stuffs, and the wood can be easily pulped by the
chemical and semichemical processes.
Uses.—The principal uses of yellow-poplar are
for lumber, veneer, and pulpwood. The lumber
goes mostly into furniture, boxes and crates,
interior finish, siding, fixtures, and musical instru-
ments. The veneer is used extensively for finish,
furniture, and various forms of cabinetwork.
Description.—Heartwood is brownish yellow,
usually with a definite greenish tinge. The wood
rays, as seen on a smoothly cut end-grain surface,
are somewhat more prominent than in cucumber-
tree. Positive identification of yellow-poplar and
cucumbertree is best accomplished microscopically,
but it is possible to separate them on the basis of
gross features when both woods are at hand.
(Illustration, p. 19.)
warp is to be avoided. The heartwood has low
decay resistance and the wood is rather difficult
to work with tools without producing chipped or
fuzzy grain. Cottonwood is low in nail-with-
drawal resistance but does not, split easily when
nailed. The wood is classed among those that
glue satisfactorily with moderate care. It has a
good reputation for holding paint.
Uses.—A large proportion of the annual output
of cottonwood is cut into lumber and veneer and
then remanufactured into containers and furniture.
Both lumber and veneer are used in the furniture
industry for core material, which is overlaid with
high-grade furniture veneers.
Description.— Heartwood of all three cotton-
wood species is grayish white to light grayish
brown with occasional streaks of light brown.
The annual rings are rather wide. Pores are
barely visible on smooth cut, end-grain surfaces.
Aside from the color of the heartwood, cottonwood
is extremely similar to black willow. Separation
of the two species is based mainly on heartwood
color, which is light brown or reddish brown in
willow, or on microscopic examination if only
sapwood material is available. (Illustration, p. 19.)
American beech American sycamore

11
 Rock elm American elm

12
Black walnut Black cherry

13
 True hickory White ash

14
Quaking aspen Basswood

15
 Sweetgum Black tupelo

16
White oak Red oak

17
 Yellow birch Sugar maple

18
Yellow-poplar Eastern cottonwood

19
 Baldcypress Redwood

20
Incense-cedar Western redcedar

21
Sitka spruce Engelmann spruce

23
 Sugar pine Western white pine

24
Western larch Douglas-fir

25
 Western hemlock White fir

26
 SOFTWOODS (Cone-Bearing Species)
Baldcypress (Taxodium
Range.—Baldcypress grows along the Atlantic
Coastal Plain from Delaware to Florida and west-
ward along the gulf coast nearly to the Mexican
border in Texas and up the Mississippi Valley to
southern Indiana. The heaviest stands occur in
the swamps of the lower Mississippi Valley and
Florida.
Properties.— Baldcypress is moderately heavy,
with an average weight of 32 pounds a cubic foot,
and moderately hard, with a specific gravity of
0.42. The wood is also moderately strong and
moderately stiff. Its durability under conditions
favorable to decay is outstanding.
Since green baldcypress lumber contains con-
siderable moisture, it requires more care and time
to kiln-dry than many other softwoods. However,
the wood has moderately small shrinkage and
slow air-drying is successfully practiced. It does
not impart taste, odor, or color to food products.
Uses.—The principal use of baldcypress is in
Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens)
Range.— Redwood grows along or near the coast
of California in a narrow, irregular strip not more
than 35 miles wide and about 500 miles long, ex-
tending from 100 miles south of San Francisco to a
little above the Oregon border. This massive tree
does not grow naturally outside this area, which is
characterized by frequent fogs and considerable
soil moisture. Single acres of redwood have been
found that contained over 1 million board-feet of
lumber.
Properties.— Typical virgin-growth redwood is
moderately light in weight, averaging 28 pounds a
cubic foot: The wood is moderately hard, with a
specific gravity of 0.38, moderately strong, and
moderately stiff. Except for shock resistance, it
has somewhat higher strength properties for its
weight than would be expected.
Redwood is thought to owe its outstanding decay
resistance to the reddish extractive in the tree,
which colors the wood and accounts for its name.
The wood has very small shrinkage, is compara-
tively easy to season, and holds its shape well after
distichum)
building construction, especially where decay
resistance is required. It is frequently used for
posts, beams, and other members in warehouses,
docks, factories, and bridges. Because of its high
degree of resistance to decay, it is particularly
valuable for greenhouses, stadium seats, cooling
towers, and roof planks of dye houses.
Cypress is also used extensively for caskets and
burial boxes and for sash, doors, blinds, interior
trim and paneling, and general millwork. Con-
tainers, such as boxes, crates, vats, tanks, and
tubs, require considerable quantities.
Description.—Heartwood varies in color from
pale brown to blackish brown and sometimes has
a reddish tinge. The wood is without resin canals,
and transition from springwood to summerwood
is abrupt, as in redwood. Heartwood of darker
specimens generally has a more or less rancid odor
and longitudinal surfaces feel distinctly greasy
or waxy. (Illustration, p. 20.)
seasoning. Redwood has only intermediate nail-
withdrawal resistance but takes and holds paint
exceptionally well. Redwood, the cedars, and
baldcypress make up the group of woods with the
highest resistance to termites.
Uses.—Probably from one-half to two-thirds of
the redwood lumber produced is used in the form
of planks, dimension, boards, joists, and posts. A
large part of this material goes into framing for
houses and industrial buildings, and into bridges,
trestles, and other heavy construction. Much of
the remaining lumber is remanufactured into house
siding, sash, blinds, doors, general millwork, out-
door furniture, and tanks. Richly colored red-
wood paneling provides pleasing interior effects.
Description.— Heartwood is usually a uniform
deep reddish brown. The wood is without resin
canals and has no distinctive odor, taste, or feel.
Western redcedar may approach redwood in color,
but the distinctive odor of western redcedar sepa-
rates the two woods immediately. (Illustration,
p. 20.)
27
 Incense-cedar (Libocedrus decurrens)
Range.—Incense-cedar grows from southwest-
ern Oregon southward through California in to
Mexico and Lower California, with some small
stands in western Nevada. Most of the com-
mercial cut is confined to the Sierra Nevada
Mountains in California and the mountain regions
of northern California and southern Oregon.
Properties.— A lightweight wood, incense-cedar
averages 26 pounds per cubic foot. The wood is
moderately soft, with a specific gravity of 0.35,
moderately weak, limber, and low in shock
resistance.
Incense-cedar has small shrinkage and is com-
paratively easy to season with little checking
or warping. It ranks among the most decay-
resistant woods, along with cypress, redwood, and
black locust. Also, the wood splits readily and
evenly. and is easy to work with tools. Incense-
cedar is one of the woods that holds paint longest
and suffers least when protection against weather-
ing becomes inadequate.
Uses.—The principal uses of incense-cedar
are for lumber, fence posts, and crossties. Nearly
Western redcedar (Thuja
Range.—Western redcedar grows in a belt along
the western coast of North America from southern
Alaska to northern California. From northern
Washington the range extends as far inland as
Montana and then spreads a limited distance
north and south on the western slopes of the
Rocky Mountains. More than two-thirds of
the stand of sawtimber is located in the coast
lowlands of Washington.
Properties.— Western redcedar is light in weight,
averaging 23 pounds a cubic foot. The wood is
moderately soft, with a specific gravity of 0.31,
weak as a beam or post, moderately limber, and
low in ability to resist shock. In decay resistance,
the heartwood ranks with the more durable woods.
The wood of western redcedar is not difficult
to kiIn-dry when proper methods are used, but
requires more care in seasoning than other western
cedars. After it, has been properly dried, it stays
in place well and has little tendency to warp.
It is comparatively low in nail-withdrawal resist-
ance but can be easily glued. Western redcedar
28
all the high-grade lumber is used in the manu-
facture of pencils and venetian blinds. Since
most incense-cedar lumber is more or less pecky,
it is used locally for rough construction. The
qualities of incense-cedar that adapt it particularly
to pencil manufacture are straightness of grain,
softness, and ease of whittling. Its decay re-
sistance makes it well suited for fence posts and
crossties.
Description.—Heartwood is reddish brown to
dull brown, with an occasional tinge of lavender.
Heartwood has a characteristic cedarlike odor
and acrid taste. Shavings placed on the tongue
for a few seconds give a slight burning sensation.
Transition from springwood to summerwood is
more or less abrupt and makes the growth rings
prominent on flat-grained surfaces. It is easier
to produce a smooth cut on the end grain of
incense-cedar than on western redcedar. Al-
though incense-cedar and western redcednr cannot
always be separated with certainty on the basis
of gross features, they can be readily distinguished
under the microscope. (Illustration, p. 21.)
plicata)
takes and holds paint very well and is exceptionally
weather resistant.
Uses.—The principal uses of western redcedar
are for shingles, lumber, poles, posts, and piling.
The lumber goes largely into exterior siding for
houses, interior finish, greenhouse construction,
flumes, and structural timbers, with smaller
amounts being used in the manufacture of ships
and boats, caskets, boxes and crating, sash, doors,
and general millwork. Round western redcedar
poles, most of which are treated with a preserva-
tive, are shipped to all parts of the United States
for use as utility poles.
Description.—Heartwood is reddish or pinkish
brown to dull brown. It has a characteristic
cedarlike odor, but shavings placed on the tongue
do not give quite the sensation that incense-cedar
shavings do. Transition from springwood to
summerwood is the same as in incense-cedar.
The wood is sometimes confused with redwood, but
the cedarlike odor of western redcedar separates
the two species immediately. (Illustration, p. 21.)
 Shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata)
Range.—Shortleaf pine, which has the widest
distribution of the southern pines, grows through-
out most of the southeastern United States. It is
generally a tree of the uplands and foothills, but
its range extends into the lower levels. Stands of
shortleaf pine are concentrated in Arkansas, but
Texas, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi also
contain large stands.
Properties.— Shortleaf pine, a moderately heavy
wood but, ranking with the lightest of the im-
portant southern pines, has an average weight of
36 pounds a cubic foot. Typically, the wood is
moderately hard, with a specific gravity of 0.46,
moderately strong, stiff, and moderately shock
resistant. The heartwood is moderately decay
resistant.
Like all southern pines, shortleaf has moderately
large shrinkage but tends to stay in place well
after seasoning. In nail-withdrawal resistance, it
ranks above hemlock, spruce, and Douglas-fir.
And, like other southern pines, it produces a
resinous substance from which turpentine and
rosin can be made.
Ponderosa pine (Pinus
Range.-Ponderosa pine grows in every State
west, of the Great Plains, with the largest stands
and greatest commercial production in California,
Oregon, and Washington. The tree is found on a
wide variety of soils, sites, and elevations and
occurs both in pure stands and in mixture with
other species. Because it can maintain itself on
dry sites, this tree is the principal species on areas
of low rainfall.
Properties.— The wood of Ponderosa pine varies
considerably in its properties. However, in the
outer portions of trees of sawtimber size, it gen-
erally is moderately light in weight, averaging 28
pounds per cubic foot, and moderately soft, with
a specific gravity of 0.38. This wood also ranks
as moderately weak, moderately limber, and mod-
erately low in shock resistance. It has moderately
small shrinkage and little tendency to warp.
Ponderosa pine compares favorably with woods
of similar density in nail-withdrawal resistance, is
not easily split by nails, and glues easily. The
heartwood has low to moderate decay resistance.
Uses.—Shortleaf pine lumber is used prin-
cipally for building material such as interior finish,
ceiling, frames, sash, sheathing, subflooring, and
joists, and for boxes and crates, caskets, furniture,
woodenware, and novelties. Considerable use is
also made of shortleaf pine for crossties, telephone
and telegraph poles, and mine timbers. In addi-
tion, the resin-rich heartwood is distilled to make
wood turpentine, tar, and tar oils. Large amounts
of this southern pine are used for paper pulp.
Description.— Heartwood ranges from shades
of yellow and orange to reddish brown or light
brown. Transition from springwood to summer-
wood is abrupt, with the annual rings prominent
on all surfaces. Resin canals are large and abund-
ant and are easily found in all annual rings.
Summerwood bands are generally wider than
those of ponderosa pine. In appearance, the wood
of shortleaf pine closely resembles that of long-
leaf, loblolly, and slash, the other principal
southern pines. (Illustration, p. 22.)
Ponderosa)
Uses.—Ponderosa pine is used principally for
lumber and, to a lesser extent, for piling, poles,
posts, mine timbers, veneer, and hewn ties. The
lumber has a variety of uses ranging from high-
grade millwork to boxes and crates. For cabinets
and millwork, the clearer, softer material is used,
while the manufacture of boxes and crates con-
sumes the lower grade lumber. Knotty ponderosa
pine has come into wide use as paneling for interior
finish.
Description.—Heartwood is yellowish to light red-
dish or orange brown. Transition from springwood
to summerwood is abrupt as in the southern pines,
but the summerwood bands are narrow. Growth
rings are generally most prominent on the flat-
grained surfaces, which also frequently exhibit a
dimpled appearance. This appearance is common in
lodgepole pine too, but in lodgepole the dimples are
smaller and more abundant. The resin canals of
ponderosa pine are abundant and easily found in
all annual rings. They are larger than those in
lodgepole pine, and the heartwood of lodgepole
pine is lighter colored than that of ponderosa.
(Illustration, p. 22.)
29
 Sitka spruce (Picea
Range.— Sitka spruce grows along the Pacific
coast from Alaska to northern California. It
is rarely found over 40 miles from the coast and
generally grows in mixture with Douglas-fir,
grand fir, western hemlock, and western redcedar.
It occasionally forms pure stands.
Properties.— Sitka spruce is a moderately light-
weight wood, averaging 28 pounds a cubic foot.
The wood also is moderately soft, with a specific
gravity of 0.37, moderately weak in bending and
compressive strength, moderately stiff, and moder-
ately low in resistance to shock. On the basis
of weight, however, it ranks high in strength
properties.
Although the wood has moderately large
shrinkage, it is not difficult to kiln-dry. It works
easily, holds fastenings well, and can be obtained
in clear, straight-grained pieces of large size and
uniform texture with hardly any hidden defects.
Its decay resistance is low. Although planed
surfaces of Sitka spruce lumber may show a silky
sheen, the wood has a tendency to produce wooly
or fuzzy grain under the action of planer knives.
As a pulpwood, Sitka spruce ranks high because of
Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii)
Range.—In the United States, Engelmann
spruce grows along the upper slopes of the Cascade
Mountains in Washington, Oregon, and the ex-
treme northern part of California, and in the Rocky
Mountains in northeastern Washington, north-
eastern Oregon, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, Colo-
rado, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico. The
largest producers of Engelmann spruce are Colo-
rado, Montana, and Idaho.
Properties.— Engelmann spruce is rated as light
in weight, averaging 24 pounds a cubic foot. The
wood is soft, with a specific gravity of 0.32, and is
weak as a beam or post, moderately limber, and
low in ability to resist shock.
Engelmann spruce can be readily air-dried with
little tendency to warp. It has moderately small
shrinkage and stays in place well when properly
dried. The wood is low in decay resistance but
glues easily under a wide range of gluing condi-
tions. Engelmann space has excellent pulping
and papermaking properties.
30
sitchensis)
its long, strong fibers and the ease with which it
can be pulped by any of the pulping processes.
Uses.—Sitka spruce is used principally for
lumber, cooperage, and paper pulp. Some of the
lumber is used for construction just as it comes
from the sawmill, but the greater part is remanu-
factured into various products. At least half of
the remanufactured lumber goes into boxes and
crates. The other major uses of the lumber are
for furniture, planing-mill products, sash, doors,
blinds, and general millwork. Specialty uses in-
clude aircraft, ladder rails, and piano sounding
boards.
Description.— Heartwood is light pinkish yellow
to pale brown. Transition from springwood to
summerwood is gradual, making the annual rings
appear rather inconspicuous on flat-grained sur-
faces. Resin canals are usually more prominent
than in the other spruces. On end-grain sur-
faces, the canals appear as small dots or very
short lines that run parallel to the growth ring.
Flat-grained surfaces are lustrous and frequently
exhibit dimpling. The pinkish color of the heart-
wood distinguishes this species from all other
spruces. (Illustration, p. 23.)
Uses.—Engelmann spruce is used principally
for lumber and to a lesser extent for mine timbers,
crossties, and poles. A large proportion of the
lumber goes into building construction and boxes.
Much of it is used for subflooring, sheathing, and
studding. Some Engelmann spruce is pulped for
paper.
Description.— Heartwood is not distinct from
sapwood and ranges from nearly white to pale
yellowish brown. Transition from springwood to
summerwood is somewhat more abrupt than in the
other spruces. Resin canals are present, but are
frequently difficult to find. They appear on very
smoothly cut, end-grain sections as small white
dots and on longitudinal surfaces as short, light-
brown streaks or very fine grooves. The wood of
all the spruces, with the exception of Sitka, is very
similar in its gross and microscopic features and
therefore almost impossible to tell apart. (Illus-
tration, p. 23.)
 Sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana)
Range.—Sugar pine grows from the Coast and
Cascade Mountain Ranges of southern Oregon,
along the Coast Range and the Sierra Nevada
of California, through southern California in
scattered stands, and into Mexico. The heaviest
stands and largest trees are found in California
from Tulare to Eldorado Counties, in cool, moist
sites on the west slope of the Sierra Nevada at
elevations of 4,000 to 7,000 feet.
Properties.— Sugar pine is lightweight, averag-
ing 25 pounds a cubic foot. The wood is moder-
ately soft, with a specific gravity of 0.35, moder-
ately limber, moderately weak, and low in shock
resistance.
In decay resistance, sugar pine heartwood is
rated low to moderate. The wood has very small
shrinkage, seasons readily without checking or
warping, and stays in place well. It is easy to
work with tools, does not split easily in nailing,
and has moderate nail-withdrawal resistance.
Western white pine (Pinus monticola)
Range.—Western white pine grows from the
Canadian border southward into western Montana
and northern Idaho, and along the Cascade and
Sierra Nevada Mountains through Washington
and Oregon to central California. The heaviest
stands occur in northern Idaho and in adjacent
parts of Montana and Washington. The trees
usually grow in mixture with western hemlock,
western redcedar, western larch, grand fir, and
Douglas-fir, but occasionally occur in pure stands
on limited areas.
Properties.-Moderately light in weight, west-
ern white pine averages 27 pounds a cubic foot.
The wood is moderately soft, with a specific
gravity of 0.36, weak, moderately stiff, and mod-
erately low in ability to resist shock.
Although the wood has moderately large shrink-
age, it is easy to kiln-dry and stays in place well
after seasoning. In decay resistance, it is ranked
as low to moderate. Western white pine works
easily with tools and glues readily. It does not
Uses.—Sugar pine is used almost entirely for
lumber in buildings, boxes and crates, sash, doors,
frames, general millwork, and foundry patterns.
It is suitable for all phases of house construction,
with the high-grade material going into interior
and exterior trim, siding, and paneling, while the
lower grade material is used for sheathing, sub-
flooring, and roof boards.
The wood also has proved very satisfactory for
containers because of its light weight and color,
nailing properties, and freedom from taste and
odor. Sugar pine is widely used for foundry
patterns because it meets the exacting require-
ments and is readily available in wide, thick
pieces practically free from defects.
Description.— Heartwood is light brown to pale
reddish brown. Resin canals are abundant and
commonly stain the surface of the wood with
resin. Transition from springwood to summer-
wood is gradual; making the growth rings appear
less prominent on flat-grained surfaces. (Illustra-
tion, p. 24.)
split easily in nailing and occupies an intermediate
position in nail-withdrawal resistance.
Uses.-Practically all of the western white pine
cut is sawed into lumber. About three-fourths of
this lumber is used in building construction. The
lower grades are used for subflooring and wall and
roof sheathing, while the high-grade material is
made into siding of various kinds, exterior and
interior trim, partition, casing, base, and paneling.
Other uses of western white pine include match
planks, boxes, and millwork products.
Description.— Heartwood is cream colored to
light brown or reddish brown. Resin canals are
abundant and transition from springwood to
summerwood is like that in sugar pine. Separation
of western white pine and sugar pine is generally
accomplished on the basis of the resin canals.
which are larger in sugar pine than in the other
white pines. Microscopic characteristics, however,
offer a more reliable means of differentiation than
gross features. (Illustration, p. 24.)
31
 Western larch (Larix occidentalis)
Range.—Western larch grows in mountain
valleys and on slopes at elevations of 2,000 to
7,000 feet in Washington, Oregon, western Mon-
tana, and northern Idaho. It reaches its best
development and greatest commercial importance
in northern Idaho and western Montana, where it
is generally associated with other species, although
sometimes forming pure forests of limited extent.
Properties.— A heavy wood, western larch has
an average weight of 38 pounds per cubic foot.
Also, it is moderately hard, with a specific gravity
of 0.51, stiff, strong, and moderately high in
shock resistance.
Western larch and Douglas-fir are frequently
logged together and sold in mixture under the
commercial name of “larch-fir.” Heartwood of
both species is moderately decay resistant. West-
ern larch has large shrinkage in drying and presents
seasoning problems because of the slowness with
which it gives up its moisture. Although it ranks
Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)
Range.-In the United States, Douglas-fir
grows in most forests from the Rocky Mountains
to the Pacific coast and from the Mexican to
Canadian borders. Botanically it is not a true
fir. It reaches its largest size and fastest rate of
growth in Washington and Oregon, where large
trees form very dense forests that sometimes
yield as much as 100,000 board-feet of lumber
per acre.
Properties.— Most old-growth Douglas-fir from
the Pacific coast and northern Rocky Mountain
States is moderately heavy, very stiff, moderately
strong, and moderately shock resistant. It aver-
ages about 33 pounds a cubic foot. The wood is
also moderately hard, with an average specific
gravity ranging from 0.40 to 0.48. Wide-ringed
second-growth Douglas-fir from the coastal States
and material grown in the southern Rocky Moun-
tain States tends to be lighter in weight and to
have lower strength properties.
The wood of Douglas-fir can be readily kiln-
dried if proper methods are used. Although it is
more difficult to work with handtools than the
32
high in nail-withdrawal resistance, small or blunt-
pointed nails are preferred to reduce splitting.
Uses.—Western larch is used principally in
building construction as rough dimension, small
timbers, planks, and boards. Considerable
amounts also are made into crossties and mine
timbers. Probably three-fourths of the lumber
produced is used for structural purposes as it
comes from the sawmill. Some of the high-grade
lumber is remanufactured into interior finish,
flooring, sash, doors, blinds, and other products.
Description.—Heartwood is russet brown and
the color is best seen in summerwood bands on
flat-grained surfaces. Resin canals are present,
but are very small and difficult to find unless the
resin has stained the wood surfaces or the exuda-
tion actually appears as very small droplets.
Transition from springwood to summerwood is
abrupt and there is little difference in color be-
tween the two zones. The heartwood lacks a
distinctive odor. (Illustration, p. 25.)
soft pines, it holds fastenings well and can be glued
satisfactorily. Dense heartwood has moderate
decay resistance.
Uses.—The principal uses of Douglas-fir are
for lumber, timbers, piling, and plywood. Re-
manufactured lumber. goes mostly into sash, doors,
general millwork, railroad car construction and
repair, and boxes and crates. Plywood is now in
wide use for sheathing, concrete forms, prefabrica-
ted house panels, millwork, ships and boats, and
other structural forms. Chipped Douglas-fir saw-
mill residue has a considerable market at pulp mills.
Description.—Heartwood is orange red to red
or sometimes yellowish. Resin canals, which are
seen as brownish streaks in the summerwood,
appear to be more abundant and more readily
detectable than in western larch. Transition from
springwood to summerwood is similar to that in
western larch. The heartwood of Douglas-fir may
be confused with that of the southern yellow pines,
but resin canals are larger and much more abun-
dant in southern pines. Most Douglas-fir has a
distinctive odor. (Illustration, p. 25.)
 Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla)
Range.—Western hemlock grows along the Pa-
cific coast from Alaska to San Francisco Bay, and
as far inland as northern Idaho and northwestern
Montana. The best stands are found in the humid
coastal regions of Oregon, Washington, and Alaska
and on the lower slopes of the Cascade Mountains
in Washington and Oregon.
Properties.— Western hemlock is moderately
light in weight, averaging 29 pounds a cubic foot,
and moderately hard, with a specific gravity of
0.38. It is also moderately weak and its shock re-
sistance is fairly low. Although western hemlock
has moderately large shrinkage, it is comparatively
easy to season. Heartwood is low in decay resist-
ance but the wood is easy to work with tools and
has satisfactory gluing properties. Excellent for
papermaking, it yields a tough, strong, and easily
bleached pulp.
Uses.—Western hemlock is used primarily for
pulpwood and construction lumber and, to a
limited extent, for containers, plywood core stock,
crossties, and mine timbers. The pulp is used for
newsprint and other printing paper, tissues, wrap-
White Fir (Abies)
Species names.—White fir (Abies concolor),
grand fir (A. grandis), Pacific silver fir (A. ama-
bilis), California red fir (A. magnifica), and noble
fir (A. procera).
Range.-Commercial white fir, which includes
all the above species, grows throughout the
Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain States. The
largest, stands of white fir (A. concolor) probably
occur in California, but other States contain
larger stands of the other species.
Properties.— Commercial white fir is light in
weight, the various species ranging from 26 to 28
pounds a cubic foot. It is moderately soft, with
an average specific gravity of 0.35, moderately
weak, moderately low in shock resistance, mod-
erately stiff, and low in nail-withdrawal resistance.
It is difficult to season, a fact that retarded its use
until satisfactory seasoning methods were devel-
oped. Also, its decay resistance is low, but gluing
properties are satisfactory. White fir produces
strong, high-quality paper pulp.
ping papers, and viscose and other cellulose deriva-
tives. Although little western hemlock goes into
heavy structural material, large quantities are
used for sheathing, siding, subflooring, joists, stud-
ding, planking, and rafters in light frame con-
struction.
Description.—Heartwood of western hemlock is
light reddish brown and frequently has a purplish
cast, especially in the summerwood bands. Tran-
sition from springwood to summerwood is gradual
and on end-grain surfaces there is little color con-
trast between the two zones. The wood lacks
normal resin canals.
Eastern hemlock heartwood is more roseate in
color than western hemlock and the transition from
springwood to summerwood is so abrupt that the
two zones stand out distinctly. The coarser tex-
ture of eastern hemlock springwood tends to tear
out in crosscut sawing and to produce a ribbed ap-
pearance on the end grain. A smooth cut is diffi-
cult to make on the end grain of eastern hemlock,
even with a very sharp knife, while western hem-
lock cuts very easily and produces smooth surfaces.
(Illustration, p. 26.)
Uses.-White fir is used principally for lumber
and pulpwood. The lumber goes largely into
building construction, planing-mill products, boxes
and crates, sash, doors, frames, and general mill-
work. Probably 75 percent or more of all white
fir lumber is used for framing, subflooring, and
sheathing of houses. Pulpwood is used chiefly
in the manufacture of various grades of printing
paper and high-grade wrapping paper.
Description.— Heartwood is nearly white to
pale reddish brown and the wood lacks normal
resin canals. Transition from springwood, like
that in eastern hemlock, is more abrupt than
in western hemlock. Also, color of springwood
and summerwood on end-grain surfaces is more
contrasting than in western hemlock. The bal-
sam fir of the east is more uniformly white in
color, with less contrasting rings than the western
firs. Wood rays of the western firs frequently
contain colored material that makes them stand
out more on edge-grained surfaces than rays of
the eastern firs, which are generally colorless.
(Illustration, p. 26.)
33
 GLOSSARY
Annual growth ring.—The growth layer put on in a single
growth year, including springwood and summerwood.
Bark.— Outer layer of a tree, comprising the inner bark,
or thin, inner living part (phloem) and the outer
bark, or corky layer, composed of dry, dead tissue.
Beam.—A structural member supporting a load applied
transversely to it.
Bending, steam.—The process of forming curved wood
members by steaming or boiling the wood and bending
it to a form.
Bird’s-eye.— Small localized areas in wood with the fibers
indented and otherwise contorted to form few to
many small circular or elliptical figures remotely
resembling birds’ eyes on the tangential surface.
Common in sugar maple and used for decorative
purposes: rare in other hardwood species.
Bow.-The distortion in a board that deviates from flat-
ness lengthwise but not across its faces.
Broad-leaved trees.—(See Hardwoods.)
Cambium.—The one-cell-thick layer of tissue between the
bark and wood that repeatedly subdivides to form
new wood and bark cells.
Cell.—A general term for the minute units of wood
structure, including wood fibers, vessels members,
and other elements of diverse structure and function.
Check.— A lengthwise separation of the wood, usually
extending across the rings of annual growth and
commonly resulting from stresses set up in the wood
during seasoning.
Collapse.—The flattening of groups of cells in heartwood
during the drying or pressure treatment of wood,
characterized by a caved-in or corrugated appearance.
Crook.—The distortion in a board that deviates edgewise
from a straight line from end to end of the board.
Cup.—The distortion in a board that deviates flatwise
from a straight line across the width of the board.
Decay.— The decomposition of wood substance by fungi.
Advanced (or typical) decay.-The older stage of decay
in which the destruction is readily recognized because
the wood has become punky, soft and spongy, stringy,
ringshaked, pitted, or crumbly. Decided discolora-
tion or bleaching of the rotted wood is often apparent.
Incipient decay.—The early stage of decay that has
not proceeded far enough to soften or otherwise
perceptibly impair the hardness of the wood. It is
usually accompanied by a slight discoloration or
bleaching of the wood.
Density.— The weight of a body per unit volume. When
expressed in the c. g. s. (centimeter-gram-second)
system, it is numerically equal to the specific gravity
of the same substance.
Diffuse-porous wood.—Certain hardwoods in which the
pores tend to be uniform in size and distribution
throughout each annual ring or to decrease in size
slightly and gradually toward the outer border of the
ring.
Dimension.— (See Lumber.)
Dimension stock.—A term largely superseded by the term
hardwood dimension lumber. It is hardwood stock
processed to a point where the maximum waste is
left at a dimension mill, and the maximum utility is
delivered to the user. It is stock of specified thickness,
width, and length, in multiples thereof. According to
specification, it may be solid or glued; rough or sur-
faced; semifabricated or completely fabricated.
Dimensional stabilization.—Reduction through special
treatment in swelling and shrinking of wood, caused
by changes in its moisture content with changes in
relative humidity.
34
Dry kiln.-(See Kiln.)
Dry rot.-A term loosely applied to any dry, crumbly rot
but especially to that which, when in an advanced
stage, permits the wood to be crushed easily to a dry
powder. The term is actually a misnomer, since all
wood-rotting fungi require considerable moisture
for growth.
Early wood.—(See Springwood.)
Edge-grained.—(See Grain.)
Extractives.— Substances in wood, not an integral part of
the cellular structure, that can be removed by solution
in hot or cold water, ether, benzene, or other solvents
that do not react chemically with wood components.
Fiber, wood.—A comparatively long (one twenty-fifth or
less to one-third inch), narrow, tapering wood cell
closed at both ends.
Figure.— The pattern produced in a wood surface by annual
growth rings, rays, knots, deviations from regular
grain such as interlocked and wavy grain, and irregular
coloration.
Finish.— Wood products to be used in the joiner work,
such as doors and stairs, and other fine work required
to complete a building, especially the interior.
Flakes.—(See Rays, wood.)
Flat-grained.—(See Grain.)
Framing.— Lumber used for the structural members of a
building, such as studs and joists.
Girder.— A large or principal beam used to support con-
centrated loads at points along its length.
Grade.-The designation of quality of a manufactured
piece of wood or of logs.
Grain.—The direction, size, arrangement, appearance, or
quality of the elements in wood or lumber. To have a
specific meaning the term must be qualified.
Close-grained wood.—Wood with narrow, inconspicuous
annual rings. The term is sometimes used to desig-
nate wood having small and closely spaced pores, but
in this sense the term “fine textured” is more often
used.
Coarse-grained wood.—Wood with wide conspicuous
annual rings in which there is considerable difference
between springwood and summerwood. The term is
sometimes used to designate wood with large pores,
such as oak, ash, chestnut, and walnut, but in this
sense the term “coarse textured” is more often used.
Cross-grained wood.—Wood in which the fibers deviate
from a line parallel to the sides of the piece. Cross
grain may be either diagonal or spiral grain, or a
combination of the two.
Curly-grained wood.—Wood in which the fibers are
distorted so that they have a curled appearance, as
in “bird’s-eye” wood. The areas showing curly grain
may vary up to several inches in diameter.
Diagonal-grained wood.—Wood in which the annual
rings are at an angle with the axis of a piece as a
result of sawing at an angle with the bark of the tree
or log. A form of cross grain.
Edge-grained lumber.—Lumber that has been sawed so
that the wide surfaces extend approximately at right
angles to the annual growth rings. Lumber is con-
sidered edge grained when the rings form an angle of
45° to 90° with the wide surface of the piece.
Fine-grained wood.—(See Grain, close-grained wood.)
Flat-grained lumber.—Lumber that has been sawed so
the wide surfaces extend approximately parallel to the
annual growth rings. Lumber is considered flat
grained when the annual growth rings make an angle
of less than 45° with the surface of the piece.
Grain—Continued
Interlocked-arained wood.—Wood in which the fibers are
inclined in one direction in a number of rings of annual
growth, then gradually reverse and are inclined in an
opposite direction in succeeding growth rings, then
reverse again.
Open-grained wood.—Common classification by painters
for woods with large pores, such as oak, ash, chestnut,
and walnut. Also known as “coarse textured.”
Plainsawed lumber.—Another term for flat-grained
lumber.
Quartersawed lumber.—Another term for edge-grained
lumber.
Spiral-grained wood.—Wood in which the fibers take a
spiral course about the trunk of a tree instead of the
normal vertical course. The spiral may extend in a
right-handed or left-handed direction around the tree
trunk. Spiral grain is a form of cross grain.
Straight-grained wood.—Wood in which the fibers run
parallel to the axis of a piece.
Vertical-grained lumber.—Another term for edge-grained
lumber.
Wavy-grained wood.—Wood in which the fibers collec-
tively take the form of waves or undulations.
Green.—Freshly sawed lumber, or lumber that has received
no intentional drying; unseasoned. The term does
not apply to lumber that may have become completely
wet through waterlogging.
Hardwoods.— Generally, the botanical group of trees that
have broad leaves, in contrast to the conifers or soft-
woods. The term has no reference to the actual
hardness of the wood.
Heartwood.— The wood extending from the pith to the
sapwood, the cells of which no longer participate in
the life processes of the tree. Heartwood may be
infiltrated with gums, resins, and other materials that
usually make it darker and more decay resistant than
sapwood.
Honeycombing.—Checks, often not visible at the surface,
that occur in the interior of a piece of wood, usually
along the wood rays.
Joint.—The junction of two pieces of wood or veneer.
Joist.—One of a series of parallel beams used to support
floor and ceiling loads and supported in turn by larger
beams, girders,-or bearing walls.
Kiln.— A heated chamber for drying lumber, veneer, and
other wood products.
Knot.—That portion of a branch or limb which has been
surrounded by subsequent growth of the wood of the
trunk or other portion of the tree. As a knot appears
on the sawed surface, it is merely a section of the
entire knot, its shape depending upon the direction
of the cut.
Longitudinal.— Generally, the direction along the length
of the grain of wood.
Lumber.— The product of the saw and planing mill, not
further manufactured than by sawing, resawing, pass-
ing lengthwise through a standard planing machine,
cross-cutting to length, and matching.
Boards.— Yard lumber less than 2 inches thick and 1
or more inches wide.
Dimension.—Lumber from 2 inches to, but not including
5 inches thick, and 2 or more inches wide.
Dressed size.—The dimensions of lumber after shrinking
from the green dimensions and being surfaced with
a planing machine to usually 3 /8 or ½ inch less than
the nominal or rough size. For example, a 2- by
4-inch stud actually measures 1 5 /8 by 3 5 /8 inches under
American lumber standards for softwood lumber.
Nominal size.—As applied to timber or lumber, the
rough-sawed commercial size by which it is known
and-sold in the market.
Structural lumber.—Lumber that is 2 or more inches
thick and 4 or more inches wide. intended for use
where working stresses are required. The grading of
structural lumber is based on the strength of the
piece and the use of the entire piece.
Timbers.—Lumber 5 or more inches in least dimension.
Timbers may be classified as beams, stringers, posts,
caps, sills, girders, purlins, etc.
Medullary rays.—(See Rays, wood.)
Millwork.— Generally, all building materials made of
finished wood and manufactured in millwork plants
and planing mills. Includes such items as inside
and outside doors, window and door frames, blinds,
porch work, mantels, panel work, stairways, moldings,
and interior trim. Does not include flooring, ceiling,
or siding.
Moisture content of wood.—The amount of water contained
in the wood. Usually expressed as a percentage of
the weight of the ovendry wood.
Naval stores.—A term applied to the oils, resins, tars, and
pitches derived from oleoresin contained in, exuded by,
or extracted from trees chiefly of the pine species
(genus Pinus) or from the wood of such trees.
Old growth.—Timber growing in or harvested from a
mature, naturally established forest. When the trees
have grown most or all of their individual lives in
active competition with their companions for sun-
light and moisture, this timber is usually straight
and relatively free of knots.
Ovendry wood. Wood dried to constant weight in an
oven at temperatures above that of boiling water
(usually 101° to 105° C. or 214° to 221° F.).
Peck.— Pockets or areas of disintegrated wood caused by
advanced stages of localized decay in the living tree.
It is usually associated with cypress and incense-
cedar. There is no further development of peck
once the lumber is seasoned.
Pitch pocket.—An opening that extends parallel to the
annual growth rings and that contains, or has con-
tained, either solid or liquid pitch.
Pitch streak.—A well-defined accumulation of pitch in a
more or less regular streak in the wood of certain
softwoods.
Pith.— The small, soft core occurring in the structural
center of a tree trunk, branch, twig, or log.
Plainsawed.— (See Grain.)
Planing-mill products.—Products worked to pattern, such
as flooring, ceiling, and siding.
Plywood.— An assembly made of layers (plies) of veneer, or
of veneer in combination with a lumber core, joined
with an adhesive. The grain of adjoining plies is
usually laid at right angles, and almost always an odd
number of plies are used to obtain balanced con-
struction.
Pore.—(See Vessels.)
Porous woods.—Another name for hardwoods, which fre-
quently have vessels or pores large enough to be seen
readily without magnification.
Preservative.— Any substance that is effective, for a reason-
able length of time, in preventing the development
and action of wood-rotting fungi, borers of various
kinds, and harmful insects that deteriorate wood.
Quartersawed.— (See Grain.)
Radial.— Coincident with a radius from the axis of the tree
or log to the circumference. A radial section is a
lengthwise section in a plane that extends from pith
to bark.
Rate of growth.—The rate at which a tree has laid on wood.
measured radially in the trunk or in lumber cut from
the trunk. The unit of measure in use is number of
annual growth rings per inch.
Rays, wood—Strips of cells extending radially within a tree
and varying in height from a few cells in some species
to 4 or more inches in oak. The rays serve primarily
to store food and transport it horizontally in the tree.
Resin passage (or duct) .—Intercellular passages that con-
tain and transmit resinous materials. On a cut sur-
face, they are usually inconspicuous. They may ex-
tend vertically parallel to the axis of the tree or at
right angles to the axis and parallel to the rays.
Ring-porous woods.—A group of hardwoods in which the
pores are comparatively large at the beginning of each
annual ring and decrease in size more or less abruptly
toward the outer portion of the ring, thus forming a
distinct inner zone of pores, known as the springwood,
and an outer zone with smaller pores, known as the
summerwood.
35
Sap.—All the fluids in a tree except special secretions and
excretions, such as oleoresin.
Sapwood.— The living wood of pale color near the outside
of the log. Under most conditions the sapwood is
more susceptible to decay than heartwood.
Seasoning.— Removing moisture from green wood in order
to improve its serviceability.
Air-dried.— Dried by exposure to air, usually in a yard,
without artificial heat.
Kiln-dried.— Dried in a kiln with the use of artificial heat.
Second growth.—Timber that has grown after removal by
cutting, fire, wind, or other agency, of all or a large
part of the previous stand.
Sheathing.— The structural covering, usually of boards or
fiberboards, placed over exterior studding or rafters of
a structure.
Softwoods.—Generally, the botanical group of trees that
bear cones and in most cases have needlelike or scale-
like leaves; also the wood produced by such trees. T h e
term has no reference to the actual hardness of the
wood.
Specific gravity.—The radio of the weight of a body to
the weight of an equal volume of water at 4° C. or
other specified temperature.
Springwood.— The portion of the annual growth ring that
is formed during the early part of the season’s growth.
In most softwoods and in ring-porous hardwoods, it
is less dense and weaker mechanically than
summerwood.
Stain.— A discoloration in wood that may be caused by
such diverse agencies as micro-organisms, metal, or
chemicals. The term also applies to materials used
to color wood.
Strength.— The term in its broader sense includes all the
properties of wood that enable it to resist different
forces or loads. In its more restricted sense, strength
may apply to any one of the mechanical properties,
in which event the name of the property under con-
sideration should be stated. thus: strength in com-
pression parallel to grain, strength in bending, hard-
ness, and so on.
Stess.—Force per unit of area.
Stud.— One of a series of slender wood structural members
used as supporting elements in walls and partitions.
Summerwood.—The portion of the annual growth ring
that is formed after the springwood formation has
ceased. In most softwoods and in ring-porous hard-
woods, it is denser and stronger mechanically than
springwood.
Tangential.— Strictly, coincident with a tangent at the
circumference of a tree or log, or parallel to such a
tangent. In practice, however, it often means
roughly coincident with a growth ring. A tangential
section is a longitudinal section through a tree or
limb and is perpendicular to a radius. Flat-grained
and plainsawed lumber is sawed tengentially.
36
Texture.— A term often used interchangeably with grain.
Sometimes used to combine the concepts of density
and degree of contrast between springwood and
summerwood. In this publication, texture refers to
the finer structure of the wood (see Grain) rather than
the annual rings.
Twist.— A distortion caused by the turning or winding
of the edges of a board so that the four corners of
any face are no longer in the same plane.
Tyloses.— Masses of cells appearing somewhat like froth
in the pores of some hardwoods, notably white oak
and black locust. In hardwoods, tyloses are formed
when walls of living cells surrounding vessels extend
into the vessels. They are sometimes formed in
softwoods in a similar manner by the extension of
cell walls into resin-passage cavities.
Veneer.—A thin layer or sheet of wood cut on a veneer
machine.
Rotary-cut veneer.—Veneer cut in a lathe which rotates
a log or bolt, chucked in the center, against a knife.
Sawed veneer.—Veneer produced by sawing.
Sliced veneer.—Veneer that is sliced off a log, bolt, or
flitch with a knife.
Vertical grain.—(See Grain.)
Vessels.—Wood cells of comparatively large diameter
that have open ends and are set one above the other
so as to form continuous tubes. The openings of the
vessels on the surface of a piece of wood are usually
referred to as pores.
Virgin growth.—The original growth of mature trees.
Wane.—Bark or lack of wood from any cause on the
edge or corner of a piece of lumber.
Warp.— Any variation from a true or plane surface.
Warp includes bow, crook, cup, and twist, or any
combination thereof.
Weathering.— The mechanical or chemical disintegration
and discoloration of the surface of wood that is
caused by exposure to light, the action of dust and
sand carried by winds, and the alternate shrinking
and swelling of the surface fibers with the continual
variation in moisture content brought by changes in
the weather. Weathering does not include decay.
Wood substance.—The solid material of which wood is
composed. It usually refers to the extractive-free
solid substance of which the cell walls are composed,
but this is not always true. There is no wide varia-
tion in chemical composition or specific gravity
between the mood substance of various species; the
characteristic differences of species are largely due to
differences in infiltrated materials and variations in
relative amounts of cell walls and cell cavities.
Workability.— The degree of ease and smoothness of cut
obtainable with hand or machine tools.