FCE546 Transp Eng IIIB - March 2012 v0 PDF

FCE 546 - TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING IIIB (45 HRS)
PAVEMENT DESIGN
REPORT TITLE
CONTENTS
Chapter Description Page
1 COURSE SYLLABUS AND REFERENCES 1
1.1 The Syllabus 1
1.2 Recommended References 1
2 TYPES OF PAVEMENTS 2
2.1 Functions and Desirable Characteristics of Pavement 2
2.2 Pavement Courses 2
2.3 Pavement Types 3
2.4 Comparison of Rigid and Flexible pavements 4

2.4.1 Design precision 4
2.4.2 Life 5
2.4.3 Maintenance 5
2.4.4 Initial cost 5
2.4.5 Stage construction 5
2.4.6 Availability of materials 5
2.4.7 Surface characteristics 5
2.4.8 Penetration of water 6
2.4.9 Utility location 6
2.4.10 Labour vs Capital intensive technology 6
2.4.11 Traffic dislocation during construction 6
2.4.12 Overall economy 6
3 PAVEMENT DESIGN 22
3.1 Objectives of pavement design 22
3.2 Solutions to pavement design problems 22

3.2.1 The design process 22
3.2.2 The pavement structure 22
3.2.3 Design of paved roads 23
3.3 Functions of pavement layers 23

3.3.1 The flexible pavement structure 23
3.3.2 The Rigid pavement structure 24
3.4 Factors Affecting Pavement Design 24

3.4.1 Wheel Load 25
(a) Magnitude of wheel load and tyre pressure 25
(b) Equivalent standard axle 25
(c) Design traffic loading 27
(d) Design life 27
3.4.2 Climatic Factors 28
(a) Surface Drainage 28
(b) Temperature 28
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FCE546 Transp Eng IIIB - March 2012 v0 Issue 1.0 / Insert the report issue date here
3.5 Flexible Pavement Design 28
3.5.1 Methods of Flexible Pavement Design 28
3.5.2 Theoretical Methods 29
(a) Boussinesq's Theory: Stresses in a homogeneous mass 29
(b) Burmister's theory: Stresses in layered systems 30
(c) Other models 31
(d) Three-layered analysis 31
(e) Multi-layer system of analysis 32
3.5.3 Empirical and semi-empirical pavement design methods 33
(a) Group Index method 33
(b) CBR design method 35
(c) Road Note 29 design method* 36
(d) Road Note 31 design method* 37
(e) The Kenya Pavement Design Method 42
(f) CEBTP pavement design method for tropical countries 45
(g) AASHTO design guide 45
(h) Other methods 46
3.6 Design of concrete pavements 47
3.7 Design of unpaved roads 48

3.7.1 Design of gravel roads 48
3.7.2 Design of earth roads 49
3.8 Examples of pavement design Error! Bookmark not defined.
4 SOIL STABILISATION 50
4.1 Definition 50
4.2 Purpose of Soil Stabilization 50
4.3 Types of Stabilisation Techniques 50
4.4 Mechanical Stabilisation 50

4.4.1 Principles 50
4.4.2 Applications 51
4.4.3 Soil-aggregate mixtures 51
4.4.4 Sand-clay roads 52
4.4.5 Sand-gravel mixtures 52
4.4.6 Stabilisation of soil with soft aggregates 53
5 ROAD MAINTENANCE 82
5.1 Pavement Evaluation 82

5.1.1 Introduction 82
5.1.2 Methods of Pavement Evaluation 82
5.1.3 Visual Rating 82
5.1.4 Pavement Serviceability Index (PSI) 83
5.1.5 Roughness Measurements 83
5.1.6 Benkelman Beam Deflection 84
5.1.7 Falling Weight Deflectometer 86
5.1.8 Skid Resistance Surveys 86
5.1.9 Pavement Deterioration Research 87
5.2 Road Inventorying 88

5.2.1 Need for Road Inventorying 88
5.2.2 Road Features Covered by Inventorying 88
5.2.3 Periodicity of Inventorying 89
5.2.4 Manual Methods of Inventorying 89
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5.2.5 Instrument-Aided Inventorying 89
5.2.6 Computer-Aided Road Data Bank System 89
5.2.7 QUESTION 90
5.3 Highway Maintenance 91

5.3.1 Need for Maintenance 91
(a) Traffic Factors 91
(b) Environmental Factors 91
5.3.2 Assessing Maintenance Needs 91
5.3.3 Maintenance of Earth Roads 92
(a) Grading 92
(b) Dragging 93
(c) Rolling 93
(d) Filling of rain-cuts 93
5.3.4 Maintenance of Gravel Roads 93
(a) Filling local depressions 93
(b) Grading 93
(c) Dragging 93
(d) Regravelling 93
5.3.5 Maintenance of Water-bound Macadam Roads 94
5.3.6 Maintenance of Bituminous Surfaces 95
(a) Defects, symptoms, causes and remedies 95
(b) Pot-hole repair (patch repair) 98
5.3.7 Maintenance of Cement Concrete Surface 98
(a) Cracks 99
(b) Joints 99
(c) Patching of slabs 99
(d) Mud-pumping and blowing 99
5.3.8 Maintenance of Shoulders 99
5.3.9 Maintenance of Slopes of Embankments 99
5.3.10 Maintenance of Bridges and Culverts 100
(a) Bridge and culvert register 100
(b) Periodic Inspection 100
(c) Painting of steel bridges 100
(d) Maintenance of masonry 100
(e) Scour 101
(f) Bearings 101
(g) Expansion joints 101
(h) Weak and narrow structures 101
5.3.11 Special Problems of Hill Road Maintenance 101
(a) Snow clearance 101
(b) Slips and landslides 101
(c) Drainage maintenance 101
5.3.12 Maintenance Practice in Kenya 101
(a) 27121. Organisation 101
(b) Types of maintenance operations 102
5.3.13 Maintenance Management System (MMS) 102
5.3.14 QUESTIONS 102
5.4 Overlay Design and Construction 102

5.4.1 Need for Overlays 102
5.4.2 Overlay Design for Flexible Pavements 103
(a) Principles of design 103
5.4.3 Overlay Design Methods for Flexible Pavements 103
(a) Measurement of pavement strength 103
(b) TRRL procedure 103
(c) Asphalt Institute method 103
(d) Analytical methods 104
5.4.4 Overlay Design Methods for Rigid Pavement 104
(a) Types of rigid overlays 104
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(b) Design of rigid overlays 105
(c) Flexible overlays over rigid slabs 105
5.5 Skid Resistance 105

5.5.1 Importance of Skid-Resistant Surfaces 105
5.5.2 Factors Governing Skid Resistance 106
5.5.3 Measurement of Skid Resistance 106
5.5.4 Standards for Skid Resistance 107
5.5.5 Construction of Skid Resistant Surfaces 108
5.5.6 Maintenance of Skid Resistance of Surfaces 109
5.5.7 QUESTIONS 109
5.6 Pavement Roughness 109

5.6.1 Importance of Smooth Riding Surface 109
5.6.2 Need for Roughness Measurements 109
5.6.3 What Constitutes Road Roughness 110
5.6.4 Measurement of Road Roughness 110
6 TENDERS, CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 111
6.1 Methods of Execution 111
7 ROAD CONSTRUCTION PROGRAMMING AND MANAGEMENT 113
7.1 401. Need for Construction Programming 113
8 QUALITY CONTROL IN HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 117
8.1 41.1 Importance of Quality Control 117
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1 COURSE SYLLABUS AND REFERENCES
1.1 The Syllabus
FCE 546 - Transportation Engineering IIIB
a) Types of road pavements. Functions of various pavement layers.

b) Pavement loading characteristics: Behaviour of layered pavement systems under
traffic loading, Stress distribution in flexible pavements.
c) Bearing capacity considerations, evaluation of sub-grade and pavement materials.
d) Flexible road pavements: analysis and design.
e) Road maintenance: methods of evaluation and strengthening of existing road
pavements.
f) Pavement materials: stabilization for road construction materials, bituminous mixes -
their ingredients and design.
g) Road construction Techniques and quality control.
Laboratory Work
• H1 - CBR Test
• H2 - Soil Stabilization
• H3 - Marshall Test
1.2 Recommended References
Reference books recommended for the course are as follows:
1. Principals of Pavement Design - Yoder, T and Witzack

2. Essentials of Highway Engineering - Gichaga, F and Parker
3. Highways: Location, Design, Construction & Maintenance - O’Flaherty
4. Highway Engineering – Martin Rogers
5. Traffic and Highway Engineering – NJ Garber & LA Hoel
6. Highway Engineering – L R Kadiyali
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2 TYPES OF PAVEMENTS
2.1 Functions and Desirable Characteristics of Pavement
A highway pavement is designed to support the wheel loads imposed on it from traffic moving
over it. Additional stresses are also imposed by changes in the environment. It should be strong
enough to resists the stresses imposed on it and it should be thick enough to distribute the
external loads on the earthen subgrade, so that the subgrade itself can safely bear it.
For satisfactorily performing the above functions, the pavement should have many desirable
characteristics. These are:
1. It should be structurally sound enough to withstand the stresses imposed on it.

2. It should be sufficiently thick to distribute the loads and stresses to a safe value on the
subgrade soil.
3. It should provide a reasonably hard wearing surface, so that the abrasion action of
wheels (pneumatic and iron-tired) does not damage the surface.
4. it should be dust-proof so that traffic safety is not impaired.
5. Its riding quality should be good. It should be smooth enough to provide comfort to the
road users at the high speeds at which modern vehicles are driven.
6. The surface of the pavement should develop as low a friction with the tyres as possible.
This will enable the energy consumption of the vehicles to be low.
7. The surface of the pavement should have a texture and adequate roughness to prevent
skidding of vehicles.
8. The surface should not produce excessive levels of sound when travelling.
9. The surface should be impervious so that water does not get into the lower layers of the
pavement and the subgrade and cause deterioration.
10. The pavement should have long life and the cost of maintaining it annually should be
low.
Some of the requirements enumerated above are conflicting. A good pavement should be a
compromise among such conflicting needs
2.2 Pavement Courses
A pavement consists of one or more layers. The topmost layer is the surfacing the purpose of
which is to provide a smooth, abrasion resistant, dust-proof and strong layer. The base, which
comes immediately next below, is the medium through which the stresses imposed are
distributed evenly. Additional help in distributing the loads is provided by the sub-base layer. The
subgrade is the compacted natural earth immediately below the pavement layers. The top of the
sub-grade is also known as the formation level.
In a concrete road, the concrete slab itself acts as the wearing surface and distributes the load.
The slab may be directly placed on the subgrade, or, in case of weak soils, a base and sub sub-
base may be interposed between the slab and the subgrade.
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a) Kenyan practice
b) American practice
c) British practice
1. Pavement layers.
Fig. 14.1.
In American practice, the top course in a flexible pavement

pavement is itself composed of the surface
course and a binder course beneath it. In U.K. practice, the surfacing is similarly composed of the
wearing course at top and a base course beneath it. The so-called
so called base course in Kenyan
practice corresponds to the
e roadbase in British practice.
The functions of the sub-base

base layer are:
(i) To provide additional help to the base and surface courses in distributing the loads.
(ii) To prevent intrusion of fine-grained
fine road-bed
bed soils into base courses.
(iii) To minimise the damaging
damagin effects of frost action.
(iv) To facilitate drainage of free water that might get accu
accumulated
mulated below the pavement.
The functions of the base course are:

(i) To act as the structural portion of the pavement and thus distribute the loads.
(ii) If constructed directly over
o the sub-grade„
grade„ to prevent intrusion of sub
sub-base soils into
the pavement.
The functions of the surface course are:

(i) To perform as a structural portion of the pavement,
(ii) To resist the abrasive forces of traffic.
(iii) To reduce the amount of surface water penetrating
pen the pavement.
(iv) To provide a skid-resistant
skid surface.
(v) To provide a smooth and uniform riding surface.
2.3 Pavement Types
From the point of view of structural performance, pavements can be classified as:
(i) Flexible
(ii) Rigid
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(iii) Semi-rigid
(iv) Composite.
A flexible pavement is one which has low flexural strength. Thus, the external load is largely
transmitted to the subgrade by the lateral distribution with increasing depth. Because of the low
flexural strength, the pavement deflects if the subgrade deflects. The pavament thickness is so
designed that the stresses on the subgrade soil are kept within its bearing power and the
subgrade is prevented from excessive deformations. This implies that in a flexible pavement, the
subgrade plays an important role as it carries the vehicle loads transmitted to it through the
pavement. The strength and smoothness of the pavement depends to a great extent on the
deformation suffered by the subgrade and its resistance to such
As a contrast, a rigid pavement derives its capacity to withstand loads from the flexural strength
or beam strength (modulus of elasticity), permitting the slab to bridge over minor irregularities in
the subgrade, sub-base or base upon which it rests. This implies that the inherent strength of the
slab itself is called upon to play a major role in resisting the wheel load. Minor imperfections or
localised weak spots in the material below the slab can be taken care of by the slab itself. This is
not to under-rate the role of the sub-grade soil. In fact, a good, stable and uniform support is
necessary for a rigid pavement as well. But as long as a certain minimum requirement is met with
in this regard, the performance of the rigid pavement is more governed by the strength of the slab
itself than by the subgrade support.
A semi-rigid pavements represents an intermediate stage between the flexible and the rigid
pavement. It has much lower flexural strength compared to concrete slabs, but it also derives
support by the lateral distribution of loads through the pavement depth as in a flexible pavement.
Typical examples of a semi-rigid pavement are the lean-concrete base, soil-cement and lime-
pozzolana concrete construction.
A composite pavement is one which comprises of multiple, structurally significant layer of

different - sometimes heterogeneous - composition. A typical example is the brick-sandwiched
concrete pavement, which has been tried in India. It consists of top and bottom layers of cement
concrete which sandwich a brick layer in the neutral axis zone. The design of composite
pavements lies outside the well-established fields of flexible or rigid pavement design and is still
in infancy.
A very frequent term in highway engineering practice in developing countries is "low-cost

pavements". These pavements represent specifications involving the use of locally available
materials, often with stabilization techniques.
Another distinction in pavement description is between "paved" and "unpaved" and "surfaced"
and "unsurfaced". The exact definition of these terms is lacking. One often uses the terms
"paved" roads to mean a road which has at least a stone-aggregate course laid over the
subgrade. The stone-aggregate course may be left bare without any bituminous surfacing in
which case the road, though paved, is "unsurfaced". An "unpaved" road is one which has only
gravel or earthen surface. In Kenya, a "surfaced" road is one which has a bituminous or concrete
surface. In contrast, "unsurfaced" roads are those which have no bituminous or concrete
surfaces.
2.4 Comparison of Rigid and Flexible pavements
2.4.1 Design precision
A cement concrete pavement is amenable to a much more precise structural analysis than a
flexible pavement. This is because of the fact that the flexural strength of concrete, which is used
as the main basis for design, is well understood. On the other hand, flexible pavement designs
are mainly empirical. It may be because of the design precision associated with a concrete
pavement and the accuracy in predicting the performance of a rigid pavement. Latest research in
understanding the performance of bituminous materials has furthered the knowledge on their
behaviour. Computer aided analysis of layered systems is making the flexible pavement design
more exact than hitherto.
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2.4.2 Life
A well-designed concrete slab has a life of about 40 years. The life of a flexible pavement varies
from 10 to 20 years.
Even this shorter life can be achieved only with extra maintenance input as discussed separately.
2.4.3 Maintenance
A well-designed cement concrete pavement needs practically very little maintenance. The only
maintenance needed is in respect of joints. Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP)
have reduced the number of joints to be attended to. The hard surface can withstand the
abrasion caused by iron-tyred vehicles, (bullock carts) in Kenya and studded tyres in the West
used under snowy conditions. The surface is unaffected by spillage of oil and lubricants.
Bituminous surfaces, on the other hand, need great inputs in maintenance. Sealing cracks,
making good potholes, resurfacing and resealing are done very frequently. The surface is
affected by spillage of oil and lubricants. The surface is affected by natural weathering agents like
air, water and temperature changes.
2.4.4 Initial cost
The argument so far used against a cement concrete slab is that it is much more costly than a
flexible pavement. However, while cost of cement has increased very much in recent years, so
has the cost of bitumen, and this has comparison has required a re-think in recent years as
2.4.5 Stage construction
Due to extreme scarcity of resources in the country, road construction is generally done adopting
a policy of stage construction. A new road, for example, is constructed with the barest minimum
specifications, which may involve just a thin bituminous surfacing over a partially designed
thickness. As traffic grows, additional layers, in the form of water-bound macadam, bitumen-
bound bases and superior surfacings are added on. Initial outlay is minimum and additional
outlays are in keeping with traffic growth. Thus, at no stage is the investment made in advance of
the actual requirement. This is a great advantage when dealing with new roads in an atmosphere
of austerity. Cement concrete slabs do not fit into such a scheme of stage construction.
2.4.6 Availability of materials
Cement, bitumen, stone aggregates and sand are the major materials involved in pavement
construction. Cement has been in serious short supply in the country for the past many decades.
The situation is likely to ease considerably since many new cement plants have been licensed. If
cement becomes freely available, it is certain that the Kenyan highway engineers will start
constructing roads again after a lapse of nearly forty years.
Bitumen is also not locally available in Kenya. There is also the danger of the entire oil reserves
in the world shrinking up soon in the next two or three decades. Bitumen is thus also a scarce
commodity worldwide Moreover, import of bitumen involves foreign exchange, whereas cement
is indigenously manufactured.
In locations where stone aggregates are scarce, cement concrete may have an advantage, since
the total construction thickness may be less than a flexible pavement. In locations where water is
scarce, bitumen-bound layers are the only alternative. An example of this is in desert regions.
2.4.7 Surface characteristics
A good cement concrete surface is smooth and free from rutting, potholes and corrugations.
Thus the riding quality of a cement concrete surface is always assured. In a bituminous surface,
it is only the asphaltic concrete surface that can give comparable rideability. Thin surfaces such
as premix open-textured carpets and surface dressing are very rough. A well-constructed cement
surface can have a permanent non-skid surface. On the other hand, if the design is faulty a
cement concrete surface may become very smooth in course of time. If it does, it is extremely
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costly to restore the non-skid characteristics. Grooving and etching will have to be adopted.
Grooved slabs cause noise. A bituminous surface can also be designed to have a good skid-
resistant surface. If it fattens up, a rough seal cost with a brushing of coarse aggregates can
easily restore the lost property.
2.4.8 Penetration of water
A cement concrete slab is practically impervious, except at joints. If joints are sealed and well-
maintained water will not penetrate and soften the subgrade. If joints are faulty, water easily finds
it way in and serious defects such as "mud-pumping" can follow. A bituminous surface is not
impervious. Water can find its way into the lower layers through cracks and pores. Such water
can impair the stability of the pavement.
2.4.9 Utility location
In cement concrete slabs, proper thought has to be given to locate utilities, such as water pipes,
telephone lines and electric cables. It is difficult to rip open the slab and restore it to the original
condition if any changes in the utility lines are to be made. For this purpose, gaps are left in the
pavement which are constructed with bituminous materials. Thus, the digging up of pavements at
random, a common feature in city streets in Kenya, is avoided. The disadvantage is thus
converted to an advantage.
2.4.10 Labour vs Capital intensive technology
Cement concrete pavements can be laid by paving machines, as is the practice in the West.
Such a technology is highly capital intensive. On the other hand, cement concrete pavement
construction, as practised in some developing countries, is a labour-intensive technology,
employing only small machines like concrete mixers and screed vibrators. As against this, a
superior bituminous construction such as an asphaltic concrete or bituminous macadam involves
the use of costly equipment such as hot-mix plants and paver finishers. For a labour-surplus
economy like ours, this is an undesirable thing.
Concrete pavements have a grey colour which can cause glare under sunlight. Coloured cement
can reduce the glare. Black bituminous pavements are free from this defect. On the other hand,
bituminous roads need more street lighting.
2.4.11 Traffic dislocation during construction
A cement concrete pavement requires 28 days before it can be thrown open to traffic. On the
other hand, a bituminous surface can be open to traffic after it is rolled. Further traffic will
facilitate its compaction. Thus concrete pavements cause dislocation of traffic, in case the work is
done on an existing road.
2.4.12 Overall economy
A good road is costly to construct, but once constructed, such a road requires little maintenance
and results in savings in vehicle operating costs. Overall economic considerations, a rigid
pavement is far more economical than the flexible one.
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3 EVALUATION OF SUBGRADE AND PAVEMENT MATERIALS
3.1 The Natural Environment
3.1.1 Climate
Climate has a considerable influence on road performance and should therefore be taken into
account by the design engineer.
• Kenya has a very wide variety of climates, comprising:

• Afro-alpine climate
• Equatorial climate
• Wet-tropical climate
• Semi-arid climate
• Arid climate
• Very arid climate
Moreover, the pattern of the climatic zones is rather complex, since the Kenyan climates are
largely governed by altitude.
The design of drainage and anti-erosion systems largely depends on the expected climatic
conditions. The choice of roadmaking materials will also be influenced by climate. In this respect,
the following principles should be followed by the design engineer:
(i) In wet areas (mean annual rainfall greater than 500mm), the use of plastic pavement
materials should be as limited as economically feasible. Bituminous surfacings should be as
impervious as possible. Shoulders should be impermeable or properly sealed. Great attention
should always be paid to both internal and external drainage.
(ii) In dry areas (mean annual rainfall less than 500 mm), higher plasticities can be accepted for
pavement materials and open-textured base materials can be used. Difficulties may occur with
cement-treated materials, because of the rapid evaporation of water hindering the hydration of
cement and the tendency of the treated material to crack extensively as a result of shrinkage and
volumetric changes caused by the daily temperature variations. Drainage and protection against
erosion should not be neglected as short but heavy storms are likely to occur even in the driest
areas.
3.1.2 Natural Materials and Soils
In order to minimize construction costs, natural materials should be used as much as possible.
Every endeavour should be made to use the cheap local materials before considering the
importation of material from some distance. It is therefore of prime importance to make a
complete inventory of all available roadmaking materials, such as stone, gravel, sand and clayey
sand at the investigation stage.
Kenya has abundant resources of hard stone. Detailed information regarding the various types of
stone available and their roadmaking characteristics can be found in Materials Branch Report No.
336.
Many different sorts of gravels exist in Kenya: lateritic gravels, quartzitic gravels, calcareous
gravels, some forms of weathered rock, soft stone, coral rag, etc. Various types of sand and silty
or clayey sands are also found. Detailed information concerning these materials and their
engineering properties can be found in Materials Branch Reports No. 343 and 344.
It will be useful for the design engineer to consult all relevant documents, such as materials
reports, geological and pedological maps and reports.
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3.2 Subgrade
3.2.1 Classification of Kenyan Soils
For a rational approach to pavement design/ the most important characteristic of the subgrade is
its elastic modulus. However, the measurement of this modulus requires fairly complicated and
time-consuming tests.
However, it has been proved that there is good correlation between the California Bearing Ratio
and the elastic modulus of Kenyan soils. Since the CBR test is a fairly easy and widely used test,
it has been decided to retain it as the quantitative means of evaluating the subgrade bearing
strength.
(a) Classes of Subgrade Bearing Strength
A survey of Kenyan subgrade soils, described in Materials Branch Report No. 345, has shown
that they can be grouped into the following 6 bearing strength classes
TABLE 6.1.1 : SUBGRADE BEARING STRENGTH CLASSES
Soil Class CBR Range Median

SI 2-5 3.5
S2 5-10 7.5
S3 7-13 10
S4 10 - 18 14
S5 15 - 30 22.5
S6 30
The above CBR ranges correspond to the results actually obtained on materials of the same type
along sections of road considered homogeneous. They reflect both the variations of the
characteristics of the soil which inevitably occur, even at small intervals, and the normal scatter of
test results.
The following points should be noted:

(i) No allowance for CBR's below 2 has been made, because it is, technically and economically,
out of the question to lay a pavement on soils of such poor bearing capacity. Such weak soils are
saturated expansive clays, saturated fine silts or compressible (swampy) soils, e.g. mud, soft
clay, etc. They should be dealt with as described in Section 4.2.2. Moreover, the measurement of
the bearing strength of such soft soils is most uncertain and CBR's below 2 are of little
significance.
(ii) The use of Class SI soils (CBR 2-5) as direct support for the pavement should be avoided as
much as possible. Wherever practicable, such poor quality soils should be excavated and
replaced, or covered with an improved subgrade•
(iii) The CBR range of Class S5 is fairly wide. This is because Class S5 is either gravelly material
or unsoaked soil, the CBR's of which always show considerable scatter.
Furthermore, the difference in the pavement thickness required is comparatively small when the
subgrade bearing strength varies from the lower to the upper limit of this class.
(iv) Class S6 covers all subgrade materials having a CBR over 30 and which comply with the
plasticity requirements for natural materials for subbase (See Chart SB1). In such cases, no
subbase is required. No class of higher bearing capacity has been considered as such subgrade
materials are extremely rare and as a roadbase is always necessary to provide a homogeneous
and uniform layer.
(v) It will be noted that the subgrade categories overlap. For any one section of a road the
average (CBR should be higher or equal to the mean of the subgrade class selected for design,
and no individual result shall be below the lowest value of the range for that subgrade class.
Where the subgrade CBR values are very variable the designer should balance the cost of
8
having very short sections of different subgrade categories against a conservative design taking
account of the worst conditions encountered over longer sections.
(b) Classification of the Most Common Kenyan Subgrade Materials
The following materials cover almost all the subgrade materials encountered in Kenya, and they
may be classified on the basis of bearing strength, as shown in Table 6.1.2 overleaf.
TABLE 6.1.2 : CLASSIFICATION OF KENYA SUBGRADE MATERIALS
Bearing Strength Class

Type of material At O.M.C.
After 4 days soak
(Standard)
Black cotton soils SI S5
Micaceous silts (decomp.rock) SI S3
Other eluvial silts (decomp.rock) S2 S4
Red friable clays S3 S5
Sandy clays on volcanics S3 or S4 S5
Ash and pumice soils S3 or S4 S5
Silty loams on gneiss and granite S4 S5
Calcareous sandy soils S4 S5
Sandy clays on basement S4 S5
Clayey sands on basement S4 or S5 S5 or S6
Dune sands S4 S4 or S5
Coastal sands S4 S5
Weathered lava S4 or S5 S5 or S6
Quartzitic gravels S4 - S6 S5 or S6
Soft (weathered) tuffs S4 - S6 S5 or S6
Calcareous gravels S4 - S6 S5 or S6
Lateritic gravels S5 or S6 S6
Coral gravels S5 or S6 S6
* Some of the ash and pumice soils have a very low maximum dry density and a lower
Young's Modulus than might be expected from the-measured CBR values. Such soils
(Standard Compaction MDD less than 1.4 Mg/m^) cannot be classified for pavement
design purposes on the basis of CBR only
3.2.2 Determining the Subgrade Strength
(a) Recommended Subgrade CBR Test Procedure
The actual strength of the subgrade and, in particular, its actual CBR, depend on the type of
material, its density and its moisture content.
For each type of material, it is therefore necessary to determine the relative compaction that
should be obtained in-situ and the maximum moisture content likely to occur in the subgrade.
In order to obtain a complete knowledge of the relationship between density, moisture content
and CBR, a "6 point" CBR test should be carried out on a representative sample of each type of
subgrade material encountered. The tests are conducted in the following way:
The material shall be compacted at 3 different levels of compaction. The samples shall
be moulded at the moisture content which is expected at the time of in-situ compaction
(in general, at the Optimum Moisture Content). At each level of compaction, one CBR
shall be measured immediately on one soaked specimen. The time of soaking will
depend on the anticipated subgrade conditions. The amount of water absorbed during
soaking and the eventual swell shall also be measured.
The above method enables an estimate to be made of the subgrade CBR at different densities
and thus helps in deciding the relative coupaction required. It also indicates the loss of strength
which soaking may cause. A full particle size analysis should also be done on each
representative sample.
9
(b) Subgrade Compaction
The compaction requirements are generally as follows:
The upper 300 mm of the subgrade shall be compacted to a dry density of at least 100%
MDD (Standard Compaction) in cuttings where there is no improved subgrade and on all
fills.
In cuttings where an improved subgrade is to be placed, the upper 150 mm of the

subgrade, prior to placing the improved subgrade layer(s), shall be compacted to at least
100% MDD (Standard Compaction) and the lower 150 mm to at least 95% MDD
(Standard Compaction).
All improved subgrade shall be compacted to a dry density of at least 100% MDD
The maximum compacted thickness which shall be paid, processed and compacted at
one time is generally 300 mm.
The moisture content shall be adjusted in order that the required relative compaction is
obtained, but the moisture content at the time of compaction shall not exceed 105% of
the Optimum Moisture Content (Standard Compaction).
If it proves feasible, dry compaction may be accepted, especially in dry areas.
In some cases, it is advantageous to obtain relative compactions higher than the above figures,
since compaction not only improves the subgrade bearing strength, but also reduces
permeability. This applies, in particular, to clayey sands, silty sands and granular materials, the
coarse particles of which are hard enough not to crumble under heavy compaction.
(c) Estimating the Subgrade Moisture Content
The actual moisture content of the subgrade soil under the road pavement will depend on many
factors, principally:
• local climate
• depth of the water table
• type of soil
• topography and the drainage
• permeability of the pavement materials
• permeability of the shoulders
The study of Kenyan subgrade moisture conditions, as described in Materials Branch Report No.
345, has revealed the general relationships between mean annual rainfall, soil type, drainage
conditions and subgrade moisture content.
TABLE 6.2.1 : SUBGRADE MOISTURE CONTENTS

Mean Annual Subgrade Moisture
Water Table Soil Type Drainage
Rainfall (mm) Content
Impermeable
Average slightly less than
pavement,
OMC Maximum 3% units
reasonable
Non-existent or Predominantly clays above OMC
surface drainage
deep or silts
Permeable Average, often exceeds
> 500 pavement, poor OMC. Maximum
surface drainage equivalent to saturation.
Non-existent or Sands to sandy- Average well below OMC.
< 500
deep clays Maximum equal to OMC.
Notes 1. OHC is measured with Standard Compactive Effort.
10
2. Permeable pavements include pavements constructed with open-textured materials
and, mostly, deteriorated pavements exhibiting surfacing and/or base cracks.
(d) Determining the Subgrade Design Strength
Unless a more accurate estimation of the ultimate subgrade moisture content can be made and
backed by factual data, the subgrade strength shall be determined as follows:
(i) In areas where the mean annual rainfall exceeds 500 mm, the determination of the subgrade
strength shall be based on CBR* s measured after 4 days soak.
(ii) In dry areas, where the mean annual rainfall is less than 500 mm, the subgrade strength may
be evaluated in terms of CBR's measured at Optimum Moisture Content (Standard Compaction).
However, a design based on such unsoaked CBR's will be permitted only where it has been
established that no prolonged soaking may occur. For this purpose, consideration shall be given
to factors such as permeability of the natural ground and topography (in other words, to the ability
of water to drain rapidly under all circumstances).
3.3 Subgrade Requirements for Pavement Design
3.3.1 Materials Suitable for Pavement Support
Materials forming the direct support of the pavement shall normally comply with the following
requirements:
• CBR at 100% MDD (Standard Compaction) and 4 days soak : more than 5
• Swell at 100% MDD (Standard Compaction) and 4 days soak : less than 2%
• Organic matter (percentage by weight) : less than 3%
This means that no pavement should be placed directly on Class SI soil and that an improved
subgrade is required on such soil.
3.3.2 Improved Subgrade
Placing an improved subgrade not only increases the bearing strength of the direct support of the
pavement, but also
• protects the upper layers of earthworks against adverse weather conditions (protection
against soaking and shrinkage),
• facilitates the movement of construction traffic,
• permits proper compaction of the paveme-t layers,
• reduces the variation in the subgrade bearing strength, and
• prevents pollution of open-textured subbases by plastic fines from the natural subgrade.
It may prove technically and economically advantageous to lay an improved subgrade not only
on SI, but also on S2 and S3 Class soils. The decision will generally depend on the respective
costs of subbase and improved subgrade materials.
An improved subgrade would generally not be economically justified on Class S4 soils.
An improved subgrade placed on soils of any particular class must obviously be made of a
material of a higher class (up to Class S5, since Class S6 is subbase quality).
3.3.3 Influence of Improved Subgrade or. Subgrade Bearing Strength
Where a sufficient thickness of improved subgrade is placed, the overall subgrade bearing
strength is increased to that of a higher class and the subbase thickness may be reduced
accordingly.
11
Table 6.3.1 shows the minimum thickness of each class of improved subgrade required on each
class of natural soil to obtain a higher class of subgrade bearing strength. These minimum
thicknesses have been calculated taking into account the respective elastic moduli of each class
of soil.
TABLE 6.3.1 ; MINIMUM THICKNESS OF IMPROVED SUBGRADE REQUIRED
Strength Class Improved subgrade New Class of

of native subgrade Material Minimum thickness subgrade bearing
soils Strength Class required (mm) strength
S2 400 S2
350 S2
S3
425 S3
S1*
275 S2
S4 325 S3
450 S4
S3 300 S3
S2 200 S3
S4
350 S4
S4 300 S4
S3 150 S4
S5
350 S5
• Many Class S1 soils will be expansive clays. There may also be problems in achieving
high degrees of compaction in Class S4 or S5 material overlying a Class S1 soil.
3.3.4 Lime Treated Subgrade
Treatment of the subgrade soils with lime may be considered in the following cases:
(i) Where the natural soils are excessively clayey and no better material is economically
available, their treatment with hydrated lime may be the cheapest solution.
(ii) Where the natural soils are excessively wet and cannot be dried out because of adverse
weather conditions, their treatment with quicklime may allow construction to proceed and provide
a markedly stronger subgrade.
The treated soils will be classified in accordance with their CBR range and the final bearing
strength class of the pavement support will be determined as indicated above.
3.4 Materials Sampling and Testing Programme
3.4.1 General
(a) Introduction
Road design may be divided into three stages, namely feasibility study, preliminary design and
final design. This Chapter describes the materials sampling and testing programmes applicable
to each stage of the design.
(b) Mass of Samples Required
The total mass of sample required depends on the tests to be carried out, the grading of the
material (its maximum particle size, in particular) and its susceptibility to crushing during
compaction.
For general guidance, Table 14.1.1 below shows the minimum mass of sample required for
various sequences of tests and typical materials, namely:
• Fine grained soil (Maximum size: 2mm)
12
• Coarse grained gravel (Maximum size: 40 mm), not susceptible to crushing during
compaction.
• Coarse grained gravel (Maximum size: 40 mm), susceptible to crushing during
compaction.
• Solid stone.
The masses indicated in Table 14.1.1 include some allowance for drying, wastage and rejection
of coarse fragments where necessary.
TABLE 14.2.1: MINIMUM MASS OF SAMPLE REQUIRED SOILS AND GRAVELS
SOILS AND GRAVELS

Coarse grained gravel Coarse grained gravel
Fine grained soil (max
Tests Required (max. size 40mm) not (max. size 40 mm)
size 2mm)
susceptible to crushing susceptible to crushing
Grading * * * * * * * * * * * *
Atterberg Limits * * * * * * * * * * * *
Compaction * * * * * * * * *
CBR
* * *
(1 point)
CBR
* * * * * *
(3 points)
Treatment Tests * * *
Minimum Sample
5 20 35 80 20 40 60 150 20 60 80 180
Mass(kg)
SOLID STONE
Tests Required Solid Stone
I.A.A. * *
A.C.V. * *
S•S•o• * *
S.G. * *
Bitumen Affinity * *
Crushing *
Grading *
F.I. *
S.B. *
Compaction *
Minimum Sample Mass
50 . 200
(kg)
3.5 Materials Testing at Preliminary Design
3.5.1 Alignment Soils
(a) Sampling
At least one sample shall be taken per kilometre of anticipated alignment, with more frequent
samples where there are major changes in soil type.
To this end, pits shall be dug mostly in anticipated out areas, if possible down to at least 0.5 m
below the expected formation level. Further, in the case of a new alignment, the depth of any pit
shall in no case be less than 1.5m, unless rock or other material impossible to excavate by hand
is encountered.
The position of each trial pit shall be accurately determined and recorded. In every trial pit, all
layers, including top soil, shall be accurately described and their thicknesses measured. All
layers of more than 300 mm (except top soil) shall be sampled. The sample shall be taken over
the full depth of the layer by taking a vertical slice of material.
13
The log of each trial pit shall be accurately drawn and included in the Materials Report.
(b) Testing of soils on new alignments
The size of each sample shall be sufficient for the following tests to be carried out.
• Grading to 0.075 mm sieve

• Atterberg Limits
• Compaction test (Standard Compaction: 2.5 kg rammer)
• CBR and swell on samples moulded at 100% MDD (Standard Compaction) and OMC
(Standard Compaction)
• Mineralogical analysis of main soil types
Note: CBR's'shall normally be measured after 4 days soak, except in arid areas (annual rainfall
less than 500 mm), where they maj be measured at OMC or after a reduced soaking
period, depending on the equibrium moisture contents predicted under the pavement in
the area (see Chapter 6, Section 6.2.4). The moisture contents after soaking shall be
measured, both on the whole CBR specimen (by weighing it after soaking) and on a
sample taken from beneath the plunger, after testing.
(c) Testing of subgrade on alignments of existing gravel roads
This applies to sections of existing gravel roads which are to be upgraded, the geometric
standards of which are good enough to maintain the existing alignment.
If deep cuttings are proposed through materials indicated to be variable by trial pits and a study
of the geological maps: consideration is to be given to drilling the cuttings at the final design
stage when the potential hard stone sources are being investigated..
Where more than 100 mm of existing gravel wearing course is in place on the road and where
the shape is adequate, samples of subgrade are to be submitted to tests.
In addition, the Field Moisture Content and Field Dry Density of each sample shall be measured;
this is to decide whether to leave the subgrade undisturbed or to recompact it.
If the degree of field compaction is found to be consistently satisfactory, the CBR's shall be
measured at Field Dry Density. If not, the subgrade will need recompaction and the CBR's shall
then be measured at 100% M.D.D. (Standard Compaction).
3.5.2 Existing Gravel Wearing Course
Where a gravel road is to be upgraded on the same alignment, the existing gravel wearing
course may provide extra material either for subbase, or for improved subgrade.
Measurements of thickness and width of gravel wearing course shall then be recorded every
100m.
One sampIe per kilometre of existing gravel wearing course shall be taken, where the gravel
layer is at least 150 mm thick.
.
3.5.3 Soil and Gravel Borrow Pits
(a) General
Where feasible, borrow pits should be spaced so as to obtain the most economic use or
materials. The minimum thickness of deposit normally considered workable is of the order of one
metre. However, there may be instances when thinner horizons have to be exploited, as no
suitable alternative exists. The absolute minimum depends on the area of the deposit and the
thickness of overburden. (If there is no overburden as may be the case in arid areas, horizons as
thin as 300 mm may be workable).
14
(b) Field investigations and sampling procedure
Trial pits shall be dug on a 60 m grid, through the full depth of the layer(s) proposed for use. A
minimum of 5 trial pits is required for each proposed borrow pit. The location of each proposed
borrow pit shall be indicated on a key plan. A site plan of each proposed borrow pit shall be
prepared, showing the position of each trial pit, the characteristic features of the site and the
means of access and location. In every trial pit, all layers, including top soil and overburden, shall
be accurately described and their thicknesses measured.
All layers proposed for use shall be sampled. The sample shall be taken over the full depth of the
layer proposed, by taking a vertical slice of material.
(c) Frequency of sampling and testing
A sufficient number of samples, each of sufficient quantity, are to be taken to carry out tests to
determine the main materials, processes and additives to be used, the approximate borrow pit
location and hauls and the approximate pavement thicknesses and percentages of additives
required.
Samples for identification tests
Sampling shall be carried out so as to obtain at least one sample per 4,000 m3 of material
proposed for use. At least one sample shall be taken from each positive trial pit, even if the
volume represented is small. Each sample shall be submitted to the following tests:-
(a) Grading to 0.075 mm sieve

(b) Atterberg Limits
Large samples for Compaction and CBR tests
Large samples for Compaction and CBR tests shall be obtained by either of the following
methods:
1. Mix Method: Large samples shall be obtained by mixing "small" identification samples. A
mix must be representative of a workable area. All the "small" samples to be
incorporated in a mix must be of the same type of material and must have fairly
consistent identification characteristics (Grading and Atterberg Limits). Within each
borrow pit, the mixes shall be chosen so as to adequately cover the range of materials
proposed for use.
2. Re-Sampling Method: In consideration of the above identification results, large samples

shall be obtained by re-sampling from typical existing trial pits which are representative
of the various categories of material found within the potential borrow pit area.
At least one large sample, whether mixed or re-sampled, is required per 15,000 m3 of material
proposed for use.
Each large sample shall be submitted to the following tests:

• Compaction test (Heavy Compaction: 4.5 kg rammer)
• CBR and swell at 4 days soak, on specimens moulded at OMC (Heavy Compaction) at 3
levels of compaction, normally around 90, 95 and 100% MDD (Heavy Compaction).
The moisture contents after soaking shall be measured.
Note: For the types of gravel susceptible to crushing during compaction, the grading of the
specimen compacted closest to 95% MDD shall be determined after compaction and
15
CBR testing and compared witn the grading before compaction of the specimen
prepared for CBR.
Treatment tests (when appropriate)
If the above Compaction and CBR tests show that the available natural materials do not meet the
quantity or quality requirements, treatment tests shall be carried out on the relevant large
samples (as defined above).
Each sample shall be mixed with cement or lime, whichever is expected to give the best results.
Three amounts of additive shall be chosen so as to give a representative picture of the treated
material's characteristics. The following tests shall be carried out:
• Compaction test (Heavy Compaction) on the large sample mixed with the amount of
additive expected to be appropriate (usually the intermediate value of the three)
• CBR and/or UCS at 7 days cure plus 7 days soak on specimens moulded at OMC and
95% MDD (as determined by test (e) above, with each of the 3 amounts of additive.
• Atterberg Limits on one set of 3 specimens (3 amounts of additive).
At least one large sample per 15,000 m3 of material proposed for treatment shall be submitted
to.
3.5.4 Stone Quarries
(a) General
Potential sources of stone should be identified. Those visually considered suitable, in terms of
stone quality and quantity, should then be further investigated. Practical considerations
concerning the exploitation of the potential quarries, such as access, ease of working,
overburden, etc. should be noted.
The location of each potential source of stone shall be indicated on a key plan. A site plan of
each potential quarry shall be prepared, showing the characteristic features of the site (including
outcrops) and the means of access and location.
(b) Sampling
Hand sampling from existing faces or outcrops shall be carried out. At least 3 samples shall be
taken from each potential source. The position of each sampling point or group of sub-sampling
points shall be accurately determined and reported on the site plan. Each sample shall be
accurately described, from a geological and mineralogical viewpoint. Great care shall be taken to
ensure that the samples are obtained from sound rock and not from a superficial horizon of
weathered rock.
(c) Testing
Each sample shall contain sufficient material to carry out the following tests.
• Los Angeles Abrasion
• Aggregate Crushing Value
• Sodium Sulphate Soundness (or magnesium sulphate soundness)
• Plasticity Index on L.A.A. fines
• Mineralogical analysis
3.5.5 Materials Testing at Final Design
3.5.6 E arthworks and Subgrade
(a) Sampling
16
At least one sample shall be taken per 500 metres along the length of the proposed alignment,
with more frequent samples where necessary to record changes of soil type or to provide an
adequate assessment of the subgrade strength. A good knowledge of the materials to be cut is
also essential.
For these purposes, holes shall be excavated mostly in proposed cut areas, down to at least 0.5
m below the anticipated formation level, unless rock is encountered. The position of each test
hole shall be accurately determined and reported. In hilly or mountainous terrain, deep holes will
be required to accurately determine the materials to be cut. It is sometimes impossible to dig trial
pits to the depth of the anticipated formation level. It is then recommended to use a hand or
power auger to drill holes to the depth required.
In every hole, all layers, including top soil, shall be accurately described and their thicknesses
measured and recorded. All layers of more than 300 mm (except top soil) shall be sampled. In
every hole in cuts, one sample shall be taken at the approximate level of the formation. The other
samples shall be representative either of the anticipated fill materials or of the anticipated
subgrade in fills.
The sample shall be taken over the full depth of the layer by taking a vertical slice of material.
The log of each test hole shall be accurately drawn and included in the Materials Report.
To assess the quantities of the various earthwork categories (i.e. rock, rippable or normal
material), it will in some cases be necessary to drill boreholes. This type of investigation may
advantageously be supplemented by a seismic survey or a resistivity survey.
(b) Testing of soils on new alignments
Basic testing
Sufficient material shall be obtained of each sample to carry out the following tests:
• Grading to 0.0 75 mm sieve
• Compaction test (Standard Compaction: 2.5 kg rammer)
• CBR and swell on samples moulded at 100% M.D.D. (Standard Compaction) and OMC
Note: CBR's shall normally be measured after 4 days soak, except in arid areas (annual rainfall
less than 500 mm) where they may be measured at OMC or after a reduced soaking
period, depending on the equilibrium moisture content predicted under the pavement in
the area. The moisture contents after soaking shall be measured.
Classification of the subgrade soils and testing of samples representative of each soil category
The results from the above basic testing, combined with the relevant field observations, will
enable a classification of the subgrade soils to be made. A category of soil should include the
soils of the same type having fairly consistent geotechnical characteristics (Grading, Atterberg
Limits, Compaction and CBR).
Usually, the number of soil categories will not exceed 4 or 5 for a given road project.
For each soil category, one representative large sample shall then be taken.
• Full particle size distribution analysis

• Compaction test (Heavy Compaction: 4.5 kg rammer)
• "6 points" CBR test as summarized below:
• Mineralogical composition determination
For a "6 points" CBR test the material shall be compacted at 3 levels of compaction, normally
around 95, 100 and 105% MDD (Standard Compaction). The specimens shall be moulded at the
17
moisture content expected at the time of in-situ compaction (in general at OMC). At each level of
compaction, one CBR shall be measured immediately on one unsoaked specimen and one CBR
shall be measured on one soaked specimen. The time of soaking will depend on the anticipated
subgrade conditions. The amount of water absorbed during soaking and the eventual swell shall
be measured.
This method enables an estimate to be made of the subgrade CBR at different densities and thus
assists in determining the relative compaction to be specified. It also indicates the loss of
strength which soaking may cause
If treatment of some of the alignment materials is contemplated, for use either as improved
subgrade or as subbase, the treatment tests shall be carried out, as indicated in Section 14.3.3,
on the above large samples typical of each relevant soil category.
(iii) Testing of subgrade on existing gravel road alignments
3.5.7 Existing Gravel Wearing Course (where appropriate)
No further sampling or testing is required at this stage. Indeed, existing gravel wearing courses
are subject to cnanges both in quantity and quality, under the action of traffic and weather. They
should be considered as possible extra sources of material, to be re-evaluated at the
construction stage.
3.5.8 Soil and Gravel Borrow Pits
(a) General
Information obtained at the Preliminary Design stage will enable a selection of the most suitable
borrow areas to be made. Consideration shall be given to the following factors:
• quality of the materials
• location of the proposed borrow areas, so as to minimize haul and obtain the most
economic use of materials
• ease of working (land acquisition, clearance of the site, access, overburden, thickness of
exploitable horizon, etc.).
(b) Field investigations and sampling procedures
Pits shall be dug at every point on a 30 m grid, through the full depth of the layer(s) proposed for
use.
The position of each proposed borrow pit shall be indicated on a key plan. A site plan of each
proposed borrow pit shall be prepared, showing the position of each trial pit, the characteristic
features of the site and the means of access and location.
In every trial pit, all layers, including top soil and overburden, shall be accurately described and
their thicknesses measured and recorded. All layers proposed for use shall be sampled.
The sample shall be taken over the full depth of the layer proposed for use by taking a vertical
slice of material.
(c) Frequency of sampling and testing
Samples for identification tests
18
Sampling shall be carried out so as to obtain at least one sample per 1,000 m3 of material
proposed for use. At least one sample shall be taken from each positive trial pit, even if the
volume represented is small.
Each sample shall be submitted to the following tests:
1. Grading to 0.075 mm sieve

2. Atterberg Limits
Large samples for Compaction and CBR tests
Large samples for compaction and CBR tests shall be obtained either by the Mix-method or by
the Re-sampling method.
At least one large sample, whether mixed or re-sampled, is required per 5,000 m3 of material
proposed for use.

1. Grading to 0.075 mm sieve
2. Atterberg Limits
3. Compaction test (Heavy Compaction: 4.5 kg rammer)
4. CBR and swell at 4 days soak, on specimens moulded at O.M.C. (Heavy
Compaction) at 3 levels of compaction, normally around 90, 95 and 100% MDD
(Heavy Compaction). The moisture contents after soaking shall be measured.
Note: For the types of gravel susceptible to crushing during compaction, the grading of the
specimen compacted closest to 95% MDD (Heavy Compaction) shall be determined after
compaction and CBR testing and compared with the grading before compaction of the
specimen prepared for CBR.
In addition to the foregoing tests, the Los Angeles Abrasion and the Aggregate Crushing Value of
the coarse particles shall be determined for at least one typical sample from each site of gravelly
material.
Information obtained at the Preliminary Design stage combined with the results of the above
tests, will enable the design engineer to decide which borrow pit materials require treatment and
the nature of that treatment (i.e. type of additive and approximate percentage needed, method of
mixing, etc.).
Treatment tests shall then be carried out on the relevant large samples (as defined above).
First, if it is suspected that the chemical composition of the material may give rise to detrimental
reactions, the following chemical tests shall be carried out:
1. Organic matter content

2. pH value
3. Sulphate content
Then, if the material appears to lend itself to treatment, the representative large sample shall be
mixed with the additive chosen. 3 amounts of additive shall be selected so as to give a
representative picture of the treated material's characteristics. The following tests shall be carried
out:
1. Compaction test (Heavy Compaction) on the large sample mixed with the
amount of additive expected to be appropriate (in general, the intermediate value
of the three).
2. CBR and/or UCS at 7 days cure plus 7 days soak on specimens moulded at
OMC and 95% MDD (as determined by test (h) above) with 3 amounts of
additive. CBR tests apply to improved materials, whereas UCS apply to
stabilised ones (The results of the Preliminary Design stage should enable the
distinction between "Improvement" and "Stabilisation" to be made).
19
3. Atterberg Limits on one set of 3 specimens (3 amounts of additive) from (1)
above.
At least one large sample per 5,000 m3 of material proposed for treatment shall be submitted to
tests.
3.5.9 Stone Quarries
(a) General
Information obtained at the Preliminary Design stage will enable a selection of the most suitable
quarry sites to be made, on the basis of stone quality, location, access and ease of working.
(b) Investigations, drilling and sampling
Each selected potential quarry site shall be investigated as follows:

• Trial holes shall be dug or drilled on a 30 m grid to prove overburden.
• Boreholes shall be drilled to prove quantity and quality of stone. It is
recommended that, normally, the cores diameter be 76 mm (Coring bits
required: HWG, formerly HX). In any case, the minimum coring diameter shall be
55 mm (NWG, formerly NX), so as to recover stone in sufficient quantity for
testing. The log of each borehole shall be accurately recorded, drawn and
included in the Materials Report.
• Consideration should be given to the use of a bulldozer or other mechanical
excavator to prove the availability of solid rock. Such an excavation may also be
shown to tenderers during a conducted site visit.
• Samples of fresh rock shall be obtained by hand, or pneumatic drilling from
existing faces and outcrops. Great care shall be taken to avoid sampling from a
superficial horizon of weathered rock and to ensure the samples are
representative of the stone to be used.
• In addition, whenever possible, deeper samples shall be obtained by blasting.
Depending on the consistency of the stone and whether it is an existing or a new quarry, 5 to 10
samples are required per quarry.
A site plan of each potential quarry shall be prepared, showing the characteristic features of the
site (outcrops, existing faces, etc.) and the means of access and location.
The position and level of each borehole and each sampling point shall be accurately determined
and recorded on the site plan, after the quarries have been drilled.
(c) Testing
Each sample shall contain sufficient material to carry out the following tests:
• Los Angeles Abrasion
• Aggregate Crushing Value
• Sodium Sulphate Soundness
• Plasticity Index on L.A.A. fines & Plasticity Index on Material passiny the 425 micron
sieve
• Specific Gravity (oven-dry method)
• Bitumen Affinity (for stone proposed for use with bitumen).
Moreover, one large sample shall be obtained from each quarry, so as to be representative of the
stone to be used.
This large sample shall be crushed with a small crusher (and not broken by hand), to a maximum
size depending on the proposed use of the stone (usually ranging from 20 to 40 mm). The
crushed stone shall be submitted to the above tests and, in addition, to the following tests:
• Flakiness Index
• Sand Equivalent
• Compaction test (Vibrating Hammer method), wnen appropriate.
20
21
4 PAVEMENT DESIGN
4.1 Objectives of pavement design
Pavement design is aimed at achieving a pavement structure which is economical and

comfortable to the motorist; and which minimises development of pavement distress features
such as rutting, cracking, pot
pot-holes,
holes, ravelling, fretting, crazing, distortions, etc, during the design
life of the pavement. The design should take account of e environmental
nvironmental factors and the possibility
of staged construction. It must also aim at a desirable balance between construction, road road-user
and maintenance costs.
For completeness, the design should specify the level of maintenance necessary to keep the
pavement
ment at the design serviceability level. The designer should preferably specify the required
regularity of monitoring certain pavement characteristics which would indicate the likelihood of
certain distress features occur
occurring.
4.2 Solutions to pavement design

desig problems
4.2.1 The design process
Pavement design involves the study of the properties of soils along the selected road alignment,
the identification and selection of construction materials for the various layers, and the
determination of the thicknesses of various layers for the traffic loading and environmental
conditions expected to prevail during the design life of the pavement.
Design should aim at providing adequate cover to the subgrade so that stresses at the subgrade
level are low enough to preve
prevent
nt excessive deformation, in addition to providing pavement
materials which are strong enough to resist the stresses and strains imposed by wheel loads.
The complete design should also ensure that the pavement structure is adequately drained.
4.2.2 The pavement structure
A road pavement consists of a number of layers, with subgrade at the bottom, and, in the case of
a flexible pavement, includes sub
sub-base, base and surfacing on top.
Example of Section through

hrough a Flexible Pavement Structure
A concrete or rigid pavement will normally consist of a concrete slab laid on a sub-base
sub or base
which rests on subgrade.
22
Example of Section through
hrough a Concrete (Rigid) Pavement
Pavement design aims at providing a pavement structure that will serve traffic safely,
conveniently
onveniently and economically during the design life of that pavement.
4.2.3 Design of paved roads
Many design methods have been developed to suit different climatic and traffic loading
conditions. For historical reasons most of the design methods used in the tropical countries were
adapted from those developed for the European temperate climate.
Flexible pavement design methods can be divided broadly into empirical and analytical methods.
With the development and greater availability of computers, analytical methods are gaining in
popularity. However, because of the amount of accumulated experience in the use of empirical
and semi-empirical
empirical methods, these methods are likely to continue to be used for the foreseeable
future. This section looks at design method
methods
s which the reader may wish to compare with those
applicable in his country.
Concrete pavements have yet to prove to be economically attractive in the African continent. This
is an area where studies are necessary to establish whether those countries whic which produce
cement and import bitumen could find concrete pavements attractive. Concrete pavements have
longer design lives but they also have complicated maintenance and rehabilitation problems
when defects such as cracks occur.
4.3 Functions of pavement la

layers
When distress features appear on the road surface they lead to discomfort as well as higher
vehicle operating costs. Thus, the objective of the pavement designer should be to reduce the
possibility of these distress features appearing. The designer will therefore need to understand
the functions of the various layers of the road pavements so that his completed design will
minimise the likelihood of this happening.
4.3.1 The flexible pavement structure
The strength of a flexible pavement is derived from the composite effect of the various layers of
the pavement. These layers are thus arranged in such a way that layer strength increases from
the subgrade upwards, with the strongest material being placed on the surface.
a) Surfacing layer
• It provides a running
ing surface capable of carrying wheel loads without und
undue discomfort to
motorists.
• Protects
rotects the underlying layers from adverse environmental effects
effects, and
• Provides the necessary skid resistance for ensuring road safety characteristics w when
braking becomes necessary.
b) Road Base
23
• It is the main load-carrying structural component in a flexible pavement.
• It resists and distributes stresses induced by vehicles to the underlying layers.
c) Subbase
The inclusion of the sub-base in a pavement structure normally depends on the bearing
strength of the subgrade.
• It helps in distributing induced stresses onto the subgrade

• Also protects the base layer from adverse soil conditions that may prevail in the
subgrade.
d) Subgrade
• It represents the natural or improved ground on which the pavement structure is

constructed.
• Pavement design should minimise the possibility of excessive deformation in the sub-
grade.
4.3.2 The Rigid pavement structure
In the case of concrete roads the concrete slab is the main load-carrying element, acting as a
beam. Because concrete slabs have a relatively high modulus of elasticity, small depressions in
the subgrade are easily bridged over but when these depressions are large the concrete slab
may crack.
4.4 Factors Affecting Pavement Design
Various environmental factors must be considered in pavement design. The loading due to traffic
is considered in terms of the magnitude and repetitions of traffic loads. Thus, a pavement with an
apparently good surface when the road was first opened to traffic could deteriorate under '
repeated traffic loadings if the design neglected such repeated wheel loads or if maintenance has
not been properly carried out.
Some of the factors governing pavement design are discussed below:
A. Traffic Factors
1. Wheel load Pavement wheel load causes stresses and strains in pavement
layers and subgrade. The tyre pressure determines the area of
application
2. Impact Imperfections in surface and at joints cause additional leads
due to impact.
3. Repetition of Apart from single wheel load design-criterion; the repetition of
wheel: loads loads causes plastic and elastic deformation.
4. Position of The concentration of wheel load at a localised width of the
wheel load across pavement can cause eextra distress
pave-ment
B. Climatic Factors
1. Rainfall Rainfall affects pavement drainage and can thus be a significant
factor.
2.Frost Frost heave can disrupt pavement structured
3. Temperature Variation of temperature can cause stresses in the pavement.
D. Road Geometry
1. Curvature Pavements on curves are subjected to extra stresses due to
cornering. Pavements at junctions are typical examples.
2. Vertical profile Pavements on grades are subjected to extra forces due to
acceleration, deceleration and braking.
D. Soil and drainage
24
1. Soil strength Soil type, grain-size distribution and density determine
pavement design.
2. Drainage The drainage of pavement, sub-surface and from adjoining land
affects soil strength and hence the pavement design.
A good design must embody all the above factors.
4.4.1 Wheel Load
(a) Magnitude of wheel load and tyre pressure
The load from the wheel is transmitted to the pavement through
The wheel load from a rubber tyre is distributed on a large area, depending upon the tyre
2
pressure. The tyre pressures on commercial vehicles vary from 0.5 to 0.7 MN/m (70 - 100 psi).
2
A value of 0.5 MN/m is typical. Tyre pressures are much more important in the design of airfield
2
pavements. A much higher tyre pressure, in the range between 1.0 and 1.5 MN/m (150 - 200
psi) is used in airfield design.
The spacing of axles also affects the stresses induced. Tandem axles are common on modern
road transport vehicles. The AASHO Road test has shown that an 18,000 lb single axle load is
equivalent in its damaging effect to a 32,000 lb tandem axle load. Similarly, a single load of
22,400 lbs had about the same damaging effect as a 40,000 lb tandem axle load.
Repetition of wheel loads is very important in causing pavement distress. It is, therefore,
necessary to select the design and assess the total number of repetitions of axle loads during the
pavement life.
(b) Equivalent standard axle
A difficulty arises in assessing the number or repetitions of loads since the traffic consists of a
mixture of axle loads of varying magnitudes. Some vehicles are heavy while some are not.
Some have a large number of axles. The standard procedure to deal with this problem is to
express the traffic in terms of an equivalent number of standard axles. To allow for comparison
of the relative damaging effect of various axle loads, a standard axle of 8.2t (18,000 lbs) was
adopted following the AASHO Road Test conducted between 1959 and 1960 in the USA. Other
axle loads can be converted to equivalent standard axles using the following approximate
equation:

= =
. 8.2
Where
Feq = Equivalent standard axle factor
DL = measure of damage caused by an axle load L
D8.2 = measure of damage caused by an axle load 8.2t
n = a factor which depends on the thickness of the pavement
For the factor n, the fourth power rule applies in causing structural damage (but n = 4.5 is used in
Kenya). The rule can be stated thus: The structural damage caused by an axle load varies as
the fourth power-of its ratio to the standard axle load.
Thus, the equivalence of a 120 kN axle is
4
 120 
F =  = 5.06
 80 
Example 1
25
The results of a one-day axle load survey of trucks on a road are tabulated in Table Eg1.
Determine the number of repetitions of a standard 80 kN axle in a year.
Solution.
The working is facilitated in a tabular form as in Table Eg1
Table Eg1
4 4
Weight in Mid-point in Mid-point in Number of (L/80) (L/80) x N
tonnes tonnes kN axles (N)
1-2 1.5 15 14 0.0012 0.02
2-3 2.5 25 76 0.0095 0.72
3-4 3.5 35 77 0.0366 2.82
4-5 4.5 45 70 0.1001 7.01
5-6 5.5 55 28 0.2234 6.26
6-7 6.5 65 18 0.4358 7.84
7-8 7.5 75 10 0.7725 7.72
8-9 8.5 85 11 1.2744 14.02
9 - 10 9.5 95 11 1.9885 21.87
10 - 11 10.5 105 11 2.9675 32.64
11 - 12 11.5 115 12 4.2700 51.24
12 - 13 12.5 125 15 5.9605 89.41
13 - 14 13.5 135 7 8.1021 56.76
14 - 15 14.5 145 3 10.7922 32.38
15 - 16 15.5 155 1 14.0918 14.09
Total 364 344.8
Therefore, number of 80kN axles per year = 344.8 x 365 = 125,852.
The numerical problem solved above demonstrates that the axle loads which are small in
magnitude, say up to 3 tonnes do not have any significant effect on the structural design. Thus
passenger cars and light vans do not contribute to the failure of pavements. On the contrary,
extremely heavy axle loads, even though few in number, contribute to the failure.
Apart from the fourth power rule, standard tables are available, which have been deduced from
the AASHO Road Test as illustrated in Table 15.2 below.
Table 15.2 Equivalence factors and damaging power of different axle loads
Axle Load (kg) lbs Equivalence factor

910 2000 0.0002
1810 4000 0.0025
2720 6000 0.01
3630 8000 0.03
45*0 10000 0.09
5440 12000 0.19
6350 14000 0.35
7260 16000 0.61
8160 18000 1.0
9070 20000 1.5
9980 22000 2.3
10890 24000 3.2
11790 26000 4.4
12700 28000 5.8
13610 30000 7.6
14520 32000 9.7
15420 34000 12.1
16320 36000 15.0
1723Ô 38000 18.6
18140 40000 22.8
26
(c) Design traffic loading
The lateral placement of wheel loads affects design significantly. If the tendency of the traffic is to
follow a certain fixed position across the pavement, the strip under the wheel loads gets severely
loaded whereas the remaining portion of the pavement gets less loads. Theoretically, therefore,
pavements can be made of varying thickness depending upon the lateral placement of vehicles.
In actual practice, however, this is not done and a uniform pavement thickness is provided. In
airport run-ways, the central one-third of paved width is principally used, and edges can be made
with lesser thickness.
The current Kenyan practice on the distribution of commercial traffic is as under:
(i) Single carriageway roads of width less than 7m.
Since traffic tends to be more channelised it is assumed that the central section of the road is
used by 70 to 80% of the commercial vehicles. The sum of standard axles in both directions is
used to allow for the overlap.
(ii) Two-lane single carriageway roads of width greater than 7m
The design should be based on the sum of standard axles in the most heavily trafficked direction
(iii) Dual carriageway roads.
The slow-traffic lanes will carry 80 – 90% of the commercial vehicles as long as the flow in the
direction considered does not exceed 2000 commercial vehicles per day. In this case the design
should be based on 80% of the sum of standard axle loads in the most heavily trafficked
direction. The distribution factor may be reduced by 20 per cent for each additional lane.
(d) Design life
In order to calculate the number of repetitions of the wheel loads, information is also needed on
the design life and traffic growth rate. In the Kenyan practice, the design philosophy is generally
guided by "stage-construction" for low volume roads and in cases where resources constraints
prevail. As per this practice, the road is built in stages and its specifications made to match at
each period of its life with the traffic.
Arterial/primary roads are now designed for a 20 year period. Other roads may be designed for a
shorter period of say 10 to 15 years, with strengthening or upgrading scheduled at the end of the
design period of when traffic demand reaches a prescribed level.
The rate of growth of traffic is determined from past trends or on the basis of growth of other
sectors of the economy (e.g. growth of GNP, agricultural output, motor vehicles, diesel
consumption etc.). The rate in Kenya on National Highways varies from 8 to 15 per cent per
annum. In the absence of any detailed studies, a rate of 7'5 per cent per annum is commonly
adopted.
The equation used for calculating the cumulative number of standard axles is as under
1 + r − 1
= 365 ∗ ∗ [ ]

where
Ns = Cumulative number of standard axles to be catered for in the design.
A = Initial traffic (commercial vpd) duly modified to account for lane distribution.
r=Annual growth rate of commercial traffic.
n=Design life in years.
VDF=Vehicle damage factor.
Example: A two-lane two-way road is at present carrying-a traffic of 1000 commercial vehicles
per day. It ia to be strengthened for the growing traffic needs. The vehicle damage factor has
been found to be 3'Q The rate of growth of traffic is 10 per cent per annum. The period of
27
construction is 5 years. The pavement is to be designed for 16 years after completion. Calculate
the cumulative standard axles to be used ifr design.
Solution.
Present traffic = 1000 cv/day

£r
Traffic after completion ofstxengthening = 1000(H-0-l) = 1611 cv/day.
Number of commercial vehicles per day in design lane? = 1611X0*75
Cumulative standard axles l^'

?65xl6UxQ-75;X3[(l+0-1)15-:l] = 01
365x 1611 x0-75x 3x 3-177
~ 0'lxl0a
= 42'03 million standard axles (msa).
4.4.2 Climatic Factors
(a) Surface Drainage
Surface drainage is another important environmental feature which the designer must incorporate
in the design. Many road pavements are known to have deteriorated because of flooding which
normally results from inadequate drainage. Subsurface drainage also forms part of design and
normally requires that the sub-base layer of the pavement is free-draining to take into account,
for example, the rise in level of the water table.
Pavements suffer damage due to frost heave and loss of sub-grade support during the thawing
period. When the water which is tapped in soil pores freezes under low temperature conditions,
suction force builds up, causing migration of water into the freezing zone. Ice lenses grow, and
they displace the pavement surface causing frost heave. When frost melts during thawing water
causes the subgrade materials to become soft and lose their bearing power. Precipitation in the
form of rainfalls also causes softening of sub-grade. Adequate drainage of soil and pavement
layers is thus very important for pavement performance.
If the design is to take account of drainage, it is necessary for the designer to understand the
rainfall pattern and the catchment area involved. These aspects are considered adequately under
Drainage Design.
(b) Temperature
Temperature is another environmental factor important in design, especially for road materials
whose strength is affected significantly by changes in temperature. In the case of flexible
pavements, the performance of the bituminous layers will be a function of the pavement
temperature, as strength properties such as stiffness will decrease with increase in temperature.
In the case of concrete pavements, a decrease in temperature can lead to tensile stresses
developing in the concrete slab. Differential stresses can also develop as a result of temperature
gradients.
4.5 Flexible Pavement Design
4.5.1 Methods of Flexible Pavement Design
Methods available for the design of flexible pavements can be grouped as under:
1. Theoretical methods
2. Empirical methods using no soil strength tests
3. Empirical methods using soil strength tests.
28
4.5.2 Theoretical Methods
The behaviour of pavements subject to wheel load applications has been studied using full
full-scale
experiments as well as theoretically. The main advantage of theoretical analysis is the flexibility
and convenience of being able to vary different parameters without having to carry out expensive
full-scale
scale experiments. However, full nts are necessary to ensure that the selected
full-scale experiments
models are applicable to the problem being considered. It is important that the models selected
are tested to ensure that they are relevant and are capable of predicting the behaviour of the
pavement structure under the repetitive loading which simulates the traffic loading.
There have been difficulties in developing models that can accurately predict pavement
behaviour under different loading and environmental conditions, and until visco visco-elastic theories
ully developed to a level where they can be adopted by highway engineers,, the use of elastic
are fully
theories will remain the best alternative theoretical basis for analysing flexible pavements.
define stresses and strains in

A number of models based on elastic theories have been used to define
flexible pavements. The theoretical approach is also known as the "analytical" or "rational" or
"structural design" approach.
(a) Boussinesq's Theory: Stresses in a homogeneous mass
For a uniformly-distributed
distributed circular load on a homogeneous layer of infinite depth, the Boussinesq
homogeneous
theory defines the stress at given depth as follows:
The Boussinesq theory assumes that pavement material is isotropic and semi semi-infinite, and that
elastic properties are identical in every direction thr
throughout the material.
The Poisson's ratio, µ is the ratio of the strain normal to the applied stress to the strain parallel to
the applied stress. For soils it is generally around 0 5.
The Modulus of Elasticity E, of soil is the ratio of unit stress to the unit strain in the region of
elastic behaviour.
The vertical displacement at the surface (z=0) under the centre of the applied load is given by:
This equation is applicable for a flexible plate. For a rigid plate,
29
This equation
quation can be used for design of a pavement by limiting the value of ∆,, the deformation of
the pavement, to a desired value.
Example. Calculate the deflection at the surface of a pavement due to a wheel load of 40 kN and
a tyre pressure of 0'5 MN/m2. The value of E of the pavement
pavement and subgrade may be assumed to
be uniformly equal to 20 MN/m2.
Solution. Radius of contact area a, is given by :
scale experiments have shown that the actual stresses below a sand/ asphalt base are
Full-scale
similar to or slightly greater than those
those computed using the Boussinesq theory, while the actual
stresses below a soil/cement base are lower than those predicted using the Boussinesq theory.
The drawbacks in the simple Boussinesq's approach therefore are:
(i) The assumption that soil is perfec

perfectly
tly elastic and homogeneous is not true. Soil may be elastic
only upto a certain limit.
(ii) The pavement consists of number of layers, each with its own modulus of elasticity. Hence
the assumption of one constant property for the entire mass is not justif
justified.
(iii) The assumption that the load is uniformly distributed may not be correct.
In spite of the drawbacks, application Boussinesq's theory was the first attempt in analytical
solution to pavement design.
(b) Burmister's theory:: Stresses in layered syst

systems
For this theory, it is assumed that the top layer (consisting of the pavement structure) is an in in-
finite elastic horizontal slab overlying a semi
semi-infinite
infinite solid of lower elastic modulus, with the
interface assumed to be either perfectly rough or per perfectly
fectly smooth. The surface loading is
assumed to be uniformly-distributed
distributed over a circular area. In simplified form Burmister's two
two-layer
system can be used to compute the elastic deflection at the pavement surface using the following
expression:
30
Burmister
ster suggested that the displacement under the wheel load can be limited to 5
5.0 mm for
flexible pavements.
(c) Other models
There are a number of other models which have been used to analyse pavement structures for
stresses or displacements. Some are very apapproximate,
proximate, such as those based on the assumption
that stresses are distributed downwards from the loaded surface in a 45° cone.
Meyerhoff s method of analysis is based on the Burmister's two two-layer

layer system and the guiding
expression gives the transient deflection,
def as shown in the following equation:
(d) Three-layered analysis
With quick computational facilities now available, the analysis of three or more layers is no more
a difficult task. The three-layer
layer system can be conceived as follows :
r, representing all the bituminous layers taken together.

1. Top layer,
2. Second layer, representing the unbound road-base
road and sub-base.
3. Third layer, representing the sub-grade.
sub
The system is shown below

below. The stresses and strains in the system were analysed and
presented
sented in the form of Tables. Table 16T will facilitate design for some values which are
commonly met with.
31
Fig. Three layered system.
The materials in the three layers are assumed to be elastic and their mechanical property is
characterized by the Modulus
dulus of Elasticity, E. In simpler treatments, the loading is assumed to
be uniformly distributed over a circular contact area. The more commonly evaluated quantities
are:
(i) The vertical compressive strains and stresses reaching the top of the layers representing the
subgrade and unbound layers.
(ii) The horizontal and vertical stresses at the bottom of the unbound granular layer.
(iii) The horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the bitu
bituminous bound layer.
(iv) Surface deflection.
The following non-dimensional

dimensional parameters are used in the analysis of the system:
For design of pavements, values of E are needed. They can be determined from laboratory
tests. A rough formula used for determining E is:
2
E= 10 CBR (MN/m )
The pavement analysis procedure

proced consists of the following steps:
1. Determine the wheel load and contact pressure.
2. Select a pavement with a top bituminous layer of thickness h1 and a bottom layer of granular
base of thickness h2
3. Evaluate the Modulus of Elasticity of all the three
th layers.
4. Calculate the vertical and horizontal stresses and strains at the two interfaces from standard
tables.
5. Compare the stress and strains with allowable values for the materials selected.
6.. Make adjustments if necessary.
(e) Multi-layer system of analysis
With the development in computer techniques it has become possible to carry out analyses of
fairly complicated mathematical models. This development has made it possible for the
pavement structure to be represented as a multi
multi-layered system, but it does require that strength
properties (the elastic or stiffness modulus and Poisson's ratio) for each layer are known.
32
Pavement loading is then introduced and analysis carried out to determine the stresses and
strains at critical points in the structure.
The stresses and strains obtained are compared with allowable values for the various materials
used in the pavement structure. If the calculated stresses or strains are greater than these
allowable values, the design is repeated using thicker layers or alternative materials.
The finite-element technique, for example, can be used to carry out the structural analysis of a
multi-layer system. The technique involves dividing a structure into finite elements, each of which
is a simple unit whose structural behaviour can be readily analysed. The solution to the complete
system is obtained by assembling the elements.
While mathematical models are desirable in the design of pavement structures, there have been
serious limitations in using such models, mainly for the following reasons:
• Mathematical models will have been developed on the basis of assumptions that may not
apply to the problem being considered. For example, stress/strain relationships for road
pavement materials are generally non-linear and are dependent on loading time as well
as on temperature,
• It is also difficult to model the fatigue characteristics of road pavement materials. For
example, with increased repetitions of wheel loads the permissible levels of strains and
stresses decrease.
Such relationships may not have been established for the materials of the various layers.
Nonetheless, experimental results have supported the use of elastic theories in pavement design
and they have been found useful, especially in carrying out comparative analysis. With greater
availability of powerful computers it has become more accepted practice to carry out theoretical
structural analysis of flexible pavements as a design exercise, the important input data being the
engineering properties for the material under various loading and environmental conditions.
This underlines the need for detailed studies of the behaviour of materials commonly used for
road construction under various environmental conditions, so that the necessary input data for
such theoretical analyses can be adequately documented.
4.5.3 Empirical and semi-empirical pavement design methods
Empirical and semi-empirical design methods have been developed on the basis of long-term
pavement performance for specific traffic loading and environmental conditions. This therefore
means that as long as conditions for which these methods were developed prevail, the
performance of the pavement should be satisfactory.
Some design methods developed for use in different countries are described here. Although
some may no longer be in use, they are included due to their peculiar features which should be
noted.
(a) Group Index method
This empirical design method, developed in the USA, is based on the particle size distribution
and plasticity of the subgrade materials. The following is the design formula:
33
GI ranges between 0 and 20; GI = 0 implies very good material (high bearing capacity), and GI =
20 implies very poor material (low bearing capacity).
pavementt layer thickness for values of GI

The design chart shown in Fig. 6.25 provides the pavemen
corresponding to different traffic
traffic-loading levels
34
Curve A-thickness
thickness of selected material sub
sub-base only
Curve B-combined
combined thickness of surface, base & selected material sub base (light traffic)
sub-base
Curve C-combined thickness
ness of surface, base & selected material sub base (medium traffic)
sub-base
Curve D-combined
combined thickness of surface, base & selected material sub base (heavy traffic)
sub-base
Curve E - thickness of additional base which may be substituted for sub base of curve A
sub-base
Curve F — combined thickness of surface and base (no sub-base, base, light traffic)
Curve G - combined thickness of surface and base (no sub base, medium traffic)
sub-base,
Curve H - combined thickness of surface and base (no sub base, heavy traffic)
sub-base,
(b) CBR design method
The CBR
BR design method, as developed by the Cali fornia State Highway Department,
California Department involves the
determination of the CBR value of the subgrade as well as that of the sub sub-base and base
materials. Pavement layer thicknesses are then selected from the chart shown in Fig. 6.26 on the
basis of the relevant design wheel load
.
Fig. Design curves for the CBR method.
35
This method has undergone considerable modification over the years to accommodate varying
traffic-loading
loading patterns, as well as different environmental conditions.
co
(c) Road Note 29 design method*
Road Note 29 (RN29) presents a guide to the structural design of pavements for new roads for
UK conditions. RN29 has, however, been used in some tropical countries where traffic loading
was beyond that covered by Ro
Road Note 31.
base thickness is selected on the basis of subgrade CBR and the expected cumulative
Sub-base
standard axles during the pavement design life. Base and surfacing thicknesses are determined
materiall and the design life of the pavement.
from charts, on the basis of the type of construction materia
Figs. 6.28 and 6.29 overleaf show design charts for dense macadam, wet-mix wet mix and drydry-bound
macadam road-bases.
36
* RN29 has been superseded by TRRL report No. LR1132 which is a probabilistic design method
mpirical results, extended to provide for higher axle loads using mechanistic methods.
based on empirical
(d) Road Note 31 design method*
Road Note 31 (RN31), developed by TRRL for developing countries, presents a guide to the
structural design of bitumen tropical countries (13). The third
bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and sub-tropical
edition of RN31 considers the traffic loading in terms of the cumulative number of standard axles
37
on the basis of which the type of surfacing, and thicknesses of the base and sub-base, are
selected.
Selection of the sub-base thickness is also based on the bearing strength of the subgrade, as is
shown below.
RN31
KEY TO STRUCTURAL CATALOGUE
38
39
RN31
TABLE 10.1 Summary of material requirements for the design charts
CHART SURFACING ROADBASE REFER TO CHAPTERS

NO
1 Double surface dressing T1-T4 use GB1.GB2 or GB3 T5 use GB1 ,A 6 and 9
or GB1 ,B T6 must be GB1.A
2 Double surface dressing T1-T4useGB1, GB2 or GB3 T5 use GB1 6. 7 and 8
T6,T7,T8 use GB1.A
3 'Flexible' asphalt T1-T4 use GB1 or GB2 T5 use GB1 T6 use 6 and 8
GB1.A
4 'Flexible' asphalt T1-T4 use GB1 or GB2 T5 use GB1 T6-T8 6, 7 and 8
use GB1.A
5 Wearing course and basecourse GB1.A 6 and 8
6 Wearing course and basecourse GB1 or GB2 6, 7 and 8
7 High quality single seal or double RB1, RB2 or RB3 8 and 9
seal for T4. 'Flexible' asphalt for T5-
T8
8 Double surface dressing CB1, CB2 7 and 9
40
RN31
CHART 1
41
(e) The Kenya Pavement Design
esign Method
Pavement design in Kenya has undergone considerable development since rule rule-of-thumb
design in the 1940s and 1950s. During the 1960s most major roads were designed on the
basis of the earlier editions for RN31 and RN29. Then, a road design manual adopted in 1970
required the designer to determine traffic loading on the basis of the number of heav
heavy vehicles
expected per 24-hour
hour day five years after the road was opened to traffic.
The latest design procedure, adopted in 1981, requires the designer to determine the
subgrade quality, in terms of the CBR and traffic loading, during the design life of the
pavement, in terms of cumulative standard axles as determined by RN29. The pavement
structure is then selected from a catalogue of structures depending on the materials available
for construction. It will be noted that the Kenyan design procedure adopts
adopts the . French method
of using a catalogue of pavement structures unlike RN29, which uses charts. The reader may
wish to note that the differences between using the catalogues and using the charts would be
insignificant for given values of traffic loading, subgrade strength and pavement construction
materials. The following four basic steps are involved.
42
43
Analysis and classification of traffic loading. The classification of traffic loading is as follows:
Evaluation of alignment soils and classification
classification of the subgrade, on the basis of the CBR as
follows: [TcJUk- Ô^As-^-i-JJ
Selection of construction materials which meet the specifications shown in Tables 5.1 to 5.3.
Traffic
Equivalent standard axles
loading
44
class x 106
Tl 25-60
T2 10 - 25
T3 3-10
T4 1-3
T5 0.25 - 1
Subgrade
CBR
class
(per cent)
SI 2-5
S2 5-10
S3 7-13
S4 10 - 18
S5 15 - 30
S6 > 30
• Selection of the pavement structure from a catalogue of structures. (-eg • fn\ t 6 f»C'*v
Interpretation, of solutions
It is important for the designer to understand the implications of his choice of design method. If
the design method is empirical he must guard against extrapolation by the introduction of
loading and environmental conditions which did not prevail during the development of the
method.
The designer must also have an appreciation of the accuracy involved and its implications in
terms of construction costs and maintenance costs.
(f) CEBTP pavement design method for tropical countries
(Centre Experimental de Recherches et d'Etudes du Bâtiment et des Travaux Publics, Manuel

de dimensionnement de chaussées pour les pays tropicaux Secretariat d'Etat aux Affaires
Etrangères).
This is a common design method in French-speaking tropical countries (14). The subgrade
strength is assessed on the basis of the CBR, and traffic is categorised into four classes. It is
essentially a modification of the original CBR design method. Design involves selection of a
pavement structure from a list of four basic pavements.
(g) AASHTO design guide
This guide was developed from the results of the AASHTO Road Test and is suitable for use
in the USA. However, it has been widely used in tropical countries. Subgrade strength is
defined in terms of the soil support value, while pavement thickness is expressed in terms of
the structural number (SN) ranging from 1.0 to 6.0. Traffic loading is expressed in terms of
cumulative standard axles during the design life of the pavement, or in terms of daily axle
applications, as shown in Fig. 6.31 (15).
45
Thus, given
iven the soil support value (which could be defined in terms of the^G©R_or the group
index of the alignment soil) and the traffic-loading
traffic loading value (in terms of equivalent daily standard
axles), one obtains a structural number, SN, as shown in Fig. 6.31. By applyingapplying a regional
factor a new weighted structural number, SN' is obtained. This new structural number is used
in the design equation shown in Fig. 6.31. The coefficients of Di, D2 and D3 could vary from
one location to another. The designer is required to select the thicknesses of surfacing, base
and sub-base
base which satisfy the design equation, as well as the economic economic and other
constraints. For example, for weighted structural number SN = 2.7, the following
following could be a
possible solution, (i) If the pavement
pavement were to be made up of one layer (cheap pavement), then:
(h) Other methods
There are other methods which can be included in this category of empirical and semi semi-
empirical design procedures and it is not intended to cover them exhaustively here. However,
mention
ention should be made of: the shell pavement design method which has been developed
over the years to incorporate the effect of temperature on bituminous materials; and the
46
Hveem stabilometer design method in which primary soil strength is deter- deter mined using a
Hveem stabilometer (a closed tri-axial
tri axial cell), the flexural strength of the paving materials is
determined on the basis of a cohesio-meter
cohesio meter test, and traffic loading is expressed in terms of a
traffic index.
4.6 Design of concrete pavements
The concrete
te pavement slab functions as a beam on an elastic subgrade so that the deflection
of the pavement slab due to applied wheel loads is accompanied by an equal deformation of
the subgrade.
Temperature changes cause concrete slabs to expand and contract, as a result of which
stresses are set up (when this contraction or expansion is prevented). Movement of the slab
could be entirely or partially prevented by friction between the slab and the subgrade, thereby
leading to tensile stresses developing in the slab with a fall in temperature. The design aims at
providing a concrete section that is capable of resisting the stresses developed; if necessary
reinforcement may be provided.
Joints are provided in concrete pavements for a variety of reasons (17). The cont
contraction joints
(see the example shown in Fig. 6.37) for example, are provided to relieve tensile stresses
resulting from contraction and warping of the concrete slab. Dowel bars are used for load
transfer across the joints.
Expansion joints (see the exexample

ample shown in Fig. 6.37.) are provided, in the form of clear
breaks in the concrete slab, to allow for expansion. Again, dowel bars are used for load
transfer across the joints.
Construction joints (see the example shown in Fig. 6.37) mark the end of a day's
day's construction
work and are normally of the butt type with dowel bars provided for load transfer.
Hinge and warping joints (see the example shown in Fig. 6.37) are used to control cracking
along the centreline of the concrete pavement slab.
Pumping and d blowing are major problems associated with concrete pavements. Pumping is
the ejection of water and subgrade soil through joints, cracks and along the edges of
pavements, as a result of downward slab movement caused by the passage of heavy axle
loads over the pavement
ment slab. Extensive deformation of the concrete
concrete slab leads to
transverse cracking by cantilever action. Blowing is a form of pumping, associated with the
47
base or sub-base
base under the concrete slab, which leads to longitudinal cracking. Mud
Mud-jacking
and joint sealing are used to correct these defects.
4.7 Design of unpaved roads
The development of rural areas in many developing countries will continue to depend on road
transportation for the foreseeable future. Rural roads are generally constructed
tructed to gravel (and
sometimes earth) standard due to limited funds and low traffic volumes,.
4.7.1 Design of gravel roads
The design of a gravel wearing course is generally based on the bearing capacity of the
subgrade and the expected traffic volume. The following equation has been used to determine
the total thickness of the wearing course for new gravel roads in Kenva (16):
Table 6.21 Minimum gravel wearing course thickness Dx (mm)
Subgrade
Initial daily commercial vehicles (both
( directions)
strength CBR (%)
< 15 15-50 50-150 150- 500
2- 5 350 425 500 575
5-10 225 275 325 375
7-13 175 225 250 275
10-18 150 175 200 225
15-30 125 150 175 200
> 30 - - -
Source: Road Design Manual, Kenya, reference (16).
In general, shoulders should preferably

preferably be made up of the same material as the gravel
wearing course and a cross fall of 4 per cent should normally be provided.
48
The design should consider the possibility of upgrading the gravel road to a paved road; for
this the alignment costs should be carefully weighed against the possibility of incurring further
costs in re-alignment during upgrading.
4.7.2 Design of earth roads
Earth roads are generally formed of natural materials found along the road alignment or
adjacent to the road line. Earth roads have become very important in rural areas as they help
to improve the way of life for the farming communities, by providing access to markets,
schools, health centres, water supply and administrative centres. In many cases, they are
constructed by the communities themselves and the results, as might be expected, are poor.
They are supposed to link up with existing classified gravel or bitumen roads.
The design of an earth road should aim at providing all-weather access as far as is practical,
at the lowest cost possible. Labour-intensive construction techniques are generally used. The
road alignment should avoid areas requiring major drainage structures and the cross-section
should ensure rapid discharge of surface run-off.
49
5 SOIL STABILISATION
5.1 Definition
Soil stabilization is a process of treating a soil in such a manner as to maintain, alter or improve
the performance of the soil as a construction material. The changes in the soil properties are
brought about either by the incorporation of additives or by mechanical blending of soil types.
5.2 Purpose of Soil Stabilization
Soil-stabilization is practised in road construction with one or more of the following objectives:
i. To improve the strength of sub-bases, bases and, in the case of low-cost roads, surface
courses.
ii. To bring about economy in the cost of a road.
iii. To make use of locally available soils and other materials which are otherwise inferior.
iv. To eliminate or improve certain undesirable properties of soils, such as excessive
swelling or shrinkage, high plasticity, difficulty in compacting etc.
v. To control dust.
vi. To stabilise the moisture in the soil, so as to facilitate compaction and increase load-
bearing property.
vii. To reduce frost susceptibility.
viii. To reduce compressibility and thereby settlements.
ix. To alter permeability characteristics.
5.3 Types of Stabilisation Techniques
Broadly, soil-stabilization takes the following forms:

(i) Mechanical stabilization, where by the stability of the soil is increased by blending the
available soil with imported soil or aggregate so as to obtain a desired particle-size distribution,
and by compacting the mixture to a desired density. Compacting a soil at an appropriate moisture
content is itself a form of mechanical stabilisation.
(ii) Stabilisation by additives such as lime, cement, sodium silicate, calcium chloride,
bituminous materials and resinous materials. Chemical stabilisation is the general term implying
the use of chemicals for bringing about stabilisation.
5.4 Mechanical Stabilisation
5.4.1 Principles
Mechanical stabilisation is achieved by intelligently blending locally occurring materials so as to

obtain a desired grading. (Compaction of soil is also a form of mechanical stabilisation.)
It is well-known that a dense, well-graded mass offers the maximum resistance to lateral
displacement under a load. If the well-graded material is compacted, densification of the mass
takes place. The mechanical strength of the mass is due to the internal friction and the cohesion.
50
Internal friction is supplied by the coarser particles (gravels, sands and silts) whereas cohesion is
due to the clay fraction.
5.4.2 Applications
The application of the principle of mechanical stabilisation is evident in the following

specifications:
(i) Soil-aggregate mixtures
(ii) Sand-clay roads
(iii) Sand-gravel mixtures
(iv) Stabilisation of soil with soft aggregates.
5.4.3 Soil-aggregate mixtures
As the name itself implies, a soil-aggregate mixture is a material in which soil and aggregate
particles are mixed in suitable proportions such that the resulting mixture conforms to a dense
and stable mix when properly compacted. This technique is used for the construction of base
courses, and in the case of low-traffic roads for the surface course as well.
The particle-size distribution of the mixture is a major factor determining the stability. The
aggregates should be so graded that a grain-to-grain contact exists, producing internal friction.
For a high value of density to result, the grain-size distribution should follow the Fuller's curve
given by the equation:
$
! = 100 # %

where p = percentage passing any sieve

d = aperture of the sieve in question
D = the maximum size of the aggregate
n = exponential, whose value can be taken as 0.5.
Typical specifications for sub-base/base courses are given in the table below
Table 17.1 Specifications for soil-aggregate sub-base courses
Per cent by weight passing the sieve for a

Sieve Designation nominal maximum size of:
80 mm 40 mm 20 mm
80 mm 100 - -
40 mm 80-100 100 -
20 mm 60-80 80-100 100
10 mm 45-65 55-80 80-100
4.75 mm 30-50 40-60 50-75
2.36 mm - 30-50 35-60
600 micron 10-30 15-30 15-35
75 micron 0-10 0-10 0-10
Notes :
1. Not less than 10 per cent should be retained between each
pair of successive sieves specified for use excepting the
largest pair.
2. The material passing 425 micron sieve shall have liquid limit
and plasticity index of not more than 25 per cent and 6 per
cent respectively.
3. Some authorities specify that the percentage passing 75
micron sieve should be 5-15, so as to supply cohesion
It may be noted from the above Table that the plasticity of the binder is also an important factor
contributing to the satisfactory performance of the specification. A maximum value of 25 for L.L.
and 6 for P.I. is usually specified for sub-base mixtures. For surfacing mixtures, a slight relaxation
51
is allowed so as to provide greater cohesion and help offset the moisture lost by evaporation.
This L.L. should not exceed 35.
The construction is accomplished in lift thickness of 100-200 mm and compaction to 100 per cent
of the laboratory maximum density is sought after. The moisture at the time of compaction
generally is 1 per cent above to 1 per cent below the OMC.
When used as a surfacing course, which is to be maintained for some time without bituminous
surface treatment, it is necessary to specify that a minimum of 8 per cent pass the 75 micron
sieve.
5.4.4 Sand-clay roads
A sand-clay road is composed of a favourable mixture of clay, silt and sand. If some coarser
materials such as gravel are also present, the mixture will perform still better. In order to get over
the undesirable characteristics of clay, the blending of clay with a proportion of sand can alter the
properties significantly. If sand is available at economical leads, the specification can be very
cheap.
Sand-clay mixtures are constructed to a thickness of about 200 mm and used as a surfacing
course for low-traffic roads. The mixture can also serve as a good sub-base and base. When
used as a subbase, the mix should have a minimum soaked CBR of 20, whereas when used as a
base for heavily trafficked roads, the minimum soaked CBR should be normally 80. A somewhat
smaller value is permissible for low-traffic roads. The gradings given in Table below are
recommended.
Table 172 Specifications for sand-clay mixtures
Sieve
AASHO Indian Road Congress (IRC)
Designation
25 mm 100 - -
10 mm - 100 -
4'75 mm 70-100 80-100 100
2'36 mm - 50-80 80-100
200 mm 55- 100 - -
1-18 mm - 40-65 50-80
600 micron - - 30-60
425 micron 30- 70 - -
300 micron - 20-40 20-45
75 micron 8-25 10-25 10-25
The requirements of liquid limit and plasticity index given under soil-aggregate mixtures apply to
sand-clay roads also. The mixture is compacted to 100 per cent of the miximum dry density at a
moisture content of 1 per cent above to 2 per cent below the O.M.C.
5.4.5 Sand-gravel mixtures
Gravel is a general term which denotes a meterial having predominantly coarse particles 2.0-60
mm dia, and resulting from disintegration of rock.
Gravel occurs as a natural deposit in a river bed if the disintegrated rock particles are transported
by river. In this case, the particles are often rounded. The material also occurs in pits, when it is
found mixed with soil and sand.
In tropical countries, the material obtained from the disintegration of laterite is extensively found
in a natural admixture or clay and coarse fractions and is known as lateritic gravel (or murram).
Often, the natural murram contains too much of plastic material which lowers its value as a road
pavement material. A suitable admixture of moorum with sand will not only result in a better
gradation and increased strength, but also reduce the plasticity.
52
5.4.6 Stabilisation of soil with soft aggregates
There are many areas with an abundant supply of natural soft aggregates, including gravel,
murram and kankar (an impure form of limestone mixed with clay and earth). A method of
stabilisation of soil using these soft aggregates was introduced successfully in India and is known
as Mehra's method.
The principle behind this method is to embed in a soil motar coarse aggregates roughly one-third
of the total volume. The aggregates are normally often aggregates such as over-burnt brick
ballast, kankar, moorum or laterite. Because of the larger proportion of the soil mortar, the
resulting material has no grain-to-grain contact in the coarse aggregates, which merely float in
the soil. Each aggregate is thus enveloped all round in the compacted soil and is thus protected
from the crushing effect of traffic. This enables the Hsation. soft aggregate to retain its strength
and angular character for an indefinite period (Ref. 9). About 10 percent of the coarse aggregates
which are collected are not mixed with the soil, but are saved and spread on the layer of the soil-
aggregate mixture before rolling.
5.5 The soil is required to have a P.I. value 8—11 and a minimum sand content of
33 per cent (Ref 10). The soft aggregates should have a maximum Wet Aggregate
Impact value of 50 per cent when used as a sub-base, 40 per cent when used as a
base-course with bituminous surfacing and 30 per cent when used as a surfacing
course (Ref. 8).
The stabilised layer is suitable as a surfacing course without any bituminous treatment for very
light traffic (about 50 tonnes per day). For light traffic (about 20u tonnes per day), a light
bituminous surfacing is needed. For medium traffic (about 500 tonnes per day), a thin stone
grafting (about 25 mm thick) is given on the soil-soft aggregate mixture while compacting, and a
thin bituminous surfacing provided. For areas with a high rainfall, it is necessary to provide two
coats of surface dressing.
The soil aggregate mixture is compacted at optimum moisture content.
5.5.1 17'4'7. Combining materials to obtain required gradation
In dealing with mechanical stabilisation it is often found necessary to combine different materials
to obtain the finally desired gradation. Rothfuch's graphical method is a reasonably quick,
accurate and simple method, and is used for design of cement concrete mixes, bituminous mixes
and granular mixes. The method consists of the following stages :
Fig. 17*3. Rothfuch's graphical method of combining aggregates.
53
(i) Using the desired aggregate gradation, a distribution curve is plotted with the percentage
passing as linear ordinates and the sieve sizes on the horizontal scale. In order to mark
the sieve sizes on the horizontal scale, an inclined line (OA in Fig. 173) is first of all
drawn. By marking the known percentages passing each size sieve on this line and
dropping vertically the intersection point to the horizontal axis, the location of the sieve
size on the horizontal axis is determined.
(ii) The particle size distribution of the given materials to be blended are plotted on this
scale. The distribution curves will not generally be straight lines (Lines OB, ODE and OF
OA in Fig. 17*3).
(iii) With the aid of a transparent straight edge, straight lines are drawn representing the
particle size distribution in the best possible manner (Lines HJ and KA). This means that
the areas enclosed between the distribution curve and the straight line should be
minimum and are balanced about the line.
(iv) The opposite ends of these lines are joined together tLineS BR and JK).
(v) The proportions for blending can be read off from the points where the joining lines cross
the straight line representing the mixture. These points are L and M.
The method is illustrated by the following example.
Cols. 1 and 2 in the Table 17'3 give the gradation limits for various sieve sizes of a stabilised
mixture. Three materials are available, whose gradations are given in Cols. 4, 5 and 6. Work out
the blending proportion.
Solution. Col. 3 in Table 173 gives the average percentage passing.
Table |7 3 Blending of materials

Percentage passing
Materials available
Require
Sieve Si
d Grada- Coarse 47%A 49%B
Design - ac Sand
tion Aggre- Local Soil 4%G
ation B (By
limits gates (G) (6) (7)
U) 9 *q (5)
(2) (A) (4)
(3)
40 mm 100 100 100 100
20 mm 80—100 90 75 . 88
10 mm 55—80 67-5 20 62
4*75 mm 40—60 50 8 100 53
2"36 mm 30—50 40 6 80 42
600 mm 15—30 22'2 2 40 21
75 micron 0—10 5 Nil 2 100 5
A reference to Fig. 17'3 will illustrate the stages involved In the graphical method. The
percentages of various materials as scaled out are :
Material (A) : 49%

Material (B): 49%
Material (C): 4%.
The gradation of the final mixture on the basis of the above blending is indicated in Col. 7 of the
Table.
Another graphical method in which 3 materials can be blended is by means of a triangular chart.
The use of this method is illustrated by an example in which three materials. A, B and 0 are to be
blended to obtain a gradation shown in Cols. 2 and 3 of Table 174. Cols. 4, 5 and 6 give the
gradation of the three individual materials.
54
Table 17 4 Blending of Materials
Sieve Percentage passing

Design- Gradation Material
Average Material A Material 0
ation Limits (B)
1 2 3 4 5 6
20 mm 100 100 100 -
10 mm 80—100 90 80 -
4"75 mm 50—75 63 25 100 -
2'36 mm 35—60 48 10 80 -
600 mm 15—35 25 5 40 -
75 micron 0—10 5 Nil Nil 100
From the Table 17*4, the gravel, sand and silt-clay fractions of the three materials are as below.
Percentage of
Material
Qravel Sand Silt-clay
A 90 10 0
B 20 80 0
C 0 0 100
In the triangular chart, Fig. 17"4, each side of the equilateral triangle represents percentages (0—
100) of the three materials, viz., gravel, sand and silt-clay.
Fig. 17*4. Triangular blending chart.
The gradation limits of the desired mix is composed of the three fractions as follows:
Gravel 40 - 65
Sand 35 - 50
Silt-clay 0 - 10
Plotting these on the triangular chart, one obtains a hatched parallelogram which will contain all
combinations of the three materials which will fulfil the gradation requirements.
A point "D" is selected inside this parallelogram about its centre.
55
Point "A" represents the material "A", point "B" represents material "B" and point "G" represents
material "O". The triangle ABG represents all possible combinations of the three materials.
Join O to D and produce CD to meet AB at E.
The following ratio of lengths is then determined by scaling off:

AE
7B
=0-
5
EB
AB
=05
56
Table 17'5 Blending of Materials
S G Percentage passing
i r
e a
v d T
e a o
d ti t
e o a
si n l
g li C
n m o
a it lt
ti s .
o 4
n +
6
+
8
( ( (
1 2 9
) ) )
2 1 1
0 0 0
m 0 0
m
1 8 9
0 0 1
m —
m 1
0
0
4 5 6
' 0 5
7 —
5 7
m 5
m
2 3 4
* 5 9
3 —
6 6
m 0
m
6 1 2
0 5 8
0 —
m 3
m 5
7 6
57
5
m
ic
r
o
n
It is seen that the final grading as given in Col. 9, satisfies the limits given in Col. 2 r
174 7'3. In some cases, it is possible to arrive at the blending proportion by simple calculations.
As an example, consider the gradation desired in Table 176. Col. 2 gives the desired gradation
limits and Col. 3 the mean. The gradation of Materials
A, B and G are given in Cols, 4, 5 and 6. By examination it Is seen that material retained on 4 75
mm size sieve is to be fully supplied by Material A. The quantity of such material in Material A is
100—23=77 per cent, whereas the desired quantitiy in the final mix is 50 per cent.
Table 176
Sieve Percentage passing
desig-
nation
Gr M Ma Mate M
ad e teri rial a
ati a al (B) t
on n U) e
limi ri
ts a
l
0) (2) ( (4) (5) (
3 6
) )
40 10 1 10
mm 0 0 0
0
20 80- 9 82
mm 10 0
0
10 55 6 48
mm — 8
80
475 40- 5 23 100
mm 60 0
2"36 30 4 11 91
mm — 0
50
1-18 - - 6 34 1
mm 0
0
425 15- 2 3 10 8
micro 30 3 4
n
150 - - 1 3 5
micro 9
n
75 5— 1 0 2 3
micro 15 0 6
n
Therefore, the required proportion of Materia! A in the final
The combined proportion of B and 0 will be
It is seen that as regards material passing 425 micron sieve, Material A forming 65 per cent of
the total mix, can supply only :
But the requirement being 23 percent, 21 per cent will have to be supplied by Materials B and O.
The combined proportion -of Materials B and 0 in the final mixture being 35 per cent, it is
58
obvious that these two materials must be blendeded suitably. Let b and c denote the percentage
of Material B and C respectively. 6+e=35 10 , 84
100+ex Too
0-106+0"84c=21
But 6+e=35
Solving the simultaneous equations, 6=11
e=24
With the above blending proportion, Jhe resulting gradation is tabulated below Table 17'7.
Table 177
/ G T
S r o
t a t
e d a
v a l
e - c
d t o
e i l
si o s
g n .
n 4
a li
ti m +
o i
n t 6
s +
8
( ( (
D 2 9
) )
4 1 1
0 0 0
m 0 0
m
2 8 8
0 0 8
m —
m 1
0
0
1 5 6
0 5 6
m —
m 8
0
4' 4 5
7 0 0
5 —
m 6
m 0
2' 3 4
3 0 1
6 —
m 5
m 0
1 — 3
* 2
1
8
m
m
4 1 2
2 5 3
5 —
59
m 3
ic 0
r
o
n
1 - 1
5 5
0
m
ic
-
r
o
n
7 5 9
5 -
m 1
ic 5
-
r
o
n
It is seen that the gradation in Col. 9 satisfies the requirements in Col. 2.
60
17 4'7*4. When only 2 materials are to be combined, a simple graphical method described below
can be followed :
It is required to blend sand (A) and silt-clay 1(B) to obtain the following gradation :
Sieve Perce Mat Ma
designation ntage erial teri
passin (A) al
g (B)
4'75 mm 100 100
2'36 mm 80— 91
100
1*18 mm 50— 34 10
80 0
425 micron 30-60 10 84
300 micron 20-45 3 59
75 microh 10— 2 36
25
Steps :
(i) On a convenient size of rectangular graph, scale off top linearly from 100 to 0 as percentage of
A in mix. Scale off the base correspondingly from 0 to 100 as percentage of B in mix. Scale off
the vertical ordinate from 100 at top to 0 at bottom on the left and 0 at top to 100 at bottom on the
right, representing the percentages passing sieve (Fig. 17'5).
Fig. 17-5. Graphical method of combining two aggregates.
(it) On the left ordinate mark off percentage passing the given sieves for material A. On the right
ordinate mark off percentages passing the given sieves for material B.
(iii) For each sieve size, connect by a straight line the points, representing the respective
percentages passing each material. The intersection of each sieve line by any vertical line will
define the combined grading of the two materials mixed in the proportions shown in the top and
bottom horizontal scales.
(»») On each sieve line, the specified percentage passing limits are marked by small circles. The
intercept lying between the crosses represents for any particular sieve line the range of
proportion that will comply the specification.
(t>) If mixtures within the specification limits are possible, vertical lines can be erected such that
their intersection points with all sieve lines lie on the acceptable intercepts. The hightest and the
lowest percentages of either material at which this can be done represent the limiting mixtures
which conform to the specifications. The mid-point between the limiting mixtures will usually
provide the best mixture.
(vi) In Fig. 17 5, the limits indicated are (i) 68 per cent A, 32 per cent B and (it) 26 per cent A, 74
per cent B. In practice, the acceptable properties would lie in the range of A : B=2 : 1 to A : B=l :
3. Probably a ratio of A : B= 1 : 1 would be the best.
17'4'8. Combining for plasticity
The specifications for mixtures usually give an upper limit for the L.L. and P.1 values. While the
individual materials may have unacceptable L.L. and P.l. values, the correct blend of materials
can be arrived at to result in acceptable L.L. and P.I. values. For this purpose, some formulae will
be useful.
Consider materials ^ and B being combined to form a mixture
O.
61
Altenatively, if the L.L. and P.I. of the constituent materials are known, and the percentage of
material A in the mixture has been selected previously to meet the particle size distribution
criteria, the values of L, and I, can be determined from the following formulae :
The following examples illustrate the use of these formulae : Problem 17*1. It is proposed to
construct a sand clay road conforming to the following gradation specifications :
Table 17 8
Sieve Perce Pas Sand S
designati ntage sing Materia i
on Grada Me l M (A) l
(I) tion an (4) t
Limits (3) -
(2) c
l
a
y
a
t
e
r
i
a
l
(
B
)
(
5
)
4'75 mm 100 100 100
2-36 mm 80— 90 91
10
1-18 mm 50— 65 34 1
?0 0
0
425 30— 45 10 8
micron 60 4
300 20— 33 3 5
micron 45 9
75 micron 10— 18 2 3
25 6
Sand (4) and silty clay (B) are available, whose gradation is indicated in Cols. 4 and 5
respectively in Table 17 8. Gradation requirements indicate that a 1 ; 1 ratio Oi the two materials
would be adequate. L.L. and P.I. of Materials A and B are as under :
A B
L.L. 25 38
P.I. 2 10
What will be the L L. and P.I. of the mixture ? If the maximum L.L. and P.I. are to be respectively
35 and 9, what should be the proportion of A and B in the mi* ?
La=25 h —2
F,= 10 84
* .= 50
62
" 154 = 55%.
Obviously, the values worked out by the earlier formula, i.e.. 66% of A would be suitable for the
P.I., criterion also.
Hence a practical mix of A : B=2 : 1 would be suitable. This mix, it may be noted from para 17 4
7, also satisfies the gradation requirements.
175. Soil-Lime Stabilisation
175T. During the last twenty-five years, the use of soil-lime stabilisation has gained in popularity
in the U.S.A., Africa, Australia and India (Ref. 11, 12). Soil-lime mixtures are used as sub- base
or base courses. Because of the favourable climatic conditions in India and the occurrence of
clayey soils in large areas, this technique offers considerable scope.
17 7'2. Mechanism of lime-soil interaction
When lime (CaO) is added to a fine-grained soil, a number of reactions take place. Some of them
occur immediately while others are slow to occur. One of the early reactions is base-exchange
(ion- exchange). Clay particles are usually negatively charged, with exchangeable ions of
sodium, magnesium, potassium or hydrogen adsorbed on the surface. The strong positively
charged ions of calcium present in lime replace the weaker ions of sodium, magnesium,
potassium or hydrogen, resulting in a preponderance of positively charged calcium ions on the
surface of the clay particles. This in turns reduces the plasticity of the soil. The clay particles tend
to agglomerate into large sized particles (flocculation), imparting friability to the mixture.
After the above first stage reactions are complete, any additional quantity of lime will react
chemically with the clay minerals. The aluminous and siliceous materials in the clayey soil will
react with lime in the presence of water to form cementitious gels, which increase the strength
and durability of the mixture. These pozzolanic reactions are slow and extend over a long period
of time, sevsral years in some instances (Ref. 13).
Another possible source of strength is the formation of calcium carbonate due to the absorption
of carbon dioxide from air.
17'5'3. Soils amenable to treatment
Clayey soils are most amenable to lime treatment. The fraction passing 425 p should be at least
15 and the clay content should be at least 10. The P.I. of the soil should be at least 10. These
conditions are satisfied by many soils in India. The aluvial silty soils of the northern plains, the
clayey soils of
the deltas, the black-cotton soils and the moorum found in many parts are eminently suitable for
soil-lime stabilisation.
17'5'4. Quantity of lime
The strength of a soil lime mixture is greatly influenced by the lime content. A concentration of
lime less than 2 per cent is not generally amenable to proper mixing and is not recommended for
use (Ref. 14). A quantity of 3 to 10 per cent by weight of dry soil is normally required to stabilise
most soils. Ca(OH,) (i.e. hydrated lime) in a powder form is preferred to CaO (quick lime)
because of the danger from burns that can be caused to unprotected workmen when handling
quicklime.
17'5'5. Properties of soil-lime
Due to the aggregation of smaller particles into bigger ones, one of the early effects of adding
lime is to make the grains coarser.
Lime brings about a substantial reduction in plasticity. The liquid limit generally decreases and
the plastic limit increases, thus causing a reduction in the Plasticity Index of the soil, vide Fig. 17-
6.
64
Fig. 17-6. Effect of lime
me on plasticity index.
The soil swell and shrinkage potential is significantly reduced by the adition of lime. This is highly
important in dealing with expansive soils, which swell in volume when water is added and shrink
in volume when then moisture content is reduced.
The strength of soil increases substantially whan treated with lime. The unconfined compressive
strength of typical fine-grained
grained
soils range from 0" 18 to 0 7 MN/m2. Increases in strength of 28 days cured lime-soil lime specimens
may be of the order of 0 7 to 1'7 MN/m2.
The benefits of addition of lime depend to a large extent on factors such as purity of lime, the
me, the degree of pulverization of the soil, the compaction imparted, the time
fineness of lime,
between final mixing and compaction and the curing conditions. For pu risation, it is generally
pulverisation,
specified that at least 80 per cent should pass through 475 mm sieve and all the the particles should
pass through 25 mm sieve.
Provided the soil-lime durability characteristics of the mixture
lime mixtures are designed pioperly, the durability
are not in doubt. Although some reduction in strength due to cyclic freeze thaw or prolonged
freeze-thaw
moisture effects s is possible, the residual strength itself is sufficient to meet the design
requirements adequately.
17'5'6, Design of pavement layers
The CBR method of design is often used to detemine the thickness thickness of the various layers in a
flexible system. For use as a sub-base layer, a minimum CBR value of 20 0—30 is normally
desired. For use in base couses, CBR of 8 80—100 00 is normally stipulated. To acco account for the
uncertainties in mixing in the field, current Indian prac tice (Ref. 14) is to assume 4
practice 45—60 per cent
of the
he laboratory CBR value as the CBR under field conditions.
soil lime is that lime is a cheap material which is locally available
17*5'7. The main advantage of soil-lime
in this country. The manufacture of lime and the soil lime stabilisation techniques are amenable
intensive technology and are ideally suited to our country. However, the experience in
to labour-intensive
soil work has not been so far very successful. This is mainly because lime of a high degree
lime-soil
of purity is needed and a great deal of control over quality iiss necessary in execution.
17'5'8. Lime-cement-soil
soil stabilisation
Both lime and cement produce cementitious products in the presence of clay minerals and water.
A mixture of lime and cement is sometimes used for stabilisation. The combined lime and cement
content
ontent can normally be around 1 10—15 5 per cent, and the ratio of lime to cement can be between
I : 3 and 3 : 2 depending upon the soil type and strength desired. Working with highly expansive
clays, lime is added initially upto about 3 per cent to render the soil more friable. Additional
quantity of lime and cement are added subsequently.
17 5 9. Lime-pozzolana
pozzolana stabilisation
possessing no cementitious properties, will
Pozzolana is a siliceous material, which, while in itself possessing
in a finely divided form and in tthe he presence of water, react with calcium hydroxide and form
cementitious compounds. Pozzolana can be a naturally occurring volca nic ash or industrial
volcanic
waste such as fly ash,
fly-ash, or can be produced by
calcining clay. When fly ash is used, the mixture is known as lime- flyash stabilised mixture, or in
an abreviated form LFA stabilised mixture.
Not all soils possess enough quantity of clay minerals with which lime can react to form
cementitious products. If, therefore, a pozzolanic material is added to such soils, the stabilisation
can easily take place. Silts, sandy soils, gravels, crushed stone and slags are some of the
material types where lime-pozzolana stabilisation can be successful. The aluvial silts of northern
India fall into this category of soils which can be stabilised with lime-pozzolana.
The ratio of lime to pozzolana depends upon a number of factors and can vary so widely as from
1 : 1 to 1 : 9. The combined quantity of lime pozzolana in a mixture can vary from 10 to 25 per
cent.
Lime-pozzolana-aggregate mixtures can be used for the superior strength road bases. A layer of
this material has great structural strength and behaves more like a semi-rigid pavement.
The use of lime-pozzolana in our country is still in an early stage, but in view of the problem of
disposal of huge quantity of fly-ash from thermal plants, the future may see more and more use
of this material.
17 6. Soil-cement stabilisation
17'6'7. The addition of cement to soil to improve its strength is now in vogue for the past forty
years or so. The material is very popular in the U S.A., U.K. and in African countries (Ref. 15, 16,
17), but its use in India has not caught on mainly due to the shortage of cement. Excellent
summaries of India practice have been published by the Concrete Association of India (Ref. 18)
and by Antia (Ref. 22). The principal advantages with soil-cement are that almost all soils are
amenable to this technique. It is a scientifically designed engineering material and cement itself is
a standard material whose quality is tested and assured. Because of its very high flexural
strength, it has a very high load spreading property. Thus soil cement is able to spread the load
over a wider area and bridge over locally weak spots of the underlying sub-grade or sub-base. In
view of its high flexural rigidity, it is often classed as a semi-rigid pavement, something which is
intermediate between a flexible pavement and a rigid pavement. The durability of soil cement is
of a high order and its strength is known to increase with age. The main disadvantages are the
higher cost than lime-soil and the need for a high degree of quality control. Because of volumetric
changes that take place when cement hydrates, early shrinkage cracks are formed in soil-cement
layers, affecting their overall performance.
17 62. Action involved in cement-soil stabilisation
When water is added to cement, major cementitious products like calcium silicate hydrates and
calcium aluminium hydrates are
produced. In stabilisation of granular materials with cement, these cementitious materials provide
the bond between the mineral parti - cles. In the case of fine-grained soils, the cementitious bond
provided by the calcium silicate hydrates and the calcium aluminate hydrates is further helped by
the secondary hydrous calium silicates and aluminates formed by the reaction of free lime to the
cement paste and the clay mineral particles. The reaction phenomenon between the fr.e lime and
the clay mineral particles is just the same as in the case of lime-soil stabilisation. Base-exchange
and flocculation also take place, rendering the soil more friable and reducing the plasticity.
17*6*3. Factors affecting strength of soil-cement mixes (i) Cement Content :
The cement content necessary for effective stabilisation varies with the soil type. The strength of
a soil-cement mix for a particular soil type varies with the cement content. As a rough guide, the
cement content, expressed as a percentage by weight of the dry soil, varies between 4 and 14.
For preliminary estimation purposes, a value of 10 per cent seems reasonable. The cement
content is generally selected to obtain the desired compressive strength. The criterion most
commonly followed (Ref. 18) is a 7 day unconfined compressive strength of 1'7 MN/m" with
moist-cured cylindrical specimens having a height to diameter ratio of 2*1. Table 17*9 gives the
range of cement requirements as per American practice (Ref. 19).
Table 179
Cement requirements for various soil types
Soil Type Usual range in cement
(PR A classification) requirement by weight (per
cent)
A—I—a 3—5
A—l—b 5—8
A-2 5-9
A-3 7—11
A—4 7—12
A—5 8—13
66
A—6 9-15
A—l 10—16
From the above Table, it is seen that the quantity of cement needed to stabilise gravelly soil is
much less than that required to stabilise silty and clayey soils.
It is observed that for the range of cement contents normally employed in stabilisation work, the
strength of the mixture increases with increase in cement content.
67
Ordinary Portland Cement is used for the majority of soil- stabilisation work. A rapid-hardening
cement can be used if high strengths are desired initially.
(it) Moisture Content
Since hydration of cement takes place only in the presence of water, the importance of water is
obvious. Water also improves the workability of the soil and facilitates compaction.
The exact amount of water to be added is governed by many considerations. One important
factor is that the soil-cement mixtures exhibit the same type of moisture-density relationship as
an ordinary soil. Thus, for a given compactive effort, there is an "optimum moisture content" at
which the maximum density is obtained.
The best moisture content for maximum density may not necessarily be the optimum moisture
content for maximum strength. It is generally seen that highest compressive strength can be
obtained with specimens compacted slightly below the optimum for maximum density (Ref. 2).
Some of the water is taken up by the cement for hydration. The moisture necessary for maximum
compaction is sufficient to provide for this.
(»»») Soil
Soil type has a profound influence on the success of stabilisation with cement. It is often claimed
that almost any type of soil can be stabilised with cement. Though this is true in a large measure,
certain soil types cannot be stabilised with cement at economical costs.
Soil with a low organic matter are generally preferred. A safe- upper limit is 2 per cent, though
soils with 3 to 4 per cent organic matter have also been successfully stabilised with cement (Ref.
2).
It is well-known that the presence of sulshates has a harmful effect on the life of cement
concrete. For the same reasons, the presence of sulphates in the soil has to be viewed with
suspiciton. For cohesive soils, a maximum sulphate content of 0"25 per cent is usually specified,
though for non-cohesive materials an upper limit of of 10 per cent may be all right (Ref. 20).
The presence of a small amount of clay in the soil is beneficial to cement stabilisation, but large
clay content brings in problems of mixing and pulverising. It is desirable if the clay content is
restricted to 5 per cent (Ref. 16). A thumb rule often employed (Ref. 17) is that the practical
upper limit for stabilisation with machinery is when the P.t. multiplied by the percentage finer than
425 is greater than 3500.
As the plasticity of the soil, increases, the amount of cement needed to effectively react
increases. Highly plastic soils cannot, therefore, be economically stabilised with cement. An
upper limit of 45 for L.L. (Liquid Limit) and 20 for P.I. (Plasticity Index) is generally observed (Ref.
20). More plastic soils can be treated with cement after being pre-treated with lime. As regards
the grading of the soils, it is recognised that a well-graded mixture requires less of cement and is
preferred. British practice (Ref. 20) indicates the following grading as suitable, Table 1710.
Table 17T0 Grading of materials for soil-cement
Sieve size (nearest) Percentage by weight
equivalent IS sieve passing
50 mm 100
40 mm 95
20 mm 45
10 mm 35
4'75 mm 25
600 micron 8
300 micron 5
75 micron 0
It is also specified that the uniformity coefficient (i.e. ratio of the particle size for which 60 per cent
is finer to the particle size for which 10 per cent is finer) should not be less than 5.
Though British practice limits soil-cement work to well-graded materials below 50 mm size,
experience elsewhere has shown that sandy and gravelly soils containing 10—35 per cent
combined silt and clay, sandy soils deficient in fines, silty soils and clayey soils can also be
effectively stabilised. Single sized sands with a low uniformly coefficient (less than about 3)
present problems for cement stabilisation.
(iv) Degree of pulverisation in mixing
The presence of lumps of soil inhibits effective stabilisation. Pulverization of soils, especially
clays, must be carried out before mixing The following requirements are often laid down„ Table
17'H.
Table 17'11
Requirements for pulverisation for stabilisation with cement
68
Sieve designation Percentage by weight of soil
passing the sieve after
pulverisation
25 mm 100
4'74 mm 80
69
Mixing
For best results, cement should be uniformly distributed and mixed throughout the material. The
addition of water helps the cement to adhere to the particles of the soil and prevents segraga-
tion.
Compacting
The hydration of cement starts ai soon as water is added, and it therefore is desirable to compact
the material as soon as mixing is completed. Any delay is likely to result in the loss of the
cementing action of the additive and in the need for extra compactive effort to break down the
cement bonds that have already formed. A serious loss in strength can follow. For this purpose, it
is often stipulated that compaction should be completed within two hours of mixing (Ref. 3).
(»»»*) Caring
As in the case of cement concrete, soil cement requires the presence of sufficient moisture to
meet the needs of chemical reactions. A seven days' moist curing is necessary.
17*6*4. Design criteria
The most popular design criterion for soil-cement is in terms of the unconfined compressive
strength after 7 days' moist curing. A value of 1*7 MN/ma with cylindrical specimens (ratio of
height to diameter of 2 : 1) is specified for Indian conditions (Ref. 18). Practice abroad requires
higher strengths. For example, in U.K. a minimum strength of 2*76 MN/m* is specified (Ref. 20)
for cylindrical specimens. But it should be noted that in U.K. soil- cement mixtures are with well-
graded granular materials 50 mm and below in size. A minimum strength of 2"76 MN/m2 is
generally desirable for heavily trafficked roads and for higher layers of the pavement structure
(i.e. base course), whereas for lightly trafficked roads and for bottom layers of the pavement
structure (i.e. sub- base course) a minimum strength of 1 iMN/m' is probably adequate.
The CBR method of design is also applied to soil-cement layers. For this purpose, the specimens
are initially cured for 7 days and soaked in water for 4 days prior to testing. For use as sub-
bases, a CBR value of 20—30 is desirable, whereas a value of 80—100 is desirable for use as a
base course. Since imperfections in mixing in the field can yield to lower strength values, it is
desirable to design the laboratory mix to yield a higher CBR value. Normally, it can be assumed
that the field mix can yield a strength which is 60 per cent of the laboratory strength (Ref. 21).
When determining the thickness of the layer, an equivalency factor of 1*5 can be assumed -vis-a-
vis unbound granular layers (Ref. 32).
70
If a small quantity of cement, say in the range of 2—3 per cent, is added to a soil, the soil
properties can be improved appreciably, though not to the same extent as a soil-cement mixture.
Such a mixture can be used as a sub-base, and is known by the name of cement-modified soil
(Ref. 21). The soil should possess characteristics similar to those required for soil-cement. The
design is generally based on CBR method. A CBR value to 20—30 in the field is generally
suitable for sub-base.
177. Chloride Stabilisation
T7'7'l. Granular soils lack stability when they are too dry. If their moisture content can be
stabilised by the addition of some chemicals, then these soils can be used successfully.
Chlorides of calcium and sodium are two of the most popular salts used for this purpose.
17 72. Calcium Chloride
Calcium chloride has been used extensively for as a dust- palliative and moisture stabiliser for
more than half a century. Its wide use is reported in the US. A. and Canada. The material has
also been used as a dust palliative in India, and on an experimental basis in the body of the
subgrade and sub-bases (Ref. 23).
Calcium chloride has deliquesent and hygroscopic properties. By the former is meant the ability
of a material to absorb moisture from the air and thus to dissolve and become liquid. By the latter
is meant the ability of a material to absorb and retain moisture without necessarily becoming
liquid. These properties render the material ideally suitable as a dust-palliative on untreated low
cost roads. In dry climate regions, the moisture evaporates from the road during the day, but if
calcium chloride is present the moisture can be regained in the night. Another property of calcium
chloride is that it lowers the vapour pressure of water in which it is dissolved. This reduces the
rate of evaporation. An increase in the surface tension of water is noticed when calcium chloride
is present in a soil-water mixture, As the surface tension of the pore water rises, the rate of
evaporation falls. When some evaportion takes place, the pore water content is itself reduced,
and this in turn causes surface tension to rise further. The water films then close on the soil
particles and grip them together. If calcium chloride is added to a soil, it is observed that its unit
weight increases for a given compactive effort. In other words, to obtain a desired density, less
compactive effort is needed. This is mainly because of the lubricating effect of the chemical. It is
well known that chlorides dissolved in water lo ver the freezing temperature of water. This
property makes the chemical extremely useful in frost- susceptible locations.
Calcium chloride is obtained as a waste product in the manufacture of ammonia, ammonium
carbonate, potassium chlorate
and sodium carbonate. Its disposal was considered a problem, and its use as a soil stabiliser in
such situations is to be welcomed.
The rate of application of the material as a dust palliative for untreated roads is about 4"8—1*5
kg/sq. m. per year. The material is applied in a dry form and the road surface is bladed.
As an admixture to the soil to obtain greater density and strength, it is used at a small rate of
about 05 per cent by dry weight of soil.
Work carried out in India has shown (Ref. 9) that calcium chloride can retain the moisture in the
surface only when the relative humidity of the atmospheie is above 31 per cent. This precludes
its use in extremely dry areas.
17-7-3. Sodium chloride
Sodium chloride, common salt, is available in a natural state as rock salt and sea water. Its use
as a stabiliser derives from the many properties listed under Calcium Chloride. It is, however,
less hygroscopic and inferior to Calcium Chloride as a lubricant for aiding compaction. An
important beneficial effect is the crystallisation of the salt forming a compact and hard surface
which improves the stability of the layer and prevents evaporation. The quantity of sodium
chloride is roughly the same as calcium chloride, viz., about 0'5 per cent by weight.
17'8. Other Chemicals/Materials
A number of other chemicals/materials have been used for
chemical stabilisation of soils. Some of them are :
Sodium silicate
Lignin
Resins
Molasses.
Sodium silicate reacts in acqueous solutions with soluble- calcium salts, forming insoluble and
gelatinous calcium silicates. Calcium needed for the reaction can either be present in the soil
itself (as in lime-stone aggregates or chalky soils) or be added in acqueous solutions. The
amount of chemical needed may vary from one to ten per cent. Experimental work carried out in
India (Ref. 24) on stabilisation of sand with sodium silicate has yielded satisfactory results.
The natural binding material that holds together the fibres in wood is lignin. The material is a
major byeproduct in paper manufacturing industry. Liguin is available from the paper
71
manufacturing process in a water solution known as calcium lignosulphonic acid. Calcium
lignosulphate (or lignin sulphate or
72
simply ligtrin) is the constituent which is used as a road binder. About 0"5 to 1 per cent by weight
of dry soil is used for stabilisation. Stabilisation is by the cementing bond that develops between
the soil particles due to the presence of the binder. The material also closes the voids and thus
reduces penetration of water through the layer. It retards the rate of evaporation of water and
arrests loss of moisture.
Natural or processed resins can also be used for soil stabilisation. Vinsol resin and resin or
derivatives of resin are commonly used. Resins are wood products. Resin-treated soils reduce
water absorption, facilitate compaction and increase the stability of the treated mixtures. Their
drawback is their susceptibility for micro-biological attack by bacteria and fungi, but this handicap
can be identified and surmounted. A quantity of 1 to 3 per cent by weight of soils is normally
sufficient.
Molasses is a waste-product from the process of manufacturing sugar from sugarcane. A thick
syrupy liquid, it is hygroscopic and can be used as a dust-palliative and as a binder for incorpora-
tion during compaction. It is easily leached out by rain water. But some additives have been tried
to make it insoluble. If water is prevented from entering the mixture, as by means of an
impermeable bituminous surfacing, it can be excepted to last long.
17 9. Soil Bitumen Stabilisation
17"9T. Basic principles
The addition of a bituminous binder to a soil improves its properties considerably. Firstly, if the
soil lacks cohesion, the bitumen coats the soil particles, binds them together and supplies
cohesion. Example of such a stabilisation is a sand bitumen in which sand and bitumen are
mixed and laid. Secondly, bitumen being a waterproofing material, ihe mixture becomes less
prone to the adverse effects caused by ingress of water. Soil-aggregate mixtures or cohesive
soils can be made to benefit from this action. A third procedure is to spray a bituminous binder on
a dry surface of a low-cost road (earth/gravel), with a view to prevent dust and to stop the entry of
moisture into the road.
The success of the above principles really lies in selecting the right quantity and type of the
binder. An excess of the binder will result in too thick a binder film around the soil particles and
destroy part of ihe internal friction. When aiming at waterproofing it is seldom necessary to fill up
the entire void space. The gradation of the soil particles also has an important bearing on the
satisfactory performance of the stabilisation technique. These factors will be discussed in detail
under the different types of soil-bitumen stabilisation processes.
17*9*2. Types of soil-bitumen stabilisation processes
The following are the variations in the bituminous stabilisation* techniques :
(») Sand-bitumen
(*») Soil-bitumen
(Hi) Soil-aggregate-bitumen
(iv) Spraying bitumen on earth/gravel roads foiling)
17 9 3. Sand-bitumen
17*9"3T. There are regions where sand is the only predominant road building material available
within economical leads and stone aggregate or gravel has to be conveyed over a long distance.
There are also areas where there is acute scarcity of water, and specifications such as water-
bound macadam or compacted gravel will have to be discarded. Under such conditions, a
successful specification is sand-bitumen. This has been tried in the Middle East, Africa, U.S.S.R.
and India. The arid desert region of Rajas- than where dune sand is met with and the coastal
plains of the South where beach sand is available, are examples of such areas (Ref. 25, 26, 27)
where the technique has been tried successfully. Based on the limited experience in the country,
the Indian Roads Congress have come out with specifications for use of sand-bitumen as a base-
course (Ref. 28).
17 9 3*2. Gradation of sand
Typical gradation of Rajastban sand for sand-bitumen stabilisation
A wide range of sands can be successfully stabilised with bitumen. Though a well-graded sand-
bitumen mixture will have a higher stability, poorly graded sands and single size sands have
been satisfactorily stabilised with bitumen. The latter include the windblown dune-sands. Indian
practice limits the use of this specification to sands having less than 10 per cent of material
passing 75 microns sieve (Ref. 28). A typical gradation of the Rajasthan desert sand is given in
Table 17T2.
Table 17 12
Sieve Designation Percentage Passing
600 microns 100

300 microns 98-100
73
150 microns 60—65
75 microns 4—5
74
In the U.S.A., sands with not more than 25 per cent passing 75 microns sieve are permitted for
stabilisation, but with certain other added precautions.
1793 3- Type of binder
The types of binder used for sand-bitumen work are : (t) Penetration Grade Bitumen (it) Road Tar
(tit) Cold Application Cut-back (iv) Hot application Cut-back (v) Emulsions
Penetration Grade bitumen 30/40 or 80/100 can be used pro* vided the sand is pre-heated and
dried to a suitable temperature (135—165° C). A small quantity of flux such as kerosene can be
beneficitl to make the bitumen workable. Road Tar of grade RT-3 has also been used. The use of
cold-application cut-backs has been very popular for sand-bitumen stabilisation. A medium-
curing cut-back such as MC-1 and MC-2 are most common, though both rapid-curing and slow-
curing (RC-1, RC-2 and SC-1 and SC-2) have also been freuqently used (Ref. 2). In India, RC-3
has been tried successfully (Ref. 25. 27, 29). A hot-application cut-back such as Shelspra BS
available in India is also suitable. Emulsions are ideal for dry conditions in desert regions in the
tropics, since they provide the optimum fluids content for compaction. The use of emulsions for
sand-bitumen under wet conditions is however, difficult.
17-93 4. Quantity of binder
For sand-bitumen stabilisation, the quantity I of binder ift selected after carrying out stability tests
with various binder contents. The optimum binder content at which the stability is maximum is
determined. The range of binder contents found to be satisfactory is 4—10 per cent by weight of
total mix.
17 9 3'5. Incorporation of hard aggregates
Blending of sand with some quantity of hard crushed aggregate will improve the stability of sand-
bitumen mixtures, especially if the sand is single-size. The proportion of coarse aggregates can
be abjut 30 per cent by weight.
17 9 3 6. Design criteria
For satisfactory peformance as a base course, the Hubbard- Field stability values should be as
below :
75
Table 17 13
Minimum values of Hubbard-Field stability of sand-bitumen for base course
(Ref. 25, 28)
Type of mix Speci Teat Sta
men* Metho bility
d (kg)
Sand-bitumen 5 cm Testin 360
with dia g at
penetration x2'5 60°C
grade bitumen cm
height
with cut-back dia x g at
bitumen 5 cm 25°C
height
with dia x7 g at
incorporation cm 60°C
of coarse height
aggregates
with dia X7 g at 0
incorporation cm 25°C
of coarse height
aggregate
17 9 3 7. Surfacing
Sand-bitumen base courses are generally laid to a compacted thickness of 100 mm. They
require a surfacing course to provide a good running surface and to protect the base from
abrasive action of traffic. A 20 mm premix chipping carpet has been found to be suitable for this
purpose in India (Ref. 25, 28). Such roads have been found to be satisfactory for light to medium
traffic in India.
1794. Soil-bitumen
17'9'4*1. The term soil-bitumen is generally used for stabilising cohesive fine-grained soils. The
incorportion of bitumen in a cohesive soil result in water-proofing the layer. Such soils have good
bearing capacity at low moisture contents, but they tend to lose the bearing capacity when the
moisture content increases. The bituminous binder en.-ures that the moisture content never
reaches beyond the safe limit. Soil-bitumen layers are used as sub-bases and bases.
17 9'4'2. Type of soils suitable for stabilisation
The following gradation limits are generally prescribed (Ref.
30);
Sieve Designation Percentage
Passing
4'75 mm 50
425 micron 35—100
75 micron 10—50
The liquid limit should be less than 40 and the plasticity index should be less than 18. Highly
plastic soils are hard to stabilise, because of the difficulty in dispersing the binder.
17'9'4'3. Typical amount of binder
The binders which find ready application for soil-bitumen are the cut-backs, road tars and
emulsions. A medium-curing cut-back is preferable, but slow-curing cut-backs can be used with
relatively highly plastic soils. Rapid curing cut-backs can be used with sandy soils. Road Tars in
the grades RT-3, RT-4, RT-5 and RT-6 can be used. Emulsions can be used with relatively less
plastic soils and in dry climates, where the natural moisture content of the soils is not high. Slow-
curing emulsions are appropriate.
The amount of binder depends upon the moisture content of the soil, the type of soil and type of
binder used. The combined volume of bitumen and water must not exceed the pore space in the
soil at the desired density. The normal range is 4 to 8 per cent by weight of dry mix It is usually
found that if the clay mineral content is high, a greater quantity of binder is needed. On the other
hand, if the iron and aluminium content is high, a smaller quantity of binder is needed. The binder
content is selected after carrying out tests such as density-fluids content, strength, water
absorption and swelling.
17'9'4'4. Design criteria
76
Soil-bitumen stabilisation is yet in a developmental stage and further research is needed to
understand the behaviour. Design criteria can thus be very tentative. A common requirement is
that the Hubbard-Field Stability Value on 5 cm diax5 cm height specimens should not be less,
than 180 kgs after standing the specimens in water for 7 days. The stability value of the
specimen before saturation should be 453 kgs. A further requirement is that the swelling should
not exceed 5 per cent and water absorption should exceed 7 per cent (Ref. 31).
ITi'A'S. Useage
Soil-bitumen is generally used as a sub-base. The thickness provided varies from 100 mm to 200
mm.
17'9'5. Soil-aggregate bitumen stabilisation
179-51. Principles
Soil-aggregate-bitumen mixture implies the addition of a suitable quantity of bituminous binder to
a granular mixture which is fairly well graded and has good internal friction but lacks cohesion.
The binder not only supplies cohesion, but also waterpoofs the layer. The addition of binder
prevents softening and loss of strength in a mixture containing fines.
17-9-52. Gradation
The gradation of the granular materials should be generally similar to those indicated under
mechanical stabilisation (Table 171). The miximum P.I. values can, however be in the range of
10 to 15.
77
17953. Binder
A rapid curing cut-back (RC-1, RC-2 or RC-3) or a slow- curing emulsion or Road Tar (RT-4, RT-
5 or RT-6) is generally suitable. The quantity to be used will generally be in the range of 2—6
percent by weight of dry materials. The binder should be able to coat adequately the individual
particles of the fines fraction.
179-5-4. Design criteria
For soil-aggregate-bituminous mixtures, the CBR tests can be conveniently used for design. The
CBR values of the untreated and treated mixtures can both be determined and compared before
selecting the final design.
17 96. Spraying bitumen on eartb/gravel roads (oiling)
17-961. Principles
Earth/gravel surfaces are dusty in the dry season when the moisture which binds the soil
particles is absent. In the wet season, water easily enters the surface and softens the same. The
conditions can be improved by spraying a binder which will coat the dusty particles and hold
them together, at the same time providing a reasonably water-proof surface. The binder is of a
law viscosity so that it is able to penetrate the compacted surface by gravity. The process is
rather cheap and economical and is suitable for low- volume low-cost roads.
17-96-2. Binder
The binder is usually a medium curing or a slow-curing cut-back. MC-0, MC-1, SC-0 or SC-1 cut-
backs are generally suitable. Slow-curing cut-backs have the advantage that the volatiles do not
evaporate too rapidly, thus giving more time for the binder to seep into the soil.
A rate of application of about 5 litres per sq.m. in two" or three applications will usually result in a
penetration of about 15 mm to 25 mm into th? soil and be found to be satisfactory. A light
dressing of sand will render the surface non-slippery in* wet weather.
171'. Constructional practice in soil-stabilised roads
17101. General
The constructional practice in soil-stabilisation varies with the type of stabilisation, but there are
certain steps and procedures which are common. It is, therefore, convenient to deal with the
construction practice for all types of stabilisation together. The minor variations needed for each
type of stabilisation will be indicated at the appropriate place.
The construction technique to be adopted for a given situation depends upon a number of
factors, viz. :
(<) Type of stabilisation (»*) Type to binder, if any, to be added (Hi) Type of soils
(iv) Leads involved for the materials (v) Magnitude of the project (vi) Availability of equipment
(CM) Availability of labour.
Broadly, the following three construction techniques can be identified :
(») Labour intensive methods
(ii) Machinery intensive methods
Labour intensive techniques are indicated forlthe following conditions :
Availability of cheap labour, as in developing countries, making it more economical to use labour-
intensive techniques than equipment intensive techniques.
Small magnitude of the work, which is also scattered. This condition is prevalent in developing
countries where the construction of link roads to villages is given emphasis.
(tit) Equipment is not manufactured indigenously, and the level of skill needed for operation and
maintenance of imported equipment has not been developed.
Equipment intensive techniques are indicated for the following conditions :
(») The equipment is produced indigenously.
(ii) Labour is scarce, and it becomes more economical to use equipments.
(tit) The work is of a large magnitude, fairly concentrated, and the time schedule for compaction
is tight.
Intermediate or appropriate technology is an intellegent blend of labour and machinery. Under
this, it is recognised that small implements and tools and simple mechanical equipment can raise
the productivity of labour and aid in obtaining good quality of work. India is a country which has
already a good industrial base for manufacturing and servicing simple tools and equipment, and
at the same time has surplus labour. Intermediate technology can be applied with good benefit in
India under the prevailing conditions.
17 10 2. Labour intensive methods
The various operations involved can be discussed under the- following heads :
78
(») Collection of materials (ii) Preparation of the subgrade (Hi) Pulverisation, where necessary
(»*«) Mixing (v) Spreading (vi) Compaction.
The materials (soil, sand, gravel etc.) are collected on the sides of the sub-grade in requisite
proportions and stacked in the form of windrows.
The sub-grade is well-compacted to the required density and true to grades and the desired
cross-profile.
If clay is one of the soil materials to be used, it is necessary to pulverise it. The clods are broken
with the help of pick-axes or rammers. Application of a country plough driven by a bullock can
also be tried. If a power roller is available, the same can be passed over the layer of clods a
number of times, with frequent raking of the crushed material.
If the materials to be mixed are soil, sand and gravel, they are mixed by dry labour using spades
or shovels. The required quantity of water is added and the materials are wet mixed by manual
labour. If an additive such as lime or cement is to be added, the soil is first spread to a uniform
thickness and the bags of lime or cement are spotted at the desired spacings. The bags are then
opened and the contents spread by manual means to cover the calculated area, which should be
marked by strings. Water to the required quantity is added in stages and the soil and lime are
mixed till the mixture has a uniform colour and the desired moisture content. If a bituminous
binder is to be added, the mixing should preferably be done in a paddle type mixer, for a period
of about 1 to 2 minutes.
Bitumen stabilised mixtures are spread to a uniform thickness in loose layers not exceeding 15
cm. Mechanically stabilised mixes, soil-lime nmes and soil-cement mixes are spread to a
thickness which will give a compacted thickness of not more than 150 mm. The thickness of any
stabilised laver should not be less than 100 mm.
The cement soil mix should be compacted within 2 hours of the mixing (Ref. 3). When cut-back
bitumen is used as a binder, rolling should start only after the mix has cured. The curing time
depends upon the type of cut-back used and varies from 1 to 7 days. With penetration grade
mixes, rolling can start as soon as the mix is laid and spread. When emulsions are used, the
rolling can start after £ hour.
Rolling of stabilised mixtures should be by 8— 10 tonne power rollers. When sand-bitumen and
soil bitumen stabilisation is used, it is preferable to carry out initial rolling by means of a light
pneumatic tyred roller. Rolling is carried out till 100 per cent laboratory density is achieved.
Traffic is allowed on bitumen and sand-bitumen layers only after 24 hours Only light pneumatic
vehicles are allowed initially. Normal traffic is allowed only after a month. Soil-lime and soil-
cement layers are moist cured for a period of 7 days. Curing is achieved by providing or covering
the surface with damp sand, straw or hessian.
17 IG'3. Machinery intensive methods
17'10 31. Three basic construction methods are available when machinery is employed, viz.,
(») Mix-in-place
(ii) Travelling plant
(Hi) Stationary plant.
17 10 3 2. Mix-in-place method
In this method, a train of machines is run over the soil to ber processed. For breaking and
pulverising the soil, rippers, cultivators, rotary tillers, ploughs, scarifiers or disc harrows are used.
Water is then added to the loose soil from a water tanker. If the stabiliser is liquid, it is distributed
by a spraying tanker. Dry powder is "either spread manually or from bulk spreaders. Mixing is
carried out by means of disc harrows or pulvi-mixers. Dry mixing is initially done in two to three
passes of the machines and is followed by wet mixing with the addition of water. A single- pass
stabiliser is also used, and it performs the various operations such as cutting the soil, pulverising
and mixing in one operation itself. Compacting is done by rollers which follow the machines for
laying the mix.
niO'SS. Travelling plant method
This method involves the use of a travelling plant which travels along the job site, picking up the
soil and stabiliser, mixing it in a mixer, discharging the mix on the ground. Compacting is done
separately by rollers which follow the travelling plant.
17 10 3 4. Stationary plant method
This method is based on the process of mixing the ingredients in a centrally located plant,
conveying the mix to the site, laying and compacting the same. The central mixing plant can be
of the batch type or continuous type.
17'10"3'4. The advantages and disadvantages of the three
types are summarised below.
79
Advantages and Disadvantages of Types of Stabilisation Techniques using Equipment
Table 17 14
Type Advantages Disadvantages
(i) It is difficult to obtain a uniform
1. Mix-in (i) Plant is simple, cheap .. thickness of lift, because of the
place? and easily transported. difficulty of setting the machines
to a given depth.
(ii) The number of machi-
(ii) The mixing is not uniform as
nes can be adjusted to suit
with travelling plant or stationary
the quantum of work.
plant.
Flexibility is available.
(Hi) The whole processed
section is ready for (in) Heavy rain is likely to spoil the
compaction at the same whole section.
time.
(iv) A large out-put may be (iv) In a dry climate, water lost by
maintained. evaporation is difficult to replace.
(v) If excess moisture is
to be got rid of as, for
example, in a wet area, this
is the only suitable method.
Travel - (») Accurate propoition-
(i) The cost of plant initially is
ling ing of added water
high.
plant possible.
(ii) Uniform mixing (ii) Is suitable for concentrated
obtained. and large/ quantum of work.
(Hi) Short mixing time is (Hi) Minor breakdowns can cause
involved. considerable dislocation.
(iv) Uniform surface can be
obtained.
(v) Depth of lift can be
accurately controlled.
(vi) It has the highest out-
put for given expenditure of
plant and labour.
Type Advantages Disadvantages
y (i) Accurate proportioning
3. Stationar (») Expensive if in-situ soil
of mixture and water is
Plant is to be processed.
possible.
(m) Material must be
(ii) The depth can be easily compacted as delivered
and accurately controlled. and not as a complete
section.
(Hi) Concrete mixers can be
used.
(iv) Losses of moisture
during mixing and
transporting are small.
(v) Suitable for location
where form work is needed,
as in the case of sandy
layers where vibrators are
needed.
(vi) No additional haulage in
soil has to be taken from a
borrow pit.
17*10*4. Intermediate or appropriate technology for soil stabilisation
The use of simple tools, implements and equipment can be beneficial in soil-stabilisation work in
many ways. Firstly, it can lend itself to a reasonable control over the quality of the work, which is
so essential for the success of the specification. Secondly, it can be suitable for a large quantum
80
of work which is to be completed in a tight schedule. Thirdly, it does not do away with labour
totally, and hence is not inappropriate to labour-surplus economies.
The implements that are frequently used are the agricultural attachments such as disc harrows,
disc ploughs, grader blades, rotillors etc. which can be conveniently towed by a small agricultural
tractor or even by animal power. Water tankers for adding water can be pneumatic-wheeled and
pulled by bullocks. The Central Road Research Institute has developed a simple equipment
known as the Rotillor which is a versatile multi-purpose machine suitable for agriculture as well
as for road making. For road making, the machine scarifies the top soil upto the required depth,
pulverises the soil and mixes the soil and stabiliser. The equipment is towed by an agricultural
tractor.
QUESTIONS
1. (a) Define the term soil stabilisation.
(6) What is the purpose of soil stabilisation?
81
6 ROAD MAINTENANCE
6.1 Pavement Evaluation
6.1.1 Introduction
Pavement evalution is a techinque of assessing the condition of a pavement, both structurally

and from the point of view of surface characteristics. It is also known as pavement condition
survey and rating of pavement.
Pavement evaluation is a handy tool in the hands of a highway engineer and serves a variety of
purposes, such as :
1. To research on the performance of pavements of different specifications over a period of time.
2. To assess maintenance needs such as patch repairs, renewals and reseating.
3. To assess the need for structural overlays on distressed pavements.
6.1.2 Methods of Pavement Evaluation
The methods available for pavement evaluation are :

Visual rating
Pavement Serviceability Index Concept
Roughness Measurements
Benkelman Beam Deflection Method.
the Falling Weight Deflectomenter
6.1.3 Visual Rating
Visual rating is a simple method of inspecting the pavement surface for detecting and assessing
the amount and severity of various Sypes of damage. The usual manifestation of distress or
damage occurs in the form of :
1. rutting
2. corrugations
3. ravelling
4. flushing
5. alligator cracking
6. extent of repairs
7. longitudinal cracking
8. transverse cracking.
There are various methods of visual rating in use by different organisations the world over. One
of the most widespread methods was initially developed at the Texas A and M University (Ref. 1)
and is commonly known as the Deduct Value or Deduct Point method. In this method, certain
deduct points are associated with specific values of various distress factors. The deduct points
indicate the relative importance of the distress type. These deduct points are then subtracted
from an established "perfect" score (usually 100) to arrive at the overall rating score of the
pavement. Table 25'1 gives the deduct points for various levels of distress.
There is as yet no rating system developed for Indian conditions though there is a great need of
developing one.
Table 25.1 Deduct values for flexible pavement
Extent or Amount of Distress

Types of Distress Degrees of Distress
(1) (2) (3)
Rutting Slight 0 2 5
Moderate 5 7 10
Severe 10 12 15
Ravelling Slight 5 8 10
82
Moderate 10 12 15
Severe 15 18 20
Flushing Slight 5 8 10
Moderate 10 12 15
Severe 15 18 20
Corrugations Slight 5 8 10
Moderate 10 12 15
Severe 15 18 20
Alligator cracking Slight 5 10 15
Moderate 10 15 20
Severe 15 20 25
Patching Good 0 2 5
Fair 5 7 10
Poor 7 15 20
Failures - 20 30 40
Deduct Points for Cracking

Sealed Partially Sealed Not Sealed
1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3) (1) (2) (3)
Longitudinal Cracking
Slight 2 5 8 3 7 12 5 10 15
Moderate 5 8 10 7 12 15 10 15 20
Severe 8 10 15 12 15 20 15 20 25
Transverse cracking
Slight 2 5 8 3 7 10 3 7 12
Moderate 5 8 10 7 10 15 7 12 15
Severe 8 10 15 10 15 20 12 15 20
6.1.4 Pavement Serviceability Index (PSI)
One of the major contributions of the AASHO Road Test was the development of a rating system
involving the measurement of permanent deformation, riding quality and the extent of cracking
and patching (Ref. 2, 3). The rating is well-known by the term Present Serviceability Index (PSI)
and is probably the most widely used pavement rating measure in existence today. The following
equations give the value of PSI for flexible and rigid pavements :
In the above equations:

PSI = Present Serviceability Index
SV = Slope variance over a 22.5 cm length, giving an index of the longitudinal profile
RD = Rut depth under al'2m straight edge
C=Per cent of total area showing distress in terms of cracked area
P=Per cent of total area showing distress in terms of patched area.
In the AASHO Test, the longitudinal profile was monitored by the CHOLE Profilometer.
6.1.5 Roughness Measurements
The riding quality of a pavement is determined to a large extent by its structural adequacy, the
traffic load repetitions it has been subjected to the specifications adopted for the surfacing initially
83
and the maintenance inputs. Hence a measure of the pavement performance can be obtained by
monitoring its roughness. In view of the importance of the subject, a detailed account of
roughness measurement is given later.
6.1.6 Benkelman Beam Deflection
An evaluation of the structural performance of flexible pavements can be obtained by the

Benkelman Beam Deflection method. The Lacroix deflectograph serves the same purpose.
Pavement sections, which have been subjected to traffic deform elastically under a load. The
elastic deflection depends upon various factors, such as :
1. Subgrade soil type.

2. Moisture content and compaction of subgrade soil.
3. Pavement thickness, composition, quality and condition.
4. Drainage conditions.
5. Pavement surface temperature.
6. Wheel load.
The Benkelman beam and the Lacroix Deflectograph measure the deflections under standard
wheel load conditions. Two kinds of deflection measurements are possible:
1. Rebound deflection, which is the recoverable deflection or the elastic deflection. In a well-
designed road, the deflection is entirely elastic and recoverable.
2. Residual deflection, which is the non-recoverable deflection. As a pavement ages, it loses a
portion of its elastic properties and a permanent deflection takes place.
The Benkelman beam is a handy instrument which is most widely used for measuring deflection
of pavements. The instrument is illustrated in Fig. 25.1.
It consists of a lever 3.66m long pivoted 2.44 m form the end carrying the contact point which
rests on the surface of the pavement. The deflection of the pavement surface produced by the
test load is transmitted to the other end of the beam where it is measured by a dial gauge or
recorder. The movement at the dial gauge end of the beam is one-half of that at the contact point
end. The load on the dual wheel can be in the range 2.7 to 4.1 Tonnes.
The CGRA procedure of measuring the rebound deflection is. as follows:

1. Select 10 points along the outer wheel path (i.e. 60 cm from the pavement edge) for each lane.
2. Bring the rear dual wheel assembly of the truck near the marked point and insert the probe of
the beam between the dual wheels so that the top rests on the road where the deflection is to be
measured. The dual wheels are centred over the marked point.
3. A standard wheel load of 4085 kg is used for the test, the tyre pressure being 1560 KN/M2.
4. The dial gauge reading is noted initially in the position described under 2 above.
5. The truck is driven forward at a slow speed and dial gauge readings are taken when the truck
stops at 2.7 m and 9 m from the measuring point, and when the rate of recovery is equal to 0"025
mm per minute or less.
84
6. Pavement temperature is recorded.
7. The final and intermediate dial readings are subtracted from the initial reading. If the
differential readings obtained compare within 0.025 mm, the actual pavement deflection is twice
the final differential reading.
If the differential readings do not compare to 0'025 mm, twice the final differential reading
represents the apparent pavement deflection. The true deflection is obtained by the formula:
where
XT=True pavement deflection
XA=Apparent pavement deflection
Y=Vertical movement of the front legs, i.e., twice the difference between the final and
intermediate dial readings.
The WASHO procedure, known as creep load method, is similar to the above, except that the
truck rear is initially located 1.2 m behind the selected point. The probe arm is located 1.2 m In
front of the wheel. The initial reading is noted and the truck is moved forward at a creeping speed
of 2 km/hr to at least 3 m past the tip of the beam. The maximum dial reading will occur when the
wheels are in the line with the probe arm. This value is noted. After a reasonable length of time or
when the dial needle has come to rest, the final reading is recorded. The maximum deflection is
twice the difference between the initial and the maximum readings. The rebound deflection is
twice the difference between the maximum reading and the final reading.
The residual deflection is twice the difference between the final reading and the initial reading.
Problem. A Benkelman mean was used to measure the deflection. The readings obtained on the
dial gauge at positions of wheel indicated below are:
Wheel positions Dial Beading

1. 1 . 2 m behind selected point At 0'06 mm 0'46 mm
2. selected point
3. 3 m in front of selected point 0'08 mm
Calculate the
(1) maximum deflection
(2) rebound deflection
(3) residual deflection.
A Lacroix Deflectograph consists of a truck with a rear-wheel assembly, an arrangement for

carrying the deflection measuring beam on the truck itself and an arrangement for advancing it
intermittingly (Ref. 7). The truck advances at a constant speed (3 km/hour) while the measuring
system consisting of a reference beam and sensor rods advances intermittingly. Each measuring
cycle consists of the following sequence:
85
The reference beam is placed in front of the rear axle of the vehicle in such a manner that the
sensor roads are situated in the path of a twin rear wheel, outside the zone subjected to the
deflection.
The twin wheels advance to vards the sensor rods, entering into the deformed zone of the road.
The deflection is recorded when the rear axle has passed the extremity of the sensor rod. The
deflection recorded is maximum in this position.
The reference beam is now pulled forward (4 to 6 metres) in front of the rear wheels to its initial
position.
The process is again repeated.
The system is capable of giving an output of 15-20 km/day (600 measurements per km). The
results can be recorded on tapes and analysed on a computer.
The Dynaflect is another truck-mounted device for quick measurement of dynamic deflections.
The Dynaflect carries contra-rotating masses in a small trailer and applies a maximum dynamic
force of 2270 N at a fixed frequency of 8 Hz superimposed on a static load of 125 kg., and the
same is transmitted to the road surface through two small rigid, wheels 05 m apart. The
maximum deflection midway between the wheels and four other points along the centre line
between the vehicle is recorded by velocity sensitive transducers. The equipment can be trailer
mounted or carried on the front of a light vehicle. About 300 measurerrents at a single frequency
are possible in a working day.
The Dynaflect measures the shape of the deflected pavement near the point of maximum
deflection. This shape is sensitive to changes in upper pavement layers and is relatively
unaffected by the subgrade. 1 bus, the profile of the deflected shape provides sufficient
information to charaterise the stiffness of the pavement.
6.1.7 Falling Weight Deflectometer
Another simple instrument to measure the dynamic deflection is the Falling Weight
Deflectomenter (FWD), which drops a weight of 150 kg from a variable height on to a spring
system. This in turn transmits a load pulse of 28 ms duration to the road surface through a
circular plate. A maximum peak load of 60 Kn develops a deflected dish that can be recorded by
upto five velocity-sensitive transducers, arrayed radially from the loaded area. The equipment is
carried on a single axle trailer. About 200 measurements can be taken daily. Fig. 25.2 gives the
diagrammatic arrangement of the device.
Fig. 25-2. Diagrammatic arrangement of Falling Weight Defiectometer.
The Benkelman mean and Deflectograph are used for designing the thickness of overlays of
pavements.
6.1.8 Skid Resistance Surveys
A smooth surface is dangerous to traffic, especially when the surface is wet and the vehicles
move fast. While care is normally taken to construct reasonable skid-resistant surfaces, the
passage of vehicles polish the aggregates. Excess bitumen tends to fatten the surface and
render it slippery. An'evaluation of the skid-resistance of the surface at periodic intervals is
needed to ensure that the roughness level has not fallen to dangerously low levels. This is
accomplished by measurement of skid-resistance periodically.
86
6.1.9 Pavement Deterioration Research
Pavements deteriorate due to traffic and environmental factors. The extent of deterioration is also
a function of the initial pavement thickness and composition. The exact way in which a pavement
deteriorates is of great importance to a maintenance engineer to work out the maintenance
strategy and to a highway planner to work out the economic evaluation of schemes. Interest in
this field is, therefore, increasing the world over. The Kenya stndy8 and the Brazilian study9 have
determined the pavement deterioration models. It is also proposed to take up a similar study in
India.
A recent development in the field of pavement research and evaluation is the Heavy Vehicle
Simulators (HSV). This machine is capable of applying wheel loads of upto 100KN through a dual
or single wheel assembly on a pavement, and can apply upto 1400 repetitions of load per hour.
Thus, upto half a million repetitions of load can be applied to a pavement in 20 to 30 days. This
equipment can, therefore, save considerable time in testing a pavement under actual traffic.
QUESTION
1. What are the methods of pavement evaluation?
2. Describe the Benkelman Beam and its use.
87
6.2 Road Inventorying
6.2.1 Need for Road Inventorying
Road inventorying is a systematic procedure of collecting details of existing roads. It serves a

variety of purposes, such as:
Assessment of deficiencies in the existing system in regard to land width, cross-sectional
elements, geometries, surface type, riding quality, cross-drainage structures, traffic signs,
pavement markings. Such an assessment will facilitate planning of improvements, fixation of
priorities and allocation of resources.
Assessment of maintenance needs with a knowledge of accurate road length, pavement width
and specifications, terrain, rainfall intensity etc.
Assessment of the hydraulic and structural adequacy and carriageway width of cross-drainage
structures, with view to plan for their improvements.
6.2.2 Road Features Covered by Inventorying
A comprehensive system of road inventorying should covers many features of the road as
possible. A list of such features given in Table 26'1.
Table 26 1 Road features to be covered by inventorying
A Highway
Classification
1. Name of
highway
2.
Classification
3.Number
Total Length
B Right of Way From Km To Km Width (m)
C Urban/Rural From Km To Km
Roads
Urban
Sections
Rural
Sections
D Terrain From Km To Km
Plain
Rolling
Hilly
E Pavement From Km To Km Pavement width

Width Single width/
Intermediate/
Double lane/
Four lane
F Pavement From Km To Km Surface type

surface type Earth/WBM/
Gravel/
ST/AC/CC
G Pavement ride Km Roughness

quality (IRI)
88
H Shoulder type From Km To Km Shoulder Type
Earth/Gravel/ST
J Horizontal Location Radius

curvature
K Vertical Profile From Km To Km Gradient (+/-)
L Junctions Location Type
M Location Type Width

Culverts/Bridges
Structural
Rating
Hydraulic
Adequacy
6.2.3 Periodicity of Inventorying
A road inventory which is out-of-date is not of much use. It therefore has to be updated at
periodic intervals.
An interval of 5 years is considered satisfactory.
6.2.4 Manual Methods of Inventorying
Manual methods of inventorying involve engineering surveys of alignment, vertical profile, and
other physical measurements. They are tedious and time-consuming and represent large
manpower requirements. In view of the difficulties involved, they cannot be routinely carried out
and require special effort.
6.2.5 Instrument-Aided Inventorying
Since manual method of road inventorying is tedious, instrument aided methods are now being
followed. This is normally accomplished by an instrumented car containing the following:
An accurate distance measuring device, actuated from the speedo-cable of the car, having an
accuracy of 20 m.
A gyroscope for measuring horizontal curvature, which takes the direction readings at the
beginning and the end of each horizontal curve, along with the corresponding distance readings.
The deflection angle and radius can thus be computed from these readings.
A gradometer, for indicating the per cent upward or downward gradient as the car moves along.
A car-mounted bump-integrator which gives the roughness reading for each kilometre.
In addition to the above readings, the observer in the car can also record the terrain, pavement
surface type, urban or rural sections, shoulder type and location of junctions and their type.
The above data can be supplemented by manual data collection on details of cross-drainage
works.
6.2.6 Computer-Aided Road Data Bank System
The storage and retrieval of data is rendered easy if computer-aided Management Information
System is adopted. Apart from storing the road inventory data, the data bank can also include
traffic census data, particulars of maintenance inputs (renewals, resurfacing etc.), soil particulars,
drainage aspects etc.
89
6.2.7 QUESTION
1. (a) What is Highway Inventorying?

(b) How is Highway Inventorying accomplished?
90
6.3 Highway Maintenance
6.3.1 Need for Maintenance
A highway facility deteriorates in its characteristics due to various causes. These are :
Traffic Factors
Environmental Factors
(a) Traffic Factors
The traffic operating on the facility causes ravelling, rutting, corrugations, cracking, loss of
material, loss of skid-resistance and structural deformation. The extent of deterioration depends
upon the intensity of traffic, especially the wheel load and its repetitions. Iron-wheeled traffic can
be significance in the case of water-bound macadam roads and earthen roads.
(b) Environmental Factors
The external influence of environmental factors such as rainfall, snowfall, temperature variation
and atmospheric conditions can cause deterioration of the pavement. Rainfall causes erosion of
shoulders and slopes and ingress of water into the pavement structure and subgrade and affects
the performance of drainage structures. Snowfall can cause ingress of moisture into the
pavement structure and subgrade and result in frost action. It can also disrupt traffic.
Temperature variations can soften the binder and affect the performance of bituminous surfaces
and cement concrete pavements Atmospheric action can oxidise the binder and cause
deterioration.
In addition to the above, the extent of deterioration and its rate are governed by the standards to
which a facility was designed initially If a facility is designed to higher standards initially, its
maintenance needs will be lower than if it is designed to lower standards initially.
The economic benefits of a well-planned maintenance policy are :

Reduction in road user costs, such as vehicle operating costs, travel time savings and accident
costs.
Reduction in the level of future maintenance and rehabilitation costs (remember : a stitch in time
saves nine),
Reduction or prevention of the economic loss due to road closures.
From the above, it is clear that a good policy of highway maintenance should be one of the aims
of any highway department.
6.3.2 Assessing Maintenance Needs
Till recently, the assessment of maintenance needs was done by intuition and past experience of
the highway engineer. He used to travel on his roads, visually Inspecting the condition of the
surface and its extent of deterioration. The travel in inspection vehicles used to enable him to
judge the riding quality, his accumulated experience used to guide him in determining the
periodicity and specifications for resurfacing and resealing.
While in India the above system is still in vogue, in the advanced countries great strides have
been recently made in assessing maintenance needs on a more scientific and exact basis. The
steps Involved in such a system are:
1. Evaluation of the pavement characteristics by various methods.

2. Development of minimum standards for road characteristics like roughness and skid
resistance.
3. Provision of the needed maintenance inputs based on (1) and (2) above at appropriate
periodicity.
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The selection of minimum standards for maintenance can be scientifically done if research is
conducted on the deterioration of road characteristics over a period of time under traffic and the
road user costs under different levels of road characteristics. The most common road
characteristic used for this purpose is roughness. It is generally observed that a road deteriorates
in its roughness over time under traffic, due to cracking, ravelling, rutting, deformation etc. When
the deterioration reaches such a level that the rioad user costs mount up, it is advisable to
resurface the road and restore it to its original condition. This principle is illustrated in Fig. 27 1.
The curves pertaining to road deterioration as a function of age (or equivalent standard axles)
can be constructed after careful research.
Fig. 27-1. Typical road deterioration-vs-age curve
Some organisations have fixed standards for road characterises for purposes of a good
maintenance management policy. E.g. Standards for skid-resistance recommended in the
Marshall Committee (U.K.)
Table 27-1 Recommended Roughness Values for Roads in India (mm/km measured on towed
fifth wheel bump integrator)
Surface Type Road Condition

Good Average Poor Very Poor
1. Asphaltic concrete 2000 - 2500 2500 - 3500 3500 - 4000 Over 4000
2. Premix bituminous carpet 2500 - 4500 4500 - 5500 5500 - 6500 Over 6500
3. Surface dressing 4000 - 5000 5000 - 6000 6500 - 7500 Over 7500
4. Water-bound macadam or
8000 - 9000 9000 - 10000 10000 - 12000 Over 12000
gravel
Resurfacing can be done when the roughness values reach the lower values under the column
"poor" in the above Table.
6.3.3 Maintenance of Earth Roads
Earth roads form a major percentage of rural roads in India and hence their efficient maintenance
is of great importance. Because of the low specifications (inadequate embankment height, small
roadway width and low cost drainage arrangements), good maintenance can preserve the assets
and prolong their life.
The principal maintenance operation consists of maintaining the cross-section by grading and
dragging.
(a) Grading
The shaping and sectioning of an earth road «s best done by blading with a grader or motor
grader. A grader of about 110 HP is suitable for the purpose. In India, it is most unlikely that
mechanical graders are available for routine maintenance operations. Manual methods should
include making up ruts and deformations by additional soil from borrow pits and restoring the
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camber. If iron-tyred traffic is heavy and ruts are formed, the ruts can be rilled by quarry rubbish,
gravel or other inferior local materials.
(b) Dragging
Dragging stops the formation of corrugations. A typical drag, which can be towed by animal
power, by men or by motor grader, is illustrated in Fig. 27*2 (Ref. 2). Dragging does not restore
the cross-section of the road.
Fig. 27-2. Drag.
(c) Rolling
If a power roller is available, the earth surface should be rolled and compacted after grading and
dragging. A light sprinkling of water can be done if rolling is done in dry season.
(d) Filling of rain-cuts
Rain-cuts in the embankment slopes should be filled up after the rainy season. Turfing prevents
rain erosion.
6.3.4 Maintenance of Gravel Roads
Gravel roads (also known as murram roads) are very common in Kenya. The maintenance
operations involved are filling local depressions, grading, dragging, rolling and re-gravelling.
(a) Filling local depressions
Local depressions and longitudinal ruts should be filled up by adding fresh materials of the same
specifications as the original material. Light sprinkling and tamping with hand rammers will help in
compacting the material.
(b) Grading
Grading is an operation intended to restore the camber and shape of the gravel surface. A motor
grader is ideal for this purpose. For gravel roads, heavy grading is inadvisable without the
provision of additional surfacing material if the remaining thickness of gravel is less than 75 mm.
(c) Dragging
One of the common defects that develops in a gravel road is corrugations. Dragging can stop the
formation of corrugations.
(d) Regravelling
Re-gravelling is necessary to make up the loss in material caused by the combined action of
traffic, rain and wind. The loss per year is about 25 mm thickness. Regravelling is done once in
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2-5 years. Additional gravel, 25-75 mm loose thickness is spread after scarifying the old surface.
Wafer is sprinkled to facilitate compaction which is done preferably at optimum moisture content.
The layer is rolled by a power roller.
6.3.5 Maintenance of Water-bound Macadam Roads
Untreated water-bound macadam is a common specification. Water-bound macadam surface

deteriorates in the following typical ways :
1. Formation of ruts
2. Formation of potholes
3. Formation of corrugation
4. Ravelling
5. Damaged edges.
Formation of ruts is caused by excessive camber and preponderance of iron-tyred traffic. Ruts
are made good by rut-renewal, which consists of (i) cleaning and watering the rut, (ii) scarifying
and removing the stones to an approximately rectangular section with fiat bottom and vertical
sides, (iii) filling the section with salvaged metal and fresh metal, (iv) rolling with the addition of
screenings, gravel and watering, (v) finally spreading 6 mm sand layer.
Pot-holes are formed due to lack of binding properties in the binder material, poor quality of
stones, local sub-grade failure or defects in consolidation. Pot-holes are remedied by patch
repairs, The area to be patched is cut to a rectangular or square shape with vertical sides. The
sequence of operations for laying patch material is the same as in rut renewal. Hand rammers
can be used for patch repairs instead of power rollers.
Corrugations result in a wavy surface, causing discomfort to travel. Corrugations are caused by a
variety of factors such as:
1. Defective rolling Lack of control in rolling can result in corrugations.

Especially jerks and non-uniform rolling speed can cause
corrugations.
2. Vibrations set up by Pneumatic tyred vehicles running at speed cause

pneumatic tyres vibrations to be set up in the spring loaded axles. These
vibrations are harmonic in nature and cause waves.
3. Vibrations set up due At locations where constant braking of vehicles is involved,

to braking such as a bus stop, vibrations are set up in the vehicle.
These eventually cause corrugations.
4. Use of excessive Excessive blinding material at the surface tend to get

quantity of blinding deposited in regular waves, depending upon the spring
material action in the wheels.
5. Transverse picking of If during laying a thin renewal coat of WBM, transverse

WBM surface picking has been done, corrugations are bound to result.
Picking should therefore be randomised or longitudinal.
When corrugations have been formed, the excess blinding material that has got deposited in
ripples should be immediately removed by dragging or brooming. If corrugations have developed
in the WBM course itself, a renewal layer is needed. This should be laid after careful scarifying of
the corrugated surface.
27'5'6. Ravelling is the phenomenon under which stones get loosened and are freely scattered
on the surface. Ravelling is due to (i) lack of binding properties in the binding material (ii)
inadequate consolidation (iii) use of too plastic a binder (iv) excess quantity of binder and (v)
evaporation of moisture in the hot weather. Ravelling can be detected early by the presence of
94
tiny hairline cracks. The tendency can be remedied by blinding with a good binder and watering
the surface.
Damaged edges, are caused by lack of shoulder support. Unless prompt action is taken, the
damage can progressively travel to the inner portions of the carriageway. The damaged portion is
removed and renewed with fresh material.* Rolling the edge and the shoulder should be done
simultaneously. Reverse camber in the shoulders should be remedied by grading.
Water bound macadam surface gets worn due to traffic and needs periodic renewal. The
periodicity of renewal varies from 2-6 years, depending upon traffic, quality of aggregates etc.
Renewal is done in layers of 50 to 75 mm loose. Renewal consists of the following sequence of
operations:
1. Cleaning the surface of all dust and caked mud by wire brushes and brooms.
2. Picking up and scarifying the surface after moistening the surface
3. Screening the salvaged materials.
4. Forming stable shoulders by additional earthwork.
5. Spreading the salvaged materials and additional material.
6. Dry rolling with a power roller.
7. Wet rolling.
8. Application of screenings.
9. Spreading binding material and rolling.
10. Spreading a 6 mm layer of coarse sand.
11. Curing by light sprinkling of water for 15 days. Traffic can be allowed after 2-3 days.
6.3.6 Maintenance of Bituminous Surfaces
(a) Defects, symptoms, causes and remedies
A bituminous surface wears out due to (») traffic (it) weather, such as ingress of water, loss of
volatiles in the binder and oxidation of binder (Hi) inadequacies in the initial specifications and
construction standards. Table 27*2 lists out the type of distress, symptoms, probable causes and
possible types of treatments (Ref. 5).
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Table 27 2 Symptoms, causes, and treatment of defects in bituminous suafacings
Types of distress Symptoms Probable causes Possible types of treatment

1 2 3 4
A. Surface defect
Excessive binder in premix, spray or tack coat; Sand-blinding; open-graded pre-mix; liquid seal
1. Fatty surface Collection of binder on the
loss of covet aggregates, excessively heavy axle coat ; burning of excess binder ; removal of
surface
load. affected area.
Polishing of aggregates under traffic, or excessive Resurfacing with surface dressing or premix
2. Smooth surface Slippery
binder. carpet.
Presence of alternate lean
3. Streaking Non-uniform application of bitumen, or at a low
and Application of a new surface.
temperature
heavy lines of bitumen
4. Hungry surface Loss of aggregates or Use of less bitumen or absorptive
Slurry seal or fog seal.
presence of fine cracks aggregates
B. Cracks
Short and fine cracks at Insufficient bitumen, excessive filler or improper
1. Hair-line crack
close intervals on the surface compaction
Inter-connected cracks Weak pavement, unstable conditions of subgrade
2. Alligator crack forming series of small or lower layers, excessive overloads or brittleness
The treatment will depend on whether pavement is
blocks of binder
structurally sound or unsound. Where the
Poor drainage, shoulder settlement, weak joint
Cracks on a straight line pavement is structurally sound, the cracks should
3. Longitudinal crack between adjoining spreads of pavement layers or
along the road be filled with a low viscosity binder or a slurry seal
differential frost heave
or fog seal depending on the width of cracks.
Crack near and parallel to Lack of support from shoulder, poor drainage, frost
4. Edge crack Unsound cracked pavements will need strength-
pavement edge heave, or inadequate pavement width
ening or rehabilitation treatment.
Cracks in transverse
direction or inter-connected
5. Shrinkage crack Shrinkage of bituminous layer with age
cracks forming a series of
large blocks
Sympathetic cracks over
Due to joints and cracks in the pavement layer
6. Reflection crack joints and cracks in the
underneath
pavement underneath
C. Deformation
Formation of crescent
Unusual thrust of wheels in a direction, lack or
shaped cracks pointing in the Removal of the surface layer in the affected area
1. Slippage failure of bond between surface and lower
direction of the thrust of and replacement with fresh material.
pavement courses
wheels
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Types of distress Symptoms Probable causes Possible types of treatment
1 2 3 4
Heavy channelised traffic, inadequate compaction
Longitudinal depression in
2. Rutting of pavement layers, poor stability of pavement Filling the depressions with premix material.
the wheel tracks
material or heavy bullock cart traffic
Formation of regular undula- Lack of stability in the mix, oscillations set up by Scarification and relaying of surfacing, or cutting of
3. Corrugations
tions vehicle springs, or faulty laying of surface course high spots and filling of low spots.
Localised bulging of Unstable mix, lack of bond between layers, or
Removing the material to firm base and relaying a
4 Shoving pavement surface along heavy start-stop type movements and those
stable mix.
with crescent-shaped cracks involving- negotiations of curves and gradients
Localised shallow
5. Shallow depression Presence of inadequately compacted pockets Filling with premix materials.
depressions
Where fill is weak the defective fill should be
Large deformation of Poor compaction of fills, poor drainage, excavated and redone. Where inadequate
6. Settlement and upheaval
pavement inadequate pavement or frost heave pavement is the cause, the pavement should be
strengthened.
D. Disintegration
Use of hydrophilic aggregate, inadequate mix Spreading and compacting heated sand over the
Separation of bitumen from
composition, continuous contact with water, poor affected area in the case of surface dressing;
1. Stripping aggregates in the presence
bond between aggregate and bitumen at the time replacement with fresh bituminous mix with added
61 moisture
of construction, etc. anti-stripping agent in other cases.
Ageing and hardening of binder, stripping, poor
Rough surface with loss of Application of liquid seal, fog seal or slurry seal
2. Loss of aggregate bond between binder and aggregate, poor
aggregate in some portions depending on the extent of damage.
compaction etc.
Failure of binder to hold the
Poor compaction, poor bond between binder and
aggregates shown up by Application of cutback covered with coarse sand,
3. Ravelling aggregate, insufficient binder, brittleness of binder
pock marks of eroded areas or slurry seal, or a premix renewal coat.
etc.
on the surface.
Ingress of water into the pavement, lack of bond
Appearance of bowl shaped Filling pot-holes with premix material, or
4. Pot-hole between the surfacing and WBM base, insufficient
holes, usually after rain penetration patching.
bitumen content etc.
Water infiltration, poor lateral support from Cutting the affected area to regular sections and
Irregular breakage of pave-
5. Edge-breaking shoulders, inadequate strength of pavement rebuilding with simultaneous attention paid to the
ment edges.
edges, etc. proper construction of shoulders.
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(b) Pot-hole repair (patch repair)
The amount of patching needed to make up pot-holes and localised failures may vary from 0
to 25 per cent of the surface area annually. Patching prolongs the surface life until a time will
come when it will be more economical and desirable to renew the surface entirely.
Patching can be done by (i) sand premix, (ii) open-graded premix (iii) dense-graded premix (iv)
penetration patching or (v) surface dressing Dense-graded premix patch is rarely used and
only where the existing surface itself is dense-graded asphaltic concrete. Surface dressing
(one or two coats) can be done for existing surfaces with a similar specifications and where
the traffic is not too heavy.
Patching consists of the following sequence of operations:
1. Cleaning the area by brooming

2. Trimming the sides vertically and the shape to a rectangle or square and levelling the
bottom.
3. Painting the sides and bottom of the hole with a tack coal if a premixed material is used.
4. Following the regular specifications of the treatment.
5. Rolling or hand tamping and checking the profile with straight edge.
Sealing the surface is resorted to rectify hungry surface, repair cracks, and arrest loss of
aggregates. Sealing can take the form of the following treatements :
1. Liquid seal
2. Fog seal
3. Slurry seal.
Liquid seal is an application of a binder (penetration grade or emulsion) at 9.8 kg/10 sq m

followed up with a spread of cover aggregates, 6.3 mm nominal size, at a rate of 0.09 cu m/10
sq m and rolling in position.
Fog seal is a spray of slow-setting emulsion diluted with equal amount of water at a rate of
0.5-1 litre sq m. Traffic is allowed after the seal sets in. It is provided over a hungry surface, a
cracked surface, a surface where there is loss of aggregates and over a surface exhibiting
ravelling.
A slurry seal is the application of a slurry composed of slow-setting emulsion, water and
aggregates to a thickness of 5-10 mm. The emulsion and water are 18-20 per cent and 10-12
per cent respectively of the weight of aggregates. The slurry is spread at the rate of 200 sq m
per tonne. No rolling is needed. Slurry seal is provided over a hungry surface, cracked
surface, a surface where there is loss of aggregates and over a surface exhibiting ravelling.
Because of low viscosity of the binder, the specification results in sealing voids and cracks.
When patching becomes too high, it is more economical to renew the surfaces with a single
cost surface dressing (SD), a 20 mm premix chipping carpet (PC) or a mix-seal (MS). Such
renewals are part of preventive maintenance and prolong the life of a pavement. They result in
a better riding quality when the surface has deteriorated.
The periodicity of renewals and their type are given in Table 27-3.
6.3.7 Maintenance of Cement Concrete Surface
A well designed and properly constructed cement concrete pavement needs hardly any
maintenance. In fact, this is one of the strong points of this specification. However, defects do
appear due to the following reasons:
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1. Ingress of water to the subgrade causing uneven settlement especially through joints.
2. Inadequate design and faulty workmanship.
(a) Cracks
The common defect noticed in a cement concrete slab is the appearance of cracks. Cracks
can be shrinkage cracks, structural cracks, contraction cracks, corner cracks and warping
cracks. They can be of varying width.
Usually hair cracks are not dangerous since they do not admit water to the subgrade. Medium
and wide cracks are harmful since they can cause progressive destruction of the subgrade
support by allowing water to percolate. Cracks are filled up by liquid substances such as
bituminous emulsions, cutback bituminous or joint sealing compounds, whose basic ingredient
is bitumen. Before the cracks are sealed, they are cleaned of dust and foreign matter.
Compressed air jets and nozzles are useful to achieve this. The dry joints are then filled with
appropriate bituminous binder poured by cans. The poured material is topped up with sand or
fine chips to prevent the removal of binder under traffic.
(b) Joints
The maintenance of joints consists in examining whether the joints are properly sealed and, if
not, to immediately seal them. If the preformed joint filler has rotted and deteriorated, it should
be removed and substituted by a fresh compressible filling material. The sealing material is
then poured.
(c) Patching of slabs
A variety of defects, such as scaling, spalling, depressions, irregularities and failures, can
occur locally in a slab. In such cases, it is necessary to patch up the defective portions
immediately to arrest further deterioration. Bituminous premix materials are very widely used
for this purpose. When the distress is more pronounced, concrete patch-work is resorted to.
Such patches are of regular geometrical shapes, without acute-angled corners. The sides are
first trimmed and made vertical and fresh concrete is laid and tamped.
(d) Mud-pumping and blowing
When the subgrade becomes moist with free accumulation of water, heavy axle loads passing
over the slab will eject water and mud through the joints, cracks and pavement edges. This
phenomena is known as mud-pumping and blowing. When a pavement exhibits this
phenomenon, the joints and cracks should be inspected and defective ones refilled and
sealed. A bituminous under-seal can be pumped underneath the slab to prevent recurrence of
the defect. This is accomplished through drilled holes in the slab. A viscous binder is
preferred. This fills voids in between the slab and the subgrade.
6.3.8 Maintenance of Shoulders
Shoulders give lateral support to the pavement and provide room for wheels when crossing
and overtaking on narrow pavements. They are also used by vehicles for parking.
Shoulders constructed of gravel, WBM or bituminous specifications are maintained in the

same manner as the pavement of such specifications.
Shoulders of earth or gravel need periodic attention. Proper maintenance of cross-section and
camber are the key to successful pavement performance. Shoulders should never be allowed
to be depressed below the pavement level. Reverse camber causes a ditch at the junction of
the pavement and the shoulder, where water accumulates. This should be avoided by proper
blading Rain cuts should be made up by fresh earthwork.
6.3.9 Maintenance of Slopes of Embankments
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Embankment slopes get easily damaged due to rains. Rain cuts, unless properly attended to
in time, erode the slopes right up to the pavement edges and damage the pavement
ultimately. Turfing is one of the easiest and most effective ways of maintaining the slopes.
Turfing checks erosion and improves the aesthetics of the road vastly. Turf should be mowed
periodically, preferably before the monsoons.
The slopes of embankments subjected to inundation and flooding are protected often with
boulder pitching. They tend to get dislodged due to slips and settlements. The damaged
stones should be removed, the slopes made up and pitching redone with adequate granular
bedding.
6.3.10 Maintenance of Bridges and Culverts
(a) Bridge and culvert register
The maintenance of bridges and culverts is greatly facilitated if a register containing the salient
features of structures is maintained. The structures should be numbered as per standard
practice. Thus, a number 343/3 would indicate that the structure is the third in the 343rd mile
on kilometre. The number should be painted prominently in the parapet of the structure. The
register should give bring particulars such as :
1. Number of structure
2. Date of construction
3. Type of structure
4. Waterway (number and length of spans)
5. Foundation particulars
6. Behaviour of structure during floods (HFL to be indicated).
7. History of periodic maintenance (painting, pointing of masonry, re-girdering etc.).
(b) Periodic Inspection

The structures should be periodically inspected at least once in a year by (1) Junior Engineers
in case of culverts of waterway up to 6 m (2), Assistant Engineers in case of minor bridges
(length 6-30 m), Executive Engineers in case of medium bridges length 30-150m) and
Superintending Engineers in case of major bridges (length greater than 150 m). The following
points should be noted during inspection:
1. Condition of foundations, and any signs of scour
2. Condition of substructure and any signs of damage
3. Condition of floor protection works, and signs of scour and dislodgement
4. Bearings: greasing, tilts, signs of corrosion
5. Superstructure: signs of cracks, corrosion
6. Condition of painting of steel girders
7. Signs of settlement
8. Condition of wing walls
9. Condition of guide bunds 30. Condition of approaches
11. Condition of wearing coat, hand rails, approach slab curbs, drainage spouts and guard
stones.
12. H.F.L. reached
13. Condition of river channel and its banks
14. Adequacy of the opening
15. Condition of pipes in a pipe culvert and minimum cushion.
(c) Painting of steel bridges
Steel members get corroded unless protected by painting. Painting should be done once in 6
to 12 years, depending on location and nearness to sea.
(d) Maintenance of masonry
Repainting of joints of brick and stone masonry should be done if deterioration is noticed. All
vegetable growth should be cleared. Roots of trees which are likely to cause disruption of the
100
masonry of abutments and wing walls should be cleared. Weepholes of abutments and wing
walls should not be allowed to clog.
(e) Scour
Control of scour of foundation can be obtained by dumping boulders, construction of spurs and
dumping a garland of concrete blocks or stone sausages around piers. Scour meters provide
good information on the extent of scour.
(f) Bearings
Metallic bearings deserve special attention. They should be cleaned un greased with a natural
graphite grease.
(g) Expansion joints
Expansion joints get dislodged and loosened frequently. They should be immediately restored.
(h) Weak and narrow structures
Rating of bridges and culverts should be done periodically and the safe load displayed
prominently on the structures.
6.3.11 Special Problems of Hill Road Maintenance
Some of the special problems of hill road maintenance are:

1. Snow clearance
2. Slips and landslides
3. Drainage.
(a) Snow clearance
Roads cold sub-tropical and polar regions get covered with snow. Snow clearance can be
done manually or by special equipment (dozers, snow masters and snow blasts).
(b) Slips and landslides
Slips and landslides are a common feature of hill roads. The causes for these and remedial
measures to prevent them are discussed elsewhere. Read maintenance in areas subjected to
slips and landslides poses severe problems. The greatest of them is quick removal of debris
and restoration of traffic. Mechanical equipment like dozers are necessary.
(c) Drainage maintenance
Maintenance of drainage structures is an important task in hill road maintenance. The quick
and efficient removal of water prevents slips and landslides and road deterioration. Drainage
arrangement such as catchwater drains, cross-drainage structures, side drains and burried
drains should be inspected before the rainy season and cleared of all obstructions.
6.3.12 Maintenance Practice in Kenya
(a) 27121. Organisation
The Kenya Ministry of Roads plays an oversight role on roads development and maintenance
through four main agencies as follows:
Agency Abbreviation Responsibility

Kenya National KeNHA Primary Roads: i.e. class A, B
Highways Authority and C
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Kenya Rural Roads KERRA Minor roads: class D, E and
Authority Special Purpose roads
Kenya Urban KURA Roads in Urban Areas (excluding
Roads Authority classified roads)
Kenya Roads KRB Management of the Road Fund
Board
(b) Types of maintenance operations
Maintenance operations n Kenya fall under the following groups:
1. Routine Maintenance, including patching, earthwork, shoulders, drainage, road furniture,

road signs, arboriculture.
2. Periodical Maintenance, including resealing (renewal of surface at specified intervals) and
re-carpeting and/or strengthening
3. Special Maintenance, such as flood damage restoration, major, painting of steel girders,
etc.
6.3.13 Maintenance Management System (MMS)
A Maintenance Management System (MMS), also known as Pavement Management System

(PMS), is a computer package which facilitates maintenance planning and optimal allocation
of resources. Its main elements are:
(i) a basic road data bank

(ii) a pavement performance model
(iii) selection of intervention levels and
(iv) listing out priorities for maintenance (renewal and overlay) for a given budget.
Many countries have developed and implemented their own MMS. Kenya is also in the
process of developing one.
6.3.14 QUESTIONS
1. Describe why highway maintenance is needed.

2. How are maintenance needs assessed?
3. Describe how an earth road is maintained.
4. Describe how a gravel road is maintained.
5. Write short notes on corrugations in pavements
6. Describe how a water-bound-macadam road is maintained.
7. What are the common defects, symptoms, causes and remedies for bituminous surfaces?
8. Describe the operations of sealing of bituminous surfaces.
9. What is the current practice for periodic renewal of surfaces of National Highways?
10. Describe the maintenance of cement concrete roads.
6.4 Overlay Design and Construction
6.4.1 Need for Overlays

Pavements which have been in service deteriorate due to a variety of factors. A part of such
deterioration can be made good by patching and periodic renewals. When the extent of
deterioration is beyond such simple maintenance solutions, the pavement needs an additional
overlay. Strengthening with such an overlay will overcome the structural inadequacy caused
by traffic that has used the pavement so far and will enable the strengthened pavement to
withstand the expected traffic in the design period.
102
6.4.2 Overlay Design for Flexible Pavements
(a) Principles of design
An overlay design differs from design of new pavement in that in the former the strength of the
existing pavement is to be evaluated, whereas in the later the strength of the subgrade on
which the new pavement has to be constructed is evaluated.
Thus, overlay designs involve the following steps:

1. Estimation of the traffic to be carried by the overlaid pavement
2. Measurement and estimation of the strength of the existing pavement
3. Determination of the thickness and type of the overlay.
The exact design of overlays by analytical methods is rather difficult. Most of the design
methods are empirical.
6.4.3 Overlay Design Methods for Flexible Pavements
(a) Measurement of pavement strength
After estimation of the future traffic, the next information needed for design is the strength of
the existing pavement. Measurement of deflection of a flexible pavement is one of the indirect
methods for assessing its strength.
Most of the methods currently in use by various organisations round the world use deflection
criterion as the basis of design. The appeal of this method is the ease and speed with which
deflections can be measured, without disturbance of the pavement structure. The method is
based on the assumption that there is a strong correlation between deflection and the stresses
and strains developed in the subgrade. This assumption is not always correct and surface
deflection is not uniquely related to pavement strength.
(b) TRRL procedure

A detailed procedure for overlay design has been developed by TRRL. The method is based
on extensive measurements of surface deflection and their relationship with performance
obtained by TRRL during many years' work on road experiments. The basic types of design
charts are given:
Relationship between the existing deflection and the amount of traffic carried since
construction, enabling an assessment of the time when it may require structural strengthening.
Chart showing the thickness of rolled asphalt overlay to reduce the present deflection to a
value consistent with the satisfactory performance under traffic which is forecast for the future.
With these charts, it is possible to conclude whether any given section of pavement needs an
overlay now or later, and if so, what is the thickness of the overlay.
(c) Asphalt Institute method
In the U.S.A., the design procedure for asphalt overlays published by the Asphalt Institute is
followed. The existing pavement is evaluated by measuring the surface deflection by the
Benkelman beam. The thickness of the overlay is determined from the deflection and an
estimate of the traffic to determined from the deflection and an estimate of the traffic to be
carried. Traffic is expressed in terms of a Design Traffic Number (DTN) which is the average
daily number of 8.2 Tonne single axle loads over the design period. A typical chart is given in
Fig. 28.2.
103
Fig. 28-2. Aspbalt Institute overlay design chart.
(d) Analytical methods
Just as a flexible pavement can be designed both by empirical methods and analytical
methods, so also it is possible to;: design overlay thickness by analytical methods in addition
to the empirical methods described so far. The methods are based on sound theoretical
formulation of pavement response using multilayer elastic systems. These have the advantage
that they are much less dependent on local conditions and can be applied universally. They,
however, suffer from the disadvantage that they are very complex, involving often computer
analysis, and are thus beyond the reach of the average highway engineer.
6.4.4 Overlay Design Methods for Rigid Pavement
Concrete pavements develop structural cracks if they are under-designed or if they have been
subjected to heavy traffic. These slabs can be rehabilitated with a rigid or a flexible overlay,
and thus given them a further lease of useful life.
(a) Types of rigid overlays
Rigid overlays are those constructed with a cement concrete slab. There are three types of
rigid overlays, viz.
Bonded, or monolithic overlays, in which the thin overlay slab is bonded on to the existing slab
after specially preparing the existing surface through acid-etching or scarifying using cold
milling machines equipped with silicon carbide teeth and mortar coating. Such overlays act
monolithically with the original slab and hence need the minimum thickness.
Partially bonded overlay, in which the overlay slab is placed directly over the existing slab after
cleaning the surface.
Unbonded overlay (also called over-slabbing) consisting of a thick slab laid over a separation
course. The separation course is laid over the existing slab. The overlay slabs acts
independently of the underlying concrete slab. Fig. 28 3 gives the three types.
Thin bonded overlays (minimum thickness 25 mm) are not recommended where the existing
slab has severely failed. Partially bonded overlays (minimum thickness 120 mm) are also not
recommended if the existing slab has severely failed. Unbonded overlays of a minimum
thickness of 150 mm can be provided over badly failed slabs too.
104
Fig. 28-3. Types of rigid overlays.
Reflection cracks can be expected in thin bonded overlays. They are also usually expected in
partially bonded overlays, but are not normally expected in unbonded overlays.
Steel reinforcement is not normally used in thin bonded overlays. In partially bonded overlays,
steel requirement is independent of the steel in the existing pavement. In unbonded overlays,
steel requirement is entirely independent of steel in the existing pavement.
(b) Design of rigid overlays
Various organisations have evolved empirical formulae for design of rigid overlays. The
formulae of the Corps of Engineers and the Federal Aviation Agency are popular. These are
given .below :
In the above formulae,

h0 = overlay thickness required (inches)
hm = thickness of monolithic slab required (inches)
he = thickness of existing pavement slab (inches)
C = Pavement condition factor
= 1.00 when the existing pavement is in good condition
=0.75 when the existing pavement shows initial cracking.
=0.35 when the existing pavement is badly cracked.
(c) Flexible overlays over rigid slabs
Flexible overlays can also be provided over inadequate concrete slabs. The disadvantage of
this specification is that reflection cracks appear on the bituminous overlay. Such cracks can
be eliminated only if the thickness of the overlay is substantial, say over 125 mm.
Many empirical formulae and design procedures are available for determining flexible overlay
thickness.
6.5 Skid Resistance
6.5.1 Importance of Skid-Resistant Surfaces
One of the common causes of road accidents is skidding of fast-moving vehicles. The problem
has been getting aggravated as the vehicle speeds have been increasing over the year (due
105
to better vehicle design) and as the pavements are designed to provide a smooth riding
surface.
If a vehicle skids, the driver loses control of the vehicle and the resulting accident is normally
of a serious nature.
6.5.2 Factors Governing Skid Resistance
The factors governing skidding of vehicles can be grouped under the following four major
heads:
1. Roadway factors
2. Vehicle factors
3. Traffic factors
4. Environmental factors
6.5.3 Measurement of Skid Resistance
A common measure of skid resistance is the coefficient of friction between the tyre and road
interface. Thus, if a vehicle travelling at a speed of v m/sec is suddenly braked such that the
wheels are locked (prevented from rotating), the vehicle decelerates with a certain rate α
m/sec2, and comes to a stop in a distance of d metres. If f is the coefficient of friction
developed and m is the mass of the vehicle in kg, then equating the change in kinetic energy
to the work done, the following equation results
Fig. 29.2. Braking car method of determining skid resistance.
Based on the above principles, a number of methods have been standardised for the
measurement of skid resistance. The important ones among them are:
1. Stopping of test vehicles
2. Braking of trailers towed by vehicles
3. Braking of vehicles with a test wheel
4. Measuring [sideway force that develops when a wheel placed at an inclination side-slips '
5. Portable Laboratory Instrument.
In the stopping car method, a vehicle driving at a certain known speed is braked and the
distance it takes to bring it to a stop is measured. Then Equation 29.2 gives the friction
developed. In this method, arrangement for wetting the road surface can be made by
sprinkling water.
If a decelerometer is mounted on the vehicle, the deceleration can be directly recorded.

Equation 29.3 then gives the friction factor developed. Instead of bringing the vehicle to a stop,
106
the car wheels can be locked for a small duration, say one second, when the vehicle is
travelling at a certain speed (say 50 KMPH) and the deceleration recorded.
In the trailer wheel method the trailer wheel is locked and the force developed at the tyre-
pavement interface is recorded by a suitable device. The ASTM measures the skid resistance
in terms of a Skid Number (SN), which is obtained by multiplying the ratio of frictional force to
normal load by 100. Thus :
In some methods, for example the Swedish Test vehicle method, a fifth wheel is mounted in
the vehicle itself and is made to slip at various values. Slipping is achieved when a freely
rotating wheel is braked so that its speed is reduced.
The method in use in U.K. is to measure the sideway force coefficient (SFC). In the standard
testing equipment, commonly known as the SCRIM (sideway force coefficient routine
investigation machine), consists of a standard four-wheeled vehicle carrying a fifth wheel set
at an angle of 20 degrees to the direction of travel. A smooth tyre (3 x 20 inch) is fitted to the
fifth wheel which has a dead weight load of 200 kg. A water tank of 2750 litres capacity is
carried by the chassis. Speeds in the range of 15-100 KMPH can be adopted. A common
speed of measurement is 50 KMPH. About 50 km-70 km of road section can be tested in a
day.
The method most readily available to a highway engineer is the British Portable Tester
6.5.4 Standards for Skid Resistance
In order to maintain the road surfaces in a reasonable rough condition, various authorities
recommend minimum values of skid resistances depending upon the site conditions.
The Marshall Committee Report on maintenance recommends certain values of skid

resistance to be aimed at. These values are classified according to the site conditions.
Table 29.1 Target values of skidding resistance proposed by the Marshall Committee in 1970
107
The standards recommended for the USA in a publication by the Highway Research Board are
reproduced here.
Table 29.2 Interim Skid Resistance Requirements for Main Highways
Traffic Recommended Values of SN

Speed Measured at Measured at
KMPH Traffic Speed 65 KMPH
50 36 31
65 33 33
80 32 37
100 31 41
120 31 46
6.5.5 Construction of Skid Resistant Surfaces
In order to achieve a good skid-resistant surface, care should be taken in the design and
construction of surfaces. In particular* the following points deserve notice:
1. The aggregates should be selected carefully, with due consideration to their texture,
polishing characteristics, shape and gradation.
2. In bituminous surfaces, the skid-resistance is generally governed by the larger aggregates
which are coarser than 2.36 mm. In cement concrete surfaces, fine aggregates' control
skid-resistance.
108
3. Excess of bituminous binder should be avoided.
4. In cement concrete mixes, water cement ratio should be strictly controlled.
5. In cement concrete surfaces, the surface finishing operations (brooming, brushing,
dragging with burlap, belting etc.) determine the final texture of the surface and should be
carried out with extreme care.
6. Special surfaces involving either naturally occurring hard polish-resistant aggregates or
artificially prepared aggregates (like calcined bauxite) and a high adhesive epoxy resin are
being used at difficult sites, where a high skid resistance is needed.
6.5.6 Maintenance of Skid Resistance of Surfaces
When the skid resistance of a surface falls below the desired minimum value, special
treatments are provided to restore the skid resistance. Some of the proven expedients are:
1. If bituminous surfaces become fattened, due to excess of binder in the mix, sand or a
gritty material is sprinkled and rolled.
2. Pre-coated chipping carpets can be rolled into fat bituminous surfaces.
3. Bituminous surfaces having polished aggregates can be made rough by surface dressing.
4. Cement concrete surfaces which have become smooth can be roughened by acid etching,
grooving and bonding additional layers. Roughening the surface by subjecting the
pavement to steel ball shots at high pressure has also been tried effectively.
6.5.7 QUESTIONS
1. What are the factors governing skid resistance of pavements?
2. How is skid resistance measured?
3. What are the practices for improving the skid resistance of surfaces ?
6.6 Pavement Roughness
6.6.1 Importance of Smooth Riding Surface
For the fast motor traffic, one of the desirable characteristics is a reasonably smooth riding
quality. A smooth surface brings about many advantages. Some of them are :
1. Higher speeds: The smoother the road surface, the higher is the speed at which vehicles
can drive.
2. Less fuel consumption: The fuel consumed in a vehicle is proportional to the work required
to be done to overcome various resistances (air resistance, frictional resistance and grade
resistance). The frictional resistance is a function of the coefficient of friction at type-road
interface. Smoother surfaces thus bring about considerable fuel economy.
3. Less wear and tear of tyres: The life of a tyre depends to a large extent on the
smoothness of the road surfaces. Rough roads shorten tyre life.
4. Less consumption of spare parts: Important spare parts of a vehicle such as the
suspension system, springs, shock absorbers, body and chassis get punished more on
rough roads than on smooth roads.
5. Riding comfort: Smooth roads result in high riding comfort. On the other hand, rough
roads result in jerky motion and poor riding comfort.
6. Safety: Roads which are full of potholes, ruts and corrugations endanger the safety of
travel since the possibility of sudden failure of vital parts increases on bad roads.
However, extremely smooth roads are dangerous since they increase the chances of
skidding Thus, the smoothness to be aimed at has to be a compromise between the
conflicting needs of anti-skid properties and economic arid comfortable travel.
6.6.2 Need for Roughness Measurements
109
Since roughness of a road is a major determinant of the safety, cost, comfort and speed of
travel, its accurate measurement is of vital importance to a highway engineer. The important
uses of roughness measurements are:
1. To assess maintenance needs
2. To assess quality of construction
3. For research purposes
6.6.3 What Constitutes Road Roughness
Road roughness can be defined as "deviations of a travelled surface from a true planar
surface with characteristic dimensions that affect ride quality, vehicle dynamics, dynamic
pavement loads and pavement damage". The deviations from the true planar surface could be
due to the surface texture, care in finishing operations, tolerances specified during
construction, potholes, cracks, corrugations, rutting and pavement deformations.
6.6.4 Measurement of Road Roughness
The methods of measuring roughness can be broadly grouped under two categories:
1. Direct measurement of the longitudinal profile.

2. Response-type instrument methods.
The direct measurement of the longitudinal profile is an ideal and accurate method since it
theoretically gives scaled reproductions of the pavement profile along a straight line. In
practice, however, the range and resolution of the profiling devices are limited, but within these
limits, the measurements may be called absolute.
The well-known response-type of instruments are :

1. Bureau of Public Roads (BPR) Roughometer, developed as early as 1925 It is a single-
wheel trailer which measures the uni-directional vertical movements of the damped, leaf
sprung wheel by a mechanical integrator unit. The results are recorded in inches psr mile. The
standard speed of measurement is 32 KMPH.
2. The British Towed Fifth Wheel Bump Integrator, which is basically a BPR Roughometer
type instrument that has undergone considerable development at the TRRL (U.K.).
3. APL trailer, developed by the French Bridge and Pavement Laboratory (LCPC).
4. Mays Meter, which is car-mounted device, giving a paper plot, whose length at the end of a
test is the raw roughness numeric for that test. The instrument can be operated a various
speeds.
5. Car-mounted integrator unit of the TRRL Towed Fifth Wheel.
The common disadvantages of all response-type roughness measurement systems are:

1. Absence of an internationally accepted conversion method to relate readings from different
instruments.
2. Variability of readings depending upon speed of measurement.
3. Need for calibrating the instruments at periodic intervals.
QUESTIONS
1. What is the importance of pavement roughness?
2. How is pavement roughness measured?
110
7 TENDERS, CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS
7.1 Methods of Execution
Generally two methods are adopted for execution of roadworks in the country, viz. (t)
departmental execution and (i») execution through contracts.
Departmental execution is generally resorted to for small works such as maintenance and repair.
It is also resorted to when sufficient response is not forth-coming from contractors. Generally,
execution through contracts results in cheaper costs. Hence, the choice of method of execution
should generally be in favour of contracts, unless there are special reasons for not doing so.
392. Types of Tender
There are three following types of tender being practised in India :

Item rate
Percentage rate
Lump-sum.
Item rate tender requires the identification of all items of work, their description and their
estimated quantities. The contractor is required to quote his rate for each item of work. The
tender is finally evaluated on the basis of the cost of the full work at the rates quoted by the
tenders for different items. This method is suittd for road works and small bridge works.
Percentage rate tender asks the tenderer to quote a plus or minus percentage with reference to
the departmental rates. This method is suited for roadworks and small bridge works.
Lump-sum tender, generally adopted for large bridges in India, requires the tenderer to quote a
single lump-sum for all the works included in the bid. In some cases, the tenderer is free to
evolve his alternative design for the bridge and quote his lumpsum quotation on the basis of his
own design. Though the method is simple to operate, the evaluation of the tenders on an
equitable basis becomes difficult, especially if to the bids are accompanied by special conditions
(Ref. 1).
39 3. Pre-qualification of Contractors
Pre-qualification of contractors is a procedure intended to ensure that only such contractors who
have the requisite experience, resources and capability to execute the intended work are given
the invitation to tender. In this process it eliminates incapable and inexperienced contractors from
tendering, quoting unrealistic rates, securing the work and finally abandoning the work in an
incomplete condition. Prequalification short-lists the contractors and thus avoids unnecessary
work involved in evaluating a large number of tenders.
Prequalification is done by issuing an invitation to prequaiify, which can be published in the
Press. On response by the firms, prequalification documents are issued to them. They should
indicate the scope of the work, its cost and time frame. The information sought from the
contractors should be in the form of standard questionnaires, eliciting information on the (i)
structure and organisation of the firm, (ii) financial statement of works executed by the firm,
including the names of the bankers, (Hi) resources (personnel, equipment etc.), and (iv) past
experience (Ref. 2). On the basis of the information receivej, the pre-qualification is done and the
list of selected tenderers is notified.
In the PWDs in India, there is a system of registration of contractors and categorisation,
depending upon their capacity. But the system of prequalification is not existing. It needs to be
introduced, at least for large works.
39'4. Tender Documents
39'41. The tender document consist of the following :
Notice Inviting Tenders (NIT)
Instructions to Tenderers
Conditions of contract
Form of Tender
Specifications
Bill of Quantities
Drawings.
39 4 2. The NIT is a brief press advertisement giving particulars of the work—title, location,
approximate cost etc., the particulars of the availability of the tender documents, last date of
receipt of application for tender documents and the last date for submission of tender documents.
111
39'4'3, The instructions to fenders give additional information on the date, time and place of
submission of tenders, number of copies required and other information necessary lor proper
filling of the Tender Form tnd quotations. If alternative designs are allowed, then the same should
be specified. The amount of earnest money deposit, performance bond, validity of the tender etc.
are other items indicated in the instructions.
39'4"4. The conditions of contract are normally standardised by each highway agency. There is
no common set of conditions of contract applicable to highway works in India. They coverall legal
requirements of the contract.
39'4'5. The form of tender is the proposal or offer by the tenderer to carry out the works in
accordance with the stipulations laid down.
39'4"6. The specifications contain detailed description of various items of work, the manner in
which they are to be executed, the quantity to be achieved and the basis of payment.
In India, the specifications for highway and bridge works have been standardised by the Ministry
of Shipping and Transport (Roads Wing) and these are applicable to National Highway Works
(Ref 3). For State works, the State have their own specifications. In addition, the standard
specifications and codes of practices by bodies such as the Indian Roads Congress and the
Indian Standards Institution are referred to in the Tender.
39-4-7 gjn cf quantities contain the various items of
work and their quantities. Against each item the tenderer is expected to enter his quoted rate and
work out the cost ot the item. The cost of each item is similarly entered and totalled in the end.
39'4'8. Drawings should provide the tenderer with sufficient detail to enable him to make an
accurate assessment of the work and to bid accordingly. The drawings become part of the
contract documents, to be supplemented subsequently during the execution of works.
49'5. Agreement
When a tenderer has been selected for the execution of works, he enters into a formal
Agreement with the Department. The Agreement is the most fundamental of the contract
documents. Therefore, it should contain reference to each of the contract documents such as the
conditions of contract, Form of Tender, Specifications, Bill of Quantities and Drawings.
112
8 ROAD CONSTRUCTION PROGRAMMING AND MANAGEMENT
8.1 401. Need for Construction Programming
40'11. Highway projects involve lumpy investments of public funds. Where resources are scarce,
these funds have competing demands. Their channelisation into the roads sector is at the cost of
other sectors of the econ.my. This underlines the need to utilise the allotted funds in the shortest
time possible so that long gestation periods are avoided. Delays in construction involve locking
up of scarce resources and inconveniencing the public. Delays in construction lead to cost
escalation and claims by the contractor. Such delays should be avoided at all coits. This can be
achieved by careful programming and monitoring of the works.
40T2. Highway construction today is a complex process, involving a variety of sub jobs and
specialisation. A number of suppliers and contractors may have to be working on different sub-
components of the main work. There is a need to effectively coordinate the activities such that no
bottlenecks arise.
40T3. The timely availability of labour, materials and equipment is crucial to the successful
implementation of a project. Labour availabilitj in India is seasonal since the rural labour is
gainfully employed in agricultural operations in the appropriate seasons. Materials like cement,
bitumen aod steel are scarce commodities in a developing country and a good deal of advance
planning and procurement is needed. Equipment is equally scarce. Though indigenous capacity
exists in the country to manufacture the road-making equipment, it is necessary to order them in
advance and plan their utilisation. A good construction programmees can take care of the
constraints.
40 1'4. Due to seasonal characteristics, certain specifications and items of work cannot be
carried on throughout the year. For example, bituminous specifications have to be suspended in
the rainy season. On the other hand, water-bound-macadam can be ideally undertaken during
rainy season. Well-sinking and foundation works in mid-stream have to be suspended and the
rainy season. These seasonal constraints have to be identified and taken care of in a
construction programme.
40T5. Many of the activities in a project are interdependent. For example, land acquisition is a
pre-requisite for road construction. Many of the activities need to be synchronised. For example,
the contruction of bridge and its approaches should be completed at the same time. One without
the other cannot be used.
40'2. Requirements of a Programme
A good construction programme should :
Identify all elements of activities
Estimate the time taken for each activity accurately
Recognise the sequence of operations and mutual interdependence of critical activities
Recognise seasonal and other constraints
Be flexible and have capabilities for updation
Be easy of achievement and not too tight nor too lax.
403. Bar Chart
A bar dart is the most simple and satisfactory form of percen- tation of a piogramme. It is also
known as a Gantt chart, after Gantt who evolved it and popularised it. It is highly amenable to
programming and monitoring of road works.
The bar-chart, a sample of which is given in Fig. 40*1, is prepared on the following lines :
The work is broken up into major activities.
These activities are listed one below the other, roughly in the sequence of operation in which
they are found necessary In the chart, these activities are entered on the left side. The quantities
of works are also listed preferable.
Time frame is indicated on the horizontal axis. Most convenient unit of time is a mouth, though a
week or a quarter can also be used.
The beginning of each activity is selected depending upon the resources availability, seasonal
constraints and financial limitations. This is marked against each activity.
The length of the bar is decided based on the manpower, equipment and financial resources and
the possible rate of progress.
The percentages of each activity are scaled off and marked on the bar.
The financial progress is indicated at the bottom.
113
As the activity progresses, it is covered by hatching the blank space within the bar. If a work
is completed, the hatched area is covered by a full patch or a crosshatch.
114
115
404. GPM
Some of the best known methods of modern project monitoring are the PERT (Programme
Evaluation and Review Technique) and the CPM (Critical Path Method). The latter is particularly,
suited to monitor highway c ad bridge projects.
The CPM is a diagrammatic representation of a project by means of a network. The network is
constructed of various activities and depicts the sequence and interplay of these activities. The
path in the network which is critical to the Projects is determined and is known as the Critical
Path.
The project is broken up into smaller activities and the duration of each of these is determined.
The earliest finishing time (EFT) and latest finish time (LFT) of each event are then determined.
The lines connecting the events where the EFT and LFT are the same from, the CPM.
The advantages of the CPM to a highway project are :
It enables the planner to chalk out a logical programme with inter-dependence of the various
activities and the restraints.
A thorough and detailed examination of the project is, compulsorily done.
The resources can be scheduled to the best advantage.
The activities which are likely to cause delays and bottlenecks are identified in the beginning
itself and the engineer can keep a vigil over them.
The CPM can bring about considerable savings in cost and time.
The CPM can be used for planning, design, construction and maintenance, which are the normal
activities conducted by a Highway Department.
405 Construction Management
Whether the road-work is executed departmentally or through contracts, the management of the
construction is an important responsibility. The management of the work starts much before the
actual commencement of the work. It includes activities such as invitation of tenders, selection of
contractors, mobilisation and. actual execution. The following aspects deserve careful considera-
r tions in construction management :
Management of materials
Management of labour
Management of equipment
Financial management
Materials required for road and bridge works cover a wide variety. More important among them
are cement, steel, bitumen, stone aggregates, sand and gravel. Efficient management of the
materials includes activities such as assessment of requirement, location of source of supply,
purchase, transport, storage and issue on works. The procurement should be so phased that
works do not suffer at any stage due to lack of materials and at the same time the stock of
materials is not unnecessarily high.
Labour available for large scale road construction is seasonal in some parts of India, depending
upon the agriculture activities. Hence careful thought should be given to ensure an adequate
supply of labour. Amenities to labour such as temporary housing, medical facilities and creches
for childern are provided by the contractor as part of the conditions o f contract. Their wages are
governed by the Minimum Wages Act.
Road construction equipment is costly to purchase and operate. Its efficient management is thus
of prime importance. Important points to be kept in view are :
Selection of proper size, number and specifications of equipment to do the work in hand.
Preparation of an utilisation programme.
Care in operation, by experienced operators.
Adequate maintenance, which needs a back-up of spare parts and skilled mechanics.
Financial management covers budgeting, keeping, proper accounts, ensuring adequates flow of
funds and keeping watch over the financial progress.
116
9 QUALITY CONTROL IN HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
9.1 41.1 Importance of Quality Control
Highway construction involves the use of a variety of materials and deals with a range of
properties of the materials and the finished product. By their very nature, the materials and the
finished product, exhibit variability in their properties as measured from time to time. The highway
engineer is thus called upon to decide whether the materials and the finished product are of
acceptable standlrds. For doing so, he conducts a number of tests and evaluates the test results
against certain well-established test criteria evolved after considerable research and observation
of past behaviour. The field of his work is called Quality Control. Since statistical principles are
generally followed in quality control, the field is well known as Statistical Quality Control (SQC).
Quality Control of works is exercised for the following reasons :
As a routine measure to ensure that the materials and finished product have desired properties.
As a method of accepting or rejecting contractor's work.
As an aid to help in designing mixes in the laboratory having properties which bear relation to the
properties which can be realistically achieved in actual construction.
It is generally observed that quality control pays for itself. For example, whereas the cost of
quality control (manpower, materials, and equipment) is about 1J to 2 per cent of the cost of the
work, the direct and indirect economic returns from quality control could be of the order of 5—10
per cent of the cost of construction or more. Quality control detects faults in manufacturing
process at an undertaken in time.
41*2. Process Control or End Product Control
In manufacturing cement concrete, for example, control can be exercised in the process itself,
including the selection of the ingredient (cement, aggregates and water), their gradation and
proportioning, mixing, laying and curing of concrete. This is known as process control.
As an alternative, the finished concrete can be tested for its cube srength or flexural strength and
the test result evaluated against minimum criteria previously selected. This is known as the end
product control.
In actual practice, both forms of quality control individually or a combination of the two are
adopted in India (Ref. 1).
Some of the highway departments in the United States now adopt a contract clause under which
if the end product falls below a specified standard, it is accepted at reduced rat^s. The "pay
factors", which are percentages of the accepted full rates, are devised in such a way that as the
quality of the end product falls progressively below the set standard the pay factors also are
lower. 41*3. Statistical Method in Quality Control
41*3*1. Normal distribution
A typical shape of this function is given Fig. 41 1.
Fig. 41 1. Normal disttibution curve.

It is generally found that the properties of highway materials- and end products, when tested a
number of times obtaining samples from the same lot or the same work, follow a "normal
117
distribution". The normal density function, also called the Gaussian function, is given by the
following equation :
it is seen that the curve is bell shaped and is symmetrical with respect to the population mean. A
useful transformation of this equation is obtained when and o— 1. The variable z, known as the
standard normal variable, is defined as :
The above relationship is given in Fig. 41*2, which is known as Che standard normal density
curve.
Fif. 41-2. Standard normal density curve.

The area below this curve is unity. Standard tables are available giving the value of the area
under any part of the normal curve for different values of z. In these tables, the cumulative unit
normal distribution, or F(z), also denoted as <!>(*), is plotted for various values of z above 0. By
symmetry, for values less than 0, ^(-z)=l-<D(z).
413 2. Mean, standard deviation and coefficient of deviation
The most common measure of central tendency of values is the arithmetic mean, or simply the
"mean". Suppose there are • observations of a variable x (i.e. sample size =n), and these are
Equation (41*1) then becomes
denoted by <rlt x„ x% xn, then the mean x Is given by the

formula :
When the observations are grouped into different classes, a simplified procedure enables a quick
determination of the mean {Ref. 2).
A measure of the dispersion of the data is the standard deviation, which is obtained from ;
From the normal distribution table the values of the standard normal variable z«. associated with
various confidence levels y are summarised in Table 41'1. It may be noted that
Table 411
where s=standard deviation

a<=each individual observation x=mean, as found from Eqn. (41'4) n=number of observations.
It may be noted that x and a obtained from above are estimates of the true mean, (x and the true
standard deviation, a of the population
The coefficient of variation is defined as the ratio between the standard deviation and the mean.
Coefficient of variation=-j- (for the sample) .. (41'6)
u
= — (for the population) ..(41-7)
118
<T
41'3'3. Distribution of sample mean
When the sample mean, * is determined repeatedly with n observations, it will be found that x
also takes a normal distribution with mean n and standard deviation The latter is known
by the term standard error of the mean, If the value of a is
not known, a can be taken equal to s, the standard deviation of the sample.
Problem 41 1. The thicknees of an asphaltic concrete layer is designed and constructed to be 80
mm. The standard deviation is 15 mm. What is the probability that if a sample of 100 readings of
the thickness is tested that the mean observed thickness exceeds 76 mm ?
41*3'4. Point estimate and interval estimate
The sample mean x is a point estimate of the population mean n. It is more usual to estimate a
parameter within an interval. Thus, if tx and t2 are two values of a random variable t and it is
desired to estimate the parameter Q, then
Pr denotes the probability indicated in [ ] and Y=sPec>fied probability.

The set of values between tx and (inclusive) is called the confidence interval. The values and ts
are called the confidence limits. The probability measure y is called the confidence level. The
confidence level is the proportion of the samples for which the interval includes the true value.
Standard normal variable associated with various confidence levels
Tolerance Level (proportion

Confidence
2 of test results that fall below za
Level
the minimum
0 80 0 90 1 in 10 1282
090 095 1 in 20 1645
095 0*975 1 in 40 I960
0*98 099 1 in 100 2-326
0'99 0995 I in 200 2-576
0-998 0999 1 in 1000 309
0999 09995 1 in 2000 3*291
The probability that the observed mean thickness of 100 readings exceeds 75 mm is 9996 per
cent.
119
Fig. 41-3
Problem 412. A series of 303 observations of the cube
strength of concrete gives a mean of 39'7 MN/m* and a standard deviation of 6 8 MN/m%. Qive a
05 per cent confidence interval for ihe population mean.
Problem 41*3. In connection with a quality control testing of concrete cubes, it is desired to
obtain the mean 28 day crushing strength within an accuracy of 2 MN/m', with a probability of 0
95. Previous tests have indicated that the standard deviation is 8 MN/m*. What should be the
sample size for testing ?
120
Problem 41*4. The 28-day crushing strength of concrete cubes gave a mean value of 34 0 MS
jm? and a standard deviation of 40 MN/m', the number of samples tested being 57. The minimum
specified strength is 28 MN/m'. The tolerance level, which is the proportion of samples that can
fall below the stipulated strength, is 1 in 10. Are the specifications being met ?
Solution. 7 = 340
• = 40 n=57
#ro<n=28'0
o=0"90, since 90 per cent of the test results should fall above the stipulated minimum z.=(from
Table 4 11) = 1 '282
3W.=34*0-1 282X4 0 =28 9 MN/m* which is greater than 28 0 MN/m1
Hence the specifications are being met.
41"3'5. Control chart
In industrial processes, control charts have been used on a large scale to monitor the quality of
work and detect when the process goes out of control. These charts can be used for quality
control of highway works also.
Control charts are constructed around the target mean value of the property being tested.
Depending upon the known variability of the value (its standard deviation), upper and lower limits
are fixed. Thus when the mean of the samples tested on any occasion is found out, it is possible
find out whether the sample means is within the range specified or outside it. If outside, the
process is out of control.
The exact fixation of the upper and lower limits depend upon the tolerance level that is specified.
Normally two limits are specified :
Warning limits
Action limits.
The warning limits are fixed such that percent of the samples will be bejond each warning limit
(so that 95 per cent of the sample means should within the limits) The warning limits give
indication that something is wrong with the process. The action limits are generally set such that
01 per cent of the samples mean values lie outside each limit. If the sample mean falls outside
the action limits, the process should be stoppeu and action taken to locate the cause of the
trouble and to rectify the same.
From Table 41*1, the warning limit of 2i per cent samples lying beyond is reached with ^±196
(SE)
where /i=mean of population
S.E.=standard error of the mean
a •
V n *I n
a=standard deviation of the population «=same standard deviation «=number of samples tested.
Similary, from Table 41*1 the action limit of 01 percent of sample means lying outside the limits is
reached with m±3'09 (S.E.).
121
Problem 415. The O.B.R. values of sub-base material are tested every day. Four samples are
taken each day and tested. The target CBR value is 15 and the standard deviation is 3. Find the
teaming limit such that not more than 2J per cent of the samples lie below the warning limit and
the action Umit such that not more than 0 1 per cent of the sample means lie below the action
limit.
Solution. Lower Warning limit -*»-]'96 S.E.
= 15-0-1*96 -4j- V4
= 150- 1'96 X 1*50 = 12 06, say 12.
Lower action limit=n—3*09 SE
-H—3*09x1-50 = 10*36
Control charts can also be constructed by finding out the moving average of the five tests.
414. Frequency of Tests
The limits are illustrated in Fig. 41*4.
Fig. 41-4. Control chart.

A major decision that needs to be made in any quality control process is regarding the frequency
of tests. The frequency varies from work to work. The frequency laid down by IRC (Ref 1) is
given in Table 41*3.
Table 41*2 Frequency of tests for quality control
8. No. Item of work Frequency

1. Earthwork
(») Soil particle size, Atterberg Limits 1—2 tests per 8000 m'
(ii) C.B.R. on a set of 3 specimens One test per 3000 m«
(iii) Natural moisture content One test per 250 m8
(iv) Moisture content before
2—3 tests per 250 m'
compaction
One test \ er 1000 m" for
embankments to be
(v) Dry density of compacted area increased to one test per
500—1000 m" for subgrade
layers.
2. Gravel sub-base
(i) Gradation, plasticity One test per 200 m"
(ii) Moisture content One test per 250 ra1
(iii) Density One test per 500 m"
3. Lime-soil
(») Purity of lime One test per 5 T
(ii) Lime content, moisture content One test per 250 m1
(iii) Density One test per 500 m1
4. Water-bound macadam
(0 Los Angeles Abrasion or
Aggregate Impact Value, Flakiness One test per 200 m»
Index
(it) grading of materials One test per 100 m'
(Hi) Plasticity of binder One test per 25 m8
5. Bituminous Macadam
(i) Los Angeles Abrasion Value or
Aggregates Impact Value, Flakiness One test per 50—100 m»
Index, Stripping Value
122
(ii) Mix grading, binder content.
Two tests per day
aeerecate gradation
8. No Item of work Frequency
6. Surface dressing and premix carpet
(i) Los Angeles Abrasion Value or
Aggregate Impact Value, Stripping
One test per 50 ma
Value, Flakiness Index Water
absorption
(ii) Grading of aggregate One test per 25 m3
(Hi) Rate of spread of binder and
One test per 500 m«
aggregate for surface dressing
(»©) Binder content for premix
Two tests per day
carpet
7. Asphaltic concrete
(0 Los Angeles Abrasion Value or
Aggregate Impact Value, Stripping
One test per 50—100 m*
Value, Water absorption, Flakiness
Index
(ii) Sieve analysis for filler One test per 5 ms
One test per 100 T of mix,
(in) Mixing grading, binder content
minimum 2 tests per day
3 Marshall specimens per
(iv) Stability
100 T of mix.
(v) Thickness and density One test per 500 m8.
8. Cement concrete pavement
(i) Gradation of aggregates One test for 15 m8
(ii) Los Angeles Abrasion Value or
Once for each source
Aggregate Impact Value, Soundness
(tit) Cerr;enf, physical and chemical Once for each source
(iv) Workability One test per 10 m8
3 cube/beam samples for
each 7 days and 28 days
(t>) Concrete strength
for' every 30 m* of
concrete
(vi) Core strength on hardened 2 corcs for every 30 m3 of
concrete. concrete
123
41*5. Acceptance Sampling
Inspectioni for accepting a material or product enable another method of statistical quality control.
The method involves testing a few samples, determining the mean and standard deviation and
making a decision whether it is of acceptable quality or not. The method presupposes a
knowledge of the population mean and its standard deviation and it also requires a stipulation of
the proportion of values that may fall above (or below) the axeptable value.
Fig. 41-5
In Fig. 41*5. the normal curve for the population is given io dotted line, the mean being n and the
standard deviation a. The specifications require that the minimum test value should be y such
that, say p per cent of the values can be below y. The corresponding standard normal variable is
za The curve in full line denotes the normal curve of the sample mean, the sample size being n.
The standard error of the mean is
/
Solution. In this example, using Eqn. (4110), xlmin) for ncoeptance
The value z,' is 10 selected that it signifies the risk of rejecting an acceptable material. Thus, the
minimum value of * should then be (Ref. 3) :
124
The following example illustrates the concept.
Problem 41"6. The specified Marshall stability value of an asphaltic concrete mix is 500 lb, the
standard deviation being 30 lb. It is required that not more than 10 per cent of the tests should
fall below the specified value. 4 samples are taken from a lot and the mean value of stability is
found to be 510 lb Can the lot be accepted if the risk of rejecting an acceptable material is to
be 2\ per cent ?
125
126

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FCE 546 - TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING IIIB (45 HRS)

Chapter Description Page

1 COURSE SYLLABUS AND REFERENCES 1

1.1 The Syllabus 1

1.2 Recommended References 1

2.1 Functions and Desirable Characteristics of Pavement 2

2.2 Pavement Courses 2

2.3 Pavement Types 3

2.4 Comparison of Rigid and Flexible pavements 4

3.1 Objectives of pavement design 22

3.2 Solutions to pavement design problems 22

3.3 Functions of pavement layers 23

3.4 Factors Affecting Pavement Design 24

3.6 Design of concrete pavements 47

3.7 Design of unpaved roads 48

3.8 Examples of pavement design Error! Bookmark not defined.

4.2 Purpose of Soil Stabilization 50

4.3 Types of Stabilisation Techniques 50

4.4 Mechanical Stabilisation 50

5.1 Pavement Evaluation 82

5.2 Road Inventorying 88

5.3 Highway Maintenance 91

5.4 Overlay Design and Construction 102

5.5 Skid Resistance 105

5.6 Pavement Roughness 109

6 TENDERS, CONTRACTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 111

6.1 Methods of Execution 111

7 ROAD CONSTRUCTION PROGRAMMING AND MANAGEMENT 113

7.1 401. Need for Construction Programming 113

8 QUALITY CONTROL IN HIGHWAY ENGINEERING 117

8.1 41.1 Importance of Quality Control 117

1.1 The Syllabus

FCE 546 - Transportation Engineering IIIB

a) Types of road pavements. Functions of various pavement layers.

1.2 Recommended References

Reference books recommended for the course are as follows:

1. Principals of Pavement Design - Yoder, T and Witzack

2.1 Functions and Desirable Characteristics of Pavement

1. It should be structurally sound enough to withstand the stresses imposed on it.

2.2 Pavement Courses

In American practice, the top course in a flexible pavement

The functions of the sub-base

The functions of the base course are:

The functions of the surface course are:

2.3 Pavement Types

A composite pavement is one which comprises of multiple, structurally significant layer of

A very frequent term in highway engineering practice in developing countries is "low-cost

2.4 Comparison of Rigid and Flexible pavements

2.4.1 Design precision

2.4.4 Initial cost

2.4.5 Stage construction

2.4.6 Availability of materials

2.4.7 Surface characteristics

2.4.8 Penetration of water

2.4.9 Utility location

2.4.10 Labour vs Capital intensive technology

2.4.11 Traffic dislocation during construction

2.4.12 Overall economy

3.1 The Natural Environment

• Kenya has a very wide variety of climates, comprising:

3.1.2 Natural Materials and Soils

3.2.1 Classification of Kenyan Soils

(a) Classes of Subgrade Bearing Strength