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Human Body Brain and Nervous System PDF
Human Body Brain and Nervous System PDF
ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO
THE HUMAN BODY
BRAIN AND
NERVOUS SYSTEM
The Facts On File illustrated guide to the human body. Brain and
nervous system / the Diagram Group.
p. cm. Note to the reader
Includes index. This book is not intended
ISBN 0-8160-5986-1 (hc : alk. paper) to serve as a medical
1. Nervous system—Juvenile literature. 2. Brain—Juvenile textbook for either
literature. I. Title: Illustrated guide to the human body. Brain and
nervous system. II. Title: Brain and nervous system. III. Diagram physicians or patients.
Group. The information and
QP361.5.F33 2005 advice it contains should
612.8—dc22 not be used or relied upon
2004022925 without consulting the
Set ISBN: 0-8160-5979-9
advice of a qualified
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EB Diagram 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
the reader.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Contents
SECTION 3
SPINAL CORD
Introduction 56
Spinal cord 58
Spinal nerves 60
4 Introduction
This book is a concise, illustrated guide to the There are five sections within the book. The
anatomy, physiology, well-being, and first section looks in detail at the organization
disorders of the human brain and nervous and components of the nervous system. The
system. It has been written and illustrated following three sections survey each major
specially for students and laypeople interested region of the system. The last section looks at
in medicine, health, fitness, and first aid. The the hormonal system, which works in
subject is dealt with in clear steps, so that the conjunction with the nervous system to
reader can steadily acquire a good overall control all the body’s actions and reactions.
understanding. Explanatory texts, diagrams, Within each section, discussion and
illustrations, captions, and fact boxes are illustration of the structure and function of
combined to help readers grasp important anatomical parts are followed by the general
information at a glance. A glossary of principles of healthcare, fitness, and exercise,
scientific and jargon words defines medical and a survey of the main disorders and
terms in everyday language. A list of Web sites diseases affecting the region. Information is
provides links to other relevant sources of presented as double-page topics arranged in
information, and the index enables quick subsections.
access to articles.
© DIAGRAM
The nervous system controls and correlates basic bodily known as efferent) neurons
functions and behavior. There are two main parts: the conduct impulses to muscles.
central nervous system, which consists of the brain and Brain An outgrowth of the
spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, which spinal cord, the brain is
is made up of cranial nerves, spinal nerves, and the protected by the cranium,
nerves of the autonomic (involuntary) nervous system. or skull. It has three main
regions: the hindbrain,
The body monitors itself and its surroundings through
midbrain, and forebrain.
receptors. These are nerve endings specialized in
The hindbrain features the
registering specific stimuli. Changes inside the body are medulla oblongata, pons, and
detected by internal proprioceptors and interoceptors. cerebellum. The hindbrain
Stimuli from outside the body are detected by receptors controls breathing and muscle
called exteroceptors, which are concentrated in the coordination, and regulates
skin, eyes, nose, tongue, and ears. They detect changes other vital life processes. The
in contact (touch), pressure, pain, heat, cold, light, midbrain acts largely as a
scent, taste, and sound. Together these receptors relay station. The forebrain,
perform functions known as the senses. comprising the diencephalon
(between brain) and
Neurons Neurons are nerve telencephalon (endbrain), is
cells. They are made up of a the part of the brain that
central cell body, an axon, handles higher mental
and branched dendrites. The functions, such as thinking,
nervous system is a network language, and consciousness.
of neurons that carries signals Spinal cord From the brain,
in the form of electric pulses. the spinal cord extends down
The pulses are generated inside the spine, bulging at
electrochemically by the intervals where pairs of spinal
movement of ions (charged nerves branch out to other
particles) across membranes. parts of the body. Its main
Pulses begin at the synapses role is to provide a highway
(junctions) between the axon for nerve impulses passing to
of one cell and the dendrites and from the brain, but it also
of another. The configuration processes basic sensory
of dendrites divides neurons information and initiates
into three types: unipolar, appropriate motor responses
bipolar, and multipolar. without recourse to the brain.
Nervous system Bundles, or fibers, of sensory These movements are known
The brain and spinal (also called afferent) neurons as reflexes.
cord are connected to carry signals from unipolar or Cranial nerves These 12 pairs
the rest of the body by bipolar receptor neurons to of peripheral nerves emerge
a network of nerves. the central nervous system. directly from the brain. (All
From there, motor (also other nerves connect to the
SECTION 1: NERVOUS SYSTEM 7
THE SENSES
Endocrine system Skin The body covering has a thin outer layer
Glands produce chemical (epidermis) and a thicker, deeper layer (dermis or
messengers called hormones corium) overlying subcutaneous fat. As well as
that regulate some bodily forming a protective barrier to infection, skin also
functions and development. contains mechanoreceptors sensitive to touch and
pressure, and thermoreceptors sensitive to temperature.
Nails, hairs, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands are
appendages of the skin.
Eyes Each eyeball is positioned in an orbit (eye socket)
at the front of the skull. Light rays enter the eye
through the cornea (a transparent area at the front of
the sclera), which acts as the eye’s main “lens.” The rays
then pass through the anterior chamber and the pupil
(central opening in the iris) before being further focused
by the lens (sometimes called the crystalline lens).
Focused rays produce an inverted image on the retina
at the back of the eye, where they are converted into
electrical impulses by photoreceptor cells (known as
rod and cone cells for their shape). The impulses are
then transmitted via the optic nerve to the optical
cortex at the rear of the brain’s cerebral hemispheres
brain via the spinal cord.) Some to be processed into a mental image.
cranial nerves serve facial, throat, Nose Chemoreceptors in two olfactory membranes—
and chest muscles; others control one in each nasal cavity—register airborne scent
the sense organs, such as the eyes, molecules, triggering nerve signals to olfactory bulbs
ears, and tongue. The vagus nerve that are linked with the brain’s limbic system.
is a direct link to the heart. Tongue Taste chemoreceptors on papillae (protruding
Spinal nerves These 61 nerves taste buds) on the tongue and also lining the mouth,
sprout from the spinal cord. In throat, and nostrils register combinations of tastes.
descending order they are grouped Nerves transmit signals to the brain.
as: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, Ears Sound waves reaching an ear pass from its fleshy
sacral, and coccygeal nerves. auricle through the external auditory canal to the
Autonomic nervous system This middle ear, vibrating in sequence the tympanic
is a system of neurons that membrane (eardrum) and ossicles (tiny bones called the
controls involuntary processes in malleus, incus, and stapes). These bones agitate fluid in
the body such as digestion and the inner ear which in turn vibrates a lining of hairlike
locomotion. The sympathetic cells. From there, nerve impulses go to the brain’s
subsystem enhances muscle temporal lobes. The inner ear’s vestibular system
© DIAGRAM
System subdivisions
The nervous system somatic and autonomic The autonomic nervous
is organized into nervous systems. The system carries signals to
subdivisions. The brain somatic nervous system glands, organs, and the
and spinal cord make carries signals to skeletal muscles in the heart and
up the central nervous muscles. These muscles digestive system that are
system (CNS). This is the control voluntary not under voluntary
control center where all movements. control.
information from the
external senses and
internal organs is
processed and 1 Central nervous 2 Somatic nervous 3 Autonomic
system system nervous system
interpreted. The response
to every stimulus also
comes from the CNS.
The CNS is connected to 1 2 3
the rest of the body by Brain
●
Functions
The functions of the nervous
system are:
• to sense changes (called
stimuli) both outside
and within the body
(sensory input);
• to transmit information to
the brain (integration);
• to make changes to the
functioning of muscles and
glands (motor output).
SECTION 1: NERVOUS SYSTEM 9
under conscious control, and the somatic and spinal cord, mainly comprising nerve
nervous system, which is. fibers sheathed with myelin fat.
12 Nerve cells—neurons
Multipolar neuron
Dendrites
●
Nissl bodies
●
Nucleus b Microglia
a Astrocytes
●
Cytoplasm
Schwann cell
●
Nurilemma
●
Neuroglia
The nervous system also contains
Myelin sheath neuroglia cells. These do not conduct
●
Neuroglia Cells in nerve tissue that support body. Unipolar neurons are generally
the cells that convey nerve impulses. associated with receptors.
14 Types of nerve cell
●
●
Muscle fiber
Motor neuron (effector)
SECTION 1: NERVOUS SYSTEM 15
neurons en route. Afferent impulses generally connected to one or several efferent neurons,
enter the CNS at the spinal cord via one of which carry a response signal across the
the spinal nerves. peripheral system to the relevant effector.
16 Nerve impulses
Neurons
In complex animals, nerve cells form the organs of the Structure of a neuron
central nervous system (CNS)—the brain and spinal
cord—and peripheral nervous system (PNS), which Dendrites
comprises nerves and nerve processes (extensions) that
connect the CNS to muscles, glands, and receptors.
●
Structure
Nerve cells do not reproduce themselves by mitosis Cell body
●
(cell division). Neurons are said to be amitotic: if ●
a
Myelin sheath b
• Schwann cells spiral around one
or more axons (a) forming a
●
myelin sheath. ●
Nerve impulses
In complex animals, messages are sent around the body and to and from the brain
by electrical impulses transmitted via nerves. Nerves emit impulses when stimulated
by a physical, chemical, or electrical event that alters the cell membrane.
1 a 2 3 4
●
b c ●
e ● ●
e
© DIAGRAM
18 Nerve synapses
● ●
Neurotransmitters
Dendrite
Neurotransmitters are molecules that act as
chemical messengers, transferring an electrical Synaptic knob
impulse from one cell to the next. They cross
the synapses between the synaptic buttons of Axon
●
one neuron and the dendrite of another.
Chemicals that allow an impulse to continue
flowing through a neuron are called
excitatory neurotransmitters. Inhibitory
neurotransmitters block electrical impulses.
Anatomy of a synapse
An axon terminates in a Presynaptic
lattice
synaptic knob. This does not Presynaptic axon
●
touch the neighboring
neuron, but leaves a tiny Mitochondrion
●
gap, or synapse, between
the pre- and postsynaptic Vesicles
●
membranes. Mitochondria in
Synaptic Synaptic
the axon produce the energy gap knob
●
needed for neurotransmitters ●
Postsynaptic
to be released. These are membrane
contained in vesicles before
being released through the ●
3 4 ●
● ●
© DIAGRAM
Sensory neurons
Sensory neurons (or receptor
cells) are unipolar nerve cells that
convey information from
receptors in the body to the Nerve endings
●
Cell body
●
Nerve pathways
Different nerves transmit information
via specific routes (nerve pathways).
The pathways taken by nerves relaying
information about pain and
temperature, for example, are different
from each other and from those taken
by nerves relaying information
received from the senses. The speed at
which the impulse travels depends on Dendrites
●
the width of the axon. Large axons
carry signals more quickly than smaller Receptor
●
ones. This explains why some
sensations, such as heat, are felt
before others, such as pain. The heat
receptors have a faster pathway than
the pain sensors.
SECTION 1: NERVOUS SYSTEM 21
Dermatomes
Dermatomes (represented by Front view Rear view
dotted lines) are areas of the
skin identified by the nerves Cervical nerves Cervical nerves
●
●
that supply them. Pain in a
dermatome may result from a Thoracic nerves
●
●
Thoracic nerves
●
problem with an internal ●
Lumbar nerves
organ that is supplied by the ●
an adult.
22 Motor nerves and muscle control
Dendrites
Motor neurons
Motor neurons are nerve cells
●
that convey information from
Cell body the central nervous system to
muscles and glands. Electrical
impulses in a motor neuron
●
travel in the opposite direction
from those in a sensory
neuron. The arrows show the
direction of the impulses.
Dendrites collect signals from
nerve fibers in the central
nervous system. These are
transmitted to the cell body and
via an axon to motor end
plates, which innervate an
Axon effector organ. For example,
●
they may stimulate a gland to
secrete a hormone, or the
signals may cause a muscle to
contract or relax.
All or nothing
The electrical impulse of a nerve
fiber is converted into a muscle
contraction by the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine, which passes from
the nerve fiber to the muscle fiber.
Motor end Muscles contain many muscle
plate fibers. Each fiber has an all-or-
nothing response. Either it
●
contracts fully or it does not.
The power of a muscle depends on
the number of fibers in it that have
been stimulated by nerves.
SECTION 1: NERVOUS SYSTEM 23
Motor units
Muscle fibers have to contract quickly different number of motor units. The
when stimulated in order to bring about number of muscle fibers within a motor
a given action. To do this they are fed by unit varies from as few as four to many
nerves from the central nervous system hundreds. Muscles that require very
—the brain and spinal cord. A single precise action have small motor units.
neuron (nerve cell) and all the muscle Muscles that are required to be powerful
fibers that it stimulates are known as the but need less precise movements have
motor unit. Different muscles have a many large motor units.
Structure
Each motor unit is served by one motor
nerve housing many motor neurons. The
axon terminals of motor neurons attach to
muscle fibers in the muscle at points
called motor end plates.
●
Axon terminals
Axon
terminal Motor nerve
●
●
Muscle
●
●
●
●
Muscle fibers
© DIAGRAM
Muscle fiber
24 Reflexes
Reflex arcs are nerve pathways that allow Sensory neurons These transmit nerve
the one-way flow of messages. They are impulses from the receptor to the central
preprogrammed involuntary responses to nervous system (CNS).
specific stimuli. They can, however, be Integration centers These convert incoming
overidden by the brain. signals into outgoing ones.
Motor neurons These transmit impulses from
Structure the integration center in the CNS to
Reflex arcs have five main parts: receptor, the effector organ (for example, a muscle or
sensory neuron, integration center, motor gland) which is outside the CNS.
neuron, and effector. Effectors These respond to impulses
Receptors These are located at the site of the from the motor neurons and produce the
stimulus. They respond to a change in appropriate action—such as contraction
the environment. of a muscle or secretion from a gland.
Spinal cord
Synapse inside ●
spinal cord
●
Motor neuron
●
Stimulation of
●
receptor ●
●
●
Sensory Spinal Motor
neuron cord neuron
Motor neuron
Interneuron ●
Motor end plate ●
of muscle
Sensory
●
Motor neuron ● neuron
Stimulation
of receptor Pain receptor
The endocrine system employs a series of body. Familiar glands include the thyroid
glands throughout the body. The glands gland in the neck, the pituitary gland in the
produce chemical messengers called hormones brain, and the pancreas—really a collection of
that control body functions. These substances glands—located behind the stomach and liver.
are released into the blood supply and may Common hormones include insulin,
have an effect on several different parts of the testosterone, and estrogen.
controlled by the
hypothalamus with
neurons passing through
the stalk.
Blood capillaries
●
Pituitary stalk
Cells secreting ●
sex hormones
Posterior lobe
●
●
Hormone Pituitary
release gland
system
●
Anterior lobe
●
Blood vessel
to body
SECTION 1: NERVOUS SYSTEM 27
Hypothalamus
Location and structure
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is a small region ●
of the pituitary.
Pituitary gland
28 Pituitary gland and hypothalamus
c d
Mother’s ●
a Uterus
breasts
Bones and
Kidneys
muscles
Thyroid Adrenal
glands
Testes, ovaries
SECTION 1: NERVOUS SYSTEM 29
Pituitary
(intermediary lobe)
Melanocyte- Skin • Stimulates the
stimulating synthesis of
hormone (MSH) melanin pigments
in the skin
Pituitary
Hypothalamus
Releasing and Anterior lobe of • Inhibits or
inhibiting pituitary gland stimulates the
hormone secretion of
pituitary gland
hormones
Hypothalamus
Median section
through sella turcica Hypothalamus
The pituitary gland is
●
protected inside a hollow
in the sphenoid bone, a ●
Pituitary stalk
part of the skull. The
hollow is called the sella
●
Sella turcica
●
1 Cerebral hemorrhage
A weakened spot in a blood
vessel wall ruptures (a), letting
blood flood into the brain a
tissue. The blood clots, causing
pressure on the brain.
2 Cerebral thrombosis
A blood clot (thrombus) forms
in a cerebral blood vessel (b)
and blocks the supply of blood
b
to part of the brain. The
resulting shortage of blood,
and thus of oxygen and
glucose, kills some brain tissue.
3 Cerebral embolism
Abnormal material (an
embolus, such as a clot from
elsewhere in the body) blocks c
an artery leading to the brain
(c), depriving nerve cells of
nutrients and killing them.
© DIAGRAM
32 Introduction
The brain
The brain is the main part
of the central nervous Skull or braincase
system, which also
includes the spinal cord. ●
spinal cord.
Brain
● ●
Hindbrain
●
Spinal cord
● ●
Side view
The brain is positioned
above the spinal cord.
SECTION 2: BRAIN 33
Brain structure
The brain is divided into three main 2 The midbrain, which works mainly as
regions: a relay station for messages to and
1 The forebrain, where memory, the from the brain. Eye movements are
mind, and intelligence are based. This controlled here.
is also involved in body-part 3 The hindbrain, which coordinates
movements, receiving sensations, complex body movements, especially of
speech, hearing, and sight. the arms and legs.
a b
1 2 3
● ●
●
●
f h
● ●
g
d c e
Brain development
●
● ●
a c
● ●
●
● ●
g
SECTION 2: BRAIN 35
Fetus: 6 months
The cerebrum (i) begins to fold in on
itself. This makes the brain’s surface area
larger, making more room for neurons. i
●
Responses controlled by
the autonomic nervous system, such
as hiccuping and coughing, are
now possible.
Fetus: 8 months
The cerebrum is becoming increasingly
folded as the number of neurons
increases. Soon the fetus will be able to
open its eyes when awake, and also ●
Newborn baby
At birth, a human baby has more or less
all the brain cells it will need for the rest of
its life. However, the brain weighs less
than 1 pound (0.5 kg). The brain reaches
full size in six years. The increase
in weight is caused by nerve cells growing
and the development of neuroglia. As the
child grows and learns, neurons in the
brain begin to connect into circuits.
© DIAGRAM
36 Brain: external features
Motor cortex
(movement)
● Parietal lobe (posture)
●
Frontal lobe
(thought
and speech)
●
●
Cerebral
hemisphere Occipital lobe (vision)
● ●
Base of brain
Like the cerebrum, the cerebellum is divided into two
hemispheres. These are connected to the rest of the brain
by the pons. At the base of the cerebrum,
the two optic nerves cross at
the optic chiasma. The
olfactory cortex is
also located here.
Mamillary bodies
Cerebrum
●
Central fissure ●
●
●
Pons
●
Optic chiasma
●
Cerebellar hemisphere
Olfactory cortex
SECTION 2: BRAIN 37
Left hemisphere
●
● Spinal cord
38 Brain: internal structures
Sulcus ●
●
●
Pituitary gland ●
Hypothalamus Cerebellum
●
vital body processes,
and the fornix and ●
hippocampus which ●
●
are linked to emotions.
Central fissure
●
Frontal operculum
●
Corpus callosum
●
Fornix
● Putamen
●
Cortex
●
● ●
●
●
●
Mamillary ●
body
Hippocampus Amygdala Hippocampus
Thalami Basal ganglia Limbic system
The two thalami are These bodies link the This is involved in
relay stations between midbrain to the cerebral controlling moods and
the cerebral cortex and hemispheres, controlling emotions and also has
© DIAGRAM
Meninges
Lateral ventricles
●
Choroid plexus
●
Third ventricle
●
Cerebral aqueduct
Fourth ventricle
●
Choroid plexus
and alertness.
Medulla oblongata
●
Spinal cord
●
●
Arbor vitae (white matter)
Pons
●
Fourth ventricle ●
●
Folia
●
Medulla oblongata ●
●
Cerebellum
Spinal cord
●
© DIAGRAM
42 Brain functions
Occipital lobe
●
●
Movement
Controlling movement requires a number of different parts of the brain to work
together. There are various subsystems within the central nervous system that
control particular movements.
a The pons (in the b The motor cortex relays c Other pathways link the
brainstem) and the commands via the cerebrum, basal ganglia,
cerebellum help to brainstem to the muscles brainstem, cerebellum,
maintain balance. This is that control posture. and thalamus. These
aided by the midbrain, enable smooth limb
which relays signals movements and can
from the eyes and ears. also halt movements.
Midbrain Basal
● ●
ganglia
●
Thalamus
●
●
●
Pons ●
● ●
Cerebellum Cerebellum ●
Brainstem
a b c
SECTION 2: BRAIN 43
Structure Function
Brainstem
Medulla oblongata • Acts as a two-way path conducting information between the
spinal cord and higher brain centers.
• The cardiac center regulates the heartbeat and the force of
the heart’s contractions.
• The medullary rhythmicity area adjusts the rate of breathing.
• The vasomotor center regulates the diameter of blood vessels.
Midbrain • Works as a relay station for messages to and from the brain.
Diencephalon
Thalamus • Relays information from the senses to the cerebrum.
• Sends instructions from the cerebrum to the body’s muscles.
Neurons Dendrite
Nerve cells are called neurons.
●
All neurons contain the same
elements. The cell body includes Cell body
a nucleus and several ●
neighboring cells.
46 Sleep
Sleep chart
An average night’s sleep is shown on brain activity regularly increases to
the series of charts below. There are two produce paradoxical sleep, which may
type of sleep: orthodox, or NREM, sleep include dreaming. Despite high brain
and paradoxical, or REM, sleep. About activity during paradoxical sleep, it is
three-quarters of sleep is orthodox, but essential for a good night’s rest.
Brain patterns
a d
b e
c f
© DIAGRAM
48 Stress and mental illness
The origin of stress lies in survival. All animals is psychological. An individual's ability to
are at risk of attack by a predator or being cope with stress will play a large part in
confronted with sudden danger. They need to determining his or her state of mental health.
be able to defend themselves either by We look below at some of the causes and
fighting the threat or fleeing from it. The body effects of stress.
prepares itself for these responses by releasing The need for stress The human body and
hormones into the blood. The modern era has mind are built to thrive on a certain amount
produced its own stresses attacking mainly the of stress. Many people find high levels of
mind, the senses, and the emotions, and the stress pleasurable when they provide
body undergoes similar physiological challenges that have to be overcome. Such
processes even though the source of the stress people include those taking part in highly
7
into the blood from
3 The pituitary gland ●
deposits in the body.
releases a hormone Both these substances
(ACTH) which will be substances adjust body provide energy.
carried in the blood. functions to prepare for 12 The skin begins
4 The hormone is carried sudden activity. sweating, ready to shed
to the adrenal glands, 5 The heart speeds up and excess heat.
which sit just above the pumps blood more quickly. 13 The blood-clotting
kidneys. The glands 6 Breathing rate increases system is enhanced.
release two hormones, and air passages in the White blood cells count
epinephrine and lungs dilate to collect goes up.
norepinephrine, and more oxygen for delivery 14 Stress hormones
cortisones. These to the muscles. reduce sex drive.
SECTION 2: BRAIN 49
competitive or dangerous sports, and those than pointing to an increase in mental illness,
who thrive on careers that put them under however, the pattern may suggest that more
constant pressure. people are willing to seek treatment, and to
Mental problems About 15 percent of the U.S. admit to themselves that they might have a
population suffers a psychiatric or problem. The stigma once attached to mental
psychological disorder at some time in their illness is gradually diminishing. But the onset
lives. More people are being treated both in of mental disturbance can be so gradual that
and out of hospitals than in the past, sufferers may be unaware that anything is
although the stays in hospitals tend to be wrong; here we describe what can go wrong,
shorter. We outline some of the types of what to look for, and how to help before
treatment available (see pages 50–51). Rather professional treatment is required.
manic depression, which from the baby, or lack of anxious to escape from
is cycles of euphoria self-confidence. stress.
50 Exercises to relieve stress
Relaxation techniques aim to combat stress by illustrated here. Correct breathing and
bringing the “fight or flight” response of the slow, graceful progress toward the more
body under control. Eastern methods, advanced poses are essential. The Chinese
although they are not widely recognized by exercises, originally based upon the
the Western medical profession, are often movements of animals, put the emphasis on
beneficial as they are not merely physical continuous movement sequences designed
exercises but aim to integrate the mind and to allow the body’s physiology to work freely,
body. Hatha yoga, the physical side of yoga, instead of being hindered by holding the
is a series of postures or poses; some are breath or maintaining a set position.
1
Standing poses arms as high as possible
1 This position is called above your head.
the triangle. Start with 5 Starting with the basic
your arms stretched out standing pose, clasp your
to the sides, then bend arms behind you, then
from the hips with one bend forward so that the
hand moving down your 2 trunk is perpendicular to
leg as shown. The other your legs.
arm can be moved as 6 Lunge forward on one
far as possible over your leg so that your front leg
head until it is parallel is bent and your back leg
to the ground. straight. Two alternate
2 The reverse triangle positions for the arms
involves bringing the 3 4
are shown.
lower arm over to the 7 Form an equilateral
opposite leg so that triangle by stretching
your trunk is twisted your arms forward and
as shown. your legs back as shown.
3 The side bend is
performed with the legs
together and your arms Yoga safety
above your head; keep • Yoga involves many
6
your arms parallel and standing, sitting, and
stretch them as far lying poses, and several
5
over as you can. inverted handstands.
4 To do the tree pose, • When practiced with
stand on one leg with the 7 proper supervision, yoga
foot of the other resting can be both physically
as high as possible on and mentally rewarding.
the thigh. Stretch your
SECTION 2: BRAIN 51
1
Sitting poses
1 Sit with your legs 4 Balancing on your
stretched out to the front, bottom, raise your legs
and lean forward to grasp and hold them up with
your toes. With practice your hands as shown.
you will be able to pull 2 5 This position requires a
your head down onto good deal of suppleness;
your knees. sit with your legs wide
2 This is the classic lotus apart and stretch your
position. Place your right 3 arms to grasp your feet,
foot on your left thigh hooking your fingers
and then your left foot around the big toes.
on your right thigh. 6 Sit with your knees flat
3 Sit between or on your 4 and the soles of your feet
feet, then raise your arms 5 touching; clasp your feet
above your head. Breathing with your hands.
out, lower your arms, 7 Sit with one leg straight
place your hands on the 6 across your body while
7
soles of your feet, and the other leg is brought
© DIAGRAM
Effects of smoking
This diagram illustrates 3
Everyday drugs
some of the parts of the Drugs are contained
●
body affected when a in many preparations
2
cigarette, cigar, or pipe ●
that are not always
●
is smoked. These effects 1 associated with drug-
wear off gradually when 4 taking. Alcohol and
●
the smoking stops, but if nicotine are drugs,
smoking is frequent or and so is the caffeine
continuous the affected in coffee, tea, and
parts of the body have cola. People also use
no time to revert to painkillers, laxatives,
their normal states. diarrhea medications,
1 Nicotine is absorbed antacids, cough
5
through the lining of the ● medicines, and cold
mouth (as well as remedies, all of
through the lungs) and which are drugs.
enters the bloodstream. Even homeopathic
2 The nicotine releases medications are
a small quantity of drugs; the difference
catecholamines, which is that they are used
subdue the transmission in infinitesimally
of nerve signals and so small amounts.
reduce feelings of fatigue
and hunger.
3 The toxins carbon projections responsible for 5 Hunger is abated
monoxide and cyanide removing the mucus that because of the action
in the smoke may cause traps harmful particles. of the nicotine on the
a headache. Carbon When they are put out of autonomic nervous
monoxide is only action, the mucus and the system. This is the part of
absorbed through the particles remain in the the nervous system that
lungs, and its presence airways. Nicotine also governs the actions of the
in the bloodstream inhibits the alveolar involuntary smooth
indicates that the smoker phagocytes, which are muscles, including
is inhaling the smoke into normally responsible for those that work in the
the lungs. engulfing and destroying esophagus, stomach, and
4 Nicotine acts on the the bacteria and viruses in intestines. Slight nausea
nerves, and paralyzes inhaled air; one cigarette may be experienced if the
the cilia of the airways. puts them out of action stomach is empty,
Cilia are the tiny hairlike for 15 minutes. but this soon passes.
SECTION 2: BRAIN 53
Alcohol is an intoxicating drug known since effectively to ease tensions and overcome
ancient times. It has anesthetic properties and shyness, but heavy drinking can lead to
acts as a tranquilizer and a depressant. It alcoholism, fatal diseases, and serious social
induces mood changes not by acting as a problems such as traffic offenses, marital
stimulant, as many people think, but by strain, and violence. Here we look at the
depressing the part of the brain that controls nature and effects of alcohol use and
impulsive behavior, judgment, and memory. suggest ways of preventing abuse and its
Alcohol in small quantities can be used serious consequences.
Effects of alcohol
The diagram illustrates 4 Nonprescription
some of the parts of the ●
drugs
body affected when a Nonprescription drugs
person drinks alcohol. 1
are generally taken for
These effects wear off ●
the conditions listed
gradually, but there could below. Dependency on
be lasting complications these drugs begins
with continuous, heavy when the user takes
use of alcohol. 2 drug as a “preventive”
1 As alcohol passes 3 ● against illness or takes
●
through the mouth, the drug for its side-
throat, and gullet, it effects rather than its
irritates the membranes intended use.
lining these passages and Headache The most
increases the secretion of common use of
saliva. Alcohol can be painkillers, such
smelled on the breath. as aspirin or
2 Alcohol also irritates bloodstream, which carries acetaminophen.
the lining of the stomach. it to the brain and other Fatigue Overtiredness
Heavy drinking causes organs. In the liver, alcohol may be combated with
the stomach lining to is broken down by the stimulants, usually in
become thickened and enzyme alcohol the form of caffeine,
overactive. This often dehydrogenase (ADH). or large doses of
leads to gastritis, with its 4 Alcohol has its greatest vitamins.
symptoms of indigestion, effect on the brain. Insomnia Over-the-
retching, and loss of Perception, reaction time, counter remedies
appetite. agility, memory, and usually contain
3 Alcohol is absorbed problem-solving are all antihistamines
© DIAGRAM
Amnesia The inability to Cerebral palsy The poor Epilepsy Recurrent and
memorize and/or to recall control over, or paralysis of, abnormal seizures caused
previously memorized voluntary muscles resulting by abnormal and irregular
information. This can be from damage to the discharges of electricity from
caused by damage to the developing brain. Categories the millions of neurons
brain resulting from of disability caused by (nerve cells) in the brain.
physical injury or disease. cerebral palsy include: Meningitis Inflammation
Anencephaly A condition in diplegia, in which all four of the linings of the brain
which a child is born with limbs are affected but the (meninges) usually caused
an incomplete brain. The legs more severely than the by an infection.
child has no mental arms (see below); hemiplegia Paraplegia The paralysis of
life as we understand it. in which the limbs on only the lower limbs resulting
Usually, death occurs one side of the body are from damage to the spinal
soon after birth. affected; and quadriplegia, in cord between the first
Cerebral edema Swelling which both arms and both thoracic vertebra and the
of the brain often resulting legs are severely affected. first lumbar vertebra.
from head injury. Concussion A slight injury Reye’s syndrome A brain
Cerebral hemorrhage to the brain that inevitably dysfunction sometimes
Bleeding inside the brain causes a temporary loss of following chickenpox or
caused by a ruptured blood consciousness. influenza (flu).
vessel. The escaped blood Dyslexia A disorder in which Tay-Sachs disease
damages the surrounding the brain has difficulty with Degeneration of the central
nerve cells. When the blood reading, writing, and nervous system caused by
clots, it applies pressure to counting. Intelligence is not excessive amounts of a
the brain tissue. High blood affected, but letters in words chemical called ganglioside
pressure is one major cause may appear transposed or in the brain.
of cerebral hemorrhages. reversed, for example.
meninges. Meningitis is
an infection of the fluid
and membranes, caused Fourth ventricle
mainly by bacteria or ●
arteries, or a weakness in
the vessel wall. Cerebral
Arachnoid Pia mater
hemorrhages are one ●
●
a subarachnoid
hemorrhage.
56 Introduction
Lumbar vertebrae
Sacral vertebrae
Coccygeal vertebrae
SECTION 3: SPINAL CORD 57
Spinal nerves
There are 30 pairs of spinal
Brain
nerves, plus a single nerve, ●
hands;
• 12 pairs of thoracic nerves
supplying the part of the
body from the top of the
breastbone to the bottom
Vertebrae Thoracic nerves
of the ribs and the ●
abdomen;
• five pairs of lumbar nerves
supplying the front of the
legs and feet;
• five pairs of sacral nerves; End of
spinal cord
• the coccygeal nerve ●
Sacral nerves
Coccygeal nerve
© DIAGRAM
58 Spinal cord
White matter
●
Cervical
Cervical enlargement ●
enlargement
●
Gray matter
Vertebra
●
Thoracic level
Lumbar enlargement
●
Lumbar
enlargement
Subarachnoid space
●
Filum terminale
●
Sacral level
Cauda equina
●
SECTION 3: SPINAL CORD 59
●
Thoracic
●
Ventral
●
ramus
Lumbar
Spinal cord Vertebra
Sacral
●
Lateral cutaneous branch
Rib muscles
●
Spinal nerves
• Most spinal nerves are
paired. One nerve serves
one half of the body.
• Only the single coccygeal
Sternum
Skin (tail) nerve is not paired,
●
although it soon divides.
● ● • Spinal nerves form a
ganglion before they
Anterior cutaneous branch
enter the spinal cord.
SECTION 3: SPINAL CORD 61
Dermatomes
The receptors in the skin, such as those dermatomes. Cervical nerves serve the
sensitive to touch, heat, and cold, are head, neck, and arms. The torso is
connected to the brain via spinal nerves. served by thoracic nerves, while lumbar
Each spinal nerve carries signals from and sacral nerves serve the legs, feet,
certain areas of the body surface called and buttocks.
Cervical
Thoracic
Lumbar
© DIAGRAM
Sacral
62 Cranial nerves
2 8
●
9
3
●
●
●
●
●
● ●
●
4 ●
●
●
10
5 11
6 12
SECTION 3: SPINAL CORD 63
Cranial nerves
Nerves Main function
Olfactory nerve Sense of smell.
Oculomotor nerve Motor supply to muscles that move eyes, eyelids, and lens
and pupil size.
Trochlear nerve Motor supply to superior oblique muscle (that moves eye).
Trigeminal nerve Sensory input from eye, face, lining of the nose, teeth,
gums, and front of the tongue.
Motor supply to chewing muscles.
Abducens nerve Motor supply to lateral rectus muscle (that moves eye).
Hypoglossal nerve
palatoglossus muscle).
64 Shoulder, chest, and arm nerves
●
●
Intercostobrachial
nerve
●
Lower lateral
cutaneous nerve
●
Medial
cutaneous nerve Lateral cutaneous
●
nerve of forearm
●
Digital branches of
median nerve
●
Digital branches
●
SECTION 3: SPINAL CORD 65
Cervicobrachial plexus
The nerves that serve the arm originate Other nerves connected to the spinal
at the cervicobrachial plexus in the cord in this region serve the neck, chest,
cervical level of the spinal cord. and back.
of cervical
spinal nerves Lesser occipital
nerve
●
Greater
auricle
nerve
●
Transverse ●
cervical
nerve Vertebra
●
Clavicle
●
Sternum
●
●
●
Medial pectoral
nerve
Median nerve
●
●
Radial nerve
● ●
Phrenic nerve
Long
© DIAGRAM
thoracic
Ulnar nerve nerve
66 Hip and leg nerves
Femoral nerve
●
Obturator nerve
●
Sural nerve
●
Saphenous nerve
●
Tibial nerve
●
Saphenous nerve
●
Sural nerve
●
Calcaneal branches
of tibial nerve
●
SECTION 3: SPINAL CORD 67
Ilioinguinal Vertebra
called cauda equina ● ●
nerve
(literally “horse tails”)
that hang below the Genitofemoral
spinal cord. Most of the nerve
●
Lumbosacral trunk
●
sacral region
Femoral nerve
● Anococcygeal
nerves
●
Posterior femoral
Five pairs of cutaneous nerve
●
lumbar spinal
nerves Pudendal nerve
●
●
Five pairs of ●
Sensory innervation
Each pair of spinal and cranial nerves body’s surface to the brain. The same
is responsible for carrying sensory nerves also contain efferent neurons
information from a specific region of the that carry the motor response.
Opthalmic
Greater occipital
●
Maxillary ●
● Lesser occipital
●
Mandibular
●
Cervical cutaneous
●
Supraclavicular
●
Axillary
●
Intercostalbrachial
●
Medial thoracic
●
Lateral antebrachial
cutaneous
●
Radial
●
Ulnar
●
Median
●
Common peroneal
●
Saphenous
●
Superficial peroneal
●
Tibial
●
Sural
● Medial plantar
●
SECTION 3: SPINAL CORD 69
Nerve pathways
The diagram below shows how sensory directed to several regions. The spinal
impulses travel through the nervous cord controls any reflex actions, the
system from a receptor in the skin to the cortex creates the sensation, and the
spinal cord and brain. The signal is cerebellum coordinates the movements.
Cerebral cortex
●
Thalamus
●
Hypothalamus
●
Cerebellum
●
Spinal cord
Muscle
●
Neural circuits
• The impulses for simple reflex actions do
not enter the brain.
• Signals to and from the cortex are directed
through the thalamus.
© DIAGRAM
70 Nerve plexi
Median nerve Forearm flexors, some hand Skin of radial palm; palmar skin
muscles of radial three and a half digits
Ulnar nerve Wrist flexors; intrinsic hand Skin of medial side of wrist, hand,
muscles and ulnar one and a half digits
Sciatic nerve Muscles of lower leg and foot Skin of leg and foot
Cross-section structure
The spinal cord, like the brain, is • Arachnoid mater
protected by bone, cerebrospinal fluid, • Subarachnoid space filled with
and layers of tissue. The elements of cerebrospinal fluid
the spinal cord are as listed here. • Pia mater
• Vertebra • The spinal cord containing gray and
• Epidural space, which contains fat cells white matter
and veins • The root of the spinal nerve
• Dura mater
Arachnoid mater
Subarachnoid space
Epidural space
Dura mater
●
● ●
●
●
● ●
Gray White
matter matter
Epidural anesthesia
An epidural injection administers drugs Spinal cord
into the epidural space between the
vertebrae and the dura mater of the Spinal nerve
spinal cord. The epidural space contains ●
Coccyx
●
Site of the
Sacrum
epidural injection
at the sacrum ●
● ●
●
© DIAGRAM
Lumbar vertebrae
76 Introduction
Organization
Lungs
(bronchial tubes) • Dilates • Constricts
Blood vessels
in skin • Constricts • Dilates
in skeletal muscle • Dilates • Dilates
in digestive tract • Usually inhibits defecation • Increases peristalsis
Sympathetic system
The autonomic nervous system is ganglia, which form a chain, or trunk,
connected to the brain, especially the on either side of the spinal cord. Nerves
medulla oblongata and hypothalamus, connect the ganglia to different parts of
by cranial nerves and spinal cord. The the body. For example, the stellate
sympathetic autonomic nervous system ganglion is linked to the heart and lungs.
is linked entirely via the spinal cord. The splanchnic (visceral) nerves are part
The nerves pass through sympathetic of the abdominal aortic plexus.
Stellate ganglion
●
Thoracic
section of Greater and lesser thoracic
spinal cord splanchnic nerves
Sympathetic links
Sympathetic hormone
The nerves of the
• The hormone norepinephrine (also called
sympathetic nervous
noradrenaline) causes the “fight or flight”
system link to the main
response. Among other things, it dilates the
body organs, such as the
trachea and releases sugar into the blood.
stomach and other
digestive structures,
kidneys, and the genitals.
Nerves also connect to
Major areas affected by the sympathetic
the small blood vessels
nervous system
and sweat glands in the
skin. Nerves that serve Blood vessels of the head
●
one particular area tend
to be clustered into a Pupil of the eye
●
Lungs
●
Heart
●
Liver Stomach
●
●
●
Kidney
●
Pancreas
Intestine
●
Solar plexus
• The solar plexus is a
sympathetic ganglion, Bladder
●
hormone norepinephrine.
80 Parasympathetic control
Parasympathetic system
Unlike the sympathetic autonomic nervous system, the Cranial nerves
parasympathetic system is connected directly to the • Pairs of the cranial
brain via cranial nerves. The vagus nerves (cranial nerves originate in the
nerve X), which serve the heart and other vital organs, medulla oblongata, part
are among the most important pair of them. of the brainstem.
Other parts of the parasympathetic system, such as the • Parasympathetic neurons
nerves that serve the rectum, bladder, and genitals, are produce the
connected to the sacral section at the base of the neurotransmitter
spinal cord, via the hypogastric (meaning “beneath the acetylcholine.
stomach”) plexus.
Cranial nerve X
Parasympathetic
links The body at rest
Stimulation by the • The parasympathetic nervous system is dominant during
parasympathetic system sleep, when the heart rate is slower and respiration is deeper
causes the heartbeat to and more regular.
slow and blood pressure
to lower. The pupils
constrict, reducing the
amount of light getting Major areas affected by the parasympathetic
into the eye. The blood nervous system
supply to the skin and
visceral organs is Blood vessels of the head
●
the rectum.
Heart
●
Liver
● Stomach
●
●
Kidney
●
Pancreas
Intestine
●
Conscious control
• Although the ANS is
often described as being Bladder
●
involuntary, a certain
Genitals
amount of control can be ●
autonomic functions.
82 Introduction
Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the blood
Glands
circulatory system, which transports them to all parts
• The pineal gland is also
of the body where they affect tissues to influence bodily called the epiphysis.
growth, development, activity, and repair. Hormone • The pituitary gland is often
output depends largely on negative feedback processes. called the hypophysis.
Organs included in the endocrine system are the • The hypothalamus is part of
hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid, the brain, where it controls
parathyroid glands, thymus, adrenal glands, pancreas, the rest of the body’s
testes, and ovaries. glands with hormones.
Hypothalamus
Pineal Pineal
gland Hypothalamus gland ●
● ● ● ● Pituitary
●
Pituitary gland gland
Parathyroid
Thyroid gland ●
Thyroid gland
● glands ●
●
Parathyroid glands
●
Thymus
● Thymus
●
Adrenal
glands
Adrenal
● ●
glands
●
● ●
Pancreas
●
Pancreas
Ovaries
● ●
Testes
●
SECTION 5: HORMONAL SYSTEM 83
A hormone is a chemical produced in one part Hormones, for example thyroxine, regulate
of the body that has an effect on several other metabolism, the processes that convert food
parts. In this way, hormones are chemical into energy and living structures. Hormones
messengers. The name hormone is derived are also involved in growth and development.
from the Greek for “to set in motion.” Most For example, the sex hormones play a vital
hormones are produced by endocrine glands role in controlling how a body matures. Other
but a few come from tissues, such as the hormones control blood composition or
stomach, whose primary role is not as a gland. prepare the body for periods of stress.
Endocrine system
Types of hormones
There are two main types of
hormones that circulate through
the body.
• Polypeptides, which make up
most of the body’s hormones, Negative feedback
are derived from amino acids. The level of hormones in the blood is
• Steroids, produced by the testes, controlled by the negative feedback
ovaries, and adrenal cortex, are mechanism. This maintains
derived from cholesterol. equilibrium: if the level of a hormone
• Another type is the prostaglandin. in the blood falls, more is secreted; if
Sometimes called tissue the level of a hormone rises, less is
hormones, these are not classed secreted. Some diseases and disorders,
as hormones but have hormone- such as tumors, can result in
like effects. They do not circulate hypersecretion (the secretion of too
throughout the body but affect much hormone) or hyposecretion
only cells within the tissue (secretion of too little hormone).
producing the prostaglandins.
SECTION 5: HORMONAL SYSTEM 87
Neural stimuli
Sometimes the nervous system
●
stimulates the release of hormones. ●
●
Subclavian
artery Trachea
● ●
Section of thyroid
Thyroxine is produced Microscopic section through thyroid gland
by follicles. These are
rings of cells (cuboidal
Parafollicular C-cells
epithelium) that secrete
●
the hormone forming a
central colloid space.
Follicles
Calciton is secreted ●
by clusters of para-
●
follicular C-cells which
are positioned among
the follicles. Small Colloid
●
Parathyroids
Parathyroid Bones, kidneys, • Increases the amount of
hormone (PTH) or digestive tract calcium in the blood.
parathormone • Decreases the amount of
phosphate in the blood.
• Stimulates the breakdown
of bone.
to produce parathyroid
hormone (PTH).
Parathyroid glands ●
Parathyroid glands
●
Parathyroid hormone
• Parathyroid hormone
regulates the amount of
●
calcium and phosphate in ● Inferior
the blood. thyroid artery
●
lobe Sternum
(white blood cells). ●
(breast bone)
The organ produces ●
thymosin, a hormone
associated with
lymphocyte production.
The thymus grows for
about 12 years and then
begins to shrink.
The brain
The brain produces hormones itself, and glands. The pituitary’s hormones are
is associated with two glands, the pineal involved in fertility and growth. The
and pituitary. The hypothalamus pineal gland produces melatonin, which
produces hormones that control these regulates the body’s rhythms.
Thalamus
Pineal gland
●
Hypothalamus ●
●
Cerebellum
●
Pituitary gland ●
Medulla oblongata
Pons ●
Pineal gland
Melatonin Hypothalamus • May inhibit a hormone
affecting the ovaries
• May regulate activities
© DIAGRAM
such as sleep
92 Adrenal glands
Adrenal glands
The body has two adrenal glands. Each epinephrine and norepinephrine, the
one is pyramid-shaped and located on hormones associated with the
the top of a kidney. The glands are also autonomic nervous system. Other parts
called suprarenal (above the kidney) of the glands produce sex hormones
glands. The adrenal glands produce and other regulatory hormones.
Adrenal glands
Relative position and ●
blood supply ●
Right kidney
●
Left kidney
●
Renal vein
●
Aorta
●
Internal structure
There are two sections in an adrenal The cortex is more complex, being
gland: the outer cortex and inner made of several layers. Each layer
medulla. The medulla is controlled by produces hormones that regulate blood
nerves and makes stress hormones. chemistry and sexual development.
●
Capsule
●
Zona glomerulosa
Cortex
●
Zona fasciculata
Medulla
Medulla
SECTION 5: HORMONAL SYSTEM 93
Adrenal glands
Adrenal medulla
Epinephrine Heart, blood • Increase heart rate and
(adrenaline) vessels, liver, blood pressure.
norepinephrine adipose tissue, • Increase blood flow to
(noradrenaline) and several skeletal muscles
others (epinephrine only).
© DIAGRAM
The pancreas
This is an organ positioned under the hormones are produced
stomach. The pancreas has an endocrine by structures called the Islets of
role, but it is also an exocrine gland (one Langerhans. The pancreas also secretes
with a duct). In its endocrine function, digestive juices into the duodenum
the pancreas produces insulin and (small intestine). These juices, which are
glucagon, two hormones that control mixed with bile, are a mixture of
the amount of sugar in the blood. These enzymes used to digest food.
digestive juices
Common bile duct
●
●
Tail
●
Pancreatic
duct
●
Islets of Langerhans
Head
Duodenum
Pancreas
Glands and hormones Target tissues Effects
Pancreas • Increases the level of
Glucagon Liver glucose in the blood
Microscopic section
The islets of Langerhans are areas of Glucagon is secreted by A-cells. The
secretory cells found throughout the digestive juices drain into a central duct
pancreas. The islets are surrounded by that connects to the duodenum. The
cells that secrete digestive juices. Inside hormones, however, are collected by
the islets, B-cells secrete insulin. capillaries running through the islets.
●
Cells secreting
digestive juices
●
Capillaries
●
When blood sugar levels are high When blood sugar levels are low
1 After eating, the blood has a high level 6 As a result of skipping a meal, the
of carbohydrates. blood has a low level of carbohydrates.
2 Carbohydrates are converted into 7 The blood sugar level falls.
glucose, increasing blood sugar levels. 8 The low glucose level stimulates the
3 The high glucose level stimulates beta alpha cells in the pancreas to secrete
cells in the pancreas to secrete insulin. glucagon.
4 Insulin increases the uptake of glucose 9 Glucagon results in the manufacture
by the liver, adipose tissue, and muscle. and release of glucose into the blood.
5 The blood sugar level falls until a 10 The blood sugar level rises until a
normal blood sugar level is reached. normal blood sugar level is reached.
2 3
1 4
5, 10
9 6
Key:
glucose
carbohydrate
insulin
glucagon
8 7
SECTION 5: HORMONAL SYSTEM 97
Bladder
Urethra
●
Penis
●
Testis ●
Scrotum
Uterus
Fallopian tube
●
● ●
Ovary
Cervix
●
Vagina
●
hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone fertilized the progesterone level drops
(LH). These hormones cause the follicle and menstruation begins.
100 Endocrine disorders and stress
Adipose tissue Connective valve (mitral valve or bicuspid Bowel See Large intestine.
tissue containing numerous fat valve) has two cusps. Brain The body’s chief control
cells. Auditory Relating to hearing. center, consisting of billions of
Adrenal glands (or Axillary Relating to the interconnected nerve cells.
Suprarenal glands) Endocrine armpit. Brainstem A stalklike part of
glands located on each kidney. Backbone See Vertebral the brain, between the
The cortex and medulla column. cerebrum and spinal cord. It
produce a range of hormones. Basal ganglia Paired contains the midbrain, pons,
Afferent Directed toward a structures deep in the and medulla oblongata.
central organ or part of the forebrain: they help coordinate Breast A female breast
body. and control willed muscle consists mainly of a mammary
Alimentary canal (or movements. (milk-secreting) gland
Gastrointestinal tract or Gut) Basophil A type of white embedded in fatty tissue.
The digestive tract: a tube blood cell that is readily Breastbone See Sternum.
starting at the mouth and stained by basic dyes. Bronchiole A small
ending at the anus. Biceps A muscle with two subdivision of a bronchus,
Anus The lower end of the heads: biceps brachii in the ending in tiny air sacs called
rectum, forming the outlet of upper arm and biceps femoris alveoli.
the alimentary canal. in the thigh. Bronchus The main tubes
Aorta The largest artery, Bile ducts Tiny tubes that branching from the lower end
arising from the left ventricle of carry bile (a liver secretion) of the trachea and forming the
the heart. from the liver to the duodenum. main airways to and from the
Appendix (or Vermiform Bladder A sac, especially the lungs (plural: bronchi).
appendix) A short, wormlike muscular bag inside the pelvis Capillary The tiniest type of
tube opening into the cecum where urine collects before blood vessel, connecting an
but closed at the other end. It being expelled from the body. arteriole and a venule.
contains lymphoid tissue, Blood A sticky red fluid Cardiac Relating to the heart.
which is involved in immunity. consisting of colorless plasma, Cardiovascular Relating to
Arteriole A small artery red blood cells (Erythrocytes), the heart and blood circulatory
supplying blood from a main white blood cells (Leukocytes), system.
artery to a capillary. and platelets (thrombocytes). Cartilage Gristle: dense, white
Artery A blood vessel Blood pressure The pressure connective tissue cushioning
transporting blood from the of blood against blood-vessel bones.
heart to elsewhere in the body. walls, especially artery walls. Cecum The first part of the
Atrioventricular valve (or AV Bone The hard, dense large intestine, forming a blind
valve) A valve between a connective tissue that forms pouch.
ventricle and an atrium. The the skeleton’s components. Cell The basic unit of the body,
right atrioventricular valve (or Bone marrow Soft red and usually comprising an outer
tricuspid valve) has three yellow substances that fill membrane, cytoplasm, a
cusps. The left atrioventricular cavities in bone. nucleus, and organelles.
103
Central nervous system Colon The part of the large Digestion The chemical and
(CNS) The brain and spinal intestine between the cecum mechanical breakdown of
cord. and rectum. foods into substances that can
Cerebellum The largest part Connective tissue Tissue that be absorbed by the body.
of the hindbrain. It helps supports, binds, or separates DNA See Deoxyribonucleic
coordinate muscular more specialized body tissues acid.
movements. or acts as packing. Duodenum The upper part of
Cerebral cortex The Corium See Dermis. the small intestine, where most
cerebrum’s thin outer layer of Cornea The transparent chemical digestion takes place.
gray matter. circular area at the front of the Ejaculation The discharging
Cerebral hemisphere Either eye, which acts as a lens. of semen from the penis.
of the two halves of the Coronary arteries Supply the Endocardium The membrane
cerebrum. heart muscle. that lines the heart and the
Cerebrospinal fluid A clear Corpuscles A term often used heart valves.
fluid filling the brain’s ventricles for red and white blood cells. Endothelium The cell layer
and surrounding the brain and Cortex The outer layer of the that lines the inside of the
spinal cord to protect them brain. heart, blood vessels, and lymph
from injury. Cranial nerves Twelve pairs vessels.
Cerebrum The upper, major of nerves linking the underside Enzymes Biological catalysts:
part of the brain, comprising of the brain with parts of the proteins that speed up
cerebral hemispheres and head, neck, and thorax. chemical reactions without
diencephalon. Cranium The part of the skull undergoing change
Cervix A neck, especially the that contains the brain. themselves.
neck of the uterus (womb) Cutaneous Relating to the Epidermis (or Cuticle) The
where it opens into the vagina. skin. skin’s outer layer.
Clavicle Either of the two Cuticle See Epidermis. Epiglottis A cartilage flap
collarbones. Deoxyribonucleic acid behind the tongue that is
Clitoris An erectile, pea-sized (DNA) A nucleic acid in the closed during swallowing to
organ above the opening of the cell’s chromosomes containing stop food from entering the
vagina; it is highly sensitive and the cell’s coded genetic larynx.
is involved in female sexual instructions. Epiphysis See Pineal gland.
response. Dermis (or Corium) The layer Epithelium The cell layer
CNS See Central nervous of skin below the epidermis, covering the body, and lining
system. containing nerves, blood the alimentary canal and
Coccyx Four fused vertebrae vessels, glands, and hair respiratory and urinary tracts.
forming the “tail” of the follicles. Erythrocytes Red blood cells.
backbone. Diaphragm A muscular sheet Esophagus (or Gullet) The
Collagen A fibrous protein used in breathing. It separates muscular tube through which
© DIAGRAM
that is a major constituent of the thorax (chest) and food travels between the
connective tissue. abdomen (belly). pharynx and the stomach.
104 Glossary of the human body
Fallopian tubes (or Uterine Gullet See Esophagus. Karyotype The chromosome
tubes or Oviducts) The tubes Gut See Alimentary canal. complement of a person or
through which ova (eggs) travel Heart The hollow, muscular, species: the genome.
from the ovaries to the uterus. fist-sized organ that pumps Kidney A bean-shaped organ
Femur The thigh bone: the blood around the body. that filters wastes from blood
long bone between the hip and Hemoglobin The iron-rich, to form urine.
the knee. oxygen-transporting pigment in Lactation Milk production by
Follicle A small secreting red blood cells that gives them the mammary glands.
cavity or sac. Ova (egg cells) their color. Large intestine (or Bowel)
develop in follicles in the Hepatic Relating to the liver. The lower part of the
female ovaries. Hepatic portal vein See alimentary canal, comprising
Forebrain The front part of the Portal vein. the cecum, colon, and rectum.
brain comprising diencephalon Hindbrain Brain structures Larynx The cartilaginous
and telencephalon. below the midbrain, comprising voice box.
Gallbladder A pear-shaped the pons, medulla oblongata, Leukocytes White blood
bag where bile is stored, below and cerebellum. cells. They attack invading
the liver. Hormones Chemical microorganisms and help to
Gametes Sex cells: sperm in substances released into the combat injuries.
males; ova in females. blood by endocrine glands to Ligament Fibrous tissue that
Gastric Of the stomach. influence organs or tissues in connects bones.
Gastrointestinal tract See other parts of the body. Liver The largest organ in the
Alimentary canal. Hypophysis See Pituitary body, it is involved in various
Genes Basic biological gland. metabolic processes.
hereditary units, consisting of Hypothalamus A part of the Lungs The two organs of
DNA, located on brain with endocrine functions. respiration, filling most of the
chromosomes. Ileum The last part of the chest cavity inside the rib
Genitalia Sex organs. small intestine. cage and above the
Gland A structure that Immune system The body’s diaphragm.
synthesizes and secretes defense system against Lymph A transparent fluid that
a fluid. infective organisms or other leaks from blood vessels into
Gonads Primary reproductive foreign bodies. It includes the tissue spaces.
organs: the ovaries and testes. lymphatic system. Lymph gland See Lymph
Granulocytes White blood Involuntary muscle Muscle node.
cells with cytoplasm that that is not under conscious Lymph node (or Lymph
contains granules: basophils, control. See also Smooth gland) One of the “knots” in
eosinophils, and monocytes. muscle. the lymphatic system, which
Gray matter The darker tissue Jejunum The middle part of contain lymphocytes and
of the brain and spinal cord the small intestine. macrophages that filter the
mainly consisting of neurons’ Joint The junction between lymph passing through
cell bodies and dendrites. bones. the nodes.
105
Mucous membranes The different types of tissue that passageways, such as the
mucus-secreting linings of the performs a particular task. alimentary canal.
106 Glossary of the human body
Phagocytes Types of Rectum The last part of the Skin The body’s waterproof
leukocytes that engulf and colon, where feces collects covering; its largest organ,
destroy microorganisms and before leaving the body. comprising two main layers:
foreign bodies. Reflex action The body’s the epidermis and dermis.
Pharynx The throat. automatic response to a Small intestine The
Pineal gland (or Epiphysis) stimulus, such as blinking. alimentary canal between the
An endocrine gland in the brain Renal Relating to the kidney. stomach and large intestine,
that secretes melatonin. Respiration 1) Breathing; comprising the duodenum,
Pituitary gland (or 2) Taking in oxygen and giving jejunum, and ileum. Most
Hypophysis) A three-lobed, out carbon dioxide; 3) Deriving digestion occurs here.
pea-sized gland below the energy from food with or Smooth muscle (or
hypothalamus. It produces without using oxygen. Unstriated muscle or
growth hormone, hormones Respiratory system In Involuntary muscle) Muscle
that act on other endocrine humans, the mouth, nose, without striped fibers that
glands, oxytocin, and ADH. pharynx, larynx, trachea, automatically operates internal
It is often called the body’s bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, organs such as the stomach,
“master gland.” and lungs. bladder, and blood vessels.
Plasma The fluid part of Ribonucleic acid (RNA) A Sphincter A ring-shaped
blood. nucleic acid concerned with muscle that contracts to close
Pleura The membrane that protein synthesis. an orifice.
covers the lungs (visceral Ribs Twelve pairs of bones Spinal cord The cable of
pleura) and lines the chest wall that protect the chest cavity nerve tissue running down
(parietal pleura). and assist breathing by moving inside the vertebral column
Plexus A network of nerves (or up and out during inspiration (spine) and linking the brain
blood or lymph vessels). and down and in during with nerves supplying most of
Portal vein (or Hepatic portal expiration. the body.
vein) Drains blood from Salivary glands The lingual, Spine See Vertebral
digestive organs to the liver. parotid, sublingual, and column.
Prostate gland A gland submandibular glands that Sternum The breastbone.
situated below the bladder in produce saliva. Subcutaneous tissue The
males. It produces a sperm- Serum Blood plasma that sheet of connective tissue
activating fluid that forms nearly does not contain clotting below the dermis.
a third of the semen’s volume. factors but does contain Suprarenal glands See
Pudendum See Vulva. antibodies. Adrenal glands.
Pulmonary Relating to the Sinus A cavity, such as the Suture An immovable fibrous
lungs. channels draining venous blood joint between the skull bones.
Receptor A structure, such as from the brain. Taste buds Tiny sensory
a sensory nerve ending, Skeleton The bony framework organs of the tongue and
specialized to detect that protects and supports the palate, distinguishing salty,
environmental stimuli. body’s soft tissues. sweet, sour, and bitter tastes.
107
There is a lot of useful information on the internet. There are also many sites that are
fun to use. Remember that you may be able to get information on a particular topic by
using a search engine such as Google (http://www.google.com). Some of the sites that
are found in this way may be very useful, others not. Below is a selection of Web sites
related to the material covered by this book. Most are illustrated, and they are mainly of
the type that provides useful facts.
Facts On File, Inc. takes no responsibility for the information contained within these
Web sites. All the sites were accessible in January 2005.
motor cortex 36, 42 ovaries 28, 82, 83, 85, 98, hand 64
motor end plate 12, 13, 14, 99 nerve pathways 69
22, 23, 25 oxytocin 28, 83 neural circuits 15
motor (efferent) nerves 6, reflex arcs 24
9, 10, 11, 15, 22–23 P sensory neurons
motor units 23 pain 6, 21, 25 20–21
reflex arcs 24, 25 pancreas 26, 82, 83, 85, spinal cord 56
spinal cord 59 94–95, 96 reflex actions 6, 11, 15,
spinal nerves 70, 71 paralysis 54, 74 24–25, 56, 69
multiple sclerosis (MS) 74 parasympathetic nervous respiration 10
myelin 11, 12, 13, 16, 59 system 7, 9, 10, 11, 76,
80–81 S
N parathyroid glands 82, 83, saliva and salivary glands
nerve pathways 20, 24, 69 87, 89, 101 77, 79, 100
nerves and nerve cells peripheral nervous system Schwann cells 12, 13, 16
(neurons) 6, 11, 12, 14–15, (PNS) 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 14 sciatic nerve 66, 70, 74
16 autonomic nervous senses 6, 7, 43, 44, 48
autonomic nervous system 76 sensory cortex 42
system 7 ganglia 14 sensory (afferent) nerves
brain 32, 35 neurons 15 11, 59, 66, 68–69
dermatomes 21 spinal cord 56 nerve endings 13
disorders 30, 54–55 pia mater 11, 55, 59, 72, 73 neurons 6, 9, 11, 20, 21,
gray matter 10 pineal gland 27, 82, 83, 84 24, 25
memory 44, 45 91 spinal nerves 70, 71
motor 22–23 pituitary gland 10, 82, 83, sensory organs 20
nerve impulse 13, 16, 17 84, 91 sex hormones 26, 28, 83,
neural circuits 15 endocrine system 26–29 84, 85, 93
reflex arcs 24–25 hormonal stimuli 87 adrenals 92
sensory 20–21 sex hormones 98, 99 pituitary gland 26
synapses 18–19 stress 48, 100 sex organs 98–99
neuroglia cells 12, 13, 35 pons 6, 10, 11, 36, 42, 43 sight 33, 43
neurotransmitters 13, 18, balance 42 skin 6, 7, 72
19, 22 pressure receptors 6, 7 autonomic nervous
nodes of Ranvier 13, 16 progesterone 83, 85, 99 system 76
norepinephrine prolactin 28 dermatomes 10
(noradrenaline) 13, 79, 83, proprioreceptors 6 hormones 29
85, 87, 92 prostaglandin 86 nerves 68, 69
parasympathetic
O R nervous system 81
olfactory system 7, 36, 62, receptors 6, 7, 13 reflex arcs 25
63 afferent system 9 sensory supply 20, 21,
optic nerve 7, 36, 62, 63 dermatomes 60 70, 71
112 Index