Chapter 3 Introduction to Pitch-Class Set Theory Tn Chapters 1 and 2 we have introduced and used the concept of pitch-class set. We have seen that this concept is particularly useful to label small pitch-class collections ‘and to compare and relate such collections among themselves. We have not only dem- ‘onstrated how the system can be used analytically to uncover relationships that have immediate musical interest, but also that it would be much more difficult to discover some of these relationships without recourse to pitch-class set theory. In the following chapters we will study music in which pitch centricity is normally avoided, and which is often based on collections of pitch classes, used both motivically or as harmonic building blocks. A general term to refer to such music is “atonal.” To deal with this type of music analytically, however, we will need to have a better grasp of pitch: class set theory. Although set theory has been used in recent years as a compositional ‘method, it was originally formulated (by Milton Babbitt and Allen Forte) in the 1960s and 70s, as a theoretical and analytical system particularly applicable to the study of atonal music. We will devote the present chapter to a more systematic and formal pre sentation of set theory, after which we will be better prepared to succeed in our studies of atonal music.! wo pioneering ates set theory are Mion Babb, “Set Structure a a Compositional Deter ant! Journal of Muse Theory (1961: 72-54; reprinted in The Collected Essays of Miton Babb ted Stephen Peles, Stephen Dembeki, Andrew Mead, and Josep Straus (Princeton: Princeton University Press 2003), pp. 86-108: and Allen Forte, “A Theory of Set-Complexes for Music.” Journal of Music Theory 8 (1963) 136-83. Extensive pe theory, to hich this chapter is indebted can te found in Allen Forte The Structure of Atonal Musi (New Haven: Yale University Pe Rahn, Basic Atonal Theory (New York: Schirmer. 1980) (Clases: A Theory of Compositional Design (New Haven: Yale University Pres For Atonal Music Theory (Hanover, NH: Frog Peak Music, 1991). See also Joseph Stats, to Post Tonal Theory, Avery important book that provides different and ompelin mater; nd materials tuded in our Chapters 3 and is David Lewin's Genera land Transformations (New Haven: Yale Unversity Press, 1987)CHAPTER 3 PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS basic principles of pitch-class set theory: As ‘of pitches with the same name, in any octave erty of octave equivalence: in set theory we related pitches with the same name. For instance ‘any other Ctin any other octave, and they are all he property of enharmonic equivalence heory. Although in functional tonality a C#and a Ds have We are already familiar with some of the ‘we know, a piteh class (pe) is @ group ‘The concept of pitch class implies the pro clo not distinguish between octave-t any C# in any octave is equivalent to ‘members of the same pitch class. Moreover, also applies to pitch-class sett different functions and cannot be uses in set theory are members of the same pitch clas cour purposes. We have also introduced the concept of integer notation. as integers we will be able to realize pitch-class st operations much more efficiently Mae ak, however, that you are sil dealing wih pitches and pitch classes. THit vag her you representa pitch class with alttr (F, for example) ora number the aes) we are sll talking of ways to represent or abel an essential musical le sees ca pitch class). We have also learned that there are two systems of using IiSAGTS srerenote pitch clases. Inthe “fixed do” system, we asign integer 0, by convention. pitch-elass C (or its enharmonic equivalents, Band D») and £0 WP the chromatic set Br pitch elasss, counting half steps up from C. In the "moveable oo" syste integer orate assigned to the fist pitch cass ofthe set, no matter what uhat may Pe, In this Shapter we will use each of these systems fr different purposes: For the te being. seal begin withthe fixed do sytem. Figure 3.1 shows the integer and pitch sass Cauivalences that we are already familiar with (as a reminder, les note a6 that en- teevenically equivalent pitch classes, such as F4 and Gb, are represented by the samme integer). sxe of octave equivalence we have only twelve different pitch lasses, although pitch takes place in many different octaves. We will solve the diserepany by doing all aru piteh-lass set operations in mod 12 arithmetic (abbreviation [or modulo 12). saeseaae that we will use only twelve integers (from 0 to 1), and any integer leer Tae Tt or amalter than O) will be reduced to its equivalent integer within these wel ‘To pt this in musical terms, we will operate in a single octave, and any pitch outside sera ve will be reduced tots equivalent within our octave. Thinking of clock fo cou think of midnight as being (Gee Figure 3.2) will help you understand mod 12. If y to or [2 hours you begin the eycle again: 12is equivalent oO, 13 is equivalent yong te 2, 15 to 3 and soon. You can reduce any integer tits mod 12 equivalent Py Subiracting 12 (or a multiple of 12) from the given integ -12 {60 16 is 4 in mod 12), 19 ~ 12 =7 Go 19 is 7 in mod 12 Q7is3 in mod 12). 4 interchangeably, enharmonically spelled pitches ss. That is, C# and D> are equivalent for - By notating pitch classes For instance, 16 4 9 AtH10 B-ll C0 CHI D2 DH E4 FS FK6 G-7 G8 Figure 3.1 Ineger station forthe wel pitch clasesFigure 3.2 The twelve pitch classes on a clock face m2=1 M2 M 9 m7=10 M7=11_ Pi Pa=: M Figure 3.3 Integr representation of intervals (by semitone conten) Interval and Interval Class Similar to the way we represent pitch classes by integers, intervals can also be repre- sented by integers, An integer representing an interval refers to the number of semitones in that interval. Enharmonically equivalent intervals (such as an augmented fourth or 4 diminished fifth) will be represented by the same integer. You can easily determine the number of semitones for each interval by looking at the clock face in Figure 3.2 and thinking of all intervals ascending from C. Figure 3.3 shows the number of semitones for each interval (without listing all enharmonic equivalences). You should memorize the integer representation of intervals. Intervals in the realm of pitch classes (which we will refer to as piteh-class space) are of a different nature than intervals in the realm of pitches (or pitch space). In pitch space, intervals are directional (ascending or descending), and an interval and its in- version are not the same. We will represent ascending motion with a + sign before the interval integer, and descending motion by means of a — sign. Thus, we can speak of an ascending P4 from C (+5) or a descending P4 from C (—5). Moreover, an ascending P4 from C, (C-F, #5), is not the same as a descending PS from C, (C-F, ~7). We will use pitch space and directional intervals to describe actual pitch motion on the musical surface, For instance, we know that Debussy’s “The Sunken Cathedral” begins with the ascending motive D-E-B, or (42, +7). Moreover, intervals in pitch space can be simple oF compound, Thus, an ascending major tenth (+16) is not the same as an ascending major third (+4), In pitch-class space, on the other hand, intervals may still be ordered (if we take into account the distance between two pitch classes considered in particular order) or Introduction o Ptch-Class Set TheoryE-B=7 igure 34 Ordered pitcclas intervals unordered (if we take into account the shortest distance between two pitch classes), but all eases they will be mod 12; that is, we will reduce all intervals to their “simple” tquivalens, An ordered pitehlass interval s the distance between two pitch clases caidered in a particular order (and, by convention, always in an ascending direction) To determine the ordered pe interval between two pes, subtract the frst pe from the second in mod 12. In the Debussy motive, the ordered pe interval between E and B Gand Il) is Il — 47. In a different context, the same two pes could be presented i the order B-E, and then the ordered pe interval would be 4 ~ 11 =5 hati, 16 = 11 = 5 ‘nod 12), To determine an ordered pe interval on a clock face, always measure the distance between pes clockwise (that is, ascending), as shown in Figure 3 ‘More relevant in pitch-class set theory is the concept of unordered pitch-class Interval also called interval class). Ina space in which octave equivalence applies interval E_B is equivalent to interval B-E, and we can represent both by means of a Single integer. What matters tous here isnot the direction or order of pitch classes, but the shortest span between the two pitch classes. The distance between pitch classes E and B in mod [2 can be Il ~ 4=7 or 4 — 11 =5. We will choose the smallest of these, 5, to represent the unordered pitch-class interval between E and B. To determine an inordered pitch-class interval on a clock face, we measure the distance between (wo pitch classes following the shortest possible path, be it clockwise or counterclockwise, as shown in Figure 3.5. Tn other words, inverted intervals are equivalent in unordered pitch-class space. Because of octave equivalence, the major 3rd C-E is equivalent to its inversion, the minor 6th E-C, We can then group an interval and its inversion in one single category, ‘which we call interval class (abbreviated asic). There are seven interval classes, and their intervallic content is presented in Figure 3.6. Thus, ic 0 is made wp of intervals 0 fand 12 (unison and octave), ic 1 is made up of intervals 1 and 1 (m2 and M7), and so ‘on, Because two intervals in an interval clas are complementary (thats they add up 10 fn octave), the two integers that represent each ic add up to 12. The only ie that containsIntroduction o Pitch-Class Set Theory 2 B-E=E-B=5 (BE) Figure 3.8 Unordered piteh-classimerval Interval class Intervals 0 0,12 1 1a 2,10 3.9 4,8 af 6 Figure 3.6 The interval classes ‘single interval is ie 6, because the tritone inverts into itself. We can now also see that the intervals from the preceding examples are grouped as ic 5 (intervals 5 and 7, Pé and 5) and ic 4 (intervals 4 and 8, M3 and m6). PITCH-CLASS SETS: ORDERINGS AND BASIC RELATIONSHIPS A piteh-class set (pe set) is an unordered collection of pitch classes. Although the pitch-class members of a pitch-class set may appear in any order on the actual musi- cal surface (and this is what we mean by “unordered collection”), we will have to find a system of organizing them in a way that will allow us to compare different sets. We have already seen this principle applied in Chapters 1 and 2, as when we realized thatmn CHAPTER 3 various motives from Stravinsky's Rite, in which pitch classes were ordered in different ‘ways, all were members of the same set class, (0257). NOTE NOME To help us understand the concepts introduced in this section, we can think for instance afpitch classes G-E-C. Whether we present them as C-E-G, E-G-C, G-C-E, or as variety of other possible orderings, we immediately recognize this collection as “the C major triad” (in other words, we mentally order all these collections as root posi tion C major triads). In this process, we have taken for granted that the order of pitch Glasses does not matter, and we have easity identified all these different groupings swith a single term, “the C major triad.” Moreover, we can also think ofthe pitch-class tolleetions C-E-G, B-D-G, and C-F-A and easily recognize that they all belong to the same category, “major triads.” We can go one step farther and recognize the col- ections C-E-G, G-B-E, and E-A-C as “triads,” although these collections include both major and minor triads, We can do all ofthis because we have a well-established system 10 identify and label triads and tertian sonorities. Thanks to this system, we ‘an identify and compare tertian sonorities and group them into similar categories. In snost atonal music, however, we deal with nontertian, nontriadic collections. We need to define a similar system that will allow us to label any collection and t0,compare col- lections for similarity or dissimilarity. Ths is exactly what pitch-elass set theory does, as we will learn in the following pages. ‘The number of elements in a set is known as its cardinal mumber: A set with a cardinal number 3 has three elements, and its called a trichord. A set with a cardinal umber 4 is.atetrachord. A set with a cardinal number 5 is pentachord, one with a ‘Cardinal number 6 is a hexachord, and so on with cardinal numbers 7 (septachord), 8 {octachord), and 9 (nonachord). Sets may also have cardinal numbers F and 2 (monad and dyad, respectively) and cardinal numbers 10, 11, and 12, but these Hye cardinalites have less musical significance as unordered sets. Normal Order “The frst thing we need to do to compare collections of pitch classes isto arrange them in the same, standard ordering. We will call such an ordering: ‘the normal order (N.O.). ‘A normal order is an arranging of pitch classes in ascending numerical succession, “ind in such a way that they cover the shortest possible span. Take, for imstance, pitch “lasses Bs, FD, and Ds. The numerical form ofthis collection is 31 itlustrates the complete process to find the shortest possible spa numerical notations. We first arrange the pitch classes in ascending onder all within the same octave, beginning with any of the pitch classes, as in, for examples #2, 5. 10. ‘Then we need to rotate this arrangement to achieve all the - tions of this ascending ordering (for a set of n elements, there per mutations or orderings, so for our tetrachord there will be fous a set (an operation we call rotation), place the first element last ‘and leave the remainingBEE M6 M78) M6 2 Yar eens Oe 9a Oat Pee Seen Ree 2) (0 at elements as they are. Keep repeating the same process until you end up with the origi- nal ordering again. As shown in Example 3.1, the four orderings of out set are (1, 2, 5, 10), 2, 5, 10, 1), (10, 1, 2), and (10, 1, 2, 5). One more permutation would produce our original arrangement, (1, 2,5, 10). After we have all the possible orderings, we can determine which one covers the shortest possible span, We can do so by looking at the intervals between outer pitches (in our example, M6, M7, M6, and PS), or by subtract- ing the first pe integer from the last (intervals 9, 11, 9, and 7). We see that the shortest span between outer pitches in our example is provided by the fourth ordering, so this arrangement will be our normal order, which we represent in brackets: [10, 1, 2, 5] IL is not necessary, however, to go though all the orderings one by one as we have for the set in Figure 3.92 ‘The musical significance of transpositional equivalence is illustrated by the open- ing measures of Webern’s Five Movements for String Quartet, op. 5, III (1909), a piece or am article that discuses the properties and implications of inevallc success suchas the ATS see Richard Chrisman, “‘Desribing Structural Aspects of Pitch-Sets Using Saccesive-Inerval Array” Journal of Music Theory 21 (1977) 128,a 2, 3,7, 8,9] [0, 1, 5, 6, 71 Sa ay 14.t Figure 39 Adjaceney interval series in transpositonally equivalent sets Bias ‘Anton Webern, Five Movements for String Quartet, op. 5, III, mm. 1-6 Baa eae oy as 3 wi that we will study in some detail in Chapter 4. The fragment of this piece shown in Example 3.2 includes twelve sets boxed and numbered. Normal orders for all these sets are provided on the example, and so are the transpositional equivalences among adjacent sets. We sce that sets are grouped in pairs or in groups of three transposition ally equivalent sets. Thus, sets | and 2 are related by Ty, sets 3 and 4 by Ty sets 5 and 6 by T,,. The example concludes with two chains of three trichords each, related re- spectively by Ty=Tq (sets 7-8-9) and Ty-T, (sets 10-11-12), Considering nonadjacent trichords, sets 1, 2,5, 6, 10, 11, and 12 are all transpositionally equivalent. Inversional Equivalence [As we have just seen, an important perceptual (and hence musical) property of trans- position is that it preserves intervals. The same property applies also to inversionalIntroduction to Piteh-Class Set Theory BBL tersesion and inven (8.90) [O14] (8901 (034) 159.1 ee Se No ty ri Tai Tot equivalence. Example 3.3 will help you understand the concept of set inversion. In 3.38, a trichord is transposed by T,, Both forms of the iichord present the same intervals following the same contours tat is, up or down direction): minor second up, minor third up. In 3.30, however, we sill have the same intervals, but ow the second trichord features them wit their contour (ap or down reversed with respect othe ist rchord “Thus, we can say tat the is trichordis made up of a minor third followed by a minor second down from C, and the second trichord is made up of «minor third followed by a minor second up from C. We have inverted the fis trchord around the note C, and sthus the 180 ses are mirror reflections of each other around C. By convention, our basic inversion will be around C, or pitch class 0 In our example, because the iver sion is around C, no transposition is involved (or, rather, there isa transposition at the tnison, ora the 0 level. Hence the T,label I you take the already inverted trichord, C-£-E% and you transpose it up a mujor second asin Example 3.c, you end up with the trichord D-F-F¥, whichis @ transposed inversion of our original trichord, and thus tas the label Ty Sima, the sets in Example 3.3 invert around C oF pe 0 (tink of Cas the axis of symmetry between the two sets, and thus the inversion is Tol In 3.3, we transpose the second set, [5], up a minor second 0 [2,56], 80 the inversion is now Ty : ‘We can then define anew type of set equivalence, inversfonal equivalence (T,. Two pltc-class sets are inversionally equivalent if they can be mapped onto one an ‘ther by inversion followed by transposition. We know that in Example 3.3b, set 2 is fn imersion of set I. We can verify this inversion by means ofa simple procedure. In inversonaly equivalent sets, the adjacency interval series wil be mutually rerograd- able in some ofthe se’s ordering (usually the N.O., but not necessarily). Figure 3.10a shows that if we put the two sets from Example 3.3 in normal order, the respective adjacency interval series for these two sets ate <13> and <3,>, These two AIS are mutually rerogradable they are the retrograde of each other, s0 these two sets are inversionally equivalent. Now let us compare the two larger sets in Figure 3.10, al- ready given in NO, [24,578] and [2,356.8]. The adjacency interval series for these Sets are <21.2.> and respectively: that i, they are the retrograde of each tthe, hence the two sets ae inversionally equivalent, Now show tha ets (1,035 and 14.69.10] are also inversionally equivalent 6 7811 [451 (81 256) ae Ne TW pNAC EBC 89,0 43,0 NO. [89,0] (0,3, 4] VV VV AIS 13 31 NO. AIS Rote 5, 8,0,4 —1,5,9,0 VVV 344 WV als 443 Figure 3.11 AIS in inversionally related sets that require rotation This procedure to compare sets for inversional equivalence works for most sets in normal order. There are some exceptions, however: in some sets the form that shows the inversion is not the N.O., but one ofthe other rotational arrangements. These excep- tional sets are some inversionally symmetrical sets (which we will study later in this chapter), or also some sets that feature a tie forthe largest interval. For an example of {wo inversionally related normal orders that do not feature mutually retrogradable ad- jacency interval series, consider the normal orders [4.58.0] and (9,0,1,5}, shown in Fig- ure 3.11. Their respective AIS are <1,3,4> and <3,1,4>. If we rotate the normal orders, however, ito 5,8,0.4 and 1,59,0, we see that the respective AIS are now <3,4,4> and <4,4,3>, mutually retrogradable, proving that these two sets are inversionally equiva- lent. Note that these sets are of the type that features a tie forthe largest interval, in this ‘ease between pitch classes 8,0 and 0.4. Any inversion will also involve a transposition, even if it’s only the transposition atthe 0 level (around pitch class C, or 0), or Tol. Thus, after we know that two sets are inversionally equivalent, we need to determine the transposition that is involved in the inversion. We will refer to the transpositional operator applied to an inversion (the n in T,) as the index number. If two sets in N.O. are inversionally equivalent, the first clement in one set corresponds with the last in the other set, the second element with the second-to-Iast, and so on (that is, the frst pitch clas inverts into the las, the second {nto the second-to-lst, and 50 on), in such a way that the addition of each of these pairs of elements equals the index number, as illustrated by Figure 3.12. (We should note, hhowever, that here again sometimes this property does not work with orders, and then the set needs to be rotated to some other form for the property fo work.) InIntroduction to Piteh-Class Set Theory (2.4, 5,7, 8] =10: (2, 3, 5, 6, 8] igure 3.12 Determining the index number for an inversion 10 10 10 10 10 [2, 4, 5,7, 8] subtract from 10 8 6 5 3 2 reverse [2, 3, 5, 6 8] =Tiol Figure 343 Inverting a set Figure 3.12 we see thatthe index number forthe T,I operation between (2,4,5.78] and {2,3.5.6,8] is 10 (he operation is thus Tyo). In other words, in Tol (inversion around C 0), inverts into 0, 1 inverts into 11, 2into 10,3 into 9, and soon. The sum of any of these pairs is 12, But in Tg, 0 inverts into 10, 1 into 9, 2 imo 8, and so on, and the sum of any of these pairs is now 10, Can you determine in this same way the index number for the equivalence between sets [11,0,3.5] and [4.9.10]? And for sets (5,9,10,0] and 49527 ‘To invert a set by T,J, simply subtract each pe from n and reverse the order of the ‘resulting set (the inversion ofa set in N.O. will normally be the retrograde of the N.O. of the inversion, and that is why we need to reverse the order after performing the opera tion). In Figure 3.13 we sce that we derive T ol of (24,5,78] by subtracting each pe from 10 and then reversing the result. Now determine T,I of {11,0,3,5] inthis same way. NOTE Unlike transposition, inversion undoes itself when repeated. That is, every Trl is its ‘oun inverse, so the operation goes both ways. The inversion of set [2,4,5,78] bY Tyg] is £2,3,5,6,8], and the inversion of [2,3,5,6,8] again by Tl takes us back to [2,4,5°38]. Here again, the initial measures from Webern's Five Movements for String Quar- tet, op. S, IIL, will help us understand the significance of inversional equivalence among be sets. In Example 3.2, some musical events in m. 3 were let out of our commentary (on transpositional equivalence because the sets formed by these events are not related by transposition, but rather by inversion. Example 3.4 shows four pe collections, boxed2 (CHAPTER 3 PEEIEEIIEES Webern, Five Movements for String Quartet, op. 5,111, mm, 1-4 Tl poz}, 8901 3.) Tr 3g Sehr bewegt (7.11.0) ig. me oh —— senpré ppp * ‘and numbered. The normal orders of sets | and 2 show us that these two sets are related by Tl and, similarly, sets 3 and 4 are related by Tyf (as a matter of fact, these two sets are identical to two trichords we studied previously in Example 3.3 and Figure 3.10, the trichords [8.9.0] and (0,34). In other words, all groups of two or three adjacent sets shown in both Examples 3.2 and 3.4 are related by transpositional or inversional ‘equivalence. Set Class and Prime Form ‘The normal order of a set allows us to compare sets to determine the existence (or nonexistence) of equivalence relations among them. The normal order, however, still represents specific pitch classes. That is, the normal order is equivalent to reducing all : inversions of a C major triad to its root position. This allows us to compare the C major triad with all other major triads and realize that they are all transpositionally equiva- Tent, and to compare the C major triad with all minor triads and realize that they are inversionally equivalent (the major and minor triads are mutual inversions). Now we should be able to find a label that allows us to include all these equivalent triads under cone single category. In other words, a set can be transposed twelve times and inverted {transposed another twelve times, and all these forms of the set ate equivalent. The col- lection of equivalent forms of a same set is called the set class, and its epresented by ‘a numerical arrangement we call prime form.Introduction to Pitch-Class Set Theory Q i 84,31 3)2 NO. (1,3,4,8] 5 4/3 Oatleft (0 2 3 7) 7 Wy ae Figure A hoc determine he prime for ost In Chapter | we learned a simple and quick procedure to determine the prime form Of a set. That procedure works for most sets, but not for all, We will review it here as ‘quick shorteut to figure out prime forms, but we will also learn the more systematic procedure that works for any set. First, let’ review the shortcut: 1. Begin from the normal order. 2. Assign integer 0 to the first pitch class and renumber the rest of the pitch classes accordingly. You can do so by transposing the normal order to begin on 0, or sim= ply by producing the same adjacency interval series found in the normal order, but now beginning from 0. 3. The smallest possible intervals must be to the left. If they are to the right, read from the right beginning with 0 (you will have to read the set's AIS backward and beginning from 0), and then reverse the order. You will obtain the same result by subtracting all the members of the set from the last number in the set and then reversing the order (in other words, in this step we are actually inverting the set to bring the smallest intervals to the left). Let us apply these steps to some examples. First, we will determine the prime form for set 8.4.3.1 (See Figure 3.14, where the process is shown both numerically and on a ‘lock face). The N.O. is [1.3.4.8]. We assign 0 to the first pe and then produce the same adjacency interval series found in the N.O. (that is, <2,l,4>). Alternatively, we trans- pose the N.O. to begin with 0. In either case, the result is [0.2.3.7]. The first interval is 2, the last one is 4 so the smallest interval isto the left (there isa smaller interval in the center, 1, but rotating the set to place it to the left or to the right would undo our N.O. because then the set would not be arranged in the shortest possible span, and that would g0 against our step 1). So this is already this set’s prime form, which we will notate in Parentheses without commas: (0237), ‘We can also follow the same steps using a clock face, First, we list the NO. on the circle, and then we assign 0 to the first pe of the N.O. and count half steps clockwise. If the smallest intervals are tothe left ofthe resulting transposition, as is the case with our example in Figure 3.14, that will be the prime form,NO, 4, 7, 6, 2 2.4.6.7) Oat 0.2.4.5 WV 4/2 4/3 Iii 2 7 Oatrign 5310 ay, ~~ ~~ Reverse (0 13 5) 4 1 0.2.4.5 @135) wv vv 24 ia Figure 3,5 A shortcut to determine the prime form ofa et ‘We will now try with set 4,7,6,2. The NO. is [2,4,6,7], which transposed to begin ‘on 0 becomes [0.2.4.5]. The interval (o the left is 2, the one to the right is 1, so this is not a valid prime form, We need to invert this set, You can read (0,2,4,5] back- ward from 0 (that is, you assign 0 to the rightmost pe and read the sets AIS backward from 0), and you come up with 5,3,1,0. Reverse this set to 0,1,3,5, and this is your prime form, (0135). This procedure is shown in Figure 3.15. Note that if we subtract all the ‘members of (0,2,4,5] from the last number in this set, 5, and then we reverse the order, ‘we obtain the same result, (0135). On a clock face, we first list the N.O. on the circle ‘and then transpose it to begin on 0 as we did in Figure 3.14. Ifthe smallest intervals are to the right of the resulting transposition, we will assign 0 to the last pe of the N.O. and ‘count half steps counterclockwise, as shown in Figure 3.15. NOTE You can now try some on your own. What are the prime forms of [5,9,10,0),[11,0,2,4), ‘and [9,0,3,5]? Can you demonstrate that the three rrichords from Example 3.3, [8,9,0], 10,34}, and [2,5,6), are all members of the same set class? What is the prime form for the major triad? For the minor triad? Are they members of the same set class? ‘A longer procedure that works for al sets is as follows: 1. Begin from the N.O., and transpose the N.O. to begin on 0 as you did in the previ- ous set of instructions. 2. Invert the set (by subtracting all members of the set from 12), and repeat the opera tions from step 1. That is, put the inversion in N.O,, and then transpose it to begin on 0. 3, From steps 1 and 2, choose the result that is more packed tothe left. That is, choose the form that has the smallest interval between the first and the next-to-last pes. IfIntroduction o Pitch-Class Set Theory Original Set Inverted Set 4,7, 62 NO, (2, 4,6, 7] a\e hey Oat left 0,2,4,5 lover set 10, 86,5 NO. {5,6,8,10) YN Gatien (013 5) ay 135) 0.2.45 135) Vv Vv ¥ 3 igure 3.16 The complete procedure to determine the prime form ofa set. {hat still results in a tie, check the interval between the first and third-to-last pes, and so on, Figure 3.16 shows the application of these steps to set 47.62. After we figure out the NO. and transpose it to begin on 0, we invert the N.O. Subtracting (2.4,6.] irom 12 ives us 10,8,6.5, which, in NO, is {5,6,8.10}. Transposing this NO. to begin on O gives us [0.1.3.5]. We compare the previous [0,2,4,5] to [0,1,,5],and we see that the lattes is more packed tothe left; hence itis the corect prime form, (0135). To follow this proce. dure on a clock face, we frst need to list both the N.O. ofthe original set and the NO. of the inverted set on circles, read both clockwise, and choose the one most packed to the left. From Figures 3.15 and 3.16, we might think that we can always achieve the same result with both methods to determine the prime form. Figure 3.17, however, shows a case of a longer set where we need to perform the second list of steps to arrive atthe correct prime form. In Five Movements for String Quartet, op. 5, IV, Webern uses an ‘ascending figure on three occasions. The first of them is shown in Figure 3.17, where we see thatthe N.O. for this set is [10,11.01,4,6,7]. Transposing this N.O. to begin on 0, ‘We come up with [0,1,2,3,6,89]. Because te iritervals from the left,, are smaller than the intervals fom the right (reading backward from the right, , we might be tempted to sette on this arrangement as a prime form. As it turn {o begin on 0, we discover that the form [0,1,2,3,6.79] is more packed to the lef than {01,2,3,6.89), so the prime form is indeed (0123679). The process is illustrated both hhumerically and on a clock face in Figure 3.17 ‘We can now go back to Example 3.2 and verify that, among all the sets related by transpositional equivalence, the sets numbered as 1,2, 5, 6,10, II, and 12 belong to the same set class. Sets 7,8, and 9, on the other hand, are also members ofthe same set 8 out, this is notbabe Original Set 2 1 ~~ i r Set: 0,4,6,11,1,7,10 ony NO. [10,11,0,1,4,6,7] Oat left 0,1,23,68,9 Invert set: 2,1,0,11,8,6,5 aje NO. (11,0,1,2,5,6.8] Oatleft 0,1,2,3.6,7,9 at | PR. (0123679) aa 679 Figure 3.17 The complete procedure ro determine the prime form ofa set ‘lass, and similarly with sets 3 and 4, Identify each of the three set classes present in this example. If you refer now to Example 34, you ean verify that each of the two pairs fof inversionally related sets also represents one ofthe set classes you just identified in Example 3.2, Which are these two set classes? NOTE, NOTE The normal order represents an ordering of actual, specific pitch classes. We will use it vihen ve need 10 compare particular collections of literal pitch classes for operations ‘wach as transposition, inversion, and some other literal operations we will study in this Chapter (for instance, literal complementarity and literal subset structure). The prime Jorn.on the other hand, is an abstract label that represents ast class. That is it repre, deal the different ses (all the transpositionally and inversionally equivalent normal sicors that mate up aset clas. We will use the prime form when we want o refer tothe ser lass as a whole, 10 a set as a representative of a set class, Or for some operations that deal with abstract, as opposed to literal, representations of sets (such as abstract ‘Complementarity and abstract subset structure, 10 be discussed later inthis chapter. Interval-Class Vector {tis particularly useful, both forthe composer and forthe analyst, to know the complete interval content ofa pitch-class set. That i, to know the list of all possible intervals that can result from combining all pitch classes in a set in pairs. Because we are dealing ‘vit pitch clases, what really matters i not so much the exact intervals but the intervalIntroduction to Pitch-Class Set Theory 23114 Figure 3.18 Calculating the interval-clas vector of a set classes. The interval-class vector (ICV) is precisely this, list ofthe complete interval- class content of ape set. An interval-class vector contains six integers (which we will represent in brackets and without commas), and each integer indicates the number of ‘occurrences of each ie. For instance, the ICV for set (01346) is (22311]. This means that in set (01346) there are two cases of ic 1 (intervals I-11), two of ic 2 (intervals 10), three of ic 3 (intervals 3-9), and one each of interval classes 4 (intervals 4-8), 5 (intervals 5-7), and 6 Ginterval 6) To determine the ICV of a set, you can build a “triangle of differences,” as shown in Figure 3.18. With the set in prime form, disregard the opening zero, subtract the frst integer after the zero from each of the remaining integers, and write the results on a line under the set. Then follow the same process with each sulbsequent line: subtract the first integer from each of the remaining integers until you get to a line with a single integer. When you have the complete triangle, count the occurrences of integers 1 or 1. This will give you the entry for ic 1 in your vector. Occurrences of integers.2 or 10 will give you the entry for ie 2; occurrences of integers 3 or 9 provide the entry for ie 3; oc- ‘currences of 4 or 8 provide the entry for ic 4; occurrences of 5 or 7 provide the entry for ic 5; and occurrences of 6 provide the entry for ic 6. These entries account for the vector [223111] in our example, Now determine the ICV for set (O48) using a triangle of differences ‘One of the most immediate applications of the ICV is that it allows us to compare the interval-class content of sets. Webern's Five Movements for String Quartet, op. 5, 1V, opens with two tremolo figures in the violins, as shown in Example 3.5. The respec tive prime forms for these figures are (0156) and (0167). The ICVs for each ofthese sets are [200121] and [200022]. We can see from this information that each of these sets contains two instances of ic 1, two more of ie 5, and one oF two of ic 6. On the other hhand, both sets display zero eases of ie 2 and ie 3, and only one case in one set of ie 4. We thus learn from the ICVS that the interval-class content ofthese two sets is substan tially similar, a property that is interesting from both the compositional and analytical perspectivas. Note also that the example closes witha pizzicato chord in the upper reg- ister. The set class for this chord is also (0156) Shere isa volaminous literature on various ways of measuring smarty elatons among. sets. Se for instance, Robert Mocs, “A Similarity Inde for Ptch-Class Sets," Perspectives of New Music 18 1979-80}; 448-60; Eric Baacson, "Similaty of IntervalClass Content Between Ptch-Class Sets: The VSIM Relation,” Journal of Music Theory 341990 1-28: and Michael Becle, "Broken and Unbroken Interval Cycles and Their Use in Determining Pich-Clase Set Resemblance,” Perspectives of New Music 38/2 (2000) $2-87,(CHAPTER 3 Bn Webern, Five Movements for String Quartet, op. 5, 1V, mm, 1-2 (0156) (0167) (0156) ICV (200121) IeV [200022] mit Dampter mit Dimpfer rob eg The List of Set Classes |A list of set classes (or prime forms) containing between three and nine pitch classes {trichords to nonachords) can be found in Appendix 1.4 Complementary set classes are listed across from each other (we will explain set complementarity below; for the time being, simply notice that trichords are listed across from nonachords, ttrachords feross from octachords, pentachords across from septachords, and so on, and that in all cases complementary cardinal numbers add up to 12, as in 3+9= 12). Note that in prime forms, we will use T and E for ten and eleven, respectively. (Some sourees in the literature use A for ten and B for eleven.) ‘in The Structure of Atonal Music, Forte assigned a double number to each set class, which we will cll the set’s Forte name. Forte names appear in the leftmost and rightmost columns in our list of set classes. The first integer in a Forte name (as, for in- stance, in 3-6) refers to the cardinal number ofthe set class (that is, 3-6 has three pitch ‘Earp forms ofthis appeared in Howard Hanson's The Harmonie Material of Twenteth-Cenry Mask. (New York: Appleton Centy-Crofts, 1960) and Donald Martino's “The Source Set and Its Agare- ie Faratonn urna of Muse Theory 572 (0861 224-73. The most commonly used sts peat 8 Fee The Secure of Atonal Music and Raba's Basic tonal Theory. Te list in Appendix 1s modeled ror he Into set claacs in Siraus's Introduction to Post Tonal Theory 3rd pp 261-64 itself mod sae anne Becatse of slighty diferent methods of computing normal orders and prime forms, ove Tatas a Ratn's and Straus’) difers from Forte's in six prime forms (or set clases 5-20, 6-229, (6-31, 7-218, 7-20, and 8-26)Introduction o Pitch-Class Set Theory classes). The second integer is an order number that indicates where the set appears in Forte's list (3-6 appears in the sixth place in the list of trichords). The second and second-o-ast columns are list of set classes, including all the possible prime forms with a cardinal number of 3 to 9. The third and third-to-last columns show the interval- class vectors for all set classes. Finally, the central column indicates the degrees of transpositional and inversional symmetry, two concepts explained below. NOTE ony Although the list was somewhat reordered by Rahn, the original Forte names were © preserved, but now out of order in some cases. Our list follows Rahn's reordering, including the original Forte names in their reordered state. As youcan probably realize ata glance, the listof setclassesisahighly useful source. In the first place, we can quickly verify whether what we think is a prime form does ‘or does not exist. For instance, you might try to figure out mentally the prime form for set E-F-B, and come up with (017). A look at the list will tell you, however, that (017) is, not a possible prime form (it does not exist on the list). Why not? What is the real prime form for this set? Moreover, the list provides you with a set’s interval-class vector and ‘ther useful information that we will discuss in the following sections. Z-Related Sets Z-related sets are nonequivalent sets with identical interval-class vectors.5 For each Z set in the list of set classes you will find another Z. set with the same cardinal num- ber that has the same ICV. Find, for instance, set 5-236, (01247), with ICV [222121]. Further down in the pentachords you will find set 5-Z12, (01356), with the same ICV. ‘These two sets are Z related, What set is Z-related to 7-238? PITCH-CLASS SETS: FURTHER PROPERTIES AND RELATIONSHIPS Invariant Tones under Transposition Common tones (or invariant tones) among various pitch or pitch class collections have been used for a variety of musical purposes in different musical periods and styles. In tonal voice leading, for instance, itis usual to leave common tones between adjacent chords in the same voice, thus minimizing the motion from one chord to the next. ‘Some post-tonal composers (particularly Anton Webern) have also favored the use of ‘common tones or common pitch classes between adjacent collections in their composi- tions, whereas other composers have favored the avoidance of common tones. Refer, 5although the 2 relation was named by Forte, ts cavlest formulations ae fund in David Lewin's “The Interallic Content ofa Collection of Notes," ournal of Music Theory (1960): 98-101, and Hanson's The Harmonie Materials of Twenith-Century Musi.(CHAPTER 3 Bina Reduction of chords in mm. 1-6 of Webern’s op. 5, IIT BD Ga (014) O14) (O14) O14) (014) (O14) (01s) O18) O14) O14) (O14) for instance, to Example 3.6. This is a reduction of all the vertical trichords heard in the upper three instruments of Webern’s Five Movements for String Quartet, op. 5, II, ‘mm. 1-6, the passage shown in Example 3.2. The trichords are grouped into four pairs and a group of three, and all belong to the (014) set class. Thus, they ae all related by T, oF T,| equivalences. Now notice the pitches marked with circles and connected with lines in' Example 3.6. We sce that in each of the groups of two or three chords, adjacent chords share a common pitch class (these are the marked pitches, also identified with letter names above the chor. It is thus musically and compositionally significant to know how many invariant pitch classes are produced by particular transformations of a set (that is transpositions and inversions). We will now learn that it is quite simple to investigate the number of invariant pitch classes under transposition and under inversion. The number of invariants (common pitch classes) produced by transposition by imerval-class n (with the only exception of ic 6) will be equal 10 the number of times interval-class n occurs in the set. All we need to do, then, is to examine the sets in- terval-class vector. Take set (02357). The ICV is [132130]. Entry 1 for ie 1 means that one pitch class ofthe set remains invariant under T,, Entry 3 for ie 2 means that three pitch classes ofthis set remain invariant under T,, Entry 2 for ie 3 means that two pitch lasses of this set remain invariant under T, and so on. Inverse-related values of n yield the same number of invariants. For instance, T, and Typ will each produce three invariants (entry 3 for ic 2). We can verify this statement very easily. Transposing N.O. [0,2,3,5.71 by Ty gives us set [2,4,5,79], which has pitch classes 2, 5, and 7 in common ‘with the original set. Transposing it by To results in [10,0,1,3,5}, which has pitch classes 0, 3, and 5 in common with the original set. Now verify all this atthe piano. How many invariants will both T; and T; of this same set produce? What are the exact invariant pitch classes in each ease, if we apply these transpositions to N.O. (0,2,3.5.71? Interval class 6, on the other hand, requires special treatment. Each occurrence of ie 6 in a set's vector will produce two invariants under T,. The vector for set (01267) iso14s 0 148 1 Beas. 4 eg 0) 8 904 igure 3.19 The summation square for set [0.148] [310132]. Entry 2 for ic 6 means that four pitch classes of this set remain invariant under Tg, Verify this both numerically and at the piano: take for example N.O. [0,1.2,6,7], transpose it by T, and verify how many invariants result from this transposition. Now figure out the number of invariant pitch classes under T, for set 6-7. What does this result mean (considering that set 6-7 is a hexachord)? Verify your result numerically and at the piano, NOTE The reason why each occurrence of ic 6 in a set will result in two invariants under Ty, is that, unlike any other interval, each tritone in a set will map om itself under Ty. ‘hus producing two common tones (the tones of the tritone) under that transposition (if you have a set that includes pes B-F, T, ofthis set will include pes F-B, two common ‘ones withthe original se, Invariant Tones under Inversion To find out the number of invariant pitch classes under inversion, we need to build what is known as a summation square:® Take, for instance, set [0,148], Write the set horizontally and vertically, and then add the corresponding elements and write each addition at the intersection between two elements, The resulting square is shown in Figure 3.19. ‘The integers in the summation square represent index numbers for T, operations, Count how many times each integer occurs within the lines of the square, and that will give you the number of invariants under that index number, For instance, integer 0 ap- Pears three times, so the operation Tol will produce three invariants. Integer I appears twice, so the operation TI will produce two invariants, Figure 3.20 lists the number of invariants for each index number. “This typeof marx, also called invariance matrix, was orginally invented by Bo Alphonce (The Invari- ance ‘PhD. dis, Yale University 197), Foran extensive discussion ofthe properties and appli ince matrices, see Morris, Class Notes, Chapter I Introduction to Pitch-Class Set TheoryTol - 3 Tel - 0 TL 2 TA - 0 TA - 1 Tal - 3 Ts - 0 Tol - 2 Tal - 3 Tyol- 0 Tsl - 2 Tul- 0 Figure 3.20 Invariant tones under inversion for set [0.1 Value of nin Ty: Oh 2! 345) 67 e910 11 Index vector for (0148): <3,2, 1, 0, 3, 2, 0, 0, 3, 2, 0, O> igure 3.21 The index vector for st (0.14.8) “This list of invariants can be presented as what we call an index veetor, where cach ofthe twelve integers represents the number of invariant tones under inversion by the corresponding index number (the n of Ty1), ordered from 0 (0 11. Thus, the index eetor for set [0.1.48] i <3.21,0,3,2,000.32.00> as shown in Figure 3.2. Its impor ant to note that index vectors are different for different members ofa set class (that i, transponitions and inversions of a given set. In other words, we must derive index vee~ tors from particular normal orders, not from a prime form representing a set class. ‘To verify this list, invert NO. [0,148] by any ofthe index numbers, for instance ‘TL. Subiracting each pe from 4 gives us (4.30.8) We get thee invariant pitch classes: «40, and 8. In fact, we could have figured out which three pitch classes are invariant in Ti just by examining the summation square. Index number 4 occurs, inthe square, at tis intersections of 8 with 8,0 with 4, and 4 with 0. S00, 4, and 8 are the invariant pes under TL. Similarly, index number 5 occurs atthe intersection of 4 with 1, so 4 and 1 are the two invariants under T,L. What are the two invariant pitch classes under TI? Set Complementarity ‘The complement of a given set is the set formed by all pitch classes not included in the original set. The union ofa set and its complement constitutes the collection of all twelve pitch classes, which we cal the aggregate. Take, for instance, set (0,24,6,8,10}, which fy the ashole-tone scale we have labeled as WT), This set's complement is the Set formed by al the pitch classes not included in WT, that is (1.3.57,9,1], of WT). rom this perspective, we are dealing with the literal complement, that is, the set that contains the actual pitch classes not included in the original set.Introduction to Piteh-Class Set Theory 0, 1, 2, (3, 4), 5, 6 (7), 8, 9, (10, 11) 012 56 89 01 4 ot igure 3.22 Set complementarity We can also think, however, of abstract complementarity. An abstract comple- ‘ment of a set is any member of the set class that includes its literal complement (that is, any member of the set class represented by the prime form of the literal complement), ‘To determine the abstract complement of a set, first find its literal complement, and then put this literal complement in prime form. Any member of the set class represented by this prime form (other than the literal complement) will be an abstract complement of the original set. Take, for instance, set (0125689). The literal complement (made up Of the pitch classes missing in the given set) is [3,4,7,10,11], which, in prime form, is (01478). The abstract complement of (0125689) is thus (01478) or any transposition or inversion of this set other than the literal complement itself. In Figure 3,22 you can see that these two prime forms complement each other (fit into each other) to build a com- plete sequence of the twelve pitch classes (the aggregate. In the list of set classes, complementary set classes are listed across from each other and labeled with identical order numbers. Thus, 5-1 and 7-1 are complementary, and so are 5-2 and 7-2, 5-3 and 7-3, and so on. Notice also an interesting interval- lic property of complementary sets: The difference in the number of occurrences of each interval between two complementary sets equals the difference between cardinal ‘numbers of the sets (except for ic6, where the difference of cardinal numbers must be divided by 2), Take sets 513 and 7-13. The difference between their cardinal numbers is 7 ~ 5 =2. Now compare their ICVs, (221311] and [443532], and you will see that the difference in the number of occurrences of each interval class (each member of the vec- {o1) is also 2, except for ic6, in which the difference is | (that is, 2 divided by 2). ‘A variety of interesting musical applications of set complementarity appear in Webern's Five Movements for String Quartet, op. 5, IV, In Example 3.5 we became familiar with the opening two measures and with the tremolo figures represented by prime forms (0156) and (0167). The set that combines both of these tremolo figures is set 5-7 (01267), Example 3.7 shows mm, 3-6 for the same piece. In mm, 34 we hear 4 descending four-note motive presented in imitation (by violin 1, violin 2, and cello), gain a member of set class (0167). For purposes of complementarity relations, how- ever, let us focus on the pentachord formed by combining the four-note motive in m. 3 with the viola figure, E~F4, in the same measure. This is set 5-7 (01267) again. The vertical chord that opens m, 4 (the five pitch classes on the first eighth-note of the mea- sure) is also set 5-7. If we now combine the two overlapping statements of 5-7 we have just identified in mm. 3-4, the resulting set is 7-7 (0123678), the complement of set 5-7. This complement relation becomes even more significant when we examine the ‘ext musical gesture, in mm. 4-6, We now hear a polyphonic texture in three voicesom (CHAPTER 3 DEBITED «ters ive ovement for String Quartet, op, 5,1; mm. 3-6 (Giolin 1, viola, and cello), The set that includes al the pitch classes in this fragment is again set class 7-7 (0123678). But we can also break the fragment into two overlapping pentachords, each of them beginning on the only eighth notes where all three instru- nents have simultaneous attacks (last eighth-note in m. 4, third cighth-note in m. 5). Both of these pentachords are members of set class 5-7, again the complement of set class 7-7, In other words, twice in a row in these measures we hear the same type of ‘complementarity relation: (wo overlapping statements of set class 5-7 combine to form the complement ofthis se, set class 7-1 ‘Hexachordal complementarity also features some interesting properties. If you refer to the list of set classes, you will see that there are 50 different hexachordal sets. ‘Twenty of them are self-complementary that is, the complement of one of these set classes is the same set class, Self-complementary hexachords do not show any set listed ‘seross from them in the list of set classes. Look, for instance, at set 6-35, (02468T), the whole-tone set (as we noted before, in prime forms we will use T and E for ten land eleven, respectively). We know that the complement of a whole-tone scale is an- ‘ther whole-tone scale, also a member of set class (024687), so set class 6-35 is self- ‘complementary and hence shows no set class listed across from it. 'A further look at the list of set classes tells us that all hexachords that are not selfcomplementary are of the Z type, and that in all cases the complement of a a __ “These and other complemeatarity lations inthis pose are pointed out in David Beach, “Pitch Structare hung Analyte Process in Atonal Musi: An Interpretation ofthe Theory of Sets” Music Theory Spee~ fram 11979): 7-22.Introduction to Pitch-Class Set Theory Literal subset Abstract subset exclude pe 9: [2, 3, 5, 6] (0134) mm exclude pe 6: (2,3, 5, 9] (0137) — exclude pe 5: [2, 3, 6, 9] (0147) excludepe3: 23.569 [2, 5, 6, 9] (0347) mm excludepe2: 23569 13,5, 6,9] (0236) Figure 3.23 The ttrashordal subsets of pentachord (23,56. Z-hexachord is its Z-related hexachord (note that all Z-hexachord listed across from each other share one common interva-class vector). In other words, all henecheonn as its complement, Inclusion: Supersets and Subsets ‘A sctcan be broken up into a number of sets that are contained in it, All the sets con- care get Will be smalter than the original st; the only exception isthe original systematic way. If we want to figure instance, we can go through a proce the pentachord, This process is shor pitch-class set from pentachord [CHAPTER 3 column, Any members ofthe set classes represented by each of these prime forms are spurrct tetrachordal subsets of [2.35.69]. Can you now prove that (2.3.5.69] contains dine different (O14) subsets? To find the prime forms for all the abstract trichordat Mipcets ofa pentachord, we would systematically exclude all possible dyads and Ist the prime forms ofthe resltngtrchords. There are ten resulting wrichords, thes of irieh in this case will have an (O14) prime form. Because what we are looking for is net subsets (represented by prime forms), we can also work from the prime form of the original [2.3.5.6] set, (01347), from which we can visualize abstract subsets move teal, One of the (014 subsets we are looking fr isthe literal [0.14], The other wo are {0.3.4} and (3447), The prime form forall three trichords is (O14). Can you demonstrate {hat set (0136) contains two (016) and two (015) subsets? Can you demonstrate, more ‘over, that set (0167) contains four (016) subsets? ‘Example 38 shows us some inclusion relationships in & musical context. fn the opening thee measures of Schoenberg's Drei Klaversticke, op. 11, no, 1 90) we aacnirexture made up of a melody in the upper voice and two harmonic trichords, Ie consider frst the complete melodic gesture as a whole the resulting set class is {013457), Similarly the set elass that contains both chords is (O14S68), Both of these Rexachosds are shown in Example 38a. In Example 3.8 on the other hand, we break tp the texture into fouttrchords: two forthe melody and one fr each of the chon ‘The melody breaks up into set classes (014) and (015) and the two harmonic trichords ave (016) and (O14. All three set classes involved, (4), (015), and (O16): are subsets at beth hexachords, as shown in the diagram atthe end of Example 3.8b, In Exam- ple 386, finally, we show that the melody begins with two overlapping and investor" Miy equivalent members of set class (0128). This tetrachord is also a subset of oll evaehords from Example 38a, Inclusion relationships thus connect all the main set nse involved in these measures, including two hexachords, one tetrachord, and three trichords. ‘Symmetry ‘A symimetrical set isa set that can map onto itself under transposition or inversion. ‘anspositionally symmetrical set can map ono itself under transposition, Take, for qetanve, set (04,8), the familiar augmented triad. It can map onto itself under Ty) Ty and T,, You may easily verify ths: transpose [04,8] by Toy Tan and Try ant 98 ‘what ane the resulting sets. An inversionally symmetrical set can map onto itself under in- ae Gon. Take (0416.7) and invert it by T,L and T. You will see that the result of both Sperations is also [016.7]. We have already sen numerous uses of symmetric es Py operons composers. 1 Chapter 1 we discussed both Debussy’s and Stravinsky's use of vantives or harmonies generated by set cass (0257); im Chapter 2 we saw examples of Pastdk’s motives based on set classes (0167), (0134), (0235), (0268), and (0246). And in this ehapter we have seen examples of (0156) and (0167) ina piese by Webern. These are all symmetrical sets. If you refer tothe list of set classes, you will see tha the mile column contains two integers. The first integer indicates the degree of transpositional symmetry, thatIntroduction to Pitch-Class Set Theory PBB 1a schoenberg: Drei Ktaviersicke, op. 11,n0. 1, mm. 1-3 (013457) (018568) 015) (0124) is, the number of transpositional levels at which the set maps onto itself. In all eases, the degree of transpositional symmetry is at least 1 because all sets are transpositionally symmetrical at T,, The second integer indicates the degree of inversional symmetry, that is, the number of inversional levels at which the sets maps onto itself. Examine, for instance, a few particular sets, and try to understand what these degrees of transposi- tional and inversional symmetry mean in practice. Set 3-12 can map onto itself three times under transposition and three under inversion. Why? Can you explain why set 4-28 can map onto itself four times under each operation? And how about set 6-35? ‘Why can it map onto itself six times under each operation? “To determine at what transpositional level a symmetrical set maps onto itself, we ccan examine the set's interval-class vector. A set is transpositionally equivalent if the(CHAPTER 3 sector contains an entry equal to the numberof pitch classes in the set (or half that nam, er inthe ease of ic 6). Take, for instance, set (0368), whose degree of transpositions} ymmety is 4 according tothe list of set classes. The ICV is [004002] and the set aanrtora) contains four pitch classes. The veetor entry for ie 3is 4, and the entry for ses 2 dha the number of pes inthe se). Hence, the set will map onto itself at Ty @s ‘Mt sets do) Ty andT, he cwo intervals tat form ie 3 and atte interval ha ors ieigy Now ty to determine at what transpositional levels set (Ol4S89) will map onto itself, and do the same for sts (013679) and (024681). ‘We can easily tll whether a set is inversionally symmetrical because such a set always has atleast one ordering ofits clements whose interval series rograde (hat is, the AIS is self-tetrogradable). The AIS for (0.16.7), fo ete, which ists own retrograde. For each such ordering, the set will map onto jsef der TI, where n equals the sum of the first and lst members of tat ondeiti: Tak, Tar tastance, (02,68). The four orderings ofthis set are 0.2.68) (2,680) [68.0-2, tind (8.0.2.6) All four result in AIS that are their own retrogrades: <24.2>, <4.2, aNA2> and , respectively. Adding the frst and last members for each of the Tour onderings, however, results in only two different numbers, 8 and 2. This means Poe 0.2.6.8) i itwersionally symmetrical under Tyl and TL. We already know that {04.6.7 is inversonally symmetrical under Ty and TL. Can you verify thar? thw ordering whose AIS is its own retrograde is often the normal order, and then te prime form set wll be symmetrical that iit wl be the same whether we read ‘Prcpwand or backward) Read (0167) backward, and you will also come up with (167). “The same ean be shown with (048), (0235), (0246), (0268), and many other ses, For AMher inversionally symmetrical sets, however, we need to rotate the prime form before saree in find a self.retrogradable interval series. Take for instance set (027), which the TTacof set classes shows as being inversionally symmetrical. Its symmetry becomes aP- patent when we rotate to become [2,70 form ofthe set that we ean equally read forward or backward. Now try with (0158). Tor yet another type of symmetrical set, however, rotation is not sufficient show syinmeteyintervallically. We cannot rotate (0248) in any way 10 achieve 9 st steogradable interval series. (The four orderings are (0.248), (24,801 148.02) and {8.0.2.4)) Taking the last pitch class inthe prime form and duplicating i t Hs US tHoning however, gives us (80248) The adjacency interval series is now , aeretogradable showing the symmetrical nature of this set. Ifyou do the same with {O27 you wll also see that [70.2.7] is symmetrical Now try with (0127), Does ration demonstrate that iis inversionally symmetrical? If not, how can you prove i? ‘We ean readily verify the symmetry of a set by representing ton a clock face. IF the sors degree of inversional symmetry is 1, the set will be divided symmetrically Py woe sec as shown in Figure 3.24a for sets (027), (0127), and (0248). If the degree of Smmety is 2, there wl be two axes of symmetry, asin Figure 3.24b fr sens 167) sa (ODsB), Sets with dogrees of symmetry 3,4, and 6 will feature 3,4, and 6 axes of ‘rnmetry respectively, ax shown in Figure 324e fr ses (O48), (0369), and @>A6E) Teach ofthese eases, we can determine between what pitch classes we can draw axes bt symmetry through the following procedure: If ast is inversionally symmetrical atIntroduction to Pitch-Class Set Theory Figure 3.24 Graphic representations of inversional symmetry(CHAPTER 3 “Tol, the two centers of inversional symmetry will be n/2 and (0/2) + 6- Consider set (6268), As we saw earlier itis inversionally symmetrical at Ty and TL, For TyL the centers of symmetry will be 8/2 =4 (pitch class E) and also 4 + 6 = 10 (pitch class B). For TL, the centers of symmetry willbe 22 = 1 and | +6= 7, or pitch classes Ctand G- ‘The two axes E-Bs and C#-G are indeed shown in Figure 3.24. The axis of symmetry can also fall between two pitch classes. We know that (0167) is inversionally sym- metrical at Ty1 and T,1. For Ti, the centers of symmetry are 1/2= Sand .5 + 6= 65 (axis 5-6.5), and for Ty they are 7/2 = 35 and 3.5 + 6=9.5 (axis 3.5 = 9.5). These two axes are shown in Figure 3.24. ‘Terms for Review pitch class inversional equivalence ‘octave equivalence index number enharmonic equivalence set class integer notation prime form ‘mod [2 acithmetic interval-class vector piteh-class space list of set classes . pitch space Forte name ordered pitch-class interval Z-related sets ‘unordered piteh-class interval invariant tones imerval lass invariant tones under transposition pitch-class set invariant tones under inversion cardinal number index vector wichord ‘complement tetrachord ageregate pentachord literal complement hexachord abstract complement septachord hexachordal complementarity ‘ctachord subset nonachord superset rmonad literal subset dyad abstract subsets normal order transpositionally symmetrical set rotation inversionally symmetrical set transpositional equivalence degree of transpositional symmetry ‘transpositional operator degree of inversional symmetry adjacency interval series