ee v4 ~ 2 (res)? 3, 4 et 9 3 24 2)? Deroy 1 C. Find the center, the foci, the vertices and the asymptotes of the following hyperbola. Then, draw the graph. 1, Gn? oes eee, 16 2. (@@+8)*-(y-6)? =1 si ye Unit3 Basie Logie Logic is.a method of reasoning that involves a series of statements, each of which must be true ifthe statement before it is true. It is particular way of thinking, especially one that is reasonable and based on good judgment. Inductive Reasoping or Inductive Logic or Induction + Versus . 4 Deductive Reasoning or Deductive Logic or Deduction 60: DEDUCTIVE . INDUCTIVE INFORMATION THEORY Deductive Reasoning " Deduetive reasoning links premises with conelusions. If all premises are true, the terms are clear, and the rules of deductive logic are followed, then ihe conclusion reached is necessarily true. ~ Inductive Reasoning Inductive reasoning (as opposed to deductive reasoning or abductive reasoning) is reasoning in which the premises are viewed as supplying strong evidence for the truth of the conclusion. The truth of the conclusion of an inductive argument may be probable, based upon the evidence given 3.1, Statements with Quantifiers and Their Truth Value Quantifiers and Their Symbols In Mathematics, we usually use the phrase “for all x” and “for some x” vzxis called the Universal Quantifier refers to “for all x” axis called the Existential Quantifier refers to “for some x” The two statements have the same quantifier “For all...” 1. Each of real numbers when added by zero equals to that real number. 2. Every real number when added by zero equals to that real number. 61The two statements have the same quantifier “For some...” 1. There exists at least a real number which is less than zero. 2. For some real numbers which is less than zero. Example: When the universal set is a set of real numbers, symbolically write the sentences. 1, Forall x,x+x=2x. There exists some x, x +0 =x. For all x, if xis an integer then x is a real number. Every real number is an eger. OS de For some integer, its square is 1 Solution: 1. Forall x,x+x~2x. 4 2 valx + x= 2x], U=R 2. There exists some x, x + 0 =x. ax{x + 0= 2x], U=R 3, For all x, ifx is an integer then x is a real number. vxfx €1 x €R,U=R (This can be written asin other form as “For all integers, integers are real.” 4, Every real number is an integer. valx€ 1], U=R 6. For some integer, its Square is 1. axfx € 1A? = 1],U=¢ (This cannot be written as 3x [x? = 1], U= R because it means for some real numbers when they are squared, they give the same result as 1) Note: | To symbolically write the open sentence having quantifier, a universal Set is required in order to set the limitation of the variable. However, it may be omitted when the universal set refers to the set of real numbers."Fhe universal set is always accompanied while defining a set. 62Example: 1. Forall x, there exists some y such that x + y= 0. 2. For all x, ¥,x¥=¥% se 3, There exists some x when multiplied by any y the result is always y. 4, There exists some x and some y, x + ¥=5- Solution: 1. Forall x, there exist some y such that x + y=0.can be symbolically written as vxaylx+ y= 0]. +, Forall x,y, xy = yx can be symbolically written as Wx Vy[xY = yx] 4, There exists some x when multiplied by any y the result is always ¥ can be symbolically written as 3x Vy[xy = y]- . 4, There exists some x andsome y,x+y=5. ° ax ay[xt+y = 5]- el Example: Write the following symbolic forms into phrase or sentences. 1. axfkelax<5] 2. vx[xel>x<5] 3. Vy ax[x? + y? = 8] 4. ay vx[x2 + y? = 8] 5. vxwy[x+y=R] Solution: E 1. axfe€ 1x5] can be written a6 “There exist some real numbers x where xis an infeger and less than 5.” or “There exist some x and x is less than 5.” 2. vx{x € 1+ x <5] can be written as "For all real numbers x where x is an integer then x is less than 5.” 3, vy axle + y? = 8] can be written as "For all real numbers J, there exist some real numbers x, x? +y?=8." 4, ay wx[x? + y?= 8] can be written as “There exist some real numbers y for all real numbers x, x? +y?=8." 5. vxwylx-+y €R] can be written as “For all real numbers % ys x+Y are real numbers. 63J ERipay, 282 AuaveT 201% Se : ~ Exercise 9 |A. Write the following sentences or phrases into symbolic form. 1. There exists at least a real number x, |x| <1. AKER. ‘There exist some real numbers x and for every real number y, x + y= 1. 3. For all real numbers x,y, x+Y 4. There exist real numbers x and y, x= 5. There exists some integer x, x +2= 0. 6. For all real numbers x and y,x+y=y +x. : 4, For all real numbers x, there exists some real numbers y, x = 2y + 1. 8. All integers are rational numbers. 6aB. Describe the following form in words. ax{x+3=5] 2, axfxelax<2] 3. Wx (Qt)? = x24 2x + 1] 4. ¥x(@x=0) > «= 0)) 5, Vx [Ot = a2) (x= lal Vx= -lal)) _6. axvyik+y=y) 7. vxayxty=yl 8. axay[x+y=0] 9. vxvy [xy=yx] 10.Vx fx? > 8+ x >2] 65.~ How to find the truth value of a sentence with one variable and the sentence hasa quantifier? , Consider the open sentence x?> 0, if a quantifier is prefixed and the universal sets 1. Vx 2 > 0], U = (0,1,2,3} ‘means that for all members of U, their squares are greater than zero. 2. ax pe >0],U 0,1,2,3} means that for some members x in U, their squares are greater than zero. 3. Vx [x2 > 0], U = {1,2,3} means that for all members of U, their squares are greater than zero. 4, ax [x2 > 0}, U = {1,23} means that for some members x in U, their squares are greater than zero.» 5, ax [x2<0], U = (1,2,3} means that for Some members x in U, their squares are less than zero. Example: Substitute each member of U to the open sentences below and tell the truth vaiue. 1, ax fx? > 0),U= {01,23} has the truth value of true because there exist at Jeast one member in U whose square is greater than 0, such as 12> 0. 2, Vx [x2> 0], U {1.2.3} has the truth value of true because all members ofUhave squares greater than 0. 3. axf2> 0), U=1.2,3} has the truth value of true because there exist at 4 least one member of U whose square is greater than 0. 4. ax [x2<0],U= 1.23} has the truth value of false because there is no member of U whose square is less than 0. 66How to find the truth value of the quantifier with open sentence and universal set? Find the truth value of the following: Example: Solution: vx [x <5], U = {0,1,2,3} Substitute all the elements of the universal set. Example: 2, Solution: Example: ah Solution: Example: 4. Solution: poyso 0] 2. Vx [x <0] Vx [x? > 0] 3, ax[x<0a(x-1) =0] 4, ax fx< 00 3x [(%-1) = 0] Solutions: 68Exereise 10 Given are open sentences with quantifiers. Verify whether the following or true or false. 1. vx [x<0],U=1 2. vx[x<0],U=0 3x[x<0],U=1 4. ax[x<0],U=T 5. vx(L=x+1],U=1 6. ax[L=x+1,U= 7. Wx[k+5=x,U=1 8. ve[x+ 5x), U=(0} 9, ax [xt5 =x], U= (12,34) 10. ax [x+5 =x], U=1 U1 ax xt5 =x), USP 12. Vx [x isa rational number], 13. Vx [xis a rational number], U=R 14, Vx [xis rational number], U={(0} y 15. vx [xis dirational number], R-1 16. Vx [x is a prime number or an even number], U = {2,3,4,5} 17. Vx {x isa prime number] v Vx [xis an even number}, U = {2,3,4,5} 5} 18, Vx [x is a prime number] v Vx [x < 1], U = (2, 19, ax [x isa prime number] v ax [x’< 1], U = (2,3,4,5} 20, 3x [IFx? is an even number then xis an even number], U = {2,3,4.5} 693.2. Equivalence and Negation of Statement with Quantifier Definition: ‘Two statements are equivalent if and only if their truth values are the same for all cases. Statements 1. pSqS=q>~P 2. pvq =aVp 3. ~(P>9) =P r~a 4. ~(pAq)=~p¥ ~4 Examples: Open Sentences P(X) > Q(x) = ~Q@X) > ~POX) P(x) V QX)_ = QV PO) ~[P@) > Q@)]_ = PE) A ~Q) ~P) AQ) = P(x) V ~Q(%) ’ Which of the following pairs of sentences are equivalent? 1. ~[P(x) V QOx)] with [~P(x) 4 ~Q(x)] 2. Wx [POO 9 QQ] with Vx [Q) PCO] 3. 3x (PO) ¢ QGd] with ax [~HE) v QCD] 4 [~QCD v POO] 4. Vi [~PG) > QG)]_ with ¥x[QG) 4 ~QG0] 5. Ax [POO] « Wx{QG0] with Vx[Q@)], 3x [POO] 6. vx (P(x). 0 ~Q(x)] with ¥x [PG + Q00] 70Solutions: 1Definition: Negation For two statements, one statement is a negation of the other if and only if their truth values are opposite in every case. 1. Negation of p ‘Negation of P(x) Negation of Vx [P(x)] |. Negation of 3x[P(x)] . Negation of ¥x [P(x) - Q(x)] . Negation of 3x [P(x) — 3x [Q@)] . Negation of p.aq Negation of P(x) \ Q(x) Negation of 3x [PO] 3x [Q0)] 8. Negation of p>q +, Negation of P(x) > Q(x) Negation of vx [P@)] = 3x [QG0] Sia ins toa Examples: ~P(x) ~Vx P(x), ~ax [P@)] ~Vx [P@) -Q00] ~[3x [P@) > 3x [QC0I] spyv~q ~P(X) v~Q(x) ~ax [P@)] v ~3x [Q@)] pa~q P(X) 9 ~QG) vx [P@)] 4 ~2x [Q@)] Verify whether the following statements are negation or not. 1. ~¥x[PG@)] v ~¥x [QG)] with Sov [POO] Ave 1QGOD 2. Pex) » ~Q(x) with PC) > QC) 3. 3x [P() © QGO] with ~3x [P@) @ Q@)] Solution: |. Not a negation because (~p-v ~q) is equivalent to ~(pa q). 2. They are a negation of each other because (p » ~q) is a negation of (p> q). 3. They are a negation of each other because ~p is a negation of p.Patterns of Equivalence and Negation of Statements Pattern 1: ~vx [P(%)] is equivalent to 3x [~P@)] Negation of vx [P()] is 3x [~P@)] Examples: Write the negation of the following: 1. vx[x+3>5] 2. Allreal numbers are odd. 3, Allreal numbers are not rational numbers. Solutions: 1: Negation of “vx [x + 3 >5]” ax [x+ <5] . “2. Negation of “All real numbers are odd.” is “There exist some real numbers which are not odd.” 3, Negation of “All real numbers are not rational numbers.” is “There are some real numbers which are rational numbers.” Pattern 2: ~ax [P(s)] is equivalent to Vx [~P()] Negation of 3x [PO] is ¥x [~P@)] Examples: 4 Write the negation of the following sentences: 1. 3x [x2 <0] 2. There are some real numbers which are even. 3, There are some x which are not integers. Solutions: 1. ‘The negation of “Ax [x2-< OJ" is “vx [x? 2 0]” 2, The negation of “There are some real numbers which are even.” is “All real numbers are not even.” “For all real numbers x, The negation of “There are some x which are not integers.” i x is an integer.”Examples: Write the negation of the following sentences: 1. Vx [x > 0] v 3x [x? < 0} * 2. vx [x #0] > ax [x24 0] 3. Vx [P@) > QC] Solutio ™Exercise 11 A. Verify whether the following pair of sentences are equivalent or not. 1. Vx [x>0> x?>0] with vx [xt <0 +x <0} 2, ax[xeIn(x+2=5)] with ax [(«+2=5) axel] 3. Vx [x <0] with 3x [x> 0] 4, ~vx [(VE = 4) > (x = 16)] with 3x [VX = 40x # 16] B, Write the negation of the following: 1. Vx fx #0] 2. 3x [x?>0] 3. vx [x 0] A Wx [x2 > 0] 4, ax [x #0] 43x [x <0] 5. All integers are real numbers. 6. ‘There are some real numbers which are rational numbers 7. Allreal numbers are greater than zero or there are sme real numbers whose squares are zero. é 8, Thera is a subset of the universal set which is a finite set. 9. weay[x+y=yl 10. vxvy kty=y +x) LL ve vy [ce Ray ER) (x +y)ER'] 12. Wx Wy [(y = 0)> («= Ovy =O] 1s3.3. Syllogism Syllogism is a process by which there is a number of propositions or statements which are considered premises or hypothesis and a conclusion which is drawn from the premises. The logical operator “A” is used to combine premises and the conditional operator “>” means “then”. The process of syllogism can be described as: Hypothesis (or Premise) > Conclusion If (Pi Pz w= Ps) Cisa tautology, then (Pia P20... Pa) > is valid, If (P1 A P20.» A Pa) Cis nota tautology, then (Pia P20 uA Pa) — is invalid. Example: Consider the syllogism whether itis valid or not Predicates: 1. pq ‘. 2 Pp Conclusion: q 76