2nd Semester Syllabus Culinary

1st Year 2nd Semester Sanjit Maji
Food Production Theory Faculty, IHM. Ahmedabad
INDEX
Ch.No Topic Weightage Page No.
SOUPS 03
A. Basic Recipes other than consommé with examples
 Broths & Bouillons
 Puree
 Cream
1 10%
 Veloute
 Chowder
 Bisque etc.
B. Garnish and Accompaniments
C. International Soups
SAUCES AND GRAVIES 08
A. Difference between sauce and gravy
2 10%
B. Derivatives of mother sauces
C. Contemporary and Proprietary
MEAT COOKERY 12
A. Introduction to meat cookery
B. Cuts Of Beef/ Veal
C. Cuts of Lamb / Mutton
3 15%
D. Cuts of pork
E. Variety of Meats( offals)
F. Poultry
With menu example of each
FISH COOKERY/MONGERY 30
A. Introduction to Fish cookery
B. Classification of Fish with Examples
4 10%
C. Cuts of Fish with menu examples
D. Selection of fish and shell fish
E. Coking of Fish(Effects of heat)
RICE CEREALS & PULSES 33
A. Introduction
5 B. Classification and Identification 5%
C. Cooking of rice cereals and pulses
D. Varieties of rice and other cereals
i) PASTRY 5%
A. Short crust
37
B. Laminated
C. Choux
D. Hot water/ rough puff
 Recipes and methods of preparation
 Differences
 Uses of each pastry
 Care to be taken while preparing pastry
 Role of each ingredient
6  Temperature of baking pastry
ii) FLOUR
A. Structure of wheat 41
B. Types of wheat 5%
C. Types of flour
D. Processing of wheat-flour
E. Uses of flour in Food Production
F. Cooking of flour(Starch)
iii) SIMPLE BREADS
A. Principles of bread making 44
B. Simple yeast breads 5%
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C. Role of each ingredient in bread making
D. Baking Temperature and its importance
PASTRY CREAMS
A. Basic pastry creams
7 5% 57
B. Uses in confectionary
C. Preparation and care in production
BASIC COMMODITIES
i)Milk 58
A. Introduction
B. Processing of milk
C. Pasteurization and homogenization
D. Types of Milk
E. Nutritive value
ii)Cream 61
A. Introduction
B. Processing of Cream
C. Types of Cream
8 15%
iii)Cheese 62
A. Introduction
B. Processing of Cheese
C. Types of Cheese
D. Classification Of Cheese
E. Curing of Cheese
F. Uses of Cheese. 64
iv)Butter
A. Introduction
B. Processing of Butter
C. Types of Butter
Basic Indian cookery
I)Condiments and spices 65
A. Introduction to Indian Food
B. Spices used in Indian Cookery
C. role of spices in Indian cookery
D. Indian equivalent of spices (names)
ii)MASALAS 68
9 A. Blending of spices 5%
B. Different masalas used in Indian cookery
 Wet masalas
 Dry masalas
C. Composition of different masalas
D. Varieties of masalas used in regional areas
E. Special masala blends
KITCHEN ORGANISATION AND LAYOUT 70
A. General layout of the kitchen in various organizations
10 10%
B. Layout of receiving areas.
C. Layout of service and wash up
List of reference books 76
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CHAPTER-1
SOUPS
Definition
It is an aromatic, highly nutritive liquid, which can be thin or thick and can be served hot or cold.
It also acts as an appetizer and meal in itself. It is made from meat, fish, vegetables and cereals.
Classification: -
Soups
Thin Thick Cold International
--=========-
Passed Unpassed Gazpacho Minestrone, gazpacho...
Consommé Broth/Bouillon = Puree – Carrot soup…

= Cream – Tomato
= Veloute – Chicken/ Spinach
= Bisque – Prawn
= Chowders – Clam
Mirepoix :
Carrots, Celery, Onion are diced as evenly as possible with the addition of garlic if desired
‘mirepoix’ is used on a flavouring base for roast or braised meat depending on the meat with which it
is to be used bay leaf, cloves, thyme rosemary or other flavouring may be added.
Matignon
The ingredients are the same as mirepoix but thinly sliced rather than diced. This preparation is used
as flavouring base for poele and braised meat. Its composition may vary. Often it contains ham rinds
or diced ham.
Bouquet garni for white stock :

The following ingredients are added to those for an ordinary bouquet garni – peeled carrots, white
parts of leeks, celery, onion stuck with cloves and bay leaf.
Bouquet garni for beef stock :
As above, the green part as well as white part of leeks may be used. The onion is left
unpeeled and cut into half and lightly browned.
Bouquet garni for sachet :

A sachet is mainly used for meat dishes where the sauce strained and also for marinated meat to
prevent ingredients such as crushed pepper corns or juniper berries, mustard seeds etc. from sticking
to the meat.
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Minestrone soup
Recipe:-4 por
Sr no. Ingredients Quantity

1. Carrot 25gm
2. Onions 25gm
3. Cabbage 25gm
4. French beans 25gm
5. Tomato puree 25gm
6. Tomato Concasse 200gm
7. Potato 25gm
8. Macroni 20gm
9. Cheese 20gm
10. Olive oil 10ml
11. Veg. Stock 700ml
12. Celery 10gm
13. Butter 20gm
Method:-
 Cut the vegetables in macedoine / paesanne shape.
 Heat butter and saute little chopped garlic and bay leaf.
 Saute the carrot ,onion ,celery, french beans, green peas for 1 min.
 Add tomato puree and cook it for 1 mins. add tomato concasse and cook for 1 minutes.add the
veg stock and boil for 5 mins.
 Add potatoes and macroni and cook for 5 mins.
 Add the dices of cabbage .Add chopped basil leaves for flavour.
 Serve hot garnished with grated cheese.
Cream of tomato soup

Recipe:-8 POR
1. Tomato 1kg
2. Butter 25gm
3. Carrot 50gm
4. Onion 50gm
5. Salt Acc.to taste
6. Pepper Acc.to taste
7. Stock{veg.} 1lit.
8. Bread crouton 2 slices
9. Flour 50gm
10. Bouquet garni 1no.
11. Sugar 20gm
12. Garlic 10gm
13. Tomato puree 100gm
Method:-
 Make Blonde roux with flour and butter.
 Heat olive oil in a pan and saute garlic.
 Saute carrot,onion in butter.
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 Add tomato puree and stir for few mins.
 Add chopped tomato ,seasoning and bouquet garni.
 Boil and then simmer till 50%.add water and boil for 15-20 mins
 Thicken it with blonde roux.
 Strain it and adjust the consistency and seasoning.
 Finish with butter and fresh cream.
 Garnish with fresh cream and croutons.
 Serve hot.
Cream of carrot soup

Recipe:-4 por
1. Sliced carrots 500gms
2. Sliced onions 50gms
3. White roux 50gm
4. White stock 1lit.
5. Bouquet garni 1lit.
6. Milk 125 ml
7. Salt & pepper Acc. To taste
8. Cream 50gm
9. Butter 15gm
10. Bread crutons 2 slices
Method:-
 Boil the vegetables in water along with seasoning and bouquet garni.
 When done strain the vegetables. Remove the bouquet garni and pass through a liquidizer.
Retain the liquid.
 Prepare bechamel sauce with white roux and milk.
 Add the stock of vegetable mixing them into the bechamel sauce.
 Add the puree of vegetables. Bring to boil. Strain and cook for 30 mins by gentle simmering
,adjust consistency and seasoning .
 Finish the soup with fresh cream and butter . Serve with croutons.
Chicken soup
Recipe:-4 por
1. Chicken breast 150gms
2. Chicken stock 1lit.
3. Blonde roux 100gm
4. Salt To taste
5. Fresh cream 60gm
6. Butter 50gm
Method:-
 Cut the chicken into small pieces.
 Bring chicken stock to boil and slowly add blonde roux and cook it till it gets thick consistency.
 Season it and pour through strainer.
 Finish it with butter and cream.
 Saute the chicken slices in butter for 2-3 mins.
 Serve hot, garnish it with dices of chicken and cream.
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Prawn soup
Recipe:- 4 por

1. Prawns 300gms
2. Tomato puree 60gms
3. Garlic 10gms
4. Mirepois of veg 30 gms
5. Bouquet garni 1no.
6. Fresh cream 60gms
7. Rice flour 20gms
8. Vinegar 2-3 spoons
9 Butter 60gms
Method:-
 Clean the prawns thoroughly in running water,remove the shells of prawns and cut it into small
pieces. Prepare stock with shells.
 Heat half the butter in a thick bottom pan.
 Saute the mirepois and garlic.
 Add the prawns,sauté for a minute and tomato puree
 Add rice flour and 1lit. Of prawn stock.
 Cook over a high heat initially and simmer it for ½ hour.
 When done strain ,remove the bouquet garni and pass through a liquidizer. Retain the liquid.
 Add the puree to the strained liquid and cook for 10 mins
 Pass through strainer.
 Put on fire, add butter and adjust the consistency. Serve the soup hot and garnish it with sauted
prawns and cream.
Gazpacho soup
Recipe:- 4 por(100 ml/por)
1. Tomato 200gms
2. Garlic 25gms
3. Bread 1 slice
4. Olive oil 15ml
5. Capsico 5ml
6. Chilled water 150ml
7. Salt & pepper To taste
8. Capsicum 2no.
9. Cucumber 50gms
Method:-
 Blanch the tomatoes.
 Peel the skin of tomatoes,then de-seed it and chop it.
 Cut the sides of bread and soak in olive oil.
 Deseed cucumber and take all ingredients and pass through strainer.
 Adjust the consistency in a thick soup and chilled water and season it.
 Serve chilled, garnish with fine dices of cucumber and capsicum.
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Cream of spinach soup

Recipe:-4 por
1 Butter 25gms
2 Spinach 300gms
3 Flour 10gms
4 Vegetable stock 1 lt.
5 Salt+pepper To taste
6 Cream 30ml
Method:-
 Prepare blonde roux with butter and flour.
 Whisk it into the stock, simmer till thick(veloute).
 Blanch the spinach and make into puree. Add to the veloute. Add seasoning
 Strain and finish with butter and fresh cream.
 Serve hot garnished with fr. Cream.
Some International Soups

Sr no Name Country of origin
1 Minestrone Italy
2 Petit marmite France
3 Scotch broth Scotland
4 Green turtle soup U.K.
5 Mullygutwany India and Sri Lanka
6 Gazpacho Spain
6 Gambo South Africa
7 Cock-a leekie Spain
8 Tom yam Malaysia
9 Linen Suppe’ Germany
10 Camaro Brazil
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CHAPTER-2
SAUCES
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
It is a thick, highly nutritive flavored liquid, which serves as seasoning and accompaniment.
Classification:-
Mother sauces Butter Dessert Other sauces
sauces sauces
Hot Emulsion Garlic Chocolate Bread
Béchamel/white Mayonnaise (cold ) Basil Pineapple Horse radish
Veloute Hollandaise (warm) Herb Apple
Brown/Espagnol Colbert Custard
Tomato Pista
LIQUIDS USED IN HOT SAUCES
1. Stocks or water.
2. Milk (for béchamel).
3. Tomato juice (for tomato).
THICKENING AGENTS USED
1. Roux
2. Blood.
3. Starch (corn starch, potato starch, rice starch) potato and rice starch is called as fecule.
4. Beure manie (flour + butter without cooking).
5. Cream.
6. Chilled butter.
7. Liaison (egg yolk + cream).
8. Egg yolk.
9. Bread and bread crumbs (in gazpacho).
10. White wash (flour dissolved in waters).
Sauces and Indian gravies

Difference between Indian gravies and sauce
Sauce Gravy
1 Served as an accompaniment Is part of the dish in which the food is
simmered
2 Main ingredient is cooked main ingredient is cooked with gravy
separately and then may be
simmered in the sauce.
3 A sauce may have nothing in A gravy is derived from the natural
common with what it is served drippings after cooking.
4 Can be served separately Served with the main ingredients
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FUNCTIONS OF SAUCES
1. It moistens the food When we add the sauce to the dry preparations, it becomes
soft because of the water and it makes the digestion easier.
2. Develops the appearance Chaud froid sauce is used to coat various dishes, giving
them a better appearance.
3. It enhance the flavor Just roti or roast gravy served with roast items.
4. Gives better taste Cranberry sauce served with roast Turkey
5. The nutritive value increases Sauces are rich in fat, protein, and other nutrients.
6. It increases the variety Due to addition of sauces we can make different dishes.
7. As it stimulates, the appetite is increased.
8. Functioning as thickening agent.
9. Help in digestion Mint sauce has digestive qualities. Also apple sauce served
with roast pork improves the digestion of pork.
10. Used for binding Thick sauces are used for binding as in croquettes, Panada
sauce gives the binding.
11. Balanced meal It provides balance in bland food, sauce served with eggs.
12. Gives name to the dishes Spaghetti Bolognaise is spaghetti served with Bolognaise
sauce.
13. Provides the foundation Béchamel sauce in cheese soufflé
14. Quantity of food is increased.
SAUCE DERIVATIVES
Bechamel Sauce
1. Cream = Bechamel +Cream
2. Mornay = Bechamel +Grated Parmesan+Grugere Cheese
3. Scotch-Egg = Bechamel +Sieved Boiled Yolk+Chopped Boiled Egg White
4. Ecossaise =Bechamel +Braised Brunoise Of Vegetables
5. Anchovy = Bechame l +Anchovybutter
6. Lobster = Bechamel +Lobsterbutter+Dices Of Butter
7. Onion = Bechamel +Onion Cooked In Milk And Strained
8. Soubise = Bechamel +Cooked Onion Puree+Cream
9. Cardinal = Bechamel +Cream+Lobster Dices+Brandy
10.Parsley = Bechamel +Cream+Buttere+Parsley
11. Mustard = Bechamel +Cream+Buttere +Mustard
Brown / Espagnole Sauce

VARIETIES OF BROWN SAUCE
 juslie: - Brown stock thickened with cornstarch.
 Meat Glaze: - Meat stock reduced to gelatinous state. Generally used for loafing of some food items.
1. Demi-Glaze = 50%Brown Sauce+50%Brown Stock Reduced To Half

2. Bercy = Demi-Glaze +Chopped Shallots +White Wine
3. Madeira = Demi-Glaze +Madeira Wine
4. Bordelaise = Demi-Glaze+Chopped Shallots+Redwine+Sliced Bonemarrow
5. Causseur = DemiGlaze+ChoppedShallots+Whitewine+Mushroom+Parsley+Tomato
Cancasse
6. Diable (Devilled ) =Demi-Glaze +Chopped Shallots Reduced In Whitewine+Pepper
7. Robert = Demi-Glaze+Chopped Onion +White Wine+ Vinigar+Mustard
8. Charcuitiere = DemiGlaze+Chopped Shallots+Whitewine+Vinigar+Mustard+Gherkins
9. Bourgignone = Demi-Glaze+Red Wine
10. Choudfroid = Demiglaze+Truffle Essance+Madeira Wine
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Mayonnaise Sauce
1. Chantilly = Mayonnaise+Whipped Cream
2. Andlouse = Mayonnaise+Tomato Puree+Pimentos
3. Tartare = Mayonnaise+Chopped Boiled Egg+ Caper+Gherkin+Parsley
4. Verte = Mayonnaise+Pureed Spinach+Herbs
5. Vincent = Tartre+Verte Sauce
6. Cocktail = Mayonnaise+Tomato Ketchup+Tabascoo+Worscester Sauce
7. Thousand = Mayonnaise+Tomato Puree+Pimentos+ Chopped Island
Boiled Egg White+ Sieved Boiled Yolk + Paprika
8. Remoulade =Mayonnaise + Gherkins + Parsley + Chervil + Capers+ tarragon+Chives+
9. Cambridge = Mayonnaise + Anchovies + Caper + Sieved Yolk+ Chopped Eggwhite
10. Aillade = Mayonnaise+ Crushed Garlic+Walnuts
11. Aioli = Mayonnaise+ Crushed Garlic
12. Tysolinne = Mayonnaise + Chopped Shallots + Olive Oil + Tomato Ketchup +
Garlic + Tomatoes
Tomato Sauce
1. Bretonne = Tomato Sauce+Sauteed Chopped Onion +White Wine +Parsley Butter
2. Tomato Aspic = Tomato Sauce +Aspicjelly
3. Provencale = Tomato Sauce + Saute Sliced Mushroom +GarlicTomato Cancasee +
Sugar +Chopped Parsley
4. Italiene = Tomato Sauce +Demi Glaze + Chopped Shallots + Mushroom + Herbs
5. Portugoise = Tomato Sauce + Tomato Cancasse + Garlic +White Wine
6. Barbeque = Tomato Sauce + Tomato Ketchup + Vinegar + Garlic +Honey
7. Victoria = Tomato Sauce +White Wine +Ch.Shallots +Tarragon+Butter +Lemon
8 Jout Paris = Victoria + Cream +Red Cayenne Pepper
Hollandaise Sause
1. Mousseline = Hollandaise +Whipped Cream
2. Maltaise = Hollandaise +Zest And Juices Of Oranges
3. Noisette = Hollandaise +Brown Butter
4. Mustard = Hollandaise +Mustard
5. Caper = Hollandaise +Chopped Caper
6. Tyrolienne = Hollandaise +Tomato Puree
7. Paloise = Hollandaise + Mint Reduced In Vinegar + Freshly Chopped Mint
8. Bearnaise = Hollandaise + Chervil + Tarragon (Ch.and Reduced In Vinegar +white wine)
9 Choron = Bearnaise +Tomato Puree
10 Fayot = Bearnaise +Meat Glaze
11. Mustard = Hollandaise +Mustard
12. Figuro = Hollandaise +Tomato Puree +Celery
Chicken Veloute
1. Supreme = Chicken Veloute+Cream
2. Ivori E = Supreme +Meat Glaze
3. Hongroise = Chicken Veloute+Paperika Powder
4. Curry = Chicken Veloute+Curry Powder
5. Allemande = Chicken Veloute+Eggyolk +Mushroom + Cream + Lemon
6. Mushroom = Supreme+Mushroom
7. Aurore = Chicken Veloute+Tomato Sauce+Butter
8. White Chaudfroid = Chicken Veloute+ Chicken Glaze+Cream
9. Chivry = Chicken Veloute+Tarragon+Parsley+ Chives + Butter
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10. Poulette =Allemande S+ Mushroom Essence + Lemon + Chopped Parsley
Veal Veloute
1. Allemande = Veal Veloute + Eggyolk +Mushroom+Cream + Lemon
2. Ravigote = Vealveloute+Chopped Shallots Reduced In White Wine
3. Verjuice = Vealveloute+Juice Of Unripened Grapes
4. Port Wine = Vealveloute+Chopped Shallots+Portwine
Fish Veloute
1. Normande = Fish Veloute+Cream+Mushroom Fumet
2. Joinville =Normande+Shrimp Butter+Truffles
3. Shrimp = Normande+Shrimp Butter+Chopped Shrimps
4. Aurore = Fish Veloute+Tomato Sauce+Butter
5. Nantua = Fish Veloute+Crayfish Butter+Brandy+Cream
6. Vin Blanc =Thin Fish Veloute|Egg Yolk +Butter
7. Diplomate =Normade S+ Lobstor Butter+Dices Of Lobster+ Truffles
8. Caper = Fish Veloute+Capers
Other Sauces
Apple Sauce = Apple Puree+Cinnimon Powder +Butter+Sugar+Water
Mint Sauce =Vinigar+Sugar+Salt Pepper+Chopped Mint
Horseraddish Sauce = Grated Horseraddish + Vinigar + Cream +Seasonings
Orange Sauce = Orange Juice+Orange Liquer+Pulp Of orange+
Cranberry Sauce = Crabberry+Sugar+Water + Red Current Jellt
Bread Sauce = Flavoured Milk With Onion Strained And Added To Bread Crumbs
Cumberland sauce = Lemon Zest+Lemon CookedIn Port Wine ,Zest RemoveAnd Red
Current Jelly Added And ated With Juices Of Orange And Lemon + Seasonings
Roast Gravy = Essence Of Roast Meat +Brown Stock
Curry = Blond Roux +Garlic+Chopped Apple+Onion +Coconut Powder + Curry
Powder + Tomato Puree + Sultanas
Oxford = Red Current Jelly+Ch.shallots+Port Wine + Orange Juice + Bl Orange+
Lemon Zest
PROPRIETARY SAUCES
1. Worcestershire sauce
2. H.P. sauce
3. 8 to 8 sauce
Contemporary sauces
1. Capsico sauce
2. Tomato Ketchup
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CHAPTER-3
MEAT COOKERY
A) Introduction to Meat Theory
Meat is usually the main item and its selection indicates frequently the other foods in the meal.
Acceptable meat is served if good meat is purchased and proper procedures are followed. Meat is
usually accepted as being the most important food purchased by the caterer. Beside the above-
mentioned point it also works out for 40% - 60% of the total expenditure on food to be spend on meat.
Meat is defined by the E E C – general term meat refers to carcasse meat often in the form of joint, offal
such as liver, kidney etc. and processed meat such as pickled beef, hamburgers, sausages etc. Meat may
be classified in seven main ways:
1. By the type of animal.
2. By the country of origin.
3. By the age/sex of the animal ie. Beef, lamb, mutton.
4. By the grade of the meat.
5. By the particular cut of meat eg. Sirloin of beef, saddle of lamb etc.
6. By the condition of meat eg. Fresh, chilled, frozen.
7. By their catering uses eg. Suitable for roasting, frying, grilling, broiling, etc.
The animal body :- The caterer is mainly interested in three main parts of an animal ie. Skeleton
structure, muscles and fats.
- Skeleton structure :- This consist of the framework composed of the bones of the animals
which are joined together in their natural position by ligaments and joints. The skeleton structure
mainly consists of the head trunk and the limbs.
- Muscles :- The movements of animals are caused by the muscles of the animals which have the
power to contract. The size and shape of muscles give the particular shape to the animal. Muscle
tissues are composed of very small elongated cells called muscle fibres; which are bound into bundles
by connective tissue ‘stripped’ muscle is composed by innumerable parallel fibres, the end of each
skeletal muscle is extended to form a tendon which is inserted into an adjacent bone.
The proportion of connective tissue in a muscle depends on the activity of the muscle in
the live animal. Connective tissue contains a large amount of tough substance called ‘Collagen’, which
can be converted by boiling to gelatin. Thus any joint containing a high proportion of connective tissues
will require a moist and slow method of cooking (boiling and stewing) whilst those with little
connective tissue may suitably be used for dry and quick method of cooking (roasting and grilling) be
used for dry and quick methods of cooking (roasting and grilling). The colour of muscles depends on
the type of animal, its age, whether it is fresh or prescribed in some form and how long the cut surface
has been exposed to the air. The muscle fibre size has much to do with the grain or texture of the meat.
Fine fibres indicate a fine, smooth texture, and a tender meat. Buyers look for the velvety, smooth, soft
surface indicating fine grain. The surface should have a fine soft, smooth moist sheen and show
marbling. The outer sheath or membrane strength of fibre, also affects tenderness. Exercised muscles
develop stronger membrane and more connective tissues than those receiving less exercise. Feed, care
and breed also affect the tenderness. Flesh toughens as an animal ages. This may be due to some
increase in the connective tissues. Meat is tenderized by the solution containing enzymes, usually
papain, which digests connective tissues. Injection of a tenderizer just before slautering provides wide
distribution throughout the capillary system, giving better tenderization over coating or spraying the
meat with the tenderizer after slautering.
- Fat :- It is deposited in and on an animal as a reserve store of energy or nourishment for its body. As
a poor conductor of heat it also prevents loss of body heat. As the animal grow the fat is laid down in
the following order ie. Intestines, kidney, rump region along the back, belly, neck, lower parts of the
legs therefore a young animal eg. Calf will have almost invisible fat to its carcasse. The colour of fat
will depend on the type of animal, the breed, type of feed, state of health, age. An important point
from the palatability aspect is the melting point of the different fats.
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Protien :- They are mainly of 2 types -- Myocin & Actin
Due to anaerobic respiration or excessive or after death leads to combine and forms
actomyocin which contract the muscles resulting in rigormortis.
In structural protein the connective tissue is mainly composed of collagen and elastin. When
over cooked collagen changes to gelatin in water and thus they muscles fall of.
Fat :- Adipose tissue around the muscles and within the muscles Fat deposition gives, rise to
marbelling effect which gives Juiciness to the meat.
Carbohydrate :- Glycogen is present in living muscles, but when Killed changes to lactic acid by
enzymes, this Helps in aging and tenderizing during hanging.
Colour :- The colour of meat is due to two iron containing protein
1. Haemoglobin :- It is the red oxygen carrying protein which Contributes to the colour even after
draining Of blood after slaughter. The animal is red Because some of the blood leaks from the
Capillaries in to the flesh.
2. Myoglobin :- Myoglobin is the pigmented protein which Contributes to the colour within the
muscles Which gives it a purple, red colour which When exposed to air form oxymyoglobin which
is brighter red in colour.
Agings : converts in to meta myoglobin which Gives it a brownish red colour, when
cooked This is converted to a brownish substance.
Flavour :- It is derived from extractives or organic compounds Produced by the living
animals it is influenced by the feeding, environment and the breed.
Composition of meat :- Protein (g) Fats (g) Water (g) Cal.
Beef 15 28 56 312
Mutton 13 31 55 331
Pork 12 40 47 408
Meat is about 25% solids and 75% moisture. Of the solids, 5% is fat, fat like compounds, ash and
other substances and the rest is protein. Meat contains some sugar, glucose, which though small in
quantity is quite important to colour and flavor development in browning. Most of the protein,
moisture, other compounds etc. are found in the flesh.
Degrees of Cooking
It is not easy to determine the time required to cook meat. This depends mainly on the quality and
conditioning of the meat, the age of the animal, the amount of fat present and the firmness of the
flesh. The size of the cut, the fineness of the grain are also important, as well as the wishes of the
guests.
A meat thermometer is excellent aid. It can even be of service to the experienced rotisseur. He will
be able to tell whether a cut of meat is cooked to the desired degree of pressing it with his fingers,
but, for a larger cut, such as sirloin ribs or saddle, a meat thermometer will give reliable readings.
The degrees of cooking which the waiter has to specify when ordering are as follows :
a) A u Bleu :very rare : For red meat only. The interior meat is dark red, i.e, the meat is charred on
the outside, but raw in the middle.
b) Saignant : Underdone or rare : For red meat only. The interior meat juice is red. The
temperature of meat approximately is 47 – 52* C (117 – 126* F)
c) ‘a point : medium or just cooked : For meat and game. The meat juice is pink. Temperature
: 57 – 62* C (135-144* F)
d) Bien-cuit : well done : For roasts and grill, especially pork. Temperature : 80* C 176* F Red
meat : 67 – 72* C (153-162* E)
These term s are commonly applied to degrees of cooking for cuts of meat such as chateau briands,
fillets, tournedos, cutlets, chops.
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Meat Shrinkage during cooking
The amount of weight loss by a meat during cooking varies according to quality, type of meat and
also the cooking methods used. Weight loss is highest for boiled meats and lowest for grilled and
sauted dishes.
Grills, Saute and Shallow fried meats :

Entrecots rump and fillet steak, cutlets and chops,
veal and pork escalopes, veal, liver, kidneys etc. : about 5-7%
Roasts :
1. Leg of mutton about 14-17%
2. Roast beef about 15-18%
Pot roasted joints
3. Best end or loin of veal about 23-26%
4. Pork from young animal about 23-26%
Larded braised beef
5. Flank, topside etc. about 32-35%
6. Meat from old animal (cow) up to 40%
Boiled Meat
7. Beef (ribs, brisket) about 32-35%
8. Mutton (leg, shoulder) about 30-33%
9. Meat from old animal upto 40%
Chemical composition of meat

Even though it may be surprising to learn that meat contains 70% water, its high economic
value is justified for it is one of the main sources of dietary protein from which our bodies obtain
the amino acids required for cell repair. The following table clearly shows the difference between
the various types of lean meat, particularly the fat content, which is not usually visible.
Table to show the average contents of lean meat :
Beef % Veal % Pork % Lamb % Rabbit % Calf’s liver %

Water 7 75 72 70 25 70
Protein 4
20 21 21 21 22 20
Fat 5 3 7 8 4 7
Carbohydrates - 2
- - - -
Minerals 1 1 2 1 1 1
Methods of keeping and preserving meat
1. Refrigeration or cold storage :

Temperature is one of the most critical factors for the growth of micro organisms. By
reducing the temperature, the safe storage time is increased. Meat must always be chilled as soon as
the animal has been killed, with the aid of vigorous air circulation and rapid cooling, it s essential to
avoid any subsequent rise in temperature of 0-1* C (32-34* F) and a relative humidity of 80-85%.
The air should not be too dry in order to prevent desiccation (loss of weight) but excessive humidity
makes meat too slimy and consequently increases waste. Ventilation should not be excessive as this
would cause the meat to dry out and possibly to discolour. Meat stores should therefore be checked
several times a day.
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As meat rapidly takes on extraneous smells, no other foods should be kept in the same room
or store. Pickling brines and similar liquids should also be excluded. There should be adequate air
circulation between the pieces of meat, which should not under any circumstances be in contact with
one another. For obvious reasons cut meat should be handled as little as possible. The more carefully
meat is stored the less water occurs. It goes without saying that the store must be scrupulously clean.
When storing meat in a refrigerator it may be kept wrapped for a day. If it is to be kept longer, the
paper must be removed and the meat placed in the refrigerator after oiling it well on both sides.
Storing time in a chill room

To reduce loss of weight meat should be stored in large pieces or in vacuum packs after
boning. The storage time are as follows :
Beef for quick frying and grilling 14-21 days

Beef cuts require prolonged cooking 3-14 days
Veal 5-10 days
Mutton and lamb 5 –10 days
Pork 3-8days
During this time the meat already losses 3-7% of its weight. A biochemical process alters the intra
muscular connective tissues, making the meat tender.
a. DEEP FREEZING
This is a term used to describe the rapid reduction of temperature to well below freezing point. The
process must be very quick as it is in the commercial production of quick frozen foods. Here a special
freezing tunnel is used at a temperature below -40* C, as a result the temperature of the food very
quickly falls to –-18* C (0* F). If the freezing process is too slow, it results in the formation if ice
crystals which damage the cell structure of the meat causing greater loss of natural juices on thawing
process. Care should be taken to avoid placing too may pieces of meat close together or on top of one
another. Even if the freezer is one the smaller side. A constant temperature of –18*-20* C should be
maintained. At this temperature the meat will remain fresh for several months without losing its
nutritive
value. Storage times are 12-14 months for beef, 12 months for lamb, about 10 months for veal, 6
months for cooked meat, 4 months for pork and sausage, 3 months for minced meat. These figures
only apply to meat that was originally in perfect conditions and has been correctly treated in every
way.
The most critical stage in preparing frozen meat for the table is always the thawing process
.Freezing does not destroy the viability of micro organism, but inhibits their multiplication. Thawing
allows the bacteria to return to full activity under the temperature and moisture conditions favorable
to their growth . Consequently, Meat should be thaw as slowly as possible, over a period of 24 hours
or more in a refrigerator or a chill store.
Defrosted meat of any type should never be refrozen. Individual portions such as steaks may be
fried at once with an appropriate adjustment of frying time to the initial temperature.
b. STERILIZATION
Sterilization (cooking under pressure at more than 100* C) or ordinary boiling kills micro organisms
but some spore formation is still possible. As soon as temperature and humidity reach level at which
bacteria are active, they begin to multiply again. This means that heat treated food must be cooked
as quickly as possible. For example, under cold running water, the most dangerous temperature are
between 30 and 50* C (86-122* F).
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c. STORING MEAT
Proper storage of meat means prevention of spoilage and control of bacterial growth in order to avoid
decomposition and prolong the time during which the meat can be used fresh. In discussing the
chemical composition of meat, we have seen that its main constituents are water and protein which
may be regarded as a particularly favorable medium for the growth of bacteria. For this reason meat
is particularly perishable.
Safe storage time for meat depends largely on the type of animal. Extreme care should be taken to
avoid exciting or frightening, an animal intended for slaughter for this would cause the blood to be
retained in the muscular parts of the carcass which has a very detrimental effect on the keeping
properties of meat. During slaughter excessive washing should be avoided. Pig’s carcass in particular
should not be wetted.
As soon as “Rigor Mortis” has set in the flesh undergoes a bio chemical process which alters the
muscular fibres. The first stage maturing makes the meat tender and tasty. If this process is
prolonged, the meat reaches the point when it is over matured and after only a short time traces of
purification can be detected. To prevent decomposition and ensure that the meat can be kept fresh
for as long as possible, appropriate treatment must be applied immediately.
d. TREATMENT
Anyone who handles meat whether as a profession or a layman should always realise that it is a
delicate moist either from within, through circumstances, or if it can not dry properly. Care must be
taken to avoid placing too many pieces of meat close together or stacking them one on top of the
other in more than one layer. It is also important to protect the meat against other conditions which
might give rise to unnecessary moisture such as activities that produce steam or heat. Open
refrigeration rooms, wet hands or utensils or leaving the meat wrapped in polythene.
The simplest method of treating meat in the absence of appropriate modern facilities is to hand it in
sufficiently cold and dry places. If it still becomes necessary to dry the surfaces, disposable paper
napkins should be used.
POINTS TO REMEMBER : MEAT
1) Beef may be tender or remarkably tougher depending on its age, breed and particular muscle
selected for cooking.
2) All meat is muscle, group of fibers – composed of protein and bound together in bundles by
gelatinous connective tissues.
3) Mature beef (well exercised beef) have strong walls of connective tissues and coarse grains.
4) Age of the animal is related to the flavour of the meat, which becomes stronger as the animal
grows, changes take place in its composition.
5) Visual clues are bright red or dull colour, coarse grains or fine.
6) To develop its full flavour, beef is allowed to hang or age for at least 10 days and not more
than 20 days.
7) During aging process the enzymes break down the fibers and turns it to digestive process
– improvement in both flavours and tenderness.
8) Hung beef will cook faster than fresh meat.
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9) 0* - 4* C (32* - 39* F) ideal for aging to prevent bacterial growth.
10)Freezing will prevent the enzymes to act.
11) 90% humidity is recommended
12)Dry atmosphere would result in weight loss by evaporation.
13)Aging or hanging is a costly process because :
- Refrigerated place is expensive
- 2-10% weight loss during
aging.
14)Deep freeze only stores, but does not age meat.
15)Before freezing proper aging should be done.
16)Most developed muscles found in legs, chest, flank, neck and tail. These meat requires long
cooking at low temperature to break down the fibres and connective tissues – moisture cooking
preferred.
17)The flavour of these well exercised muscles is rich.
18)Braising most appropriate for these cuts.
19)Muscles of the back, loin, rump receive little exercise so tender and less flavour, requires brief
cooking at high temperature – roasting, grilling and frying are suitable for these cuts.
SPOILAGE OF MEAT & MEAT PRODUCTS
The spoilage of meat and products take place due to the presence of certain spoilage micro organisms
such as mold and bacteria.
Examples of mold are – Bladosporium and penicillium
Examples of bacteria are – psendomonas, Achromobacter
Sources of contamination – knives, cloths, containers, other contaminated meat, air and equipment and
water. Temperature plays a very important role on the growth and development of these micro
organisms.
These organisms may be divided into three groups according to their optimum temperature of
growth. These are psychrophiles which grow below 20* C, Mesoptules 20-40 c and thermophyles
which grow above 40 c. In meat of course, psychrophillic organism are most important since meat is
stored usually under refrigeration.
Further it is almost impossible to get fresh meat which is completely free from bacteria. Also
meat will not get spoiled if the bacterial load is less than 105 gms. In fact bacterial growth on meat is
often taken as an indication of sanitary practice observed during meat preparation. By keeping meat at
low temperature the growth of micro organisms such as pseudomonas are restricted. However, if the
temperature is raised then the organism would start growing again. Also ultra violet irradiation often
used in conjunction with refrigeration to suppress bacterial growth.
All Types of Spoilage
Under aerobic conditions
A. Surface slime – this is caused by slime producing bacteria such as pseudomonas,
Achromobacter etc. with less moisture as on frankfurters, micro cocci will grow and with still
less moisture molds will grow.
B. Changes in colour of meat pigments
Red colour of blooming meat may change to shades of green, brown or grey as a result of
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production of certain oxidising agents eg. Peroxides or H2S by bacteria.
C. Changes in fats
Oxidation of fats in meat may occur in air or catalysed by light or copper lipolytic species
pseudomonas or yeast may cause lipolysis.
D. Surface colours due to pigmented bacteria – red spot may be caused by serratia
marcessens pseudomonas species may impart blue colour – flavatactinum
E. Off – odours taste – taints or undesirable odour and taste appear as a result of growth
of bacteria due to the production of volatile acids.
Spoilage under anaerobic condition
Souring – caused either by meat’s own enzymes or by anaerobic bacteria

Putrefaction – caused by clostridium types of species – putrefaction is the degradation of meat proteins
leading to off-odour.
Spoilage of different meats
Pork meat is more susceptible to spoilage than beef due to unstable nature of fat present in it. Ground
beef is more susceptible to spoilage than whole meat due to large surface area (action of air)
Cured Meats : Nitrate inhibit anaerobes

The term ‘food poisoning’ is commonly used to cover all types of illness caused by food borne
micro organisms. Meat is a food which is often susceptible of food poisoning unless proper
sanitation and care is taken.
There are two kinds of food poisoning :
2. SALMONELLOSIS – Caused by consuming the food containing a group of micro

organisms called SALMONALLE
2. STAPHYLOCOCCUS – Food intoxication – caused by eating the food that contains a toxin or
poison present as a result of bacterial growth in the food. Staphylococcus is the group if micro
organism. These organism grow in a wide range of temperature from about 50* F –120* F. The
symptoms appear within 2 to 4 hours – stomach ailments. In order to avoid food poisoning by above
agents avoid holding meat at temperature between 50* F – 110* F and high standard of hygiene
should be maintained.
Changes in meat on cooking
Cooking causes many changes to occur in meat which develop appetite stimulating flavours.
From human health point of view, the most important changes in cooking is the destruction
of micro organisms. All cooking process decreases the number of bacteria, mold and yeast and if
the meat is well done may even render it sterile.
IHMA-18
Food Production Theory Faculty, IHM.
Ahmedabad
Spore forming organisms are destroyed and the spores killed if the meat is cooked to a
sufficiently high temperature. In carving meat, this is important since the meat must be
completely sterile, so that it will keep pork is often infected with a parasite – (Trichinella
spirallis) which is dangerous to man. The organism is killed at 132* F and so pork is cooked to
internal temperature of 137* F to ensure that all organisms are destroyed.
The chemical and physical changes which occur on cooking are as follows.
a) Denaturation of protein : This is evidenced by the change in the physical condition of
the meat. The jelly like structure stiffens and often toughens. There is shrinkage in
volume and increases in density as cooking proceeds.
b) Hydrolysis of connective tissues: This is the reaction by which commercial gelatin is

produced. The extent to which it occurs in meat cookery has been a subject of a number of
researchers. If a piece of meat is cooked for a long time, the loose connective tissues
disappears and the gravy gels on cooling. This is particularly noticeable in moist cooking
such as braising. However even in dry cooking such as roasting or frying, the connective
tissues and the collogen fibres are in contact with water from the tissues. Connective tissues
has a fair amount of water, so there is always the possibility that hydrolysis of the large
callogen molecules to the relatively small gelatin molecules can occur.
c) Colour change : On cooling the bright red colour of meat changes into a brown colour due
to the denaturation of protein myoglobin.
d) Drip formation : This accounts for some of the changes in weight that occurs in a piece of
meat during cooking. The drip is composed of water carrying a number of soluble
compounds as well as coagulable proteins and fat. As cooking proceeds the coagulable
protein is denatured by meat and forms a curd in the pan gravy.
e) Meat aroma : The change of flavour that occurs on cooking is one of the most apparent
changes particularly when the meat is browned, a strong flavour sometimes called the
‘brown flavour’ is evident.
f) Decrease in vitamin : The B Complex vitamins are more or less sensitive to heating and
thiamine (B1) and pantothenmic acid are particularly labile. If cooking is prolonged and if
the temperature is high, the destruction of the vitamins may be appreciable. There is always
some loss. Niacin and riboflavin (B2) are more stable of heat and do not disappear as
rapidly during cooking of meat.
IHMA-19
Ahmedabad
B) BEEF & VEAL

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CATTLE
MALE FEMALE
Entire Castrated
1-Bull calf 1-Steer calf 1.Heifer calf

(upto 1 year) (upto 1 year) (upto 1 year)
2-Yearling Bull 2-Steer ox 2-Heifer
(1-2 years) (above 1 year) ( Uncalved young)
3 Bull adult 3-Heifer cow(Young calved)
4-Adult cow
Quality of meat: -
(BEEF) (VEAL)
1. The meat should be pinkish red in 1. Flesh should be white or very pale pink
colour. 2. soft to touch but not flabby
2. Should have well marbled fat. 3. Should be moist not weeping.
3. Should not have any patch marks. 4 Bone should be pinkish white and fairly
4. Fat should be firm and brittle. flexible to touch
5. The meat should be fresh and chilled.
Preparation of Beef / Veal

1. Ante-mortem inspection (checking it before receiving)
2. Stunning (electro cutting is done to make it unconscious )
3. Slaughter.(by Sticking or Kosher method)
Sticking: - first stunned (unconscious) using a hammer at the back of
the head or by electrical shock and “Jugular” vein which supplies blood
to the brains is cut by opening the mouth.
Kosher: - cutting the head with one stroke.
4. Draining of blood.
5. Dressing (removal of skin as well as all the internal organs are removed).
6. Aging of animals (actin and myosin combine to form Acto myosin which leads to rigor
mortis.To prevent this they are hanged).
AGING –is of two types

1.WET - Primary cuts are made and then they are vacuum packed and kept in the refrigerator
to prevent regard motion for 6 weeks.
2. DRY – To whole animals are hanged. Carcass (dead animals) is hanged in a refrigerator
room for 6 weeks whose temperature is –1 to 2 degree C. (storage temp. of beef).
IHMA-20
Ahmedabad
CUTS OF BEEF (Avg wt—180 kgs)
HIND QUARTER
Name or part weight used for
1. Shank 7-8 kg Used for clarification, used for beef tea,

Brown stock and for stews.
2. Top side 9-10kg Used for braising stewing, 2nd grade Roasting.
3. Silver side 12-13kg Used for boiling stewing and pickled Beef
4. Thick flank 11-12kg Used for braising and stewing.
5. Rump 9-10kg Grilling and frying.
6. Fillet 3-4kg Grilling, roasting and frying.
7. Sirlon 10-11kg Grilling, frying and roasting.
8. Thin flank 9-10kg Stewing, boiling, miming and for Sausages.
9. Wing ribs 4-5 kg Used for 1st class roasting, grilling and Frying.
FORE QUARTERS
Name or part weight used for
10. Fore rib 7-8 kg 1st class roasting, grilling and frying.
11. Mid ribs 9-10kg Roasting and braising.
12. Chuck ribs 13-14kg Stewing, braising, miscing
13. Sticking piece 8-9 kg Stewind,micing and saucage
14. Brisket 17-18 kg Used for boiling, brined, boiled and Pressed beef.
15. Leg 10-11 kg Braising whole steaks and stewing.
16. Plate 9-10 kg Stewing, boiling, mincing and saucage.
17. Shin 7-8 kg Used for clarification, beef tea and 2ndClass mince.
IHMA-21
Ahmedabad
CUTS OF VEAL (Avg. Wt—48 kgs)
Name of part weight used for
1 Scrag end 2-3 kg used for stews and stock
2. Neck end 3 kg used for braining stews stock
3. Best end 3-4 kg used for pot-roasting, braising and frying
4. Loin 3-4 kg (same as above)
5. Rump 3 kg Braising, roasting and grilling
6. Leg (2nos) 20 kg Post roasting, braising and frying
7. Breast 3 kg Stuffed stews and roasting (stuffing)
8. Shoulder 6 kg Roasting braising and stewing
9. Knuckles (4no) 4 kg Used for stock and minced meat
steaks
From fillet/ under cut/ tender loin
1.chateau briand:350 gms 3. tournado:100-125 gms
2.fillet:200gms 4.mignon:50gms
From the sirloin region we get
sirloin steak --- 150 gms. Double sirloin --- 300 gms.
Minute --- 115 gms (used for breakfast it can be obtained from Mignon).
Porter house --- 350 gms. T- bone steak --- 600 gms.
From the rump region
Rump steak --- 200 gms. Point steak --- 200 gms.
From the thick flank region

Flank steak --- 200 gms.
Tarter steak ----200 gms is prepared from minced mignon which is given a round shape
( which is the softest part of animal)
IHMA-22
Ahmedabad
C) SHEEP & LAMB
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SHEEP
MALE FEMALE
Entire Castrated
1-lamb/ hogget 1-wether lamb 1.ewe lamb

(weaning to shearing) (weaning to shearing) (birth to weaning)
2-ram 2-shearing wether 2-ewe tegs
(after shearing) (after shearing) (after shearing)
3--ewes
(after lambing)
Quality of meat: -
1. The flesh should be compact and even.

2. Should have firm and lean meat (less of fat).
3. Should have a pleasing firm red colour with fine texture and grain
4. Should have a even distribution of white fat. Weight 25 kg.
5. Bones in young ones should be pink and porous.
6. In old ones the bones are white hard and splinter easily.
CUTS OF SHEEP/LAMB
PART LAMBS SHEEPS USES

1. Scrag end ½ kg 1 kg used for stewing and broth.
2. Middle neck 2 kg 3 kg used for stewing.
3. Best end 2 kg 3 kg used for roasting, grilling And frying
4. Saddle 3 kg 5 kg (As above).
5. Crump chops ½ kg 1 kg (As above).
6. Legs 3½ kg 5 kg used for roasting.
7. Breast 1 ½ kg 2 ½ kg Roasting and stewing.
8. Shoulders 3 kg 4 ½ kg used for roasting.
IHMA-23
Ahmedabad
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D) PORK (PIGS)
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Pork
Porker Baconer
Classification of pigs: -
Suckling pig --- 6 to 8 weeks ---unweaned

Stores --- young --- unweaned.
Hog --- castrated (male).
Boar --- Adult entire.
QUALITY OF PIGS: -
 The fat should be firm and milky.

 Avoid fat, which are soft, gray and oily, which leads to excessive weight loss
whole cooking.
 The lean meat should be pale, firm and smooth.
 Freshly cut surface should look slightly moist and bones Pinkish blue.
 The skin or rind should be thin, plyable, smooth and without hairs.
 In order pigs, the skin is coarse and thicker.
CUTS OF PORK
PART FR.TERMS WTS USES avg .wt(48 kgs)
1. Head la tête 3-4 kg used for decoration in buffet, and making stock brown.
2. Spare rib l’echine 4 kg used for roasting and pies.
3. Loin la lounge 12 kg roasting, frying, grilling.
4. Leg le cuisote 10 kg roasting, boiling, ham
5. Belly la poi trine 4 kg boiling and braising.
6. Shoulder l’epoule 6 kg roasting, sausage pies.
7. Trotter’s la pied 4 kg grilling, boiling and brawn.
IHMA-24
Ahmedabad
PORK
Baconer Porker
Bacon gammon Ham
For BACON:- boneless part cut from the sides of a baconer pig .
put in salt solution to remove moisture, process
Is known as curing and during this time the whole
Portion is known as green bacon further when it is smoked
Kept in smoking chamber known as bacon.
HAM : is the hind leg of a porker pig. Are of three types

a. Wet cured slightly smoked cooked and served hot and cold. In wet cured-
kept in brine solution.
In dry cured- kept in salt.
Eg Jambon glace & Hamburge schinken.
b. Wet or dry cured, smoked and hunged dry for months and served raw or
slightly sauted.
eg Joulouse phalian, west phalian
c. Dry or wet cured but not smoked, hunged dry on mature and then cooked,
served hot or cold
eg yolk gather schinker,
Parma ham from Italy which is cured, matured for a long time , not smoked ,
served raw.
E)VARIETY OF MEAT(OFFALS)
ENTRAILS USED FROM BEEF
Kidney:- used for making stews and pies.

Fat:- Used as 1st class dripping( used for roasting).
Bone marrow:- Used for garnishing of soups and sauces.
Bone:- Used for stocks.
Tongue & Tail: grilling
ENTRAILS USED FROM SHEEP
Kidney & Liver:- used forgrilling, making stews and pies.

Bone marrow:- Used for garnishing of soups and sauces.
Bone:- Used for stocks.
ENTRAILS USED FROM PORK
Kidney & Liver:- used for grilling, making stews and pies.
Intestine: used for sausages and salamis
IHMA-25
Ahmedabad
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F )POULTRY
==================================================================
The term Poultry is used for all domesticated birds used for eating.
TYPES
-------------------------------------------------------------------------
Chicken turkey Goose Duck Pigeon Guinea Fowl
Quality
1. Flesh should be firm but pliable, with fine texture.
2. There should not be too much fat in abdominal cavity.
3. Skin should be white or yellow according to breed.
4. There should be no cuts, scare, rubbed portion on skin or blood patches.
5. Brest should be straight, broad and well fleshed.
6. Wings should be compact, small. Head with comb and wattles.
7. The bones should be fine, short legs and well fleshed.
Types
Poussin (la poussin) 4-6 weeks 250 – 300 gm.
Cockerel (le jeune coq) 6- 8 weeks 350 – 600 gm.
Young chicken (le poulet de grain) 8 – 12 weeks 1 – 1½ kg.
Chicken (poulet reine) 4 – 6 months 1 – 2 kg.
Boiled fowl (la poule) 12 months 2 – 3 kg.
Young fat (la poulaine) 4-6 months 1 – 1½ kg.
Capon (le chapon) 5-8 months 2 – 4 kg.
Fat chicken (la poularde) 5 –6 months 2 – 4 kg.
Turkey cock (le Dindon) 6 – 10 months 6 – 12 kg.
Turkey hen (la Dinde) 6 – 10 months 4 – 7 kg.
Young turkey (la Dindonneau) 5 - 6 months 3 – 4 kg.
Guinea fowl (la pintade) 4 – 6 months ¾ - 1½ kg.
Duck (le canard) 3 – 4 months 2 – 3 kg.
Duckling (le canton) 2 – 3 months 1½ - 2 kg.
Goose (l’ole) 6 – 7 months 3 – 4 kg.
Gosling (l’oison) 4 – 6 months 2 – 3 kg.
Pigeon (le pigeon) 6 – 10 weeks 300 – 500 kg.
Preparation, dressing and cuts.

1. Inspection: - To check diseases.
2. Killing of the animal – sticking / kosher.
Sticking: - first stunned (unconscious) using a hammer at the back of
the head or by electrical shock and “Jugular” vein which supplies blood
to the brains is cut by opening the mouth.
Kosher: - cutting the head with one stroke.
IHMA-26
Ahmedabad
3. Plucking – Plucking of feathers is done immediately after killing. The feathers of the
breast are plucked first and then of the back and the legs. Scalding or semi-scalding
methods are used by plunging the bird in hot water at 60 to 100 degree C for 5 to 6
seconds.
4. Cleaning – Also known as “Gutting” is the process of removal of internal organs. Cut
is made at the stomach.
5. Hanging – Rigor Mortis sets in because of the muscles tend to stiffen due to the
formation of lactic acid absences of oxygen due to anaerobic respiration Process of
stiffening of muscles is known as rigor mortis is removed. Rigor mortis take place
after 3 to 4 hrs of killing of bird and tendering takes place for 24 hrs. So should be
hanged for 24 hrs, so that the muscles arepulled and stiffness is prevented.
6. Singing – For burning the feathers tufts and small hairs catch the poultry from the
head and neck and stretch it and pass it quickly and uniformly over a gas jet.
7. Trussing – Folding and tying of legs and breast part with a trussing thread and needle
to retain the shape during cooking.
Cuts
1. Sauté :- 6 pieces cut from the poultry. (2 drumsticks, 2 thighs, 2 wings).
2. Galantines :- Is to remove the skeleton of the bird completely.
3. Supreme :- Breast, wings and fillet of chicken.
4. Ballottine :- Small galantines made from the legs of chicken
5. Derby :-the whole skeleton is removed by making a single small cut in the belly so
that the shape is retained when stuffed with force meat
CUTS OF CHICKEN
English French
Breast Poitrine or blanc
Leg Cuisse
Drumstick Pilon de cuisse
Thighs Gras de cuisse
Winglets Ailerons
Wings Aile
Carcass Carcasse
Poultry Guidelines
 frying Chickens -- Also called broilers and broiler-fryers, these are the perfect all-purpose
birds -- suitable not only for broiling and frying, but for roasting, baking, simmering,
steaming, poaching, and barbecuing. Sold whole, cut up, and as individual parts. Average
weight 3 to 5 pounds. A money saving tip - cut up a whole chicken, yourself!
 Roasting Chickens -- Also known as young roasters. Because of their size, these birds
look almost as impressive as a turkey. A good choice for a dinner party. Average weight 5
to 6 pounds.
 Stewing Hens -- Also known as heavy hens. Older and less tender than frying and
roasting chickens. Best suited for slow cooking soups and stews. Average weight 3 to 5
pounds.
 Capons -- Meaty and tender. Excellent for roasting. Average weight 9 pounds.
 Rock Cornish Game Hens -- Delicately flavored birds. Average weight 1 to 1 1/2 pounds.
 Turkeys -- Hen turkeys weigh an average of 8 to 15 pounds. Tom turkeys weigh an
average of 16 to 24 pounds. During holidays you can even find larger toms, some as
heavy as 30 pounds. Size has no bearing on tenderness or flavor, but it does affect the
ratio of meat to bone. As a general rule, heavier birds have a higher proportion of meat to
bone and are a more economical purchase.
IHMA-27
Ahmedabad
Proper Handling
 When preparing poultry, make sure it is washed thoroughly. Place it on a clean plate or
platter and pat dry. Always wash hands, knife, cutting board and sink thoroughly in hot
soapy water or use an abrasive cleanser on all surfaces that the poultry has come into
contact. This cannot be stressed enough.
 Never use the same utensils and cutting board for other ingredients without thoroughly
washing them first and after use.
 Always marinate poultry in the refrigerator.
 Do not reuse the marinade for basting purposes.
 If the marinade is to be used as the basis for a sauce, bring it to a boil and boil for 2
minutes.
 Do not place cooked poultry on the same plate used to for raw poultry and do not use the
same utensils.
Storing Poultry
 Storage of poultry is done between 0 to 1 degree C for 1 week for immediate use. For use
after a long time defreeze at 18 degree C.
 Fresh poultry is one of the most perishable of foods. As soon as you get it from the
grocery store, wrap it in plastic wrap and store it in the coldest part of your refrigerator up
to two days. If you're unable to use it within that time, place it in a freezer proof bag and
freeze up to three months. Freeze giblets and livers separately from the whole bird.
 Many cooked poultry dishes can be frozen; casseroles especially freeze well. Avoid
freezing poultry dishes that contain either mayonnaise or hard-cooked eggs in them. Let
smaller dishes cool completely before wrapping and freezing them; let larger items cool
in the refrigerator and then wrap airtight and freeze. Remember to never freeze stuffed
poultry.
Thaw The Bird Carefully
 It's important that the turkey or chicken be properly thawed before cooking. The best way
is to let it thaw in the refrigerator. Leave it in the original wrapper, place on a tray to
catch drippings and refrigerate until the bird thaws. Depending on it's size, allow two to
four days for thawing.
 If thawing in the refrigerator isn't possible due to lack of time, there are two other
alternatives. For a more rapid thawing, you can place the poultry in watertight wrapping
in cold water. Change water frequently to hasten thawing. Small birds require about 1
hour. Larger birds require 6 to 8 hours. Thaw until pliable.
 Or you can leave the bird in its wrapper and place it in a heavy grocery sack, closing the
opening. Put the bird on a tray and let it thaw in a cool room away from heat. Check it
frequently. Once thawed, the bird should be cooked immediately. Remember to allow
enough thawing time, since it will take quite a while for the bird to thaw.
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Game
All animals that are hunted and eaten are termed games
Game
Furred Feathered
Venison (Deer, Stag, Roe buck.), hind, Pheasant, Patridge, Snipe, Wild duck,
Mountain goat (Chamois), Rein deer, Quail, Guinea fowl, plover
Wild boar, Hare, Rabbit.
Furred Feathered
1. After skinning should be rubbed with salt, 1. Should be hanged for few days.
flour and black pepper. 2. Similar to poultry, but should be larded and
2. Hanged for 2-3 weeks for tenderizing. barded (covering with a thin layer of pork fat)
3. After hanging, should be marinated within
12-14 hrs.
4. Game have lean meat so they should be
larded or barded.
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Ahmedabad
CHAPTER-4
FISH MONGERY
(Fish butchery)
=================================================================
Generally fishes are of two types. They are river fish and sea fish. The river fishes are for i.e.
Eel, Lamphrey, Rohu, and katla. The sea fishes are for i.e. Salmon, trout, round and sea fishes
are flat.
75% of fish is water

18% of albuminoidal
Where as fat content varies from fish to fish.

Eel fish: - 26%
Salmon, Trout: - 12%
Shad: - 8.2%
Herring: - 6%
Fish contains high % age of phosphorous or phosphor ate compound. It is easily digestible for
sedentary workers and infants’ wastage of fish mongery is high i.e., up to 35-40 %.
FISHES ARE OF 3 TYPES
1. Round: - They are generally found on the top (round due to low pressure).
2. Flat: - They are found deep in the bottom (due to high pressure).
3. Shell fishes:- Moluscas, crustaceans.
Classification of Fish
1. Round Fish (white)

a) Cod c)Red mullet
d) whiting
b) Haddock
2 Round. Fish(Oily)
a) Anchovies e) Sardines
b) Herrings f) Trout
c) Mackerel g) Tuna
d) Salmon
2. Flat Fish(white)
a) Brill b) Turbot c) Sole d) Halibut
There are five types of fins in fishes

1. Pectoral--on either side of the gills ]paired fins
2. Pelvic--below the gill s] paired fins
3. Dorsal---on top of the body
4. Caudal—--tail fin
5. Anal ----- near the anal end
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Ahmedabad
Quality of Fish:
1. The eyes should be bright and moist it should be full and not sunken.
2. The gills should be bright pinkish red in colour and should give a fresh smell.
3. The flesh should be firm and springy or elastic.
4. The scaler should be plenty full, firm and should not come out easily while handling.
5. Fish should have a fresh salty smell.
STORAGE
Storage of fish should be done preferably between 1 to 2-degree C. Preferably fish should be
used fresh. It kept for a longer period of time it should be kept frozen. Quick frozen fish or be
stored till required but once if partially thawed, should not be refrozen to refrigerate fish, fish
should be clean, washed, dried and then refrigerated at 30 to 34 degree F. or 1 to 2 degree C.
Portion size of fish: -

125 gms with bone. 125 gms for fish croquettes
100 gms boneless.
.
FISH CUTS
1. Darne: - Slices of fish on the bones of round fish is known as darne.

2. Troncon: - Round stakes cut from a flat fish, they are thick pieces.
3. Fillet: - Boneless slice of fish, without the skin.
4. Supreme: - Large fillet cut in to slants for large round or flat fish.
5. Delice: - Neatly folded fillet in to two, for small fillet.
6. Goujons: - Strips of fish fillet for an by 8 cm. Mainly used as a garnish can be
crumbed and fried.
7. Goujonettes: - ½ cm * ½ cm by 4 cm. same as goujons.
8. Paupiettes: - Thin cuts of fillet, which is stiffed with fish or prawns and then fold in to
a cylindrical shape. The fillet of fish is laid flat on table stuffing is spread on it. Then
it is rolled up, tied with a string to keep shape, can be poached.
9. Rubaine: - This strips of fish folded in to a knot (goujons).
10.Medallion: - Round steak-cut from a fillet, which can also be prepared from minced
fish. Generally it is medallion shape portion.
11.Mignon: - Thin slice of fillet, folded in to a cone shape or a cornet shape.
12.Cotelette - A cut on the bones.
13 Plie: - Fillet of fish, small cut on the broader side and tail is embedded to form a knot,
i.e. fillet flattened and folded in two.
METHOD OF COOKING FISH
1. Boiling of fish --- with cold water or cooking liquor either with small or large pieces.
2. Boiling “point Au Bleu”--- shellfishes e.g. lobster, crab with head down alive till they
are cooked.
3. Poaching --- Cooking liquor barely covers fish covered with g.p paper and poached in
oven. Cooking liquor may be used for making sauces. Method suitable for small
whole fish cuts of fillet.
4. Stewing --- Fish cooked in this method is generally served as a soup in the form of a
broth known as “En Matelolte”.
5. Shallow frying --- Meunier.
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6. Deep-frying --- Colbert.
7. Baking --- Done covering with foil or leaves.
8. Roasting --- Similar to baking, expect covering.
9. Braising --- Keeping of fish in little stock and baking it.
10. Grilling --- cooked over griller after dusting
11.Au gratin --- Covered with a sauce, tomato sauce, fish Veloute and then baked.
SELECTION OF SHELL FISHES
1. Snails (les escargots) --- They are available in the land.

2. Oyster (les huitres) --- Can be had raw, fresh from sea or can be poached in their
own juice.
3. Mussels (le moules) --- found in both fresh water and sea water.
4. Scallops (le coquilles) --- Twice the size of oysters.
5. Cockles
6. Clams (le clovises) --- Bivalve type.
QUALITY
1. They should always be eaten during the season fresh.

2. They should be medium size and good weight.
3. Claws of crabs should be springy and not hanging down.
4. Eyes should be bright.
5. Tail of lobsters should spring back when stretched-out.
6. Shrimps and prawns should be crisp.
7. Oyster shells should be tightly closed.
8. Muscles should be absolutely fresh.
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Ahmedabad
==================================================================
CHAPTER-5
RICE ,CEREALS AND PULSES
==================================================================
RICE (ORYZA SATIVA)
- It is specially grown twice a year. Temp. Required is 21- 26 degree C. water required Is
160-250 mm. After sowing, it is allowed to grow up to 10-12 inches in small field, then they
are Plucked and sown in trenches i.e. big field with distance between them. Then they are to
grow for 3-4 months it is harvest and thrashed. Then processing is done for removing husk
from seeds.
Processing of rice is done by

pestle and mortar : It is rarely followed
Disc huller: - It is a method in which two stone disc rotate on Each other and thus husk is
removed.
In large-scale disc huller/ rolling machines are used. In this steel rollers are used to remove
the husk.
Anatomy of rice
Composition of rice
Carbohydrate 72-77 % Mineral traces.

Protein 7-8 % Rest moisture.
Fat 1%
TYPES OF RICE: -
a. Indica/ patna :- These are long grains used for making biryanis or pilaks.
They donot stick to each other.
b. Carolene / Japonica :- They are small grains used for making puddings and
kheer. They stick while cooking.
ENERGY CONTENT: -
Whole rice (husked) 350 calorie / 100 gm.
Blanched rice 120 calorie / 100 gm.
(Blanched/ boiled then dried again so that starch content is less, used in southern India).
PORTION: -
(1) 60-70 gm of raw rice should be used for main course.

(2) 25-30 gm for hors D-ouvre.
(3) 40 gm for Deserts.
77 % carbohydrate present in rice is digestible starch.
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CLASSIFICATION
a. paddy :- Rice with husk just after thrashing is called as a paddy.

b. Brown rice :- Husk is removed but bran portion is present. It is also called
whole rice. High content of proteins and minerals.
c. White rice :- The husk and bran layer is removed. It is also called as
unpolished rice.
d. Polished rice :- After removal of bran the rice is passed through machines to
remove white powdery part on rice.
e. Steamed / Pre treated rice :- Paddy is soaked, steamed, dried and then dehost.
It is also called as blanched rice.
f. Pre cooked rice :- Rice is boiled for 1-3 minutes and then dried and used later
on.
g. Camolino :- rice covered with oil, usually castor oil. It is done to increase shelf
life of rice.
h. Puffed rice :- Pre cooked rice cooked on the bed of hot sand to get puffed rice.
i. Wild rice :- It is rice obtained from northern America. It is derived from a
aquatic grass. The seeds grow through out stem and gives on resemble of a
black stick.
j. Basmati rice :- It is long grain rice with delicate flavors from India.
k. Surinam :- Long grain rice from Surinam with a testing tip flavors.
l. Perfumed :- It is long grain rice from Thailand and Vietnam with distinct
flavor.
m. Popped rice :- Rice is cooked in a hot oil at 200 degree C. resembling pop
corn.
n. Rice flakes :- The paddy or rice is seaked and then passed through pressing
rollers to
get rice flakes.
o. Rice semolina / rice flour :- Used for making different type of porridges and
ice is cooked by following: -
(1) Water --Drainage method

Absorbsion method
(2) Steam: - It is Chinese method of cooking where rice is cooked by steam.
(3) Au gras: - In this method rice is first saluted in hot oil or ghee and then the cooking is
done by absorption method by adding twice the quantity of water or stock.
E.g.: - Pillaf, Paella, Ala greque, risotte.
(4) Milk: - Used for making kher, fruit Conde.
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=================================================================
Other cereals used
=================================================================
They are generally used for staple food as they have carbohydrate concentration.
OATS :- They are small ones with husk on it offenly sold in market as flakes or rolled oats.
Prepared by crushing pre steamed Oat meals.
GROATS :- They are oats from which husk is removed. Used for making porridge.
MAIZE / CORN: - Rich in starch, mostly grounded to powder.Boiled and eaten as porridge
or attached to the cob itself.
They are of 3 types :-
a. Grain maize
b. Sweet corn
c. Pop corn
It used for making of corn breads or served as corn on cob.
RYE
It is dark black coloured cereal, which is often milled and used for making dark, firm textured
breaks. Used for making Rye whisky.
Rye bread rolls are served with oysters and seafoods, used for making ginger bread, vodka,
whisky and breads.
BARLEY: - They are available in 3 forms

Scotch barley : It used for making whisky and beers
Barley flakes : It used for making puddings.
Pearl barleys : It used for making soups and casseroles.
BUCK WHEAT :- Available is siberion country such as Russia and germany. It ressembles
beach nuts. Its flavors is grey in colour with black flakes rich in vitamins. But low in calories.
Used for making pan cake, blinis (accompany with caviar) porridge.
MUESLIE: - It is german word meaning mixture consisting cereals and dry fruits, fresh
fruits served with milk. Stand mixture of rolled oats, wheat germs, roasted almonds, resins
and sultanas.
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==================================================================
Pulses
================================================
- Combination of pulses and cereals provide a balanced diet. Pulses are dry seeds of plants
which belongs to the pulses or the legume family. The legumes provide 20 % of dietary
protein. Pulses contain twice as much proteins as cereals and half as much protein as lean
meat. It is good source of amino acids. Beans and peas are low in fat and high in
carbohydrate. Soya beans contain more calcium then other pulses.
Availability: - They are available in fresh and dry forms.

Fresh pulses are considered as fresh veg.
Cooking of pulses: - It gelatinizes starch and alters texture and alters improves flavor thus
making legumes palatable.
While cooking, cleaning and washing: - While cooking all legumes should be cleaned and
washed and some should be soaked for considered period of time. Additions of soda to the
soaking reduce time of soaking.
Dried beans should be soaked overnight to soften them.

Heat dried beans in boiling water and allow them to soak for one hour.
Time most legumes take is 1 ½ hrs of gentle boiling.
General rules for cooking pulses
Soak beans before cooking.

Throw water and start cooking with the fresh water, add salt towards end. (In case of dal ).
In places where hard water is available use a pinch of soda.
Cook at moderate heat.
Acid substance like tomatoes hamper the cooking time hence adds at later stage.
Cooking method
a. Boiling
b. Dals and pulses are eaten sprouted and raw.
c. Some pulses are used for making snacks like vada and idlis.
d. E.g. of pulses: - red grams or masoor dal, green grams or moong dal, chick
peas or Kabuli chana, bengal grams or desi chana, hericot beans ( lobia ) red
kidney beans ( rajma ) black gram ( urad.)
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========================================================
CHAPTER-6
i) BASIC PASTES (PASTRY)
==================================================================
A)Short crust paste
The dictionary meaning of the word 'short' in the bakery is friable, easily broken. It is a
mixture of flour, fat, sugar, egg, and milk or water. The usual method of making short crust
pastry is to rub the fat into the sieved flour and finely disperse the fat without turning the
fat/flour into a continuous paste.
Usage of this basic product the final product has a short eating quality. This happens
because the fat or S.A added forms a layer on the strands of the gluten and hence prevent
them from extending and so short eating quality.
They are of 2 types.
1. Rub-in :- In this method freezed fat is cut in the flour and with minimum handling dough
is made and this dough is kept in refrigerator. Rub or cut fat or shifted flour and salt till
resembles fine breadcrumbs. Sprinkle water evenly ( uneven sprinkling may cause blisters
during baking) and mix the dough to a large lump. It may be formed into one piece gently
working with fingertips. It should be firm and free of crack. Chill for about 15-30 minutes
before use.
Roll as required using short, light strokes, rotating regularly to maintain even shape.
Product made from this dough the temp used is 190 degree C for 20-25 min.
2.Creaming method :- In this method fat is creamed first
Flour 100 gm, fat 50 gm, salt a pinch, chilled water as required (for sweet short crust
pastry 30 gm of powder sugar is added).
Products made from these are pies, Tarts, cream horn, cream slices.
Precautions
Ingredients should be chilled.
Working should be done at cool place.
Over handling should be avoided.
Minimum amount of water should be used.
Weak flour should be used.
Product should be cooled before filling.
FAULTS IN SHORT CRUST PASTRY

* Hard/tough pastry caused by:
a) Too much liquid.
b) Too little fat.
c) Over handling or insufficient rubbing in.
d) Too much flour for rolling.
* Soft/crumbly pastry caused by:
a) Too little water.
b) Too much fat.
c) Self-raising flour used instead of plain flours.
d) Insufficient mixing.
* Shrunk pastry caused by:
a) Dough rolled unevenly in thickness.
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b) stretching during rolling out.

* Soggy pastry caused by:
a) Filling too moist.
b) Sugar in asweet pie in contact with the pastry
c)low baking temp.
*sunken pastry causedby:

1. oven temp to low. Cold pastry put over hot filling.
2. Too much liquid in filling.
3. To little filling
*speckled pastry caused by
1. dissolved sugar grains in enriched pastry crust
*blistered pastry caused by

1. water sprinkled unevenly indough making
2. pastry fitted too tightly
3. insufficient docking/ scouring
4. too low oven temp.
*crust not brown caused by:

1. too little fat
2. too much water
3. too much flour on board
4. over mixng
5. rolled too thick
6. too low oven temp.
B)LAMINATED PASTRY
Lamination is the process by which several layers of fat is introduced between several layers
of dough in the making of certain pastries, so at on baking the pastry has a number of
distinctly separate layers, is risen, crisp and lught. Laminated Pastries are those pastries
which are made by the process of lamination, during baking of laminated pastries; steam is
generated between layers of dough from the moisture present in the dough as well as that
present in the fat which pushes up the pastry layers resulting in a well rien pastry.
Flaky pastry, puff pastry and rough puff pastry are laminated pastry . Danish pastry
is the combination of both laminated pastry and the leavened pastry. Danish pastry, is a
combination pastry.
THE ROLE OF BASIC INGREDIENTS USED IN THE LAMINATED PASTRY ARE AS

FOLLOWS:
i) FLOUR: Flour used for laminated pastry has to be strong flour so that good strong
gluten can be formed during kneading of the dough. It is the gluten which gives structure to
the pastry by;
a) Enabling the pastry to hold shape during rolling and folding.
b) Preventing the pastry from tearing during rolling and folding.
c) By preventing the escape of steam during baking and enabling the layers of
dough to rise with the rising steam without breaking under its pressure.
ii) FAT: The fat used in laminated pastry helps in keeping the dough layers from
sticking to each other and also provides a certain amount of moisture, which can be converted
to steam for raising the pastry.
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iii) SALT: Salt improves flavour and taste of the pastry, it also helps in mellowing and
conditioning the gluten in the duogh in the dough. Acids like lime juices also helps in
mellowing the gluten but are not absolutely necessary in the making of laminated pastry.
iv) WATER: Water helps in dough formation and development of gluten. During baking
this water gets converted to steam, which pushes each layer of dough in the pastry upwards
and separates from each other. The average puff pastry dough consists of equal parts of flour
and shortenings. If less shortening is used the end products will be tougher.
The puff pastry dough should not be rolled too thin between foldind otherwise the
layer of shortening and dough will become too thin which will lower the volume of the
resultant products. The dough should always be given sufficient rest between the rollings for
the gluten to relax. The dough should always be kept in a cold place if the refrigerated
facilities are not available. This prevents the softening or melting of the shortening.
POINTS TO REMEMBER:
* Roll the dough as evenly as possible
* Roll in various directions so that the gluten will not be stretched only in one
direction
* Too much pressure should not be used or applied while rolling otherwise this will
cause tearing or crushing of layers of shortening and dough.care should be taken not to use
too much of dusting flour. Excess flour should be brushed off the dough before folding which
will help the folds to stick together.
* Always use sharp cutters and knives while cutting the dough into desired shapes.
Blunt tools will seal the edges of the dough and this in turn may result in the finished product
lacking volume, uneven rise and tripping of flaky layers.
* There are two types of puff pastry, full and three quarter.
* Three well known methods of manufacture – English, French and Scotch.
* The differences in types are in fat content and in the number of rolls and folds given
then
a) FULL PASTRY- Flour and fat in equal ratio
b) THREE QUARTER PASTRY- Three quarter of fat to each pound of flour
ENGLISH METHOD:- After the dough is made and recovered from the manipulation, it is
pinned out to a long rectangular shape two-thirds of the surface is covered with small pieces
of butter, taking care that the pieces are not too near the edge. The flap of dough containing
no butter is brought up and the top third of the dough containing butter is brought down, so
that there are three layers of dough and of two of butter. The pastry is given a half turn so
that the open ends are parallel to the rolling pin and again pinned out to a rectangle and
folded into three, this process is repeated.
FRENCH METHOD:- In this method the dough is made in exactly the same way as for the
English method. The initial pinning out of the dough however is different for it is rolled out
to the shape of an envelope with the four angles slightly thinner than the center. The butter
should be completely enveloped within duogh of uniform thickness the pastry is then pinned
out to a rectangle and finished in the same way as for English method.
SCOTCH METHOD:- In this method the fat is mixed into the sieved flour in pieces about
the size of walnuts, the water, color and acid are placed into the bay and the whole mixed
together without using too much pressure. To form dough with butter pieces more or less
intact. The pastry is rolled exactky the same way as for the English and French methods.
PRECAUTIONS
Ingredients should be as cold as possible.

They should be made on the cold marble table in a cool room.
They consistency of dough and the chilled fat should be as similar as possible.
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Rolling should be done with light strokes starting from the center.
Rest in the refrigerator after each folding.
For baking initial high temp at 450 degree F for 10 min to turn moisture in to steam placed on
a bainmaire and then at 350 degree F for 15 min.
RECIPES
Flour 225 gm, salt half tea spoon, fat or margarine 170 gm, lemon juice one tea spoon, ice
cold water to mix.
For eg: - au-vent, bouchees, mille feuille. 1000 layer cake which is prepared from flaky
pastry over which jam or custard or cream on it flaky pastry agam over it jam and so on. This
is a crispy product unlike the cake.
C) CHOUX PASTE: - CHOUX-small round pastry filled with cream. It is a liquid mixture,
which produces steam causing the product to rise during baking , and solids which give
strength and structure. When placed in a oven a skin forms over the surface while the
moisture inside boils to form steam.
Pressure builds up to bring raw paste to the surface, which again forms a skin. this process is
repeated until there is no paste left with moisture to produce steam, leaving a hollow solid
shell which has a very aerated appearance, is yellow in color and crisp on outside with little
flavor of its own.
Recipe: - flour 150 gm, butter 55 gm, eggs 4 no, water 300 ml, sugar 5 gm, and vanilla
essence ¼ tea spoon.
Water is taken and fat is boiled in it. The info it flour is added and heated on the high flame.
After this fat leaving the sides and when palm is touched fat comes on palm. Then eggs are
added and whisked fill piping like consistency. After this éclair mould are piped. And then
baked.Bake for 450 degree F for 15 min and then 350 degree F for next 15 min. then allow to
cool in the oven with doors open for gradual cooling. For e.g. profits roles, chocolate éclairs
(Can be deep fried also).
Precaution: - should not open door or no temp fluctuation should be there while baking.
For e.g. gateau mount blanc: - They are profit roles cut from bottom and cream is applied and
put on the plate one over other in a pyramid shape. On this chocolate sauces is spread and
over it icing sugar is sprinkled.
DANISH PASTRY
It is essentially a combination of two methods. Primarily making dough with yeast and then
by rolling and folding in of butter/ fat which is known as lamination.This pastry can be
defined as a sweet puff pastry product made from rich fermented sweet dough.
Precautions
1. No excess dusting flour should be used when rolling the dough. All excess flour should
be brushed off before folding.
2. If danish dough is too young it will not flake during baking.If the dough is too old the
flakes will be in excess and tough.
3. If during baking oven temp. is too cold, the rolled fat will leak between the layers because
of excessive rise of dough in oven and slows in setting of the crust.
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ii) FLOUR
==================================================================
Cultivation required dry-cold weather. In India it is sown in the spring and winter season.
Structure of wheat
TYPES OF WHEAT: -
a. Hard (a) Hard spring: - These yield a strong flour

(b) Hard Winter:- Used for bread making and For fermentation
Mixing tolerance,Excellent gas holding Capacity, high water Asorbtion property
Used for yeast risen Product.
b. Soft (a) Red: - Soft flour used for cakes.

(b) White: - pastries and cookies, it contain low protein content, low
water absorption capacity, poor tolerance to mixing and formation. Used for
chemical reasoned products. For e.g. cookies and biscuits etc.
Milling of wheat: - It is generally done by 2 methods.
Stone milling: - It is generally seen in India. In this two stone wheels are kept very adjacent
on one over other and on rotation of one wheel the wheat is grinded to flour.
Roller milling: - in this steel cylinder are installed for grinding of the grains to the flour.
a. scalping :- It is first method of milling in which wheat is passed through roller
and broken to small pieces.
b. Subsequent :- After scalping it under goes subsequent process in which
endosperm is extrcted. After each type of grinding sieving is done.
c. Reduction :- In this endosperm is broken to fine powder. It is the 3rd roller.
After this sieving is done to get different types of flour.
Out of whole wheat 82.5 % is endosperm. Out of 82.5 % of endosperm 72 % of endosperm

can be extracted. This extraction obtained is called straight flour.
Now 72 % is endosperm and 28 % is rest.
70 % fine powder is called first patent (cakes and pastries).

80 % short patent (premium quality bread).
90 % medium patent (featured brand of bread).
95 % long patent (competitive brand of bread).
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COMPOSITION OF WHEAT
Starch 70 % Mineral 0.4 %

Moisture 14 % Sugar 1%
Protein 11.5 % Fats/lipids 2.1 %
Note: - In the production of flour for baking both bran and germ is removed, as sharp edges
of bran will tend to cut shelf structure of loaf during proving.
Proving and fermentation are processes, which takes place after mixing when dough is kept
under controlled conditions.
The bran is high in nutritive values and mostly used as animal feed.
The germ is removed, as it is rich in oils and will affect keeping quality of flours.
Gluten in wheat flour is of two types Glutenin and gliadin.
FLOUR ENZYMES
a. Beta amylase: - It converts dextrin and soluble starch to maltose. Which is

essential for yeast fermentation but it is susceptible to heat.
b. Alpha amylase: - It converts soluble starch to dextrin. It is stable to heat up to
75-80 degree C.
gelatinization is a stage when starch is converted to gelatin or jelly.
Hydrolysis :- It is a chemical process of decomposition, involving addition of water.
Malting :- It is change in flour brought about by the enzymatic actions during baking.
QUALITY OF FLOUR FOR MAKING BREAD
Colour: - Should have a creamish colour, which is done by modification of baking formula,
mechanical treatment of dough and by adding of ingredients that will affect colour.
Strength: - The flour should be strong to withstand fermentation and dough should be able to
retaire its shape after molding.
Tolerance: - Should with stand prolong mixing with out breaking down of gluten.
High absorption capacity: - The flour should be able to with hold maximum amount of
moisture.
Uniformity of flour: - Being used other wise it will retain checks and modification.
White wheat flour

White wheat flour is milled from wheat kernels after the outer covering, called bran, and the
germ have been removed. Wheat four contains about 63 to 73% starch and 7 to 15% protein.
The rest is moisture, fat, sugar, and minerals.
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Wheat flour is the source of the protein called gluten, which you remember is one of the most
essential elements in baking. Bakers select flour on the basis of its gluten content. Flours high
in protein are called “strong”, Those low in protein are called “weak”.
For our purposes in the small bakeshop, web need to know about three kinds of wheat flour:
1. Bread flour is a strong flour that is used for making breads, hard rolls, and any product
that requires high gluten. The best bread flours are called patents. Straight flours are also
strong flours.
2. Cake flour is a weak or, low gluten flour made from soft wheat. It has a very soft, smooth
texture and a pure white color. Cake flour is used for cakes and other delicate baked
goods that require low gluten content.
3. Pastry flour is lower in gluten than bread flour but higher than cake flour. It has the same
creamy white color as bread flour, not the pure white of cake flour. Pastry flour is used
for cookies, pie pastry and sweet yeast doughs, and for biscuits and muffins.
Being able to identify these three flours by sight and touch is an important skill, because
sooner or later, someone dumps a bag of flour into the wrong bin, and you will want to be
able to recognize the problem.
Bread flour feels slightly coarse when rubbed between the fingers. If squeezed into lump, it
falls apart as soon as the hand is opened. Its color is creamy white.
Cake flour feels very smooth and fine. It stays in a lump when squeezed in the palm of the
hand. Its color is pure white.
Pastry flour feels more like cake flour but has the creamy color of bread flour.
All-purpose flour, seen in retail markets, is not often found in bakeshops. This flour is
formulated to be slightly weaker than bread flour so that it can be used for pastries as well. A
professional baker, however, prefers to use flours that are formulated for specific purposes,
because these give the best results.
Whole wheat flour
Whole wheat flour is made by grinding the entire wheat kernel, including the bran and germ.
The germ, which is the embryo of a new wheat plant, is high in fat, which can become rancid.
So whole wheat flour does not keep as well as white flour.
Since it is made from wheat, whole wheat flour contains gluten, so can be used alone in
bread making. However, a bread made with 100% whole wheat will be heavy, because the
gluten strands are cut by the sharp edges of the bran flakes. This is why most whole wheat
breads are strengthened with white bread flour.
Graham flour is whole wheat flour in which the bran has been ground every fine.
STORAGE
Why do we store flour?
1. To allow it to mature and improve in colour which gives better absorption and uniform
mixing.
HOW TO STORE
 Should be stored in well ventilated area. Above the floor or skids on flats.
 Should be away from direct sunlight.
 Temperature should be between 55-65 %
 Should be kept away from strong smelling compounds.
Functions of wheat
 Give base to the production.  Structure to the product.

 Helps in gluten formation.  Provide nutrition.
 Food for yeast.  Absorbs water (W.A.P).
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Uses: - Used for making bakery products

like cake, pastries, biscuits, breads etc. it is
used for coating products used in butter
and savarin.
===============================================
iii)SIMPLE BREADS
======================================================
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF BAKING:
When you consider that most bakery products are made of the same few ingredients – flour,
shortening, sugar, eggs, water or milk, and leavenings – then you should have no difficulty
understanding the importance of accuracy in the bakeshop, since slight differences in
proportions or procedures can mean great differences in the final product.
If you have begun your food service studies in a kitchen production laboratory, you have
surely been told many times of importance of measurement, not only for portion control and
cost control but also for consistency in the quality of the final product. However, you have no
doubt also learned that there is a great deal of margin for error, that it is possible (if not
desirable ) to cook many foods without measuring anything. Coming into the bakeshop,
where measurement is absolutely essential, may be a bit of a shock to you after your kitchen
experiences, but it should reinforce the habits of accuracy that you may have let slip.
If, on the other hand, you are beginning your practical studies in the bakeshop, then you will
do well to pay particular attention to the principles of measurements you will learn here. They
will be valuable throughout your career.
FORMULAS AND MEASUREMENT :

Bakers generally talk about “formulas” rather than “recipes.” If this sounds to you more like
the chemistry lab.
Than the kitchen, it is with good reason. The bakeshop is very much like a chemistry
laboratory both in scientific accuracy of all the procedures and in the complex reactions that
take place during mixing and baking.
MEASUREMENT
All ingredients must be weighed. Accuracy of measurement, as we have already said many
times, is critical in the bakeshop. Measurement is by weight rather than by volume measure,
because weighing is much more accurate. Unlike in homemakers’ recipes, you will not see a
professional baker’s formula calling for 6 cups of flour.
To demonstrate to yourself the importance of weighing rather than measuring by volume,
measure a cup of flour in two ways. (1) Sift some flour and lightly spoon it into a dry
measure. Level the top and weigh the flour. (2) Scoop up some unsifted flour into the same
measure and pack it lightly. Level the top and weight the flour. Note the difference. No
wonder home recipes can be so inconsistent!
The baker’s term for weighing out the ingredients is scaling.
The following ingredients may be measured by volume, because they weigh one pound per
pint :
Water
Milk
Eggs
Thus, if a formula calls for 2lb of eggs, you may measure 2pt (1qt). (Liquid flavoring
ingredients, such as vanilla extract, normally measured in very small quantities, may also be
measured by volume; one tablespoon equals one-half ounce.) All other liquid ingredients
(such as corn syrup or molasses) and all dry ingredients are normally weighed.
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1st year 2nd Semester Sanjit Maji
Food Production Theory Faculty IHM Ahmedabad
BAKER’S PERCENTAGES
Bakers use a simple but versatile system of percentages for expressing their formulas.
Baker’s percentages indicate the quantities of each item that would be required if 100lbs of
flour were being used.
To put it differently, the percentage of each ingredient is its total weight divided by the
weight of the flour, multiplied by 100%, or :
Weight of ingredient X 100 % = % of ingredient

Weight of flour
Thus, flour is always 100%. (if two kinds of flour are used, their total is 100%.) Any
ingredient that weighs the same as the flour is also given as 100%. The following ingredients
from a cake formula illustrate how these percentages are used. Check the figures with the
above equation to make sure you understand them.
Ingredient Weight Percentage

Cake flour 5lb 100%
Sugar 5lb 100%
Baking powder 4oz 5%
Salt 2oz 2.5%
Emulsified shortening 2lb 8oz 50%
Skim milk 3lb 60%
Egg whites 3lb 60%
The advantages of using baker’s percentage is that the formula is easily adapted for any yield,
and single ingredients any be varied without changing the whole formulation .
To calculate the weight of an ingredient, simply multiply its percentage by the weight of the
flour. For example, if a formula calls for 20% sugar and you are using 10lb of flour, you will
need 2lb sugar (20% of 10lb, or 0.20* 10lb).
Clearly, the percentage system we have been discussing is used only when flour is a major
ingredient, such as in breads, cakes, and cookies. For these formulas, we use a written format
different from our regular recipe fromat in this book.
SELECTION OF INGREDIENTS
In addition to measuring there is another basic rule of accuracy in the bakeshop: U se the
exact ingredients specified.
As you will learn later in this chapter, different flours, shortenings, and other ingredients do
not function alike.
Baker’s formulas are balanced for specific ingredients. Do not substitute bread flour for
pastry flour or regular shortening for emulsified shortening, for example. They won’t work
the same way.
Occasionally a substitution may be made, such as active dry yeast for compressed yeast, but
not without adjusting the quantities or re-balancing the formula.
MIXING AND GLUTEN DEVELOPMENT
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What is GLUTEN?
Gluten is a protein present in wheat flours that gives structure and strength to baked goods.
In order for gluten to be developed, the protein s must first absorb water. Then, as the dough
or batter is mixed or kneaded, the gluten forms long, elastic strands. As the dough or batter is
leavened, these strands capture the gasses in tiny pockets or cells, and we say the product
“rises”. When the product is baked the gluten, like all proteins, coagulates or solidifies and
gives structure to the product.
How does the baker control gluten?

Flour is mostly starch, as you know, but it is the protein of gluten content, not the starch, that
concerns the baker the most. Without gluten protein to give structure, baked goods would not
hold together.
The baker must be able to control the gluten, how ever. For example, we want French bread
to be firm and chewy, which requires much gluten. On the other hand we want cakes to be
tender, which means we want very little gluten development.
Ingredient proportions and mixing methods are determined in part by how they affect the
development of gluten.
The baker has several methods for adjusting gluten development:

1. Selection of flours.
Wheat flours are classified as strong or weak, depending on their protein content.
Strong flours come from hard wheat and have a high protein content.
Weak flours come from soft wheat and have a low protein content.
Thus we use strong flour for bread and weak flour for cakes.
Only wheat flour will develop gluten. To make bread from rye and other grains, the formula
must be balanced with some high-gluten flour, or the bread will be heavy.
2. Shortening.
Any fat used in bakery is called shortening because it shortens gluten standards. It does this
by surrounding the particles and lubricating them so they do not stick together. Thus, fats are
tenderizers. A cookie or pastry that is very crumbly, due to high fat content is said to be
“short.” You can see why French bread has little or no fat, while cakes contain a great deal.
3. Liquid.
Since gluten proteins must absorb water before they can be developed, the amount of water in
a formula can affect toughness or tenderness. Pie crusts and crisp cookies are made with very
little liquid, to keep them tender.
4. Mixing methods.
In general, the more a dough or batter is mixed, the more the gluten develops. Thus, bread
doughs are mixed or kneaded for a longer time to develop gluten. Cakes, pie crust, muffins,
and other products which must be tender are mixed for a short time.
It is possible to over-mix bread dough, however. Gluten strands will stretch only so far. They
will break if the dough is over-mixed.
THE BAKING PROCESS

The changes undergone by a dough or batter as it bakes are basically the same for all baked
products, from breads to cookies and cakes. You should know what these changes are so you
can learn how to control them.
The stages in the baking process take place as follows:

1. Formation and expansion of gases
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Some gasses are already present in the dough, as in proofed bread dough and in sponge cake
batters. As they are heated, the gasses expand and leaven the product.
Some gasses are not formed until heat is applied. Yeast and baking powder form gasses
rapidly when first placed in the oven. Steam is also formed as the moisture of the dough is
heated.
2. Trapping of gases in air cells.

As the gasses are formed and expand, they are trapped in a stretchable network formed by the
proteins in the dough. These proteins are primarily gluten and some egg protein.
Without gluten or egg protein, the gasses would escape, and the product would not be
leavened. Breads without enough gluten are heavy.
3. Coagulation of proteins.
Like all proteins, gluten and egg proteins coagulate or solidify when they reach high enough
temperatures. It is this process that gives structure to baked goods.
Correct baking temperature is very important. If too high, coagulation will start too soon,
before the expansion of gasses has reached its peak. The product will have poor volume or a
split crust. If the temperature is too low, the proteins will not coagulate soon enough, and the
product may collapse.
4. Gelatinization of starches.
The starches absorb moisture, expand, and become firmer.
5. Evaporation of some water.

This takes place throughout the baking process.
6. Melting of shortenings.
Different shortenings melt – and release trapped gasses – at different temperatures, so the
proper shortening should be selected for each product.
7. Browning of the surface and crust formation

Browning occurs when sugars caramelize and starches and proteins undergo certain changes.
This contributes to flavor. Milk, sugar and eggs increase browning.
A crust is formed as water evaporates from the surface and leaves it dry.
STALING
Staling is the change in texture and aroma of the baked products due to the loss of moisture
by the starch granules. Stale baked good have lost their “fresh baked” aroma and are firmer,
drier, and more crumbly than fresh products.
Prevention of staling is a major concern of the baker, because most baked goods lose quality
rapidly.
Staling can be slowed by these techniques:
1. Protecting the product from air.

Wrapping bread in plastic and covering cakes with icing are two examples.
Unfortunately, hard-crusted breads, which stale very rapidly, should not be wrapped, or the
crust will become soft.
These bread products should always be served fresh.
2. Adding moisture retainers to the formula

Fats and sugars are good moisture retainers, and products high in these ingredients keep best.
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Some of the best French breads have no fat at all, and it must be served within hours of
baking or it will begin to stale. For longer keeping, bakers often add a very small amount of
fat and/or sugar to the formula.
3. Freezing.
Baked goods frozen before they become stale maintain quality for longer periods. They
should be served very quickly after thawing. Frozen breads may be reheated with excellent
results if the are to be served immediately.
Refrigerating actually seems to speed staling rather than slowing it. Only baked goods that
could develop health hazards, such as those with cream fillings, are refrigerated.
Loss of crispiness is caused by absorption of moisture, so it is in a sense the opposite of

staling. This is a problem with low moisture products such as cookies and pie crusts. The
problem is usually solved by proper storage in airtight wraps or containers to protect the
products form moisture in the air.
Pre-baked pie shells should be filled as close to service time as possible.
INGREDIENTS-USES AND IMPORTANCE IN BAKERY

The following introduction to baking ingredients is necessarily simplified. If you decide to
pursue a career as a baker, you will need to learn a great deal of technical information.
However, the basic information is here, Enough to enable you to produce a ful range of baked
items in a small bakeshop or a restaurant kitchen.
Flours, Meals, and Starches
White wheat flour

White wheat flour is milled from wheat kernels after the outer covering, called bran, and the
germ have been removed. Wheat four contains about 63 to 73% starch and 7 to 15% protein.
The rest is moisture, fat, sugar, and minerals.
Wheat flour is the source of the protein called gluten, which you remember is one of the most
essential elements in baking. Bakers select flour on the basis of its gluten content. Flours high
in protein are called “strong”, Those low in protein are called “weak”.
For our purposes in the small bakeshop, web need to know about three kinds of wheat flour:
4. Bread flour is a strong flour that is used for making breads, hard rolls, and any product
that requires high gluten. The best bread flours are called patents. Straight flours are also
strong flours.
5. Cake flour is a weak or, low gluten flour made from soft wheat. It has a very soft, smooth
texture and a pure white color. Cake flour is used for cakes and other delicate baked
goods that require low gluten content.
6. Pastry flour is lower in gluten than bread flour but higher than cake flour. It has the same
creamy white color as bread flour, not the pure white of cake flour. Pastry flour is used
for cookies, pie pastry and sweet yeast doughs, and for biscuits and muffins.
Being able to identify these three flours by sight and touch is an important skill, because
sooner or later, someone dumps a bag of flour into the wrong bin, and you will want to be
able to recognize the problem.
Bread flour feels slightly coarse when rubbed between the fingers. If squeezed into lump, it
falls apart as soon as the hand is opened. Its color is creamy white.
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Cake flour feels very smooth and fine. It stays in a lump when squeezed in the palm of the
hand. Its color is pure white.
Pastry flour feels more like cake flour but has the creamy color of bread flour.
All-purpose flour, seen in retail markets, is not often found in bakeshops. This flour is
formulated to be slightly weaker than bread flour so that it can be used for pastries as well. A
professional baker, however, prefers to use flours that are formulated for specific purposes,
because these give the best results.
Whole wheat flour

Whole wheat flour is made by grinding the entire wheat kernel, including the bran and germ.
The germ, which is the embryo of a new wheat plant, is high in fat, which can become rancid.
So whole wheat flour does not keep as well as white flour.
Since it is made from wheat, whole wheat flour contains gluten, so can be used alone in
bread making. However, a bread made with 100% whole wheat will be heavy, because the
gluten strands are cut by the sharp edges of the bran flakes. This is why most whole wheat
breads are strengthened with white bread flour.
Graham flour is whole wheat flour in which the bran has been ground every fine.
Rye Flour
Next to white and whole wheat, rye is the most popular flour in bread making. Since rye flour
does not develop gluten, breads made with it will be heavy unless some hard wheat flour is
added.
Rye flour is available in three shades, light, medium, and dark, and in a coarsely ground
form called pumpernickel.
Rye blend is a mixture of rye flour and hard wheat flour.
Other flours
Products milled from other grains are occasionally used to add variety to baked goods. These
include corn meal, buckwheat flour, soy flour, potato flour, oat flour, and barley flour. The
term “meal” is used for products that are not as finely ground as flour.
All these products must normally be used in combination with wheat flour, since they do
not form gluten.
Starches
In addition to flours, some other starch products are also used in the bakeshop. Unlike flour
they are used primarily to thicken puddings, pie fillings, and similar products. The principles
of thickening with starches are covered in Chapter 8.
The most important starches in dessert production are as follows:
1. Cornstarch has a special property that makes it valuable for certain purposes. Products
thickened with cornstarch set up almost like gelatin when cooled. For this reason, it is
used to thicken cream pies and other products that must hold their shape.
2. Waxy maize and other modified starches also have valuable properties. They do not break
down when frozen, so are used for products that are to be frozen. Also, they are very clear
when cooked, and give a brilliant, clear appearance to fruit pie fillings.
Waxy maize does not set up firm like cornstarch, but makes a soft paste, which has the
same consistency hot and cold. Thus it is not suitable for cream pie fillings.
3. Instant starches have been precooked or pre gelatinized, so they will thicken cold liquids
without further cooking. They are useful when heat will damage the flavor of the product,
as in fresh fruit glazes(such as strawberry)
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Fats
We have said that one of the main functions of fats in baking is to shorten gluten strands and
tenderize the product. We can summarize the reasons for using fats in baked items as follows:
 To tenderize the product and soften the texture.
 To add moistness and richness.
 To add flavor.
 To assist in leavening, when used as creaming agents or when used to give flakiness to
puff pastry, pie dough, and similar products.
Shortenings
Any fats acts as a shortening in baking, since it shorten gluten strands and tenderizes the
product. However we usually use the word shortening to mean any of group of solid fats,
usually white and tasteless, that have especially formulated for baking
Since shortenings are used for many purposes manufactures have formulated different
kinds of fats with different properties. There are three main types
1). Regular shortenings
These are called “plastic” shortenings because they have tough , waxy texture, and small
particles of the fat tend to hold the shape of dough or batter . also this type of shortenings
does not melt until a high temperature has been reached. Because of its texture, these type of
shortenings is used for flaky products such as pie crust and biscuits. It is also used in breads
and many other pastries. Unless another shortenings is specified regular shortenings is
generally used
2) Emulsified shortenings.
These are soft shortenings that spread easily throughout batter and quickly coat the
particle of sugar and flour. Because of their easy spreading they are also incorporate more air
when creamed. Thus they give a smoother and finer textures and cakes and make them
moister.
Emulsified shortening is often used whenever the weight of sugar in a cake batter is
greater than the weight of flour. Because this shortening spreads so well, a simpler mixing
method can be used. Such cake are referred to as “high-ratio cakes” , so emulsifies shortening
is sometimes called high ratio shortening.
In addition, emulsified shortening is used in icings, because it can hold more sugar and
liquid without curdling.
3) Puff pastry shortenings

These are a firm and plastic like regular shortening. They are especially formulated for
puff pastry and other doughs that form layers, such as Danish pastry.
Butter and Margarine

Shortenings are manufactured to have certain texture and hardness. Butter, on other hand, is a
natural product that doesn’t have these advantages. It is hard and brittle when cold, very soft
at room temperature and it melts easily. Consequently, doughs made with butter are much
harder to handle. Margarine is a little easier to handle, but it has many of the same
disadvantages.
On the other hand, butter and margarine have two major advantages:
1. Flavor. Shortenings are intentionally flavorless, but butter has a highly desirable flavor.
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2. Melting qualities. Butter melts in the mouth. Shortenings do not. After eating pastries or
icings made with
shortening, one can be left with an unpleasant film of shortening coating the mouth.
For these reasons, many bakers and pastry chefs feel that the advantages of butter outweigh
its disadvantages for some purposes.
Oil
Oil are liquid fats. They are not often used as shortening in baking, because they spread
through batter or dough too thoroughly and shorten too much. Their usefulness in the
bakeshop is limited to greasing pans and proofing bowls, to deep-frying doughnuts, and to
serving as a wash for some kinds of rolls. A few quick breads and cakes use oil as a
shortening.
Lard
Lard is the rendered fat of hogs. Because of its plastic quality, it was once highly valued for
making flaky piecrusts. Since the development of modern shortenings, it is not often used in
the bakeshop.
Sugars
Sugars or sweetening agents are used for the following purposes in baking:
 To add sweetness and flavor.

 To create tenderness and fineness of texture by weakening the gluten structure.
 To give crust color.
 To increase keeping qualities by retaining moisture.
 To act as creaming agents with fats.
We customarily use the term “sugar” for regular refined sugars derived from sugar cane or
beets. The chemical name for these sugars is sucrose. However, other sugars of different
chemical structure are also used in the bakeshop. The following are the more important
sugars:
Honey contains invert sugar, which means that it stays smooth and resists crytalizing. Like
molasses, it contains acid, which enables it to be used with baking soda as a leavening.
MALT SYRUP-
Malt syrup is used primarily in yeast breads. It serves as food for the yeast and adds flavour
and crust color to the breads.
LIQUIDS
Gluten cannot be developed without moisture, so liquids are essential to the baking process.
Pie crusts provide a good illustration of how liquids function in baking. If too much water
is incorporated in a pie dough, a lot of gluten will be developed and the crust will be tough.
If no water at all is used, no gluten will develop and the crust will not hold together.
Some of the moisture doughs and batters changes to steam during baking. This
contributes to leavening.
WATER
Water is the basic liquid in baking, especially in breads.
Tap water in normally suitable for most baking purposes. However, in some localities, the
water may be very hard, meaning that it contains many dissolved minerals. These minerals
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interfere with proper gluten development. In these areas the water may have to be treated for
use in baking.
MILK AND CREAM
Milk products are important in baking. These products include liquid whole and skim milk,
buttermilk, and dry milk solids.
Milk contributes to the texture, flavor, nutritional value, keeping quality, and crust
color of baked goods.
1. whole milk contains fat, which must be calculated as part of the shortening in a dough.
For this reason, whole and skim milk are not interchangeable in a formula, unless
adjustment are for the fat.
2. Buttermilk, which is slightly acid, is often used for quick breads, in conjunction with
baking soda as a leavening agent.
3. Cream is not often used as a liquid in a dough and batters, except in a few speciality
products. In these instances, it is used as a shortening as well as a liquid, because of its
fat content. Cream is important in the production of fillings and toppings .
4. dry milk is often used because of its convenience and low cost. In some formulas, it si not
necessary to re constitute it. The milk powder is included with the dry ingredient, and
water is used as the liquid
OTHER SOURCES OF LIQUID

Eggs, honey, molasses, and even butter (about 15% water) contribute moisture to a dough or
batter. In many cookies, for example, eggs are only the liquid in the formula.
EGGS
Forms
eggs are purchased in the following form:
1. Whole shell eggs.
2. Frozen: whites, yolks, whole and whole with extra yolks.
3. Dried: whole, whites, yolks.
FUNCTIONS
Eggs perform the following functions in baking:
1. STRUCTURE
Like gluten protein, egg protein coagulates to give structure to baked products. This is
specially important in high-ratio cakes, where the high sugar and fat weakens the gluten.
If used in large quantities, eggs give toughness or chewiness to baked products, unless
balanced by high fat and sugar, which are tenderizers.
2. EMULSIFYING OF FATS
Egg yolks contains natural emulsifiers, which help produce smooth batters. This
contribute to volume and texture.
3. LEAVENING
Beaten air incorporates air in tiny cells or bubbles. In a batter, this trapped air expands
when heated and aids in leavening.
4. SHORTENING ACTION:The fat in egg yolks acts as a shortening. This is an important

function in products that are low in other fats.
5. MOISTURE:Eggs are 70% water. This moisture must be calculated as a part of total
liquid in a formula.
6. FLAVOR
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7. NUTRITIONAL VALUE
8. COLOR
Yolks impart an yellow color to doughs and batters. Also, eggs brown easily and
contribute to crust color.
WATER
Types: -
1. Hard: - Ions of magnesium and calcium.
2. Soft water: - Does not produce much gas during fermentation.
Hard water prevents or retards fermentation due to hardening of gluten.
Saline or nacl will have reduced gas production due to action of salt on yeast.
Presence of iron in water will give undesirable colour to the product.
Acidic water will speed up the fermentation but the gas retention will be poor due to
softening of gluten correction of these type of water is done adding lime or calcium
hydroxide and then filtered.
Function: -
 Gluten formation  Helps in enzyme activity (Hydrolysis).
 Moisturizing agent.  It dissolves suspends and distribute
 Consistency. non flour ingredients uniform
 Binding agent.  In the batter, dough
 Controls the dough temperature.
.
SALT, FLAVORINGS, AND SPICES
SALT
Salt plays a very important role in baking. It is more than just a seasoning or flavor enhancer.
It also has these functions:
1. Salt strengthens gluten structure and makes it more stretchable. Thus it improves the
texture of breads.
2. Salt inhibits yeast growth. It is therefore important for controlling fermentation in bread
doughs and in preventing the growth of undesirable wild yeast.
For these reasons, the quantity of salt in a formula must be carefully controlled.
CHOCOLATE AND COCOA

Chocolate and cocoa are derived from cocoa or cacao beans. When the beans are roasted and
ground, the resulting product is called chocolate liquor, which contains a white or yellowish
fat called cocoa butter.
Cocoa is the dry powder that remains after part of the cocoa butter is removed from
chocolate liquor. Dutch process cocoa is processed with an alkali. It is slightly darker,
smoother in flavor, and more easily dissolved in liquids.
Bitter or unsweetened chocolate is straight chocolate liquor. In some less expensive brands,
some of the cocoa butter may be replaced by another fat.
Sweet chocolate is bitter chocolate with addition of sugar in varying amounts. If the percent
of sugar is low, it is sometimes called semisweet or bittersweet.
Milk chocolate is sweet chocolate with the addition of milk solids. It is used primarily in
candy making. (None the recipes in this book call for milk chocolate.)
Cocoa and chocolate are high in starch. When cocoa is added to a cake formula, it is
sometimes considered part of the flour proportion for this reason.
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SPICES
The most important spices in the bakeshop are cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, cloves, ginger,
caraway, cardamom, allspice, anise, and poppy seed.
Since spices are use in small quantities it is not much more expensive to use the best quality
and the result will be superior .
Spices should be measured by weight, unless the quantity is small that measuring spoon are
necessary.
EXTRACTS AND EMULSION
Extracts are flavorful oils and other substance dissolve in alcohol. These include vanilla,
lemon and bitter almond.
Emulsion are flavorful oils mixed with water with the aid of emulsifiers such as vegetable
gums. Lemon and orange are the most frequently used emulsions.
The flavoring of extracts and emulsion may be natural or artificial. Natural flavoring gives
the best result, but are often expensive. Artificial flavoring must be used in moderation, to
avoid creating strong or undesirable flavors in baked items.
Regular refined sugars, or sucrose

Regular sugars are classified by the size of grains.
1. Granulated sugar
Regular granulated, also called fine granulated or table sugar, is the most familiar and the
most commonly used. Very fine and ultrafine are finer than regular granulated. They are
prized for making cakes and cookies, because they make a more uniform batter and can
support higher quantities of fat.Sanding sugars are coarser and are used for coating
doughnuts, cakes, and other products.
2. Confectioners’ or powdered sugars

These sugars are ground to a fine powder and mixed with a small amount of starch to
prevent caking. They are classified by coarseness of fineness.
10X is the finest sugar. It gives the smoothest texture in icings.
6X is the standard confectioners’ sugar. It is used in icings, toppings, and cream fillings.
Coarser types (4X and XX) are used for dusting or for any purposes for which 6X and 10X
are too fine.
Molasses and brown sugar
Molasses is concentrated sugar cane juice. Sulfured molasses is a by-product of sugar
refining. It is the product that remains after most of the sugar has been extracted from cane
juice. Unsulfured molasses is not a by-product but is a specially manufactured sugar product.
It has less bitter taste.
Molasses contains large amounts of sucrose, plus others sugars, acids, and impurities.
Brown Sugar is mostly sucrose, but it also contains varying amounts of molasses and other
impurities. The darker grades contain more molasses.
Because molasses and brown sugar contain acids, they can be used with baking soda to
provide leavening
Molasses retains moisture in baked goods and so prolongs freshness. However, crisp cookies
made with molasses become soft very quickly, for the same reason.
Corn Syrup
Corn Syrup is a liquid sweetener mainly of sugars called glucose and dextrose. It is made by
converting cornstarch into simpler sugar compounds by the use of enzymes.
IHMA-54
Corn syrup aids in retaining moisture and is used in some icings and in candy making.
Honey
Honey is a natural sugar syrup consisting largely of glucose and fructose, in addition to other
compounds that give it its flavor. Honeys vary considerably in flavor and color, depending on
their source. Flavor is the major reason for using honey, especially since it can be expensive.
Honey contains invert sugar, which means that it stays smooth and resists crystallizing. Like
molasses, it contains acid, which enables it to be used with baking soda as leavening.
Malt Syrup
Malt syrup is used primarily in yeast breads. It serves as food for the yeast and adds flavor
and crust color to the breads.
Baking powders
 Na(Hco3) + starch + cream of tarter

 In normal condition reaction between Na (Hco3) and tartaric acid occurs and thus
sodium tartarate is formed so starch is added. So as soon as water is added starch
reacts with tastaric acid and formation of salt is prevented.
 (NH4) Hco3 + (NH4)2 CO3.
Flavors
Different natural extracts like vanilla, strawberry is taken.

Different type of liquors (Rum, brandy, whisky) and liqueurs (Liquors + any other flavoring
herbs and spices).
COLOURS
Cochineal / careme :- Derived from insect living on Mexican cactus. It is killed fried and
powdered. It is dark red in colour.
Saffron :- It is stigma of crocus plant.
Turmeric :-
Annatto :- It is red colour extracted from veg. Like carrot and tomatoes.
Chlorophyll :- Green colour and veg extracts.
Caramel colour :- It is from sugar.
SETTING AGENTS
Gelatin :- It is extracted from bones.

Agar agar :- It us extracted from sea weed also known as china grass. It is veg gelatin.
Pectin :- It is naturally present in apples, pineapples etc fruits.
Ising glass :- It is obtained from swimming bladder of fish.
Irish moss / corragheen :- Extracted from a sea weed used for setting of milk products, like
ice-creams.
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IHMA-55
Basic Dough
1. Flat dough :- In this no fermentation is done. It is generally used for making rotis, puris,
parathas etc Indian breads are made from this.
2. Fermented dough :- It is used for making breads there are 4 methods of making fermented
breads.
METHODS
1. Straight dough method :- In this flours is 100 % and other ingredients of small quantity.
After making dough 46 mm it is fermented for 48 mm. Then it is knock down then balls
are made and kept for 15 mm for fermentation after that it is benched and molded and
kept for proving. After proving it is brushed and kept in oven. (Benched and knock down
is done to spread air evenly). So in this method 3 fermentation is done.
2. No time :- In this method yeast is in more quantity and then fermented. Only 2 process of
straight dough method is reliminalty.
3. Salt delayed :- In this salt is not added in initial stage but after fermentation salt solution
is prepared and added.
4. Sponge method :- Instead of whole quantity of flour the ratio of dough and yeast is more
and then allowed to ferment. After fermentation this sponge is mixed with whole dough.
Proving :- It is the fermentation period from shaping to baking the product. The yeast
mellows the product. Baking to be done at ripe stage at 400 to 450 degree F.
Oven spring :- It is rise in volume of product with an initial period of baking till 60 degree C
internal temperature.
Gelatinization :- It is absorption of moisture by starch and swelling which is retained in

bread.
Crusting :- A hard crust is formed on the top side and bottom. A hollow sound on knocking
the bottom of baked indicates its doneness.
12 basic steps of bread making
Scaling : - It is measuring of ingredients.

Mixing :- Products are mixed to make dough.
Fermentation :- First fermentation for 45 min to dough to rise.
Punching :- It is done to re distribute yeast and gas.
Scaling :- Individual cuts are made to make portions.
Rounding :- Round shape is given and allowed to rest for 15 to 20 min.
Benching :- Hitting of dough is done on bench or marble top.
Make up and panning :- Definite shape is given and molded in greased mould.
Proving :- proving of product is done in warm place.
Baked :- The upper layer is brushed by milk or butter and then baked.
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Cooled :- It is cooled on the rack, brushed, cooling is done to escape moisture.
Stored :- It stored at room temp and covered with brown paper.
CHAPTER-7
PASTRY CREAMS
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Basic cream (Custards)
1.Cream anglaise: - light-basic custard 2 egg yokes, 60 gm sugar, 220 ml milk cook over
double boiler till sabayon (Custard) consistency. Used for making strawberry sauce, vanilla
sauce, pista sauce etc. In to this custard if gelatin, cream and egg white is added then the
product obtained is soufflés and mousses.
soufflés :Egg white is more, cream is less generally sweet & served cold, lighter product. Th
Mousses :- Cream is more, egg white is less ,can be savoury or sweet , can be served hot or
cold. It is a heavier product.
2.Cream patisserie / confectioners custard
Milk 150 ml, corn flour, sugar 30 gm, egg yolk 1 no, and few drops of vanilla essences. Cook
over a double boiler to a thick consistency. This is the substitute of cream anglaise but it can’t
be used for making soufflés and mousses as corn flour make the chilled product hard. It is
used for layering in some cakes and pastries
3. Baked custard: - For e.g. cream caramel baked custard is the mixture of egg and milk
which is baked in a oven placed on a bain marie.
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CHAPTER-8
BASIC COMMODITIES
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i)MILK
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HISTORY
Milk’s history goes back to the beginnings of civilization. Prehistoric drawings from the
Sahara, circa 8000 B.C., feature picture stores of cattle. An old mosaic frieze (3500 B.C)
found at the ancient temple of Ur near Babylon, depicts a dairy scene with milk containers
and strainers. Even the earliest writings, in now- extinct Sanskrit, mention milk as one of the
essential foods. As a matter of fact, the word milk comes from the Sankrit, `Mrjati’, used to
describe the milking action.
Dairying in the U.S. is older than the nation itself. The first dairy cows came to Jamestown
in 1611, helping to end the terrible starvation. Other cattle had been brought to this country
by Spanish explorers. As pioneers moved westward, nearly every covered wagon had its
cow, the family’s mobile `food factory’, Today’s dairy herds barely resemble the pioneers’
cattle. They are more productive and scientifically cared for than the herds of only a few
decades ago. Single dairy herds comprise from 40 to many hundreds of cows, milked
mechanically.
PROCESSING
Milk flows directly from the cow into a refrigerated tank where it is quickly cooled and held
for pick up. From there the milk is pumped into refrigerated tank trucks, which carry it to the
processing plant. Fat levels are adjusted to produce whole, low fat and skim milk.
Fortification with vitamin D is optional for most forms of milk. However, this nutrient is
added to about 98% of the country’s milk in the amount of 400 International Units (IU) per
quart. Vitamin A must be added to low fat and skim milk, it is optional for whole milk. If
added, it must be present in the amount of 2000 IU per quart.
Then milk is pasteurized, ultra-pasteurized or ultra high temperature processed. Heating
milk (pasteurization) assures its safety and increases its keeping quality. Milk is most
commonly pasteurized at 160 degree F (71.5 Degree C) for 15 seconds. Ultra-pasteurized
milk and ultra high temperature (UHT) processed milk are heated to 280 degree F (138
degree C) for at least two seconds, which increases the refrigerated shelf life.
As it flows out of the pasteurize, most market milk is homogenized by being pumped through
extremely tiny openings. The milk fat is broken up into particles too small to stick together.
As a result, they remain mixed through out the milk rather than rising to the top as a layer of
cream.
The pasteurized, ultra-pasteurized, or UHT processed milk is cooled rapidly to at least 45
degree F (7 degree C). The UHT milk is packaged into pre-sterilized containers and
aseptically sealed. Since bacteria cannot enter the UHT milk, it can be kept un
refrigerated for at least three months. The pasteurized and ultra pasteurized milks are
packaged and stored in a refrigerated room until loaded into an insulated delivery truck.
TYPES OF MILK
1. WHOLE MILK contains not less than 3.25% milk fat. It must contain not less than
8.25% solids-not-fat. LOW FAT MILK has had sufficient milk fat removed to bring
the fat level to between 0.5 and 2%. It also contains at least 8.25% solids – not – fat.
It must contain 2,000 IU of vitamin A per quart. (Vitamin A is added to offset loss
caused by removal of some of the milk fat). Milk in this category is labeled with the
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percent milk fat in the product. If non fat milk solids are added to reach the 10%
solids-not-fat level, the product must be labeled `protein fortified’ or `fortified with
protein’.
2. CHOCOLATE MILK is made by adding sweetener and chocolate or cocoa to whole
milk. The protein, mineral and vitamin content of flavored milks will be almost the
same as that of the milk – whole, low fat, skim – to which the flavoring is added.
3. EGGNOG is a mixture of dairy ingredients (cream, milk, partially skimmed milk or
skim milk) egg yolk-containing ingredients and sweeteners. It may also contain added
flavorings, such as rum extract, nutmeg or vanilla. This seasonal product is most
readily available during the November-December holiday season.
4. NON FAT DRY MILK is the product obtained by removal of water from pasteurized
skim milk. Non fat dry milk contains not more than 5% by weight of moisture and not
more than 1 ½% by weight of milk fat unless otherwise indicated. It is fortified with
vitamins A and D and has all the proteins, minerals and water soluble vitamins of the
skim milk from which it is made.
5. EVAPORATED MILK is canned whole milk concentrate containing not less than
7.5% milk fat and 25.5% milk solids, prepared by evaporating enough water under
vacuum from fresh whole milk to reduce the volume by half. This concentrate is then
homogenized (optional for evaporated skimmed milk) fortified with vitamin D (400
IU per pint), packed in cans, sealed and sterilized by heat.
6. SWEETENED CONDENSED MILK is a canned milk concentrate containing not
less than 28% milk solids and 8% milk fat. It is pasteurized and may be homogenized.
The quantity of nutritive sweetener used is sufficient to prevent spoilage.
7. BUTTERMILK is made by adding a special bacterial culture to milk to produce the
acidity, body, flavor and aroma characteristic of this product. Salt may be added .
Yellow flecks in some buttermilk are bits of real butter.
8. Pasteurized milk : The milk is pasteurized by heating and retaining at a
temperature of 50* F for 30 minutes or at 161* F for 15 seconds. At this
temperature the harmful germs are killed and now the milk is safe.
9. Tuberculin tested milk : It is expensive but has an excellent flavour. This is the
best milk to set for cream and to use for cheese. It is solid with label TT
(pasteurized).
10. Homogenized milk : Mainly used by the catering trade, is milk which is processed to
distribute the cream throughout the bottle of milk. There is, therefore, no “cream line”.
It keeps better and is considered to be more creamy.
11. Sterilised milk : This is always homogenized. TT and pasteurized are sometimes
treated in this way too. The milk is heated and maintained at not less than 212* F for
twenty to thirty minutes. It is then sealed. It tends to have more creamy colour. It
keeps well.In addition to milk itself, there are other milk by products which are used
in cooking.
12. Skim milk : Whole milk with cream skimmed off still retains considerable
nutritive value.
13. Dried Skim milk : with the water and fat removed is deficient in the fat soluble
vitamins but it is nevertheless nutritious and useful for cooking.There are many well
known preserved milk products such as evaporated milk and condensed sweetened
milk.
NUTRITIVE VALUE
Although milk is processed it’s not an engineered or fabricated food. It naturally has two
major components fat, including fat-soluble vitamins and solids – not fat, which include
proteins, carbohydrates, water soluble vitamins and minerals.
IHMA-59
Milk contains high quality protein due to the presence of all of the essential amino acids,
Casein a protein found only in milk comprises 82% of the total proteins in milk.
Milk’s minerals include calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and s\zinc. It is rich source
of biologically available calcium. Most other food’s supply much smaller amounts
that are less readily available. Phosphorus is needed in the proper ratio to calcium to
form bone. Milk provides these two minerals in approximately the same ratio as
found in bone.
Because it is difficult to obtain sufficient calcium without milk and other dairy products in
the diet, the following recommendations made :
Adults 2 servings daily
Teenagers 4 servings daily
Children 3 servings daily
Pregnant and lactating women 4 servings daily
Calorie Content of Milk and OtherFluid Dairy Products
Type %Fat Serving Size Calories
1. Whole milk 3.25 8 oz. 150
2. Low fat milk 2.00 8 oz. 121
3. Low fat milk 1.00 8 oz. 102
4. Skim milk 0.05 8 oz. 86
5. Chocolate (whole) 3.25 8 oz. 208
6. Chocolate (low fat) 2.00 8 oz. 179
7. Evaporated (unreconstituted) 7.60 4 oz 169
8. Evaporated (skim) 0.20 4 oz. 99
9. Sweetened condensed 8.70 4 oz. 982
10. Eggnog 7.50 4 oz. 171
11. Buttermilk 0.88 8 oz. 99
Sweet acidophilus milk is usually made with low fat milk or skim milk, so the caloric content
is similar to that of the milk from which it is made.
UHT milk may be made with any of the regular milks (whole, low fat or skim as well as
flavored Calorie content corresponds to the type of milk.
STORAGE
Milk is perishable and needs refrigeration at less than 40 degree F. It is best to pour into
glasses only what is needed so the balance is not left unrefrigerated. If milk is served in a
pitcher, never pour contents back into original container, but store separately in a covered
container. Covering prevents absorption of other flavors. Care should be taken to prevent
the exposure of milk to harmful light so that optimal flavor and nutritional quality are
maintained.
Uses of milk in bakery

1. Increases absorption and strengthens the dough. Milk has got both fat and protein. So
on additional protein the product becomes more strengthened.
2. Increase mixing tolerance as dough becomes strengthy it can be kneaded well
3. Longer fermentation.
4. Gives better crust colour as it contain more carbohydrate, protein, fat etc.
5. Gives better grain and texture it gives closer texture and grainy crumb can be
obtained.
6. Increase loaf volume as it gives longer fermentation properly the volume of loaf
increases.
IHMA-60
7. Gives better keeping quality as moisture contain is more and fat is more product
remains soft for longer period of time.
8. Better nutrition.
ii) CREAM
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HISTORY
Whipped cream appeared in Rome around the ninth century A.D. It was extremely expensive
because the few chefs who knew the secret capitalized on it. It was only three hundred years
ago that an anonymous Viennese cook skimmed cream off milk and carefully whipped it into
`Schlagobers’ or whipped cream. Today Vienna is known for its lavish use of whipped
cream, not only in countless pastries but also as sugared whipped cream, served as a dish by
itself or used in coffee.
SEPARATOR
The layer of cream which rises in a container of milk is formed as the globules in the butterfat
portion adhere to each other. The advent of the centrifugal cream separator in 1879 made it
easy to remove this cream layer. The first separators were of the large capacity, power type.
All farmers delivered their milk either to the creamery or a skimming station and waited their
turn for their skim milk to be taken home to use. About 1885 the hand separator was
available and purchased by farmers. Separation of milk was done on the farm and the cream
sold to the creamery. Processing plants are now equipped to skim cream.
DEFINITIONS
All cream products are pasteurized or ultra pasteurized and may be homogenized.
Government standards allow certain optional ingredients to be used : emulsifiers, stabilizers,
nutritive sweeteners and characterizing flavoring ingredients (with or without coloring).
 HALF AND HALF : A mixture of milk and cream which contains not less than 10.5 but
less than 18 percent milk fat.
 LIGHT CREAM, COFFEE CREAM, TABLE CREAM : Contains not less than 18
percent milk fat, but less than 30 percent.
 LIGHT WHIPPING CREAM OR WHIPPING CREAM : Contains not less than 30
percent but less than 36 percent milk fat.
 HEAVY WHIPPING CREAM OR HEAVY CREAM : Contains not less than 36 percent
milk fat.
 CREAM IN AEROSOL CANS : Whipping cream packed under pressure. It may also
contain sugar flavoring and a stabilizer. Since there are many limitations in this form, it’s
important to check the label to get real cream.
NUTRITIVE VALUE
Cream is a noteworthy source of vitamin A and also supplies modest amounts of riboflavin
(vitamin B2) and calcium. Cream furnishes dietary fat, thus is a source of energy.
Type of Cream Calories
One tablespoon half and half 20
One tablespoon cream, (18%) 29
One tablespoon light whipping cream (30%), unwhipped 44
One tablespoon heavy whipping cream (36%), unwhipped 52
STORAGE
Cream should be among the last purchases at the grocery store ; refrigerate at home as soon
as possible. Keep refrigerated at 39 degree F or lower in closed carton. Cream stays fresh for
IHMA-61
about one week. Ultra-pasteurized cream keeps well up to eight weeks before opening. Then
its life equals that of pasteurized cream.
WHY CREAM WHIPS
Whipping cream thickens because its fat globules form a continuous structure which
maintains a stable foam when air is forced into the cream. Chilled cream whips better than
room temperature cream.
TIPS ON WHIPPING
One cup whipping cream yields two cups whipped so the second cup is actually air
incorporated into the product.
Do not whip more cream than is suitable for the beaters to handle. For this reason, it’s better
to whip two half pints than a whole pint at once.
Use a bowl that is small and deep enough to accommodate the beaters and maintain good
contact with the cream. Place cream, bowl and beaters into the freezer for approximately 10
minutes just prior to whipping.
Beat Rapidly, scraping bowl occasionally. It will take two to three minutes to whip cream
until fluffy but do not over whip.
Store whipped cream in refrigerator. It can be rewhipped one or two days following the
original whipping. Whipped cream can be frozen in small mounds on waxed paper for use as
garnishes when needed.
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================================================================
iii)CHEESE
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Cheese may be defined as the fresh or matured product made by coagulating any or a
combination of any of the following substances, namely milk, cream, skimmed milk, partly
skimmed milk, concentrated milk, reconstituted dried milk and buttermilk, and then partially
draining the whey resulting from any such coagulation.
Cheese making is a very convenient method for converting a considerable part of the
milk nutrients into a product that is less bulky, will keep well, is of a high nutritive value and
is palatable and is easily digestible.
There are over 400 varieties of cheeses listed which differ in colour, texture, hardness,
odour and taste.
The names given to Cheeses

The names given to the cheeses may depend on the following heads :
a) The Region : e.g. England - Leicester Dorset Blue,

Switzerland - Enemental etc.
b) Towns within a cheese making region, e.g. England - Cheddar;
France - Camembert
c) The type of milk used.
d) The type of cheese manufactured.
e) Appearance
f) Addition of flavourings
g) Trade names
Classification :
Cheeses may be classified under one or a combination of the following :
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a) Country of Origin
b) The method of manufacture
c) General aspects like colour, flavour, texture etc.
Manufacture :
Following are the stages involved in the manufacture of cheese :
1. Curd formation or coagulation

2. Cutting the curd
3. Cooking the curd
4. Removal of the whey
5. Curd piling
6. Milling and salting
7. Application of pressure
8. Maturing or Ripening
Cooking of Cheese :
Cheese is a protein food and like all other proteins it is toughened by heat. All cheese
dishes should be cooked at low temperatures whatever the dish is. Whenever possible cheese
should be melted in a double boiler or chafing dish rather than over direct heat.
When cheese is melted, it is cooked. Over cooking will produce the same toughening
effect as cooking at too high heat.
Cooking of cheese :
Grate or chop cheese finely and dilute with some kind of starchy food such as flour,
breadcrumbs, macaroni etc. Add a small pinch of soda bicarb. This softens the cheese and
prevents stringiness as well as makes it more digestible.
Cook by moist heat whenever possible or atleast see that there is some moisture
included in the dish. Where and when possible add cheese only at the last moment after the
rest of the food has been cooked. This is to prevent long cooking of cheese.
Points to be remembered while selecting cheese :
1. The rind of cheese should not have mildew or fungi on it.

2. There should not be an over strong smell emanating from the cheese.
3. Semi-hard, hard and blue veined cheeses when cut should not appear dry.
4. Soft and processed cheese when cut should not be watery of a delicate
creamy consistency.
Storage of Cheese :
All cheeses should be eaten fresh and in their prime conditions. For this they must be
stored correctly so that they reach the customer in a good condition with a full flavour.
Soft and unripened cheese have limited keeping quality and require refrigeration. Particular
care must be taken with soft cheeses e.g. Bire, Camembert, etc. as they may become over-
IHMA-63
ripe and unacceptable. The very hard cheeses e.g. Parmesan and unopened processed cheese
do not require to be refrigerated. These and other cheeses may be kept in a clean, dry cool
storeroom at a temp. of 10 to 15 degrees and to prevent drying, should be wrapped in
polythene bag, waxed paper or metal foil or kept in the original container.
IHMA-64
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iv) BUTTER
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Butter is the product made from churning fresh cream. It consists of more than 80%
butterfat and contains Vitamins A&D and small amounts of protein, minerals and milk sugar
(Lactose).
Classification :
Butters can be classified under the following four heads :
a) Fresh or Sweet Cream Butter ) Creamy

b) Ripened cream or lactic butter ) Butter
c) Blended or milled butter
d) Special butters
The first two are the main types.
Manufacture of Butter (Creamy Butter) :
The following are the main stages in the manufacture of the creamy butters :
a) Holding
b) Ripening
c) Churning
d) Washing and salting
Other Butters :
Blended or Milled butters :
This if a blend of butters from different countries and of varying quality grades which
are mixed together to produce a product which is of a fairly standard quality for the consumer
at a competitive price. Blended butters are frequently sold under a brand name label, usual as
a salted butter.
Spiced Butters :
This group includes the butters that are not so commonly available and those which
are not true butters.
a) Whey Butter d) Compound Butter

b) Milk Blended Butter e) Cocoa Butter
c) Powdered Butter f) Peanut Butter
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IHMA-65
CHAPTER-9
BASIC INDIAN COOKERY
i) CONDIMENTS AND SPICES
SPICES
==================================================
Spices are aromatic vegetable products, which are mainly in powdered form and are use to
flavor raw, uncooked, and cooked food. The prepared spices are processed by grinding
certain parts of trees, shrubs etc. which are dried after being picked. The aroma and the strong
pungent flavor are due to the presence of essential oils, which evaporate quite quickly during
storage, particularly if the spices have been ground. The classification of spices may be done
in several ways: -
Spices
BOTANICAL SOURCES STRENGTH CATERING USES
Roots (ginger, licorice) hot spices sauces / gravies

Barks(cassia,cinnamon) mild sauces/gravies
Stems (angelica) aromatic cakes
Buds (cloves) strong flavor and aroma sauces / gravies
Flowers (saffron) mild color & flavor
Fruits (caraway) mild aroma
Seeds (mace, nutmeg) mild aroma
Like herbs spices are also very strong flavored so need to be used sparingly and carefully so
that the finished food is not contained by the spices is blended by its own flavor and creates a
harmony taste. Following are the details of the most of commonly used spices: -
ALLSPICES: -it is also known as pimento or Jamaica pepper it is the berries of the tree
grown in the west India which are gathered whilst green and full of volatile oils, then dried,
Turing back in process. Dried whole all spices is about the size of black pepper corns and as
the name implies as the flavor of the several spices like pepper, cloves, nutting cinnamon. It
is principally used for tickling and sausage manufacture.
ANISEED: -the seed come from anise plant, which is member of the parsley, and grown in
Egypt and several European countries. The seed are of Grey –green color, pear shape and
with a flavor similar to licorice. Aniseed is mainly used for flavoring and making the liquor
called anisette.
CARAWAY: -the most common of dried aromatic fruit spices, it is obtained from plants,
which is a member of parsley family. It is grown commercially in Holland. The small thin
brown seed have a strong, slightly hot flavor, which resembles the aniseed. It is commonly
used in the making of cakes, bread, cheese and many Jewish dishes, also for making liquor
kumnol.
CASSIA: -an aromatic bark, of a high reddish brown, similar to cinnamon but inferior in
aroma and flavor. It is grown in china and India. It is used as a substitute of cinnamon when
ground as an ingredient for ground spice.
CAYENNE PEPPER: - prepared from dried red, fully –ripened berries of one of the
varieties of capsicum. The fruits are ground into a powder mixed with some wheat flour and
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yeast and made in small flat cakes and baked. The cakes are when ground down into a
powder and sieved. It has a very hot flavor and is used sparingly in sauces and as a table
condiment.
CINNAMON: -the dried bark is taken from the young branches of a tree of the laurel family,
which grows in Ceylon. The cinnamon barked when dried is in the form of long cylindrical
curls, having a yellow brown color and furrowed outer surface. It is used in making cakes,
syrups, puddings, punches etc. as well as being an ingredient of mixed spices and curry
powder.
CLOVES: -these are dried unopened flower buds of an evergreen tree which grows in sri-
lanka, India. Cloves possess a hot strong flavor and contained the essential oil of cloves. They
are used with baked apple, baked amp and in stocks, soups, sauces and braised stews.
CORIANDER: - they are fruit of a plant, also of the parsley family, which is found in the
southern Europe and India. The coriander is round shaped similar to white pepper corns cut
light brown in color and also hollow. They have a fragment smell and a mild flavor similar to
sage. They are used particularly for flavoring syrup savories, for water ices.
CUMIN: - it is a dried fruit of a plant grown in India and Egypt. The fruit caraway seed but it
is used, mainly as an ingredient in curry powder.
CURRY POWDER: -it is a mixture of many various types of spices and herbs, the quality of
which depends on manufacture. Typical ingredients and often all spices, bay leaf, capsicum,
cinnamon, chilly, coriander, cumin, ginger, mace, nutmeg, muster seed, pepper corn, saffron
and turmeric.
MACE: - this is the husk of nutmeg .the nutmeg tree which grows in the west Indies and
Malaysia produces a fruit which is similar to a peach, which when fully ripped is split open,
giving a skin with some flesh attached and a stone. The skin and the flesh is carefully dried,
turning to buff color and is known as mace .it has a much delicate flavor then nutmeg and is
used for flavoring fish dishes, sauce and many type of sausages.
MIXED SPICES: -this is a mixture of ground spices, the quality of which verities depending
on the recipe used by the manufactures. A typical mixture could contain rice flour (25%), the
coriander (3%), ground ginger (3%), mace (4%) and nutmeg (10%). The rice flour is added to
increase the bulk and cinnamon is the predominating spice .its uses are for pudding, cakes
and biscuits.
POPPY SEED: -this are tiny white and blue dried seeds obtained from poppy plant. The
seeds have a very pleasant nutty flavor and are used in the preparation of some types of
breads, cakes.
SAFFRON: -this is obtained from the stigma and styles of the saffron Cruces it is obtained in
the dried and the powdered form. It is deep orange color and has a property of not only
imparting its particular and slightly bitter flavor and bright yellow gold color. It is used for its
color, which it imparts to food as well its flavor, and is found in fish and rice dishes and also
in cakes.
TURMERIC: -it is a root of a plant belonging to a ginger family. The roots are washed,
trimmed and dried before being ground to a powdered form it has a characteristic sweet,
spicy smell with slight butter flavor and a bright yellow golden color. It is used for its color
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which it imparts to food as well as its flavor and is found in curry powder, mustard sauces
etc.
NUTMEG: -this is the kernel of the same fruit from which mace is obtained. It maybe
purchased whole or ground. Its uses are in milk pudding, custard and for flavorings mashed
potatoes.
Condiments
Condiments are substances which enhance the flavour of prepared foods, and are generally
used at the table. When used before or during the actual preparation of foods these are
known usually as seasonings. The four basic condiments are :
1) Salt, 2) Pepper, 3) Mustard, 4) Vinegar
Prepared condiments like Celery salt, garlic salt, herb flavoured mustards, propritory sauces
such as H.P. sauce, Worcestershire sauce, Soya sauce and chili sauce etc. are also very widely
used.
Pepper :
This is used to season the food both during cooking and at the table. The various
types are as follows :
1. Black and White Pepper

2. Paprika Pepper
3. Cayenne Pepper
Mustard :
This is a mixture of the ground small seeds of the black mustard plant with the ground
larger seeds of the white mustard plant, both coming from distinctly separate type of plants.
The two types of mustard are English Mustard and Continental Mustard.
Mustards are used in sauces such as mustard sauce, vianigrette and mayonnaise, as
well as served with roast or grilled beef.
Vinegar :
It is an acid liquid prepared from various substances by the acetous fermentation of
alcoholic liquors, the alcohol being oxidized by fungi which converts the alcohol into acetic
acid.
There are numerous types of vinegar. The main ones are as follows :
1. Malt Vinegar
2. Wine Vinegar
3. Distilled Vinegar
4. Fruit Vinegar
5. Herb Vinegar
Vinegars are used as a preservative for vegetables and some fish dishes, in a marinade
to tenderize meat and game prior to cooking, in court-bouillons, to flavour hot and cold
sauces and as a Table condiment.
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Sr.No English Name Indian Equivalent

1 Asafoetida Hing
2 Cardamom Elaichi
3 Chillies Mirchi
4 Cloves Laung
5 Cinnamon Dal chini
6 Coriander Dhaniya
7 Cumin Jeera
8 Curry Leaves Curry patta
9 Fenugreek Methi
10 Garlic Lasun
11 Ginger Adrak
12 Mace Javitri
13 Mint Pudina
14 Mustard Sarson/ rai
15 Nutmeg Jaiphal
16 Pepper corn (Black) Kali marich
17 Poppy seeds Khas khas
18 Tamarind Imli
19 Turmeric Haldi
20 Saffron Zafran
21 Star anise Chakri phool
22 Anise Saunf
23 Carom seeds Ajwain
ii) INDIAN MASALAS
Defination: masala is defined as an aromatic substance composed of one or more spices and
/ or aromatics combined together.
Masalas add consistency, colour and pungency to the dishes.
Types
Wet masala/ dry
--------------------------------------------------------------
Single Mixed
Eg (vindaloo)
Colour depending on the colour wet masala can be red , green or white
1. Brown: corriander powder, red chilli powder and turmeric powder in the ratio 2:1:1
2. white: mix of cashewnut, charmagaz and poppy seeds in the ratio 70:15:15 are boiled
for 30 min . and made into a paste.
3. Green: paste of ginger , garlic and green chillies
Other masalas are:

Garam masala whole/powder :-
1. Large cardamon (10g.),clove(10g),cinammon sticks (1inch), peppercorn(few no) , bayleaf
(1).
2. Sambar masala powder :-
3. Bhaji pao masala
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Principles of using masala :-
Most ingredients used in masala contains volatile oils and acids , therefore to retain them
check the following points.
1. The longer the cooking time, the coarser must be the grinding of the masala .
2. Use spices as fresh as possible.
3. Cook dishes covered.
4.Follow the instructions of the author (chef) carefully, especially the time at which the
masala is to be added.
Tempering:-
Besides these masalas, sometimes tempering is also done. It can be either wet or dry.it is
added to enhance the flavour and appearance of a dish.
==============================================
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CHAPTER-10
Kitchen organization
Kitchen layout and structure
1. Centralized :- In this type of kitchen layout there is a comman kitchen for all the
outlets. And all the chefs work in the same kitchen.
2. Decentralized :- They are found in bigger hotels. Different outlets have their own
satellite kitchen. Basic preparations or pre preparation jobs are done in main kitchen
and then send to satellite kitchen. Also the common items for different layout are
prepared in main kitchen. Satellite kitchen are also found on some floors of hotels for
easy service
Indian
S.K.
Coffee
shop M.K Continental
S.K. M.K S.K.
S.K.
Chinese.
S.K
M.K = Main kitchen
S.K = Satellite kitchen
3. Work Flow of the kitchen :-
Receiving (1) Preparation (2)
(3)
3)Cooking
(5) (4)
Restaurant Service and washup
Firstly the raw material is managed in kitchen. Pre preparation of food is

made, food is cooked which is then served to guest. After having the food the dishes
from the guest are brought and washed. So this is how staff work in a kitchen.
Centalised Decentalised
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (3) (4) (5)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (3) (4) (5)
Working area in kitchen

1. Receiving area :- In this area we get all the ingredients used in a hotel. It is the
basic area to loading the items. The materials available in this area are
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a) numerous in nature.
b) They are bulky to serve thousand of people .
c) They are perishable in nature.
d) Daily purchase is necessary.
i) Location :- It should be at the back of the hotel. It should be convenient to
approach and unload. It should be spacious so that it has more storage capacity. It should be
well lighted so that to avoid accidents.
ii) Equipments used in this area :- Scales or weights are required to weight the
product. Trollies to transfer or shift the materials. Lactometer to check the quality of milk.
Knives, hammers, sickle, Tin opener, scissors are also the must.
iii) Delivery quay :- It is a raised area i.e. platform in the receiving area to facilitate
on loading and off loading items into trucks.
IV)Gas banks :- From this area gas is supplied to the kitchens. There are three types
of banks.
 cylinder :- The gas is supplied through cylinders. Pipes are drawn from this area to
kitchen. This type of facility is found in small hotels. The cylinder cabin is generally
away so that to avoid accidents. And it is well ventilated
 gas bank :- There is a huge tank in which gas is stored and from here gas is supplied
to kitchens. Generally it is 150 mts. away from hotel. It is reached by refilling. There
is no case of leakage or there are less changes of leakage.
 town supply :- It is a govt. supply facility through pipe lines.
2. Garbage Disposal :- There is a huge amount of garbage coming out from the hotel
industry every day. Mainly there are two types of garbage.
 a) Dry garbage :- For disposal of dry garbage it is incinerated i.e. It is heated in a
insulated room in absence of air.
 b) Wet garbage :- It is stored in garbage room. It is fully air – conditioned so that to
mask the foul smell and to avoid the growth of bacteria. The garbage is stored with the
means of plastic bags.
3. Stores :- The materials after being checked in receiving area it is taken to store room.
The store room is divided into 3 more sections.
 Dry section :- The temperature of this section is approximately 21oC.cereals, pulses, rice
etc. are stored here.
 Wet section :- The temp. of this section is approximately 7 oC.vegetables, fruits etc. are
stored here.
 Cold section :- The temp. of this section is –18oC.The food material from the store is
taken to pre- preparation area as per requirement.
4. Pre preparation area :- This area is further divided into 2 sections.
 Vegetable section :- In this section washing and cleaning of
vegetables is done. Cutting of vegetable is also done in this section
 Larder section or Garde manger :- It is further divided into 2 section
First is butchery section :- here cutting or fabrication of lamb,Chicken etc is done.
Second section is cold section :- this section looks after pre Preparation of salads, hors d’
oeuvres, cold meats, sandwiches etc.
5. Cooking area :- It is a main kitchen where food is prepared. Here semi finished
products are converted into finished products. This section is divided into partie system i.e.
division or sections according to the job and prepreparations they perform. Mainly there are
four sections
a) Hot kitchen or main kitchen :- Only hot items are prepared in this kitchen.
- Material flow in this section is :-
 Stores :- Dry items are brought from here to main kitchen.
 Pre preparation :- They get semi finished items from this section.
 Receiving area :- Dairy products from receiving area are takendirectly to main kitchen.
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b) Equipments required in this section:- Equipments required in this
section are depending upon the menu it serves and number of
clients it serves. Arrangement of equipment should be such that it
gives a free flow of work, and it should be close to the restaurant.
Bain Marie and stock pot holders should be close to the ranges.
Bain marie
There should be over head hoods or canapés for proper ventilation
i.e. for proper removal of smoke and steam.
b) Bakery:- For a small hotel it is the main kitchen only, but for the bigger hotels it is
separate department. It further has 3 sections
1) Hot section :- It is hot section as it has ovens, dough mixtures, weighing
machines.
2) Cold section :- It is double walled so that it remains chilled all the time and can
be insulated. It has ac’s and has refrigerated tables. These tables remain at low
temperature. Garnishing of cakes, pastries, chocolates, deserts, confectionery are prepared.
3) Cold rooms :- It is refrigerated rooms. All the things or items prepared in cold
section are stored in this section.
c) Pantry or short order kitchen :- It is a part of main kitchen. It deals with beverages,
fruits, ice creams, deserts, fruit juices, salads, sandwiches, burgers. Equipments used
in this section are toaster, mixtures, Shaker, grillers, juicers. And they are close to the
service table and the restaurant. They also posses small refrigerator.
d) Pots and pans wash-up:- This work area which deals with cleaning of utensils used in the
kitchen. The cleaning is done by kitchen stewarding department. The equipments used in
this area is 3 unit sink. In first sink there Is normal water facility. To scrap superficial food
remains. 2nd is with hot water facility with detergent and last one has normal water again.
At both the ends of the unit there is drain board.
6) Service area :- It is the place from where the waiter pick up the order,
which is situated between the restaurant and the Kitchen.
7) Wash up and dish washing area :- Dish washing area has three sub sections
- Loading :- Dirty equipments is pre washed and loaded on basket for the
machine or passed on to hand washer.
- Washing :- It is done by machine or hand process which consist of washing,
rinsing, and sanitizing.
- Unloading :- The clean equipment is kept on racks and then picked up by the
waiters or delivered by the stewards to kitchen.
Functions in a restaurant
a) Food order are called out on receipt of KOT. Steward comes with KOT to the service
table. KOT is in triplicate form. 1st copy goes to chef or abayeur, 2nd goes to cashier for bill
and 3rd one remains with steward. (The person sitting on service area table is called abayeur
or kitchen barker.)
b) Delivery of food is done after marking, on the KOT to the service area table.
c) Cashing of bill is done in the restaurant itself. Cashier is either sited inside the restaurant
or he may be sited in kitchen.
d) Room service is mostly done from satellite kitchens. Dispense bar is therein restaurant.
ie. there is no separate table for bar but the order is taken for beverage and placed on cover
itself.
e) Cleaning dirty crockery and cutlery coming from restaurant is done. This area is called
wash up area. Wash up area is the another area in the kitchen situated near to restaurant and
inside the kitchen.
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f) The supply of clean crockery and cutlery is done to the kitchen and the restaurant.
Duties of Abayeur
On the receipt of the kot taken he announces the order to the kitchen staff. The order of the
abayeur’s duty generally consist of
a) He decides the section or partie of the kitchen from where food has to be picked up.
b) Name of the item c) The style of cooking.
d) No. of portions required e) He garnishes, put dressings and sauces required.
f) The partie or section has to acknowledge the order in return (ie. repetition of the order
send first from kot. The second part or remaining items known as suite) for eg
K.O.T
Name of the hotel/Coffee shop
Table no. __________ Kot no. __________
Date _____________ Time ____________
Pax _______________
Sr no. Items Quantity Cost
1 Tomato soup 2 ……
2 Grilled chicken with mustard sauce 1 ……
3 Tandoor chicken less spicy 1 ……
4 Vanilla ice-cream 2 ……
Sign of waiter
In the above mentioned sample kot, the item numbers 2,3,4 are called as suite if the the item
no. 1 is picked up for the guest.
g) when the order has been picked up against kot by the waiter then the kot is dropped in the
kot box. The kot dropped is taken to the F&B control department at the end of the day. The
kot is tallied with that of the receipt of kot from the cashier ie. bills.
Duties of Cashier
The cashier prepares the bill and gives it to the waiter for presentation. The waiter
presents the bill and collects the money. The cashier after receiving the bill with the money
counts the cash and stamps ‘paid’ on the bill. This bill is given to the waiter for handing it
over to the guest. The cashier staples the kots to the duplicate bill which is sent to the F & B
controls for tallying with the kots of the kitchen at the end of the day. In smaller hotels where
there is centralized kitchen and there is room service section. There all the orders are
centralized in the centralized room service system. Also found in a dispense bar for service
of drinks to the restaurant and room service. Bill is made in duplicate copies.
Chef’s office
It is the office where executive chef is seated.
a) Functions :- Here the exe. chef sits and perform various planning of different functions
and menus in kitchen, duty rotas etc.
 Maintenance of different types of records regarding the menus, attendance recepies
etc is kept.
 Interviews for new recruitment for kitchen is held in this office.
 Placing of orders ie. Indenting for the supplies or items required in the kitchen is
decided and noted in this area. Further this note is supplied to store and supply so
that items can be obtained.
 Pay roll records and payrolls of kitchen staff are done from this area. (This is
applicable for smaller restaurants and hotels. For bigger hotels accounts
department does it. Only records are kept in the chef’s office.)
b) Factors for planning chef’s office :-
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 visibility :chef’s office is to be in the kitchen only. So that he can have a
continuous supervision. It has glass panes for proper watch of work going on and
better control of staff.
 Easily accessible: it saves time as situated in kitchen itself and this make him more
efficient. It should have easy accessibility by kitchen staff, Restaurant staff and
outsider.
 Privacy: It should have privacy and should be sound proof.
 Adequacy is the must in his office ie. it should have an enough space for
machineries, computer, library, cupboard, tables etc. It should also have a first aid
facility in his office. A personal assistant is also seated to control the flow of
people in his office.
Employee facilities
Employee facility is concerned of Management towards its employees. The facilities
provided to its employee also depend upon the
Good will, management possess in the market. And visa versa if a management provides a
good facilities to the employee the goodwill of the hotel or management improves within the
staff.
Promotion of good health is done for employee by providing them a separate
cafeteria, clean rest-areas, pools etc. Locker rooms are also provided to employees. Locker
room should be easily accessible and they should be not too close or too far from kitchen.
The lockers should be clean and should have enough space for storing the things.
The access area should not be through the public area ie. entrance to the locker room should
be convenient so that workers do not have to go through the kitchen or the public areas.
Toilets provided in the locker room should be adjacent to the work areas and well separated
by a hall or self-closing double doors. The locker should be provided with individual lockers
to every member in staff. Resting area should be inside the locker room itself.
The member who are performing break shifts are provided with bunkers ie. a place
provided with beds for sleeping. Full length mirrors are provided, showers and hand washing
facilities should be inside locker room. Staff dining room or cafeteria with good facilities ie.
T.V., music etc should be provided.
Other recreational facilities may also be included as a must facility. These facilities
may include cards, caroms, cricket kit, football etc.
IHMA-75
Reference Books
Sr.No. AUTHOR BOOK
1 Le Rol A. Polson The Professional Chef
2 Paul Hamlyn La Rousse Gastronomique
3 Jane Grigson The Book Of Ingredients
4 Wane Gisslen Professional Cooking
5 H.L.Cracknel And G. Noble The New Catering Repertoire
6 Escofiar The complete guide to art of Modern Cookery
7 Philip .E. Thangam Modern Cookery
8 Readers Digest Association Ltd The Cookery Year
F.H. Semerscmid And John F.
9 Nicholas Professional Chef's Art of Garde Manger
10 Mary Reynolds Italian Cooking For Pleasure
11 Digvijay Singh Cooking Delights of Maharajas
12 Madhur Jaffrey Cook book(Food for Family & Friends)
13 Leto And Bode Larder Chef
14 Wayne Grisslen Professional Baking
15 Lundberg,Donald & Kotsehvar Understanding Cookery
16 Cracknell & Kauffmann Practical Professional Cookery
17 W.K.H. Bode Classsical Food Preparation And presentation
18 Ceserani, Kinton & Fosket Contemporary cookery
19 Ceserani & Kinton Cookery-An Introduction
20 Bernard Davis Food Commodities
21 Madhur Jaffrey A Taste of India
22 Time Life Service The Cooking Of India
23 Wayne Grisslen Professional Baking
24 John Fuller Chef's Mnaual of kitchen management
25 Henry Smith Classical Recipes of the World
26 ICMR , N. Delhi Nutritive value of indian foods
27 Jaggl Ceon & sons La Repertoirede la cuisine
28 Margaret William Food Fundamental
29 ITC Chefs/ M.S.Gill Prashad
30 Xiang wang Veg. & Fruit Carving
31 Xiang wang ABC of veg. & fruit carving
32 Arvind Saraswat The Art of Fine cooking
33 Rakesh Mangal Fundamentals of Indian Cooking
34 Ranjit Rai Tandoor
35 Ranjit Rai Curry,Curry,Curry
36 Anshumali Pandey Theory of Indian Cookery
IHMA-76

2nd Semester Syllabus Culinary

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2nd Semester Syllabus Culinary

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1st Year 2nd Semester Sanjit Maji

Food Production Theory Faculty, IHM. Ahmedabad

Consommé Broth/Bouillon = Puree – Carrot soup…

Bouquet garni for white stock :

Bouquet garni for sachet :

Sr no. Ingredients Quantity

Cream of tomato soup

Cream of carrot soup

Sr no. Ingredients Quantity

Cream of spinach soup

Some International Soups

LIQUIDS USED IN HOT SAUCES

THICKENING AGENTS USED

Sauces and Indian gravies

Brown / Espagnole Sauce

1. Demi-Glaze = 50%Brown Sauce+50%Brown Stock Reduced To Half

Grills, Saute and Shallow fried meats :

Chemical composition of meat

Beef % Veal % Pork % Lamb % Rabbit % Calf’s liver %

Methods of keeping and preserving meat

1. Refrigeration or cold storage :

Storing time in a chill room

Beef for quick frying and grilling 14-21 days

POINTS TO REMEMBER : MEAT

SPOILAGE OF MEAT & MEAT PRODUCTS

Spoilage under anaerobic condition

Souring – caused either by meat’s own enzymes or by anaerobic bacteria

Cured Meats : Nitrate inhibit anaerobes

There are two kinds of food poisoning :

2. SALMONELLOSIS – Caused by consuming the food containing a group of micro

b) Hydrolysis of connective tissues: This is the reaction by which commercial gelatin is

B) BEEF & VEAL

1-Bull calf 1-Steer calf 1.Heifer calf

Preparation of Beef / Veal

AGING –is of two types

1. Shank 7-8 kg Used for clarification, used for beef tea,

From the sirloin region we get

From the thick flank region

1-lamb/ hogget 1-wether lamb 1.ewe lamb

1. The flesh should be compact and even.

PART LAMBS SHEEPS USES

Suckling pig --- 6 to 8 weeks ---unweaned

 The fat should be firm and milky.

PART FR.TERMS WTS USES avg .wt(48 kgs)

Bacon gammon Ham

HAM : is the hind leg of a porker pig. Are of three types

ENTRAILS USED FROM BEEF

Kidney:- used for making stews and pies.

ENTRAILS USED FROM SHEEP

Kidney & Liver:- used forgrilling, making stews and pies.

ENTRAILS USED FROM PORK

Chicken turkey Goose Duck Pigeon Guinea Fowl

Preparation, dressing and cuts.

75% of fish is water

Where as fat content varies from fish to fish.

FISHES ARE OF 3 TYPES

1. Round Fish (white)

a) Brill b) Turbot c) Sole d) Halibut

There are five types of fins in fishes

Portion size of fish: -

1. Darne: - Slices of fish on the bones of round fish is known as darne.

METHOD OF COOKING FISH

SELECTION OF SHELL FISHES