Species Richness May Determine the Income from Illicit Wild

Orchid Trading in Traditional Markets in Mexico

La riqueza de especies puede determinar el ingreso del comercio ilícito de orquídeas
silvestres en mercados tradicionales en México

DERIO ANTONIO JIMÉNEZ-LÓPEZ1, RODOLFO SOLANO*,2,

CANDELARIO PERALTA-CARRETA1, JONATHAN V. SOLÓRZANO1, AND
MANUEL GERARDO CHÁVEZ-ANGELES3,4
1
Centro del Cambio Global y la Sustentabilidad A.C., Calle Centenario del Instituto Juárez s/n,
Villahermosa, Tabasco, Mexico
2
Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Centro Interdisciplinario de Investigación para el Desarrollo Integral
Regional Unidad Oaxaca, Hornos 1003, Santa Cruz Xoxocotlán, Oaxaca, Mexico
3
Universidad de la Sierra Sur, Av. Universidad s/n, Miahuatlan de Porfirio Díaz, Oaxaca, Mexico
4
Universidad Intercultural del Estado de Puebla, Calle Principal a Lipuntahuaca s/nHuehuetlaPuebla,
Mexico
*Corresponding author; e-mail: solanogo@yahoo.com.mx

The orchid trade is an informal activity in Mexico traditionally performed by indigenous people; however,
this activity, based on the extraction of wild specimens without a management plan, is sanctioned by
environmental laws. Few studies have documented the extraction volumes for illicitly traded orchids, the
status of the populations affected by this activity, the socioeconomic profiles of the vendors, or the factors
determining income, which are essential for designing strategies to conserve this resource. We documented
species richness, abundance, and prices for orchids traded during December in traditional markets in
Chiapas, Mexico. The relationships among price, species showiness, and some variables determining income
were evaluated. We recorded 28 traded species, all of which were extracted from neighboring, protected, and
high-biodiversity forests. The most income was generated from three species, which were also the most
abundant in the markets. This trade affects the conservation of two threatened Mexican orchids, but at a
state level, it also impacts populations of other species that are not considered at risk. A significant
relationship was found between the price of an orchid and its flower size and between the vendor’s income
and the quantity of orchids traded by him. The income obtained by a vendor was significantly explained by
orchid inflorescence abundance, vendor’s age, and a biodiversity index estimated here.

El comercio de orquídeas es una actividad informal realizada tradicionalmente por personas indígenas; sin
embargo, esta actividad, basada en la extracción de especímenes silvestres sin planes de manejo, es
sancionada por las leyes ambientales. Pocos estudios documentan los volúmenes de extracción de orquídeas
comercializadas ilícitamente, el estado de las poblaciones afectadas por esta actividad, el perfil
socioeconómico de los vendedores o factores que determinan los ingresos, los cuales son aspectos esenciales
para diseñar estrategias para conservar este recurso. En este estudio documentamos la riqueza de especies, la
abundancia y los precios de orquídeas comercializadas durante diciembre en mercados tradicionales de

1
Received 23 February 2018; accepted 13 May 2019;
published online ___________

Economic Botany, XX(X), 2019, pp. 1–16

© 2019, by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A.
 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL

Chiapas, México. Evaluamos las relaciones entre el precio y la vistosidad de la especie con algunas variables
que pueden determinar el ingreso. Registramos 28 especies comercializadas, todas extraídas de bosques
vecinos, protegidos y de alta biodiversidad. Tres especies concentraron la mayoría del ingreso, las cuales
también fueron las más abundantes en los mercados. Este comercio afecta la conservación de dos orquídeas
amenazadas en México, pero a nivel estatal, afecta las poblaciones de otras especies no consideradas en riesgo.
Se encontró una relación significativa entre el precio de una orquídea y su tamaño de flor, así como entre el
ingreso del vendedor y la cantidad de orquídeas que comercializaba. El ingreso obtenido por un vendedor
fue explicado significativamente por la abundancia de inflorescencias de orquídeas, la edad del vendedor y un
índice de biodiversidad aquí estimado.
Key Words: Illicit wildlife trade, income diversification, NWFP, poverty alleviation, threatened species,
ethnobotany.

Key Words: Aliviación de la pobreza, comercio ilícito de vida silvestre, diversificación del ingreso, especies
amenazadas, PFNM, etnobotánica.

Introduction Naranjo and Dirzo 2009; Ticktin 2004). For or-

For many indigenous or rural people from develop-
ing countries, the harvest of nonwood forest products
(NWFP) is an activity that meets subsistence and
economic needs in rural communities (FAO 1995).
For these people, many NWFP are extracted to be
sold and to earn some income, thus helping to
alleviate poverty (Arellanes et al. 2013; Guadagnin
and Gravato 2013; Lewis et al. 2011; Lima et al.
2013; Monteiro et al. 2010; Shackleton and
Gumbo 2010; Stanley et al. 2012; Vodouhê et al.
2009). However, the high deforestation rates and
the resulting biodiversity loss in regions where these
practices are performed make it necessary to evalu-
ate if NWFP extraction and trading covers the
economic needs of people involved in this activity,
while also being compatible with biodiversity con-
servation (Kopnina 2016; Lewis et al. 2011;
Lybbert et al. 2011).
In developing countries, most NWFP are traded
in traditional markets. In Mexico, it is estimated
that almost 950 wild species provide NWFP useful
to humans, but only 10% of these species have a
trading scheme that is regulated by a legal frame-
work (Tapia and Reyes 2008; Torres 2004). Most
of the NWFP traded in these markets consist of
wild plants with food, medicinal, ornamental, and
ceremonial uses (Casas et al. 2016). In Mexico, the
success of trading these plants depends on intrinsic
(those that depend on the ecological attributes or
life cycle characteristics of the species) or extrinsic
(those that depend on the demand of the species in
the market and the preferences of the buyers) factors
(Arellanes et al. 2013; Casas et al. 2016; Delang
2005; Gómez et al. 2015; Mondragón et al. 2016;
chids, the ecological factors include the availability
and diversity (species richness) of the resource in its
habitat—because vendors can obtain a greater vari-
ety of plants to sell in the market in a habitat that
hosts high orchid richness, especially those with
showy flowers—the showiness or ornamental value
of the plants, the temporal variations in resource
abundance, or its accessibility due to its microhab-
itat preferences. The economic factors include mar-
ket demand for the resource, the price set by ven-
dors, the regulations imposed by local uses and
customs, or the management practices within the
production process. On the other hand, the ven-
dor’s income has a significant negative correlation
with certain socioeconomic parameters of the ven-
dors, specifically to indigenousness and age (Cruz-
García et al. 2015).
In Mexico, the Orchidaceae is the third richest
family of the national flora. Orchids have a higher
species richness in the wet forests in the highlands of
Veracruz, Oaxaca, and Chiapas states, where these
plants are cherished due their ornamental and cultural
uses (Hágsater et al. 2005; Solano et al. 2010). Be-
cause of these factors, wild orchids are one of the
main NWFP traded in the country as an informal
activity sanctioned by Mexican laws (SEMARNAT
2010, 2011, 2012, 2014), and the trade is mini-
mally inspected. Most studies related to the orchid
trade focus only on the list of species traded and
their uses; few studies have analyzed the socioeco-
nomic context in which this activity is performed in
traditional markets (Cruz-García et al. 2015; Dutra
2014; Flores and Valencia 2007).
As the orchid trade in traditional markets is based
on specimen extractions from their natural habitats,
2019] JIMÉNEZ-LÓPEZ ET AL.: WILD MEXICAN ORCHID TRADING IN TRADITIONAL MARKETS
this activity implies risks to the conservation of certain
species, including many species that are protected by
Mexican laws (Soto et al. 2007). Therefore, studying
the wild orchid trade in traditional Mexican markets
is relevant because the information generated from
it will enable (1) the determination of the species
affected by this activity, (2) the identification of the
species with a higher demand and that will generate
higher incomes in the market, (3) the identification
of the extraction areas of those species with a higher
demand to assess the status of their populations, (4)
an analysis of the role played by the resource in the
vendor economy to understand the dependence of
the vendor on this trade, and (5) the design and
proposal of plans to sustainably manage the trade
within a legal framework that focuses on the species
of higher demand and that includes the vendors in
the process (Cruz-García et al. 2015; Dutra 2014;
Gómez et al. 2015; Kopnina 2016; Mondragón
et al. 2016; Ticktin et al. 2002).
The orchid trade is a temporary activity with a well-
defined sales period that matches the blooming season
of traded species (Cruz-García et al. 2015; Dutra
2014; Emeterio et al. 2016; Flores and Valencia
2007). During these periods, vendors can diversify
their income by (1) including species with showy
flowers that are sold at a higher price, (2) extracting
more specimens from the forest and bringing them
to the market, and (3) increasing the number of
extracted species for sale. In this study, the wild
orchids traded in traditional markets in southeastern
Mexico were assessed. In this region, the orchid
vendors also extract the plants from the forests in
their communities, while the buyers are inhabitants
of the cities where the orchids are traded. Therefore,
this business is local throughout its trading chain.
From the estimation of species richness to sales
volumes and the prices of the orchids sold, this
paper assesses whether the price of the resource is
determined by intrinsic factors (species richness in
the offer, flower showiness) or extrinsic factors
(presence of species with a high demand in the
market). Species that generate higher incomes in this
business were also identified as well as orchids that may
not have the highest sales volume but contribute to
diversifying a vendor’s income. The following hypoth-
esis was proposed: the species richness of traded orchids
positively influences the markets; additionally, we pre-
sume that the orchid species with greater ornamental
value (flower showiness here considered from its flower
size) has a higher sale price, and therefore, generates
higher income for vendors.
Materials and Methods
STUDY AREA
Three traditional markets from Chiapas, Mexico,
were studied (Fig. 1), two in the municipality of
Comitán de Domínguez (16° 15′ latitude N, −
92° 08′ longitude W, 1600 m elev.): Supplies Cen-
ter (Central de Abastos) and November 22nd, and
the third market was Juan Sabines Guerrero, in the
municipality of Las Margaritas (16° 18′ 55″ latitude
N, 91° 58′ 54″ longitude W, 1500 m elev.). The
trade of wild orchids has already been documented
as an activity in these markets that, although it
occurs during much of the year, primarily increases
in December when the demand for these plants as
temporary ornamentals is higher (Jiménez et al.
2015). In the study area, the orchids registered in
the markets visited were extracted from localities
where the predominant vegetation types were cloud
forest, Quercus–Pinus mix forest, and Quercus forest,
according to the classification of Rzedowski (1978).
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Each market was visited once a week during De-
cember 2016; these visits were made on the tianguis
day (tianguis is a word that is derived from Nahuatl
that refers to a weekly, open-air street market, tra-
ditionally installed in a public place 1 day of the
week). In each market where people who sell or-
chids were located together, they were asked to
participate in a semistructured interview and re-
spond about their orchid trading activity. In each
market, it was possible to observe between 20 and
30 vendors every tianguis day, although their num-
ber was higher in the last 2 weeks of December. In
the Las Margaritas market, two woman vendors
were observed selling orchids, sometimes accompa-
nied by some agricultural products, in the tianguis
(Sunday) during almost all the year (Fig. 2). Most
orchid vendors did not provide information about
their activity, because they believe that people who
ask questions about their activity are environmental
authorities, and since they know that the trade is
illegal, they can be punished. For this reason, only
16 vendors agreed to participate in the interview in
the three markets together, and from it, information
was obtained about their age, gender, place of ori-
gin, and place where they extract orchids. Addition-
ally, from each interviewed vendor, the following
data were obtained or estimated: number of species
 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL

Fig. 1. Study area showing the three markets studied: November 22nd, Supply Center (Comitán de Domínguez
municipality), and Juan Sabines Guerrero (Las Margaritas municipality), as well the location of Lagunas de Montebello
National Park.

traded, sales volume (abundance of specimens) for
each species traded (both complete specimens and
inflorescences), price per species as a complete spec-
imen and inflorescence, estimated income accord-
ing to the abundance of each species traded, and
flower diameter of the most traded species per
interviewed vendor. The last parameter was con-
sidered as a quantitative trait, indicative of the
showiness of the species, since in the markets it
was apparently observed that orchid buyers con-
sider that the larger the flower, the showier the
orchid. Other information was obtained through
observations and informal discussions with the
vendors, which was supported by an interview–
purchase procedure (Bye and Linares 1983),
where an interaction was established to purchase
an orchid specimen, allowing a greater documenta-
tion of the activity to be obtained. Thus, it was
possible to record the following complementary
information: price of each species (as complete plant
or inflorescence), sales volume by species (as com-
plete plants, inflorescences, and total), and estimat-
ed income by species according to its sales volume
(for complete plants, inflorescences, and total). Or-
chid prices and vendor’s incomes that were recorded
as Mexican pesos are presented here in U.S. dollars
(USD), using the currency exchange rate for
March 1, 2017 (1 USD = 19.94 MXN). The
interviewed vendors granted permission to use the
information provided in this study following the
Declaration of Helsinki guidelines of the World
Medical Association (WMA 2013). The
interviewed vendors live in communities that are
very close to the forests where they extract the
orchids. Each vendor takes 1 to 2 h to travel from
his village to the forest where they extract the plants
and 40–60 min using public transport, from his
house to the market, where she/he will finally sell
the plants.
For each species traded and recorded in the markets
visited, photographs were taken, or specimens were
acquired for taxonomic determination. Vouchers were
deposited at Eizi Matuda herbarium (HEM) of the
University of Sciences and Arts of Chiapas. Assigning
scientific names for species registered follows Soto et al.
(2007).
2019] JIMÉNEZ-LÓPEZ ET AL.: WILD MEXICAN ORCHID TRADING IN TRADITIONAL MARKETS

Fig. 2. Photos showing aspects of the orchid trade in the visited markets. a Vendors established in the Juan Sabines
Guerrero market, Las Margaritas. b, c Buyers haggling over prices of orchids and other plants of ceremonial uses in the
markets of Juan Sabines Guerrero, Las Margaritas, and the Supplies Center, Comitán de Domínguez, respectively. d
Orchids sell in the November 22nd market, Comitán de Dominguez.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS performed with the data obtained from the 16

To determine if the sale price of an orchid species
depends on a quantitative feature related to the
flower showiness (size of the flower) or the demand
of a species in the market (evaluated from its sales
volume), two linear regression analyses were
vendors interviewed. In the first regression, the
variables used were price (explanatory) and flower
diameter (response) of the species that were record-
ed for each vendor with the highest sales volume.
Although flower showiness includes other attributes
such as color, for this study, only the flower size was
 ECONOMIC BOTANY
considered because it is a trait that can be quantita-
tively determined for analysis. The second regres-
sion was performed between the estimated income
(explanatory variable) and the total sales volume
(response variable) for all orchid species traded by
each interviewed vendor. Although it is true that
there may be an association between intrinsic and
extrinsic factors related with a higher orchid de-
mand in the market, our interest was focused on
determining the contribution of some of these fac-
tors separately. The regression analyses were per-
formed with the R program (R Core Team 2015).
Finally, to determine if the species richness
(diversity) of the traded orchids was a determinant
of a vendor’s income, a multivariate regression anal-
ysis was performed with the data obtained from the
16 interviewed vendors. As a dependent variable,
specimen abundance (sales volume) for each orchid
(26 species) traded was used; the independent var-
iables corresponded to the dummy variables for the
sales volume of each species. Subsequently, from the
regression analysis coefficients, a predictor (proxy)
was obtained as an indicator for orchid richness in a
partial least squares (PLS) model. In this model,
latent variables were defined as the age of the ven-
dors, the sales volume by species, and the proxy for
orchid richness. We used two methods to determine
the role of biodiversity on the orchid vendor’s prob-
able income. First, we used an ordinary least squares
(OLS) regression. The estimated equation was cal-
culated by determining the equation that minimizes
the sum of the squared distances between the sam-
ple’s data points and the values predicted by the
equation. Second, we estimated partial least square
regression (PLS), a multivariate statistical technique
that allows comparison between multiple response
variables and explanatory variables. PLS is a regres-
sion method that allows the identification of under-
lying factors, which are a linear combination of the
explanatory variables that best model the response.
In PLS, the optimal linear relationships are comput-
ed between the latent variables and can be
interpreted as the best set of predictive variables
for a study given its limitations.
Results
RICHNESS, ABUNDANCE, AND THE PRICE OF THE
ORCHIDS TRADED
In the three markets visited, 28 orchids species
belonging to 17 genera were recorded as being
[VOL
traded (Table 1). Two species were considered in a
risk category, Laelia superbiens Lindl. (as threatened)
and Lycaste skinneri (Bateman ex Lindl.) Lindl. (as
endangered), and they are protected by Mexican
laws (SEMARNAT 2010). In both markets from
Comitán de Domínguez municipality, 20 spe-
cies were recorded on sale, and two of them
were sold exclusively in the Supplies Center
market, while nine were sold only in the No-
vember 22nd market. On the other hand, in Las
Margaritas municipality, 15 species were sold in
the Juan Sabines Guerrero market. The three
markets had nine orchid species in common.
The information provided by the vendors indi-
cated that all the commercialized specimens
were extracted from nearby forests, which be-
long to the municipalities of Comitán de
Domínguez, Las Margaritas, and La Trinitaria,
where the vendors’ villages are located.
For the 28 species traded in the three mar-
kets, a total sales volume of 738 specimens
was estimated, and 431 of the orchids
corresponded to complete specimens (plants
or divisions) and 307 to inflorescences, some-
times including a pseudobulb or no other part
of the plant (Table 1). Species with the highest
sales volume as complete specimens were
Cuitlauzina pulchella (Bateman ex Lindl.) Dressler
& N.H. Williams and Laelia superbiens; in terms of
inflorescences, the highest sales volume was for
L. superbiens, Epidendrum radicans Pav. ex Lindl.,
and C. pulchella. The species that were sold at the
highest prices as complete specimens were Lycaste
skinneri, Rhyncholaelia glauca (Lindl.) Schltr.,
Encyclia cordigera (Kunth) Dressler, and Laelia
superbiens, while for inflorescences, the highest
prices were for Prosthechea brassavolae (Rchb. f.)
W.E. Higgins, Laelia anceps Lindl., and
L. superbiens.
PRICE–FLOWER DIAMETER AND INCOME–SALES
VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS
Twenty-six orchid species were recorded on
sale by the 16 interviewed vendors. Another
two species, Coelia bella (Lem.) Rchb. f. and
Cuitlauzina pulchella, were seen in the markets,
but they were not traded by these vendors. A total
sales volume of 406 orchid specimens was estimated
from all the 16 interviewed vendors, which
corresponded to an estimated possible income of
331.71 USD. On average, each vendor brought a
sales volume of 25.4 specimens to the market and
2019] JIMÉNEZ-LÓPEZ ET AL.: WILD MEXICAN ORCHID TRADING IN TRADITIONAL MARKETS

TABLE 1. ABUNDANCE AND PRICE FOR ORCHID SPECIES RECORDED AS BEING TRADED IN THREE TRADITIONAL
MARKETS FROM CHIAPAS, MEXICO.

Species Voucher AP PP ITP AI PI ITI AT IT

(USD) (USD) (USD) (USD) (USD)
Arpophyllum medium Rchb. f. DAJL 149 20 0.75 15.03 0 0 0 20 15.03
Chysis laevis Lindl. DAJL 133 7 1.75 12.28 0 0 0 7 12.28
Coelia bella (Lem.) Rchb. f. DAJL132 16 1.00 16.03 0 0 0 16 16.03
Cuitlauzina candida (Lindl.) DAJL 126, 164 12 0.75 9.02 7 0.25 1.75 19 10.78
Dressler & N.H. Williams
Cuitlauzina pulchella (Bateman ex Lindl.) DAJL 124, 73 0.75 54.87 75 0.25 18.80 148 73.66
Dressler & N.H. Williams 125, 151
Dichaea glauca (Sw.) Lindl. DAJL 129 11 0.25 2.75 0 0 0 11 2.75
Encyclia cordigera (Kunth) Dressler DAJL 134 4 2.50 10.02 0 0 0 4 10.02
Epidendrum alvarezdeltoroi Hágsater DAJL 135 14 0.25 3.50 0 0 0 14 3.50
Epidendrum radicans Pav. ex Lindl. DAJL 136, 13 0.50 6.51 86 0.25 21.55 99 28.06
137, 152
Epidendrum veroscriptum Hágsater DAJL 163 7 0.25 1.75 0 0 0 7 1.75
Guarianthe aurantiaca (Bateman ex Lindl.) DAJL 138, 153 15 0.75 11.27 0 0 0 15 12.78
Dressler & W.E. Higgins
Isochilus sp. DAJL 127, 128 21 0.25 5.26 0 0 0 21 5.26
Laelia anceps Lindl. DAJL 123 6 1.50 9.02 2 0.50 1.75 8 10.02
Laelia superbiens Lindl. DAJL 121, 66 2.50 165.36 132 0.50 66.14 198 231.50
122, 154
Lycaste aromatica (Graham) Lindl. DAJL 139, 13 0.75 9.78 0 0 0 13 9.78
140, 161
Lycaste cruenta (Lindl.) Lindl. DAJL 141, 8 0.50 4.00 0 0 0 8 4.00
142, 162
Lycaste skinneri (Bateman ex Lindl.) Lindl. DAJL 155 8 5.01 40.08 0 0 0 8 40.08
Maxillaria pulchra (Schltr.) L.O. DAJL 150 4 0.50 2.00 0 0 0 4 2.00
Williams ex Correll
Maxillaria variabilis Bateman ex Lindl. DAJL 156 7 0.50 3.50 0 0 0 7 3.50
Oncidium leucochilum Bateman ex Lindl. DAJL 157 13 0.50 6.51 0 0 0 13 6.51
Prosthechea baculus (Rchb. f.) W.E. Higgins DAJL 158 8 0.50 4.00 0 0 0 8 4.00
Prosthechea brassavolae (Rchb. f.) DAJL 143 6 2.00 12.02 2 1.75 2.00 8 14.03
W.E. Higgins
Prosthechea cochleata (L.) W.E. Higgins DAJL 159 14 0.50 7.01 0 0 0 14 7.01
Rhyncholaelia glauca (Lindl.) Schltr. DAJL 144 5 2.75 13.78 0 0 0 5 13.78
Rhynchostele bictoniensis (Bateman) DAJL 145, 160 20 1.75 20.04 3 0.25 0.75 23 20.80
Soto Arenas & Salazar
Rhynchostele maculata (La Llave & Lex.) DAJL 146 9 1.75 9.02 0 0 0 9 9.02
Soto Arenas & Salazar
Stanhopea sp. DAJL 130, 131 18 1.75 18.04 0 0 0 18 18.04
Trichopilia sp. DAJL 147, 148 13 1.75 22.80 0 0 0 13 22.80
Total 431 32.70 495.32 307 3.00 111.99 738 607.31

Orchid prices and incomes are presented in US dollars using the currency exchange rate for 1 March 2017. All voucher
specimens were collected by the first author (DAJL) and are deposited at HEM.
PA = abundance of complete plants for each species; PP = price of a complete plant for each species; PTS = total probable
income from the sale of all complete plants for each species; IA = abundance of inflorescences for each species; PI = price of an
inflorescence for each species; ITS = total probable income from the sale of all inflorescence for each species; AT = abundance of
total specimens (complete plants + inflorescences) for each species; TNP = total probable income from sale of all specimens
(complete plants + inflorescences) for each species.

obtained an estimated average income of 20.73 was equivalent to 5.18 USD per day of sale, con-
USD during December. This monthly income sidering four effective sale days during December.
 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL

All interviewed vendors were adults between 29
and 52 years old; most of them (14 out of 16) were
adult women, for whom selling orchids represents a
means for obtaining additional income within their
domestic economy. Laelia superbiens was the species
that brought a higher sales volume for the vendors at
the markets. Incomes were estimated for these 16
vendors, considering all orchid specimens that were
brought to the markets, and they ranged from 16.53
USD to 54.36 USD. One vendor who had a higher
sales value for Lycaste skinneri (in comparison with
other sold species) obtained an estimated income of
40.83 USD for this species alone (Table 2).
The price and flower diameter of the species most
frequently sold (sales volume) by each vendor had a
high and significant relationship (r 2 = 0.78,
p < 0.001, Fig. 3a). Thus, orchid price is
determined to a large extent by the showiness of
the species traded. Furthermore, the relation
between the estimated income and sales volume
for the species most traded by each vendor had a
high and significant relationship (r 2 = 0.69,
p < 0.001, Fig. 3b). Thus, the income generated
by selling orchids in these markets depends, to a
large extent, on the abundance of the species traded.
The most attractive orchids that had the highest
prices per specimen were Lycaste skinneri (5.01
USD), Rhyncholaelia glauca (2.75 USD), Laelia
superbiens (2.50 USD), Encyclia cordigera (2.50
USD), and Prosthechea brassavolae (2.00 USD).
ORCHID ABUNDANCE AND RICHNESS AS
DETERMINANTS OF INCOME
Considering the sales volume for all 28 orchid
species recorded in the three markets visited, those
providing the highest estimated incomes were Laelia
superbiens, Cuitlauzina pulchella, Lycaste skinneri,
and Epidendrum radicans. The species with the
highest sales volume, considering complete and in-
florescence specimens, were L. superbiens,
C. pulchella, and E. radicans. Lycaste skinneri pro-
vided the third highest estimated income, but its
sales volume (eight specimens) was much lower in
comparison with the abovementioned species
(Table 1).
Table 3 shows the results of the multivariate
regression analysis performed to obtain the proxy
for the species richness of the orchids traded by the
16 vendors interviewed. In the analysis, each coef-
ficient measures the correlation between the net
sales volume per species and a dummy variable for
each orchid traded. These coefficients are allow to
estimate the biodiversity index that is used as an
instrumental variable in the OLS and PLS models.
Table 4 shows the results from the OLS model for
the determinants of income from orchid vendors;
the biodiversity index, the inflorescence abundance,
and the plant abundance had a statistically signifi-
cant relationship with the vendor’s income. Figure 4
shows the results of the PLS model using the orchid

TABLE 2. DATA ON THE ORCHID TRADE PROVIDED BY THE 16 VENDORS INTERVIEWED FROM THREE TRADITIONAL
MARKETS IN CHIAPAS, MEXICO.

Vendor Age Species number per Most traded species per Plant Inflorescence Estimated income
vendor vender abundance abundance (USD)
1 50 4 Laelia superbiens 8 22 17.54
2 39 4 Rhynchostele maculata 12 0 7.52
3 29 6 Laelia superbiens 27 26 39.59
4 30 4 Chysis laevis 8 0 6.26
5 45 6 Prosthechea brassavolae 17 0 20.29
6 49 8 Laelia superbiens 34 20 33.57
7 43 4 Encyclia cordigera 7 0 7.01
8 52 8 Laelia superbiens 26 39 54.37
9 40 4 Chysis laevis 17 0 21.55
10 41 3 Rhyncholaelia glauca 11 0 16.28
11 52 5 Prosthechea brassavolae 16 0 13.78
12 40 6 Laelia superbiens 12 12 16.53
13 35 9 Guarianthe aurantiaca 18 0 6.77
14 41 5 Lycaste skinneri 25 0 40.84
15 33 5 Trichopilia sp. 24 0 23.30
16 37 4 Epidendrum radicans 10 15 6.51
Total 272 134 331.71
2019] JIMÉNEZ-LÓPEZ ET AL.: WILD MEXICAN ORCHID TRADING IN TRADITIONAL MARKETS

Fig. 3. a The linear regression between price and flower diameter for the species with higher specimen abundance
extracted for trade from each of the 16 vendors interviewed in the study (r2 = 0.78, p < 0.001). b The linear regression
between the probable estimated net income and the total abundance of specimens extracted for trade from each of the
16 vendors interviewed in the study (r2 = 0.69, p < 0.001).

richness proxy for the markets visited. The model vendors can be explained to a large extent (r2 =
indicates that the estimated income of the orchid 0.643) by the abundance of the traded specimens,

TABLE 3. COEFFICIENTS OF CORRELATION BETWEEN THE ABUNDANCE OF SPECIMENS FROM 26 SPECIES OF ORCHIDS
TRADED BY 16 VENDORS INTERVIEWED FROM THREE TRADITIONAL MARKETS FROM CHIAPAS, MEXICO, AND A
DUMMY VARIABLE FOR EACH ORCHID SPECIES.

Number Species Coefficient

1 Arpophyllum medium − 1.375 (0.818)
2 Chysis laevis − 6.875 (2.456)
3 Cuitlauzina candida − 2.625 (2.267)
4 Dichaea glauca − 5.625 (2.267)
5 Encyclia cordigera − 7.875 (2.797)
6 Epidendrum alvarezdeltoroi − 5.875 (2.332)
7 Epidendrum radicans − 7.625 (2.267)
8 Epidendrum veroscriptum − 7.625 (2.267)
9 Guarianthe aurantiaca − 7.208333 (2.332)
10 Isochilus sp. − 5.875 (2.200)
11 Laelia anceps − 6.375 (2.456)
12 Laelia superbiens − 3.275 (2.227)
13 Lycaste aromatica − 5.541667 (2.332)
14 Lycaste cruenta − 7.208333 (2.332)
15 Lycaste skinneri − 3.875 (2.797)
16 Maxillaria pulchra − 7.875 (2.332)
17 Maxillaria variabilis − 6.875 (2.332)
18 Oncidium leucochilum − 5.875 (2.267)
19 Prosthechea baculus − 6.875 (2.332)
20 Prosthechea brassavolae − 6.875 (2.332)
21 Prosthechea cochleata − 6.625 (2.267)
22 Rhyncholaelia glauca − 5.875 (2.797)
23 Rhynchostele bictoniensis − 2.208333 (2.332)
24 Rhynchostele maculata − 6.541667 (2.332)
25 Stanhopea sp. − 4.625 (2.267)
26 Trichopilia sp. − 5.208333 (2.332)
 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL

TABLE 4. PARAMETERS OF THE ORDINARY LEAST SQUARE communities, which are close to the cities with the
(OLS) MODEL FOR THE DETERMINANTS OF THE ORCHID markets. Therefore, this trade can be considered as
VENDORS’ INCOME IN THE THREE VISITED MARKETS trafficking wild flora where there are no intermedi-
FROM CHIAPAS.
aries; the vendor, alone or in the company of a
Dependent variable: natural logarithm of probable income
relative, is the person dedicated to extracting or-
Biodiversity estimator 88.69* (29.97) chids, transporting the specimens, and selling them
Vendor’s age 0.0116 (0.011) at the market. This type of trade has recently been
Inflorescence abundance 0.0816* (0.019) documented in a Mexican region with a high per-
Plant abundance 0.1616* (0.052) centage of indigenous people (Cruz-García et al.
Constant 1.911* (0.484) 2015). Orchid buyers at the studied markets are
inhabitants of the cities where the plants are traded,
*Statistically significant.
and they acquire orchids as temporary decorations
for celebrations occurring in December, Christmas,
specifically inflorescences (0.786), the vendor’s age and other religious festivities.
(0.027), and the species richness (0.024) of the Most of the income from this orchid trade is
orchids that each vendor had for sale. Although based on a few species. Sixty percent of the total
the biodiversity index was statistically significant in sales volume (738 specimens) estimated for the
both methods, OLS provided a coefficient with 28 orchid species corresponded to only three
greater weight than PLS. PLS adjusts this species: Laelia superbiens, Cuitlauzina pulchella,
coefficient, and although it is still significant, it has and Epidendrum radicans. The income that could
much lower weight. be generated from the sales of these three orchids
represents just over half (55%) of the estimated net
income for all sales volume of the 28 species record-
Discussion ed in the markets visited, but this income increases
to 61.5% if the sales volume for Lycaste skinneri is
RICHNESS, ABUNDANCE, AND PRICE OF THE also included. Two of the traded orchid species,
TRADED ORCHIDS L. superbiens and L. skinneri, whose populations in
the country are only known from Chiapas, are
All interviewed vendors noted that they extracted protected by Mexican laws. The sales volume and
all the specimens they sold from forests in their income estimated for L. superbiens was the highest

Fig. 4. Results of the partial least squares model determinants of income for vendors of orchids in three traditional
markets from Chiapas, Mexico.
2019] JIMÉNEZ-LÓPEZ ET AL.: WILD MEXICAN ORCHID TRADING IN TRADITIONAL MARKETS
among the orchids in this study, whereas L. skinneri
had the third highest estimated income, although its
sales volume included only a few specimens.
The wild orchids sold in the studied markets
represent a very low percentage (8.4%) of the 333
Orchidaceae species reported as occurring in the
region where they grow, and they are extracted for
trade in the Momón–Las Margaritas–Montebello
region (Soto 2001). However, markets in other
cities of Chiapas, such as Berriozábal, San Cristóbal
de las Casas, and Tuxtla Gutiérrez, sell orchids that
are also extracted from the same region. Therefore,
the orchid diversity extracted from this region and
represented in the illicit trade occurring in Chiapas,
or even destined for markets in other Mexican
states, could be higher than reported here (Eduardo
Martínez, Pronatura Chiapas, pers. comm.).
PRICE–FLOWER DIAMETER AND INCOME–
ESTIMATED SALES VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS
We tried to assess whether the orchid price
could be determined by certain plant attri-
butes, such as the showiness of the species’
flower. The results corroborated our assump-
tion that orchid species with greater ornamen-
tal value had a higher sales price in the mar-
kets visited. Thus, the price of an orchid is
highly determined by its showiness, and there-
fore, the sale of showy species tends to gener-
ate higher income for vendors. This relation-
ship needs to be taken into account to design
a possible management program for the native
orchids in the vendor’s communities. However,
the estimated net sales volume for these species
was variable, from four specimens for Encyclia
cordigera to 66 specimens for Laelia superbiens. On
the other hand, Arpophyllum medium Rchb. f.,
Isochilus sp., and Rhynchostele bictoniense, which
were recorded as having relatively high sales vol-
umes, had low sales prices per specimen. A possible
relationship between flower size (indicative of spe-
cies showiness) and sales volume (indicative of
abundance in the market) for wild orchids traded
in traditional Mexican markets has already been
suggested, although only in a descriptive manner
(Emeterio et al. 2016).
The estimated possible income of each orchid
vendor depended, to a large extent, on the
quantity of specimens (sales volume) sold; the
relation between both variables was found to be
high and significant. Each of the 16 vendors
sold specimens that are from three to nine
orchid species. Thus, the income that a vendor
can obtain was not dependent on the sale of a
single species that has a high demand in the
market, but is diversified by including other
species. Interestingly, seven of the 16 vendors
had a potential income of more than 20 USD (if
they sold all the orchids they had brought to the
market). Three of the vendors brought the
highest sales volume (highest abundance) of
Laelia superbiens, but a vendor who brought only a
few specimens of Lycaste skinneri was the vendor
with the third highest income in this study. There-
fore, the orchid abundance and richness were factors
determining the vendor’s income.
ORCHID ABUNDANCE AND RICHNESS AS
DETERMINANTS OF INCOME
The results of this study also showed that the
income obtained by the orchid vendors can be ex-
plained by three variables: orchid inflorescence abun-
dance, the vendor’s age, and the biodiversity index.
The biodiversity index was statistically significant in
both OLS and PLS methods. So, at least to some
extent and in combination with the aforementioned
variables, the orchid richness that was offered in the
market was a parameter that contributed significantly
to the vendor’s income. Therefore, the species richness
of traded orchids positively influenced the markets, at
least to some extent. However, more data are needed
for a more conclusive analysis.
Most vendors interviewed were adult women,
a similar situation that has previously been re-
ported in similar studies (Cruz-García et al.
2015; Emeterio et al. 2016; Molina et al. 2015;
Mondragón et al. 2016). From the 16 vendors
interviewed, a total sales volume of 406 orchid
specimens was estimated, and if all of them were
sold, they could generate a total income of 331.71
USD. On average, each vendor brought a sales
volume of 25.4 specimens to the market and ob-
tained an estimated average income of 20.73 USD
during December. This monthly income is equiva-
lent to 5.18 USD (exchange rate of 1 March 2017)
per day of sale, considering four effective days of
sales during December in the visited markets. This
means that the orchid trade is performed only 1 day
per week in each visited market. Vendors sell other
agricultural products in addition to orchids, such as
corn, beans, fruits, and flowers in Juan Sabines and
Supplies Center markets, while in the November
22nd market, vendors traded only orchids. Thus,
the orchid trade can be seen as a multiple strategy to
 ECONOMIC BOTANY
alleviate the vendor’s poverty, providing additional
income to them.
The aforementioned average income per orchid
vendor is above the international poverty line (1.90
USD) that was established by the World Bank in
October 2015 (World Bank 2015). Thus, the or-
chid trade is an activity that provides incomes that
could seemingly alleviate the vendor’s poverty levels.
However, it should be considered that December is
the month of greatest sales for orchids in the region,
whereas for the rest of the year, this trade decreases
or is absent in the markets; thus, the income of the
vendors depends on other economic activities.
On the other hand, the illegal trade of native
orchids in Mexico represents an unfair competi-
tion for businesses that invested time and re-
sources in propagating specimens to carry out
this activity within a legal framework. In the
region where our study was conducted, there
are no authorized establishments for the sale of
Mexican native orchids. Nonetheless, it is worth
mentioning the difference in average prices (in
U.S. dollars) of some species legally traded (by
Mexican enterprises such as Río Verde Orchids
and La Joya Orchids) in comparison with those
offered illegally in the markets visited: Laelia
superbiens (22.54 vs. 2.50 USD), Lycaste skinneri
(35.07 vs. 5.01 USD), Prosthechea cochleata (5.01
vs. 0.05 USD), Rhynchostele sp. (8.01 vs. 2.00
USD), and Trichopilia sp. (12.52 vs. 1.75 USD).
If there were a legal business offering these orchids
in the region, it would not be able to compete with
the lower prices offered by the illegal trade and
would likely be destined to failure.
IMPLICATIONS FOR CONSERVATION
All orchids sold in the markets visited were ex-
tracted from forests located within the Momón–Las
Margaritas–Montebello region, which is considered
a priority for biological conservation in Mexico
(Arriaga et al. 2000). This region is important be-
cause it hosts the greatest orchid diversity in the
country (Soto 2001) and it includes the Lagunas de
Montebello National Park. Unfortunately, forests
from this region exhibit high fragmentation and low
connectivity between remnant fragments, and they
are sensitive to drought and mismanagement of fire
in agricultural practices (Arriaga et al. 2000;
CONABIO 2010). The wild orchid trade discussed
in this study represents a serious threat for the
orchid diversity in this Mexican protected area
(Soto et al. 2007), reflecting deficiencies in the
[VOL
area’s management plan and in the actions of its
surveillance.
The two orchids that generate the highest incomes
in the studied markets (Laelia superbiens and Lycaste
skinneri) are species at risk and protected by Mexi-
can laws (SEMARNAT 2010). The first one is
considered threatened, and although it is known
from several localities in Chiapas, orchid vendors
carry out extraction for local trading in most of
them (Cabrera 2006a). On the other hand,
L. skinneri is considered endangered because it has
a very restricted distribution in Mexico, very low
population densities, and high specificity in terms of
its habitat, and it is being extracted for sale (Cabrera
2006b). A management plan for these two orchid
species, within a legal framework, can be achievable
to promote conservation of both the forests and
orchids in the study region (SEMARNAT 2011,
2014). This plan requires (1) an ecological study
that determines the potential sustainable extraction
rate that guarantees the population’s viability, (2) a
suitable and legal place for the management prac-
tices, (3) the elaboration of a plan describing the
guidelines of the management, and (4) the authori-
zation for this management plan from the Mexican
environmental authorities. The success of such
management will depend on including the orchid
vendors, providing them with advice about the
administrative processes as well training and adviso-
ry workshops to guarantee the feasibility of the
management. Alternatively, other important activi-
ties may be promoted, such as orchid rescue (con-
fiscated from illegal trade or recovered from
destroyed forests) and rustic orchid cultivation in
organic coffee farms or in home gardens, which
would provide specimens for selling (Damon
2017). However, because of the long life cycles that
are typical of most epiphytic orchids, experiences in
this regard are scarce and a successful case requires
several years, which discourages the enterprise. Gener-
ally, for nonthreatened and locally abundant orchids
in the studied region, plant sections or stems with
inflorescences are extracted for sale. Apparently, this
kind of extraction does not represent a risk for orchids
because the population size is not affected. However,
in the long term, this practice affects the population,
because orchid pollination is a density-dependent
event, so if there are fewer flowers, the population
reproductive success can be reduced.
On the other hand, given the seriousness of the
illicit trade for Mexican orchids, it is important to
implement measures to ensure compliance with the
legal framework in the protection of this resource in
2019] JIMÉNEZ-LÓPEZ ET AL.: WILD MEXICAN ORCHID TRADING IN TRADITIONAL MARKETS
the country (SEMARNAT 2011, 2014). Flores and
Valencia (2007) reported that when environmental
authorities conduct inspections and surveillance op-
erations where illegal wild flower trade is practiced,
the trade diminished. Unfortunately, actions such
as these are almost nonexistent in traditional mar-
kets where wild orchids are traded, especially those
that are established in regions with high biodiversi-
ty, such as the states of Chiapas and Oaxaca. Mexico
has an attorney specialized in environmental crimes,
and one of its functions is to verify compliance with
the legal framework for wildlife management, as well
as to inspect and to sanction cases of environmental
crimes such as wildlife trafficking and illicit trading
within the national territory. However, the informa-
tion available from this attorney about the illicit wild
orchid trade for 2015–2016 is incomplete and out-
dated. For this period, 28 actions related to inspec-
tions and surveillance were reported, and two com-
plaints were filed. However, no action ended with a
sanction for the offenders; furthermore, none of these
actions occurred in Chiapas (Martinez 2017;
PROFEPA 2017). The abovementioned issues
highlight the deficiencies in the monitoring,
inspecting, and denouncing procedures for the illicit
trade and trafficking of wild orchids in Mexico.
Some authors assume that NWFP manage-
ment can be an activity compatible with forest
conservation and that it can help alleviate pov-
erty for people who are dependent on it (Latif
et al. 2005; Lewis et al. 2011; Wunder 2001).
However, the orchid trade discussed in this study
represents an increased risk for species already con-
sidered threatened (Laelia superbiens and Lycaste
skinneri), and it is affecting populations of species
not previously considered at risk (Cuitlauzina can-
dida and Epidendrum radicans). Therefore, this
practice appears to be incompatible and
unfavorable for orchid conservation in this region
of Mexico. This problem has already been reported
for other NWFP by Kopnina (2016) and Lybbert
et al. (2011).
Mexican environmental laws defined the legal
framework for orchid management (SEMARNAT
2011, 2012, 2014), where farmers and indigenous
people can be direct beneficiaries, but there are
scarce examples of these successful experiences.
The situation could change if a management
strategy is implemented based on the Orchid
Specialist Group (1996) and Cribb et al. (2003),
and includes identifying species with the potential
for management, defining guidelines that guarantee
the maintenance of population viability, providing
capacity and educational workshops for those inter-
ested, restoring and implementing traditional culti-
vation techniques, providing training on propaga-
tion methods, and promoting activities that provide
additional value to the resource.
Conclusions
In the studied markets, orchid vendors were
adult women who temporarily performed this
activity, earning additional income for their
domestic economies. The sale of 28 orchid
species was recorded. These species were ex-
tracted from forests, some of which were in
protected natural areas that were near vendor
communities, making it an activity that is
difficult to monitor. Most of the income gen-
erated by the orchid trade discussed in this
study is based on only three species (Laelia
superbiens, Cuitlauzina pulchella, and Epidendrum
radicans), which were the orchids with the greatest
sales volume in the markets. Two of the species are
seriously threatened in Mexico, while the extraction
of orchids for this trade also affects other species that
are not considered at risk in Mexico. The price of an
orchid was highly and significantly related to its
showiness (evaluated in terms of its flower size),
and therefore, they generated higher income for
vendors. The vendor’s income also depended on
the total sales volume, as the relation between both
variables was high and significant. The income ob-
tained by a vendor was also explained with statistical
significance, by orchid inflorescence abundance,
vendor’s age, and the biodiversity index estimated
here. Because the orchid trade in the study area
turns out to be illegal according to Mexican laws,
it represents an unfair competition for the legal
trade where time and resources have been invested
in the propagation and cultivation of specimens.
Acknowledgments
The first author would like to thank Carlos
Rommel-Beutelspacher and Marcos Escobar for re-
vising a preliminary version of the paper and
Rosalinda López-López for her help during the field
work.
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