Nama: Mangiring

Resume Gary A Yukl (1,2,3)

Chapter 1_Introduction and Overview

TABLE 1-1 Definitions of Leadership

• Leadership is “the behavior of an individual . . . directing the activities of a group toward a shared goal”
(Hemphill & Coons, 1957, p. 7).
• Leadership is “the influential increment over and above mechanical compliance with the routine
directives of the organization” (Katz & Kahn, 1978, p. 528).
• Leadership is “the process of influencing the activities of an organized group toward goal
achievement” (Rauch & Behling, 1984, p. 46).
• “Leadership is about articulating visions, embodying values, and creating the environment within
which things can be accomplished” (Richards & Engle, 1986, p. 206).
• “Leadership is a process of giving purpose (meaningful direction) to collective effort, and causing
willing effort to be expended to achieve purpose” (Jacobs & Jaques, 1990, p. 281).
• Leadership “is the ability to step outside the culture . . . to start evolutionary change processes that
are more adaptive” (Schein, 1992, p. 2).
• “Leadership is the process of making sense of what people are doing together so that people will
understand and be committed” (Drath & Palus, 1994, p. 4).
• Leadership is “the ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute
toward the effectiveness and success of the organization . . .” (House et al., 1999, p. 184).

TABLE 1-2 What Leaders Can Influence

• The choice of objectives and strategies to pursue.
• The motivation of members to achieve the objectives.
• The mutual trust and cooperation of members.
• The organization and coordination of work activities.

• The allocation of resources to activities and objectives.

• The development of member skills and confidence.

• The learning and sharing of new knowledge by members.
• The enlistment of support and cooperation from outsiders.
• The design of formal structure, programs, and systems.
• The shared beliefs and values of members.

Indicators of Leadership Effectiveness

Seperti definisi kepemimpinan, konsepsi efektivitas pemimpin berbeda dari satu penulis ke
yang lain. Kriteria yang dipilih untuk mengevaluasi efektivitas kepemimpinan mencerminkan
eksplisit atau tidaknya peneliti.

Sebagian besar peneliti mengevaluasi efektivitas kepemimpinan dalam hal konsekuensi

pengaruh terhadap satu individu, tim atau grup, atau organisasi.

a.Immediate and Delayed Outcomes (Hasil langsung Dan Hasil Tertunda)

Misalnya, keuntungan mungkin meningkat dalam jangka pendek dengan menghilangkan kegiatan mahal
yang memiliki efek tertunda pada laba, seperti pemeliharaan peralatan, penelitian dan pengembangan,
investasi dalam teknologi baru, dan pelatihan keterampilan karyawan. Dalam jangka panjang, efek
bersih dari memotong kegiatan-kegiatan penting ini mungkin terjadi menjadi keuntungan yang lebih
rendah karena konsekuensi negatif perlahan-lahan meningkat dan akhirnya lebih besar dari itu manfaat
apa pun.

Kebalikannya juga benar: peningkatan investasi dalam kegiatan ini kemungkinan akan berkurang
keuntungan langsung tetapi meningkatkan laba jangka panjang.

b. What Criteria to Use?

There is no simple answer to the question of how to evaluate leadership effectiveness. The selection of
appropriate criteria depends on the objectives and values of the person making the evaluation, and
people have different values. For example, top management may prefer different criteria than other
employees, customers, or shareholders.

Major Perspectives in Leadership Theory and Research

TABLE 1-3 Key Variables in Leadership Theories

Characteristics of the Leader
• Traits (motives, personality)
• Values, integrity, and moral development
• Confidence and optimism
• Skills and expertise
• Leadership behavior
• Influence tactics
• Attributions about followers
• Mental models (beliefs and assumptions)

Characteristics of the Followers

• Traits (needs, values, self-concepts)
• Confidence and optimism
• Skills and expertise
• Attributions about the leader
• Identification with the leader
• Task commitment and effort
• Satisfaction with job and leader
• Cooperation and mutual trust

Characteristics of the Situation

• Type of organizational unit
• Size of organizational unit
• Position power and authority of leader
• Task structure and complexity
• Organizational culture
• Environmental uncertainty and change
• External dependencies and constraints
• National cultural values
Major Perspectives in Leadership Theory and Research

a.Trait Approach

b. Behavior Approach

c. Power-Influence Approach

d. Situational Approach

d. Integrative Approach

Level of Conceptualization for Leadership Theories

a. Intra-Individual Processes

b. Dyadic Processes

c. Group Processes

d. Organizational Processes

e. Multi-level Theories
Chapter 2 _Managerial Roles and Decisions

Activity Patterns for Managers

a. Pace of Work Is Hectic and Unrelenting

b. Content of Work Is Varied and Fragmented

c. Many Activities Are Reactive

d. Interactions Often Involve Peers and Outsiders_Kotter (1982) found that the network of relationships
for general managers often consisted of hundreds of people inside and outside of their organization (see
Figure 2-1 ).
Decision Making and Planning by Managers
a. Emotions and Intuition are Often Involved

b. Important Decisions are Disorderly and Political

c. Routine Decisions are Different

d. Most Planning Is Informal and Adaptive

Managerial Roles
a. Mintzberg's Taxonomy of Roles

TABLE 2-1 Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles

Information Processing Roles
• Disseminator
• Monitor
• Spokesperson
Decision-Making Roles
• Entrepreneur
• Disturbance handler
• Resource allocator
• Negotiator
Interpersonal Roles
• Liaison
• Figurehead
• Leader

Summary _2

The descriptive research found that managerial work is inherently hectic, varied, fragmented, reactive,
disorderly, and political. Brief oral interactions predominate, and many of these involve people outside
the manager’s immediate work unit and chain of command. Decision processes are highly political,
and most planning is informal and adaptive. This activity pattern occurs, in part, because managers face
several dilemmas. To carry out their responsibilities, managers need to obtain recent, relevant
information that exists only in the heads of people who are widely scattered within and outside the
organization; they need to make decisions based on information that is both overwhelming and
incomplete; and they need to get cooperation from people over whom they have no formal authority.
Identifying meaningful and widely applicable categories to describe the content of managerial work has
been a problem for a long time. One approach is the taxonomy of managerial roles proposed by
Mintzberg. Another approach is represented by job description research that asks managers to rate the
importance of different activities and responsibilities for their jobs.
Some of the descriptive research has examined differences in behavior related to aspects of the
managerial situation. Stewart identified several situational influences on leader behavior. The pattern of
interactions with subordinates, peers, superiors, and outsiders is affected by a manager’s dependency
on these people, by the demands they make on a manager, and by the type of work for which the
manager is responsible.
Comparative research on managers in different situations reveals several other aspects of the situation
that affect managerial behavior, including level of management, size of the organizational unit, lateral
interdependence, crisis conditions, and stage in the organizational life cycle. Managerial work is being
altered by sweeping societal trends such as globalization, workforce diversity, the pace of technological
change, and the emergence of new forms of organizations.
Despite all the demands and constraints a manager faces, some choice of behavior remains. Even
managers in similar positions define their roles differently. There are choices in what aspects of the job
to emphasize, how to allocate one’s time, and with whom to spend it. Managers will be more effective
if they understand the demands and constraints in their job situation, and work to expand their choices.
Finally, effective managers are more proactive in their behavior. Even when reacting to unforeseen
events, their behavior more closely reflects their objectives and priorities. Effective leaders devote time
to identifying current problems for which a solution can be found, and they prepare how to respond to
unavoidable but predictable problems and disruptions. When a problem occurs, they quickly identify the
cause and take decisive action to direct the work unit’s
response. Effective leaders also keep people informed about progress in efforts to deal with a serious
crisis. The next chapter examines leadership behavior embedded in these activities or occurring in
conjunction with them.
Chapter 3_Leadership Behavior s

Ways for Describing Leadership Behavior

Major Types of Leadership Behavior
a. Task and Relations Behaviors

b. Change-oriented Behavior

c. Participative Leadership

TABLE 3-3 Examples of Task, Relations, and Change-oriented Behaviors

Task-oriented Behaviors
• Organize work activities to improve efficiency.
• Plan short-term operations.
• Assign work to groups or individuals.
• Clarify what results are expected for a task.
• Explain priorities for different task objectives.
• Set specific goals and standards for task performance.
• Explain rules, policies, and standard operating procedures.

• Direct and coordinate work activities.

• Monitor operations and performance.
• Resolve immediate problems that would disrupt the work.

Relations-oriented Behaviors
• Provide support and encouragement to someone with a difficult task.
• Express confidence that a person or group can perform a difficult task.
• Socialize with people to build relationships.
• Recognize contributions and accomplishments.
• Provide coaching and mentoring when appropriate.
• Consult with people on decisions affecting them.
• Empower people to determine the best way to do a task.
• Keep people informed about actions affecting them.
• Help resolve conflicts in a constructive way.
• Use symbols, ceremonies, rituals, and stories to build team identity.
• Encourage mutual trust and cooperation among members of the work unit.
• Recruit competent new members for the team or organization.

Change-oriented Behaviors
• Monitor the external environment to detect threats and opportunities.
• Interpret events to explain the need for change.
• Study competitors and outsiders to get ideas for improvements.
• Envision exciting new possibilities for the organization.
• Encourage people to view problems or opportunities in a different way.
• Develop innovative new strategies linked to core competencies.
• Encourage and facilitate innovation and entrepreneurship in the organization.
• Encourage and facilitate collective learning in the team or organization.
• Experiment with new approaches for achieving objectives.
• Make symbolic changes that are consistent with a new vision or strategy.
• Encourage and facilitate efforts to implement major change.
• Announce and celebrate progress in implementing change.

d. Transformational Leadership

e. External Leadership Behaviors

Methods for Studying the Effects of Leader Behavior

a. Example of a Critical Incident Study

b. Example of Diary Incident Study

c. Examples of Field Experiments

d. Interpreting Causality in Leader Behavior Research

Effects of Task and Relations Behaviors

a. General Findings

b. Evaluation of the Behavior Research

Planning Work Activities

TABLE 3-4 Guidelines for Action Planning
• Identify necessary action steps.
• Identify the optimal sequence of action steps.
• Estimate the time needed to carry out each action step.
• Determine starting times and deadlines for each action step.
• Estimate the cost of each action step.
• Determine who will be accountable for each action step.
• Develop procedures for monitoring progress.

Summary_3

The early research on leader behavior was dominated by a focus on broadly defined meta-categories of
task-oriented behavior and relations-oriented behavior. Over a period of more than three decades,
hundreds of studies were conducted to see how the two types of behavior were correlated with criteria
of leadership effectiveness, such as subordinate satisfaction and performance. Many studies were also
conducted to test contingency theories that attempt to explain how leaders can adapt their task-
oriented and relations-oriented behaviors to changing situations (see Chapter 7 ).
Results from the survey research are weak and inconsistent, but when combined with results from
other methods such as critical incidents and experiments, a clearer picture emerges. The overall pattern
of results suggests that effective leaders have a high concern for task objectives and interpersonal
relationships, and they use specific types of behavior that are relevant for their leadership situation.
Examples of specific task-oriented behaviors include planning, clarifying, and monitoring. Examples of
specific relations-oriented behaviors include supporting, develop-ing, and recognizing. Specific task and
relations behaviors for leading groups and conducting meetings are described in Chapter 10 .
 Another broadly-defined behavior category identified in the early leadership research is participative
leadership. It involves several types of decision procedures used by leaders to improve the quality of
decisions and commitment to implement them. These procedures and the subject of empowerment are
described in more detail in Chapter 5 .
Change-oriented leadership behavior is used to influence innovation, collective learning, and the
successful implementation of major changes in an organization. These behaviors are described in
Chapters 4 and 11 . Transformational leadership includes a mix of relations and change behaviors plus
some additional aspects of behavior not easily classified into other catego-ries. These behaviors are
discussed in Chapter 12 .
Boundary-spanning behaviors for leaders are another broad category that includes behav-iors used by
leaders in interactions with peers, superiors, and outsiders. Examples include networking,
environmental scanning, and representing.

Artikel 2012

Gary Yukl
Article in Academy of Management Executive_December 2012 University at Albany, The State
University of New York

97 PUBLICATIONS 14,640 CITATIONS

Effective Leadership Behavior: What We Know and What Questions Need More Attention
Penelitian ekstensif tentang perilaku kepemimpinan selama setengah abad terakhir telah menghasilkan
banyak taksonomi perilaku berbeda dan kurangnya hasil yang jelas tentang perilaku efektif. Salah satu
tujuan dari artikel ini adalah untuk menggambarkan apa yang telah dipelajari tentang perilaku
kepemimpinan yang efektif dalam organisasi. Taksonomi hierarkis dengan (4) empat meta-kategori dan
15 perilaku komponen khusus digunakan untuk menginterpretasikan hasil dalam literatur yang beragam
dan luas dan untuk mengidentifikasi kondisi yang mempengaruhi efektivitas perilaku ini. Keterbatasan
dan ekstensi potensial taksonomi hirarki dibahas, dan saran untuk meningkatkan penelitian tentang
perilaku kepemimpinan yang efektif disediakan.