Accepted Manuscript

Differences in stress and happiness between owners who perceive their dogs as well
behaved or poorly behaved when they are left alone

Mónica Teresa González-Ramírez, Minerva Vanegas, René Landero

PII: S1558-7878(18)30072-8
DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2018.07.010
Reference: JVEB 1169

To appear in: Journal of Veterinary Behavior

Received Date: 4 April 2018

Revised Date: 11 July 2018
Accepted Date: 25 July 2018

Please cite this article as: Teresa González-Ramírez, M., Vanegas, M., Landero, R., Differences in
stress and happiness between owners who perceive their dogs as well behaved or poorly behaved when
they are left alone, Journal of Veterinary Behavior (2018), doi: 10.1016/j.jveb.2018.07.010.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Title Page:

Title: Differences in stress and happiness between owners who perceive their dogs as
well behaved or poorly behaved when they are left alone.

Article type: Research Paper.

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Keywords: separation anxiety; separation-related problems; human-dog interaction;
Peteffect; stress; happiness.

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Running head: dog behavior problems, stress and happiness

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Order of Authors: Mónica Teresa González-Ramíreza (monygzz77@yahoo.com;
monica.gonzalezrz@uanl.edu.mx), Minerva Vanegasb (minerva.vanegas@gmail.com),
René Landeroa (rlandero1_mx@yahoo.com.mx)

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Corresponding Author: Mónica Teresa González-Ramírez, Universidad Autónoma de
Nuevo León, UANL, Fac. de Psicología, Av. Universidad S/N Ciudad Universitaria San
Nicolás de los Garza Nuevo León, C.P, 66451 México. Tel. +52 81 83294050, e-mail:
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monygzz77@yahoo.com; monica.gonzalezrz@uanl.edu.mx
Affiliations:
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a
Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, UANL, Fac. de Psicología.
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b
Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, UANL, Fac. de Organización Deportiva.

Abstract:
This study was performed to identify differences between a group of 36 dog owners
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who reported separation-related behavioral problems in their dogs and a group of 40

dog owners who perceived their dogs as well behaved in their absence. The variables
compared between these groups were attachment, trainability, human-dog
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relationship, owner-dog compatibility, happiness and stress. Dogs whose owners

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perceived that they were well behaved when left alone had more years within the
household and higher scores in trainability; their owners also reported a better
relationship with the dog and lower attachment scores than the group that perceived
separation-related problems in their dogs. In addition, those owners who saw their dogs
as well behaved when left alone showed higher perceived happiness and lower
perceived stress. The equivalence in compatibility and the differences found in the
mentioned variables suggest that owners and their dogs are compatible in activity
preferences and in emotional variables such as anxiety or stress. It is possible that
humans with higher levels of stress do not have a relaxed relationship with their dogs,
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which may contribute to their annoyance about their dogs’ behavior, and they spend
less time with them. This could explain why they perceived their dogs as having
separation-related behavioral problems. A dog’s behavior could be a source of stress for
the owner affecting the owner’s perceived happiness.

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Heading: dog behavior problems, stress and happiness

1 Differences in stress and happiness between owners who perceive their dogs as well behaved or

2 poorly behaved when they are left alone

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Dog behavior problems, stress and happiness 2

4 Abstract
5 This study was performed to identify differences between a group of 36 dog owners who
6 reported separation-related behavioral problems in their dogs and a group of 40 dog owners who
7 perceived their dogs as well behaved in their absence. The variables compared between these
8 groups were attachment, trainability, human-dog relationship, owner-dog compatibility,

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9 happiness and stress. Dogs whose owners perceived that they were well behaved when left alone
10 had more years within the household and higher scores in trainability; their owners also reported

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11 a better relationship with the dog and lower attachment scores than the group that perceived
12 separation-related problems in their dogs. In addition, those owners who saw their dogs as well

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13 behaved when left alone showed higher perceived happiness and lower perceived stress. The
14 equivalence in compatibility and the differences found in the mentioned variables suggest that

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15 owners and their dogs are compatible in activity preferences and in emotional variables such as
16 anxiety or stress. It is possible that humans with higher levels of stress do not have a relaxed
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17 relationship with their dogs, which may contribute to their annoyance about their dogs’ behavior,
18 and they spend less time with them. This could explain why they perceived their dogs as having
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19 separation-related behavioral problems. A dog’s behavior could be a source of stress for the
20 owner affecting the owner’s perceived happiness.
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22 Keywords: separation anxiety; separation-related problems; human-dog interaction; Pet-effect;
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23 stress; happiness.
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Dog behavior problems, stress and happiness 3

24 Introduction
25 The way dogs react to anxiety provoking circumstances has garnered attention due to its
26 relationship with behavioral problems, canine relinquishment, and more recently to a proper
27 diagnosis and help for both the animal and the human partner (Flannigan & Dodman, 2001).
28 When behavioral problems surface, their physical and emotional origins are now investigated

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29 since such problems endanger the welfare, the human-animal bond and the lifespan of the animal
30 if not treated (Dreschel, 2010; Kurachi et al., 2017).

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31 Anxiety is an emotion of apprehension to an anticipated danger or threat, and often to an
32 unidentified stimulus (Ogata, 2016). One approach argues that if the stimulus is identifiable and

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33 present, the emotional response to it should be defined as fear as in humans (Ogata, 2016). In
34 dogs, while both anxiety and fear are associated with behaviors such as lip licking, yawning and

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35 grooming (Palestrini et al. 2017), some authors consider a heighted arousal that diminish the
36 dog’s adaptive behaviors as the primary difference between humans and dogs (Overall, 2014): an
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37 anxious dog has difficulties observing and accurately assimilating information from the
38 environment, leading to poor choices and reactions.
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39 Lack of attention and undesirable behaviors related to environmental anxiety has also
40 been linked to age (in an age range between 1 and 4.5 years old) and sex (being male) as a more
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41 likely reason for withdrawal from work in service dogs due to fear/aggression-related behavior
42 (Caron-Lormier et al., 2016). Anxious behavior and impulsivity have recently been associated
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43 with premature graying in young dogs’ muzzles, as a possible body reaction to factors like stress
44 and chronic pain, as also happens in humans and mice (King et al., 2016). High plasma levels of
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45 5-HIAA, the primary metabolite of serotonin, may be elevated in anxious and stressed dogs as
46 they attempt- and fail - to calm themselves through licking (Part et al., 2014).
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47 We focus on separation anxiety, a term reserved to those behavioral signs related to

48 distress in the dog, but only in the absence of or lack of access to the human partner (Overall,
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49 1997; 2013; Scaglia et al., 2013). Separation anxiety and separation-related problems are often
50 used interchangeably in the literature (Scaglia et al., 2013).
51 Excessive motor activity can be a sign of separation anxiety, and vocalization is the
52 among the most common behaviors reported by owners of the dogs diagnosed with separation
53 anxiety (Storengen et al., 2014). Research shows that other signs, such as extensive destruction,
54 elimination, and salivation, may also coexist with vocalization when a dog is left alone (Overall
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Dog behavior problems, stress and happiness 4

55 et al., 2001; Scaglia et al., 2013). Possible risk factors for separation anxiety include the dog’s
56 sex, breed, acquired resources, and the family’s structure or owner’s lifestyle (Ogata, 2016).
57 Tiira and Lohi (2015) found that, in a survey of 1,737 female and 1,525 male dogs, the amount
58 of daily exercise was one of the biggest environmental factors associated with separation
59 anxiety: dogs with separation-related problems exercised less.

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60 Separation anxiety is commonly related to attachment in different species of mammals
61 (Moreno et al., 2009; Konok et al. 2015). González-Ramírez et al. (2017a) found a positive

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62 correlation between attachment and separation-related problems. Parthasarathy & Crowell-Davis
63 (2006) consider separation anxiety a result of an inappropriate attachment style, and this style

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64 could be present in dogs with and without separation anxiety.
65 The identification of separation anxiety should be done by a clinician. Owners detect an

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66 undesirable behavior and may report it to the clinician, but videotaping the dog in the
67 provocative contexts may be needed to confirm that behavior is related to anxiety and not to a
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68 poor training, normal behaviors, etcetera. Even when dog behaviors are normal, they can turn
69 into a problem when the owner perceives the behavior as annoying. Hence, we focus on the
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70 owners’ perceptions about dog behavior when left alone and the pet effect on stress and
71 happiness. We made no distinction between dogs with a true diagnosis of separation anxiety and
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72 those with other separation-related behaviors.

73 The objective of this study was to evaluate differences between dog owners who reported
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74 separation-related behavioral problems in their dogs and owners who perceived their dogs were
75 well behaved in their absence. We also compared variables possibly related to separation-related
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76 behavior, such as attachment, trainability, owner-dog relationship, owner-dog compatibility,

77 happiness and stress.
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79 Materials and Methods
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80 Participants
81 Dog owners were recruited among Mexican residents using a snowball sampling method
82 of an online-survey system (SurveyMonkey.com) and via promotion on social media. No
83 demographic data related to the dogs were used as inclusion or exclusion criteria. Incomplete
84 surveys were discarded. The survey was answered by 350 people. In this study, we included
85 people who could be part of one of the two following groups: one group with scoring values
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86 equal to or above 2 on the C-BARQ separation-related problem subscale and the second
87 including score values equal to 0. The C-BARQ separation-related problem subscale is described
88 below.
89 The final sample consisted of 76 dog owners, 18 to 43 years. Thirty six dog owners
90 perceived their dogs as having separation-related behavioral problems (group 1) and 40 dog

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91 owners who perceived their dogs as well behaved in their absence (group 2). Dogs in this study
92 were not assessed by veterinarians or behavioral specialists.

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93 No significant differences were found in the sociodemographic variables, as listed in
94 Table 1.

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96 Instruments

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97 For this research we used the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research
98 Questionnaire, C-BARQ©, developed in English by Hsu and Serpell (2003) and adapted for
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99 Mexico by González-Ramírez et al. (2017a). This questionnaire includes 14 subscales related to
100 observable and specific behaviors on a 5-point Likert scale: zero indicates absence of behavior,
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101 and four is the highest intensity or frequency. This is not a diagnostic tool for the categorization
102 of behavioral problems; it evaluates the intensity and frequency of behaviors potentially related
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103 to aggression, fear, and excitability from owner perspective.

104 Because of the aim of this study, we only used the following subscales:
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105 1. Separation-related behavior: the dog vocalizes and/or destroys things when they
106 are separated from their owner, often accompanied or preceded by behaviors and signs of
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107 anxiety, such as restlessness, loss of appetite, tremors, or excessive salivation.

108 2. Attachment or attention-seeking: the dog keeps a close proximity to their owner
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109 or other family members, seeks affection or attention, and shows signs of agitation when the
110 owner pays attention to others.
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111 3. Trainability: the dog shows a willingness to comply and obey simple instructions
112 from the owner. The dog is not easily distracted, tends to learn fast, and responds positively to
113 correction and recovery of objects.
114 The Monash dog-owner relationship scale (MDORS; Dwyer, Bennett, & Coleman, 2006)
115 in its Mexican adaptation (MDORS-M; González-Ramírez et al., 2017b) is a scale based on the
116 social interchange theory, which explains that a human relationship is only held when both costs
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117 and benefits seem to balance or when the perception of the benefits exceeds those of the costs.
118 This instrument is considered as the more robust for the evaluation of the human-dog
119 relationship from the human’s perspective (Payne et al., 2015). This is a 28-item 5-point Likert
120 scale arranged in three subscales: (1) dog-owner interaction, (2) perceived emotional closeness,
121 and (3) perceived costs. For scoring, the perceived costs items are reversed and summed with

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122 items of the other two subscales. The resultant score indicates the strength of the relationship
123 according to the perception of the owner. In its Mexican adaptation, the MDORS-M scale

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124 presented a reliability of α = 0.82 in the dog-owner interaction subscale, α = 0.91 in the
125 emotional closeness subscale, and α = 0.81 in the perceived costs subscale. This scale has an

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126 adequate general reliability of α = 0.88 (González-Ramírez et al., 2017b).
127 To evaluate the owner´s preferences regarding his or her freely chosen activities and the

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128 perceived behavior of the dog in relation to them, we used the dog-owner compatibility index of
129 activity preferences by González-Ramírez et al. (2017c). This instrument evaluates six activities
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130 correlated to the actions performed by the owner and their dogs’ responses (e.g., section for the
131 owner: On the weekend or on a nonworking day, you would like to walk or run in the park;
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132 section for the dog: your dog enjoys long walks in the park). This questionnaire was designed as
133 a 4-point Likert scale, with response options ranging from completely disagree to completely
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134 agree. For scoring purposes, it was first determined the degree of the dog-owner compatibility
135 for each of the six situations presented. Compatibility is considered when the answer for both,
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136 the dog and the owner, ranges from 0–1 (response options completely disagree or disagree), or
137 2–3 (response options completely agree or agree). If the answer for an activity is 0 or 1 for owner
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138 and 2 or 3 for dog, no compatibility is determined. Also, if the answer for an activity is 2 or 3 for
139 owner and 0 or 1 for dog, they are considered non-compatible. Afterwards, the number of
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140 compatibilities is divided by 6 and multiplied by 100. Cronbach’s alpha was reported as 0.82.
141 To measure happiness, we used the subjective happiness scale (SHS; Lyubomirsky &
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142 Lepper, 1999) in its validated version for the Mexican population (Quezada et al., 2016). The
143 SHS is a 4-item Likert-type scale that measures global subjective happiness by means of
144 statements in which the participants either self-rate themselves or compare themselves to others.
145 The scale showed an adequate level of internal consistency with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient
146 of 0.77 (Quezada et al., 2016).
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147 Finally, we also measured the perception of stress through the perceived stress scale
148 (PSS; Cohen et al., 1983) in its Mexican version (González-Ramírez & Landero-Hernández,
149 2007). This scale contains 14 Likert-type items with scores ranging from 0 = never to 4 = very
150 often. Within it, 7 items are reverse coded. Total score ranges from 0 to 56 points; also, for
151 interpretation purposes, a higher score corresponds to higher levels of stress. In its validation, the

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152 scale exhibited a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.83 (González-Ramírez & Landero-Hernández, 2007).
153

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154 Statistical analysis
155 All statistical analyses were performed with IBM® SPSS® Statistics 20. We began with

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156 the descriptive analysis of the variables and its contrast with the normal distribution using the
157 Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Due to not normal distribution (p < 0.05), the Mann-Whitney U test

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158 was used for continuous variables, and a chi-square test was used for categorical ones.
159
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160 Results
161 Characteristics of the dogs from both groups were analyzed. Table 2 shows the data for
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162 the participating dogs with respect to age, sex, size, neutering, and obedience training. Dogs
163 without separation-related problems had lived longer with their owners, than did dogs with
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164 separation-related problems.

165 Table 3 shows the number of dogs by breed. Mixed-breed dogs represent the largest
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166 percentage of dogs in both groups. In the group 1, dogs perceived by owners to have separation-
167 related behavioral problems, mixed-breeds and schnauzers comprised 16.7% of the sample.
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168 There were significant differences between several variables, as seen in Table 4. Dog
169 owners who perceived that their dogs had separation-related behavioral problems had higher
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170 scores in the attachment subscale (C-BARQ), lower trainability scores (C-BARQ), and worse
171 owner-dog relationship (MDORS-M) than owners who perceived that their dogs were well
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172 behaved when left alone.

173 The MDORS-M subscales revealed a significant association with ’perceived costs’ for
174 dogs with separation-related behavioral problems. Dog owners who reported that their dogs were
175 well behaved when left alone, perceived themselves as happier and less stressed. No differences
176 related to the human-dog compatibility were found between the two groups.
177
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178 Discussion
179 It is widely known that human-animal interaction (HAI) is associated with positive health
180 effects for humans, and for many years, its investigations had focused on this aspect (Fine,
181 2010). Nevertheless, dogs’ unwanted behaviors could also have affect humans. This research
182 focuses on owners’ perception about dog behavior when left alone and its association with their

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183 perceived stress and happiness.
184 We evaluated owners who believed that their dogs had separation-related problems and

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185 owners who perceived that their dogs were well behaved in their absence. After comparing the
186 characteristics of both groups, as in McGreevy and Masters’ (2008) study, we did not detect a

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187 tendency related to breeds nor an association related to their size. We found a significant
188 difference between the groups according to the dog’s time living with their actual owner: those

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189 owners who perceived that their dogs were well behaved when left alone had lived with their
190 dogs longer.
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191 Owners perceived that those dogs that did not present separation-related problems also
192 had higher scores in trainability. This relationship may be explained by Tiira and Lohi’s (2015)
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193 findings that anxious dogs could be exercised less because these dogs may be less obedient or
194 more prone to running away when walking.
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195 Hyper- or over-attachment are typical descriptions in the literature regarding dogs with
196 separation anxiety (Ogata, 2016). We found higher attachment scores within the group of owners
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197 who reported that their dogs had separation-related behavioral problems, however attachement
198 style should be considered (Parthasarathy and Crowell-Davis, 2006)..
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199 Results suggest that owners and dogs that share the same preferences in activities also
200 share symptoms associated with stress. Dogs share many of the same environmental factors that
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201 contribute to anxiety in other species, such as humans (Tiira and Lohi, 2015).
202 Owners with higher levels of stress may not have a relaxed relationship with their dogs,
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203 which can contribute to their annoyance about their dogs’ behavior, so they spend less time with
204 them, increasing the anxiety in the dogs. In turn, a dog’s behaviors may annoy the owner and
205 may be a source of stress for him or her, which affects his or her perceived happiness.
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207 Conclusion
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208 The findings of this study suggest that if owners do something to improve behaviors that
209 they consider annoying in their dogs, their perceived happiness and dog-owner relationship could
210 improve. Owners who perceive themselves as stressed also perceive separation-related problems
211 in their dogs.
212

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213 Authorship statement
214 The idea for the paper was conceived by the first author. The research was designed by

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215 the third author. Data were collected by all authors. The data were analyzed by the first and third
216 authors. The paper was written by all authors.

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217

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306 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2014.07.006
307 Tiira, K., Lohi, H., 2015 Early Life Experiences and Exercise Associate with Canine Anxieties.
308 PLoS ONE 10(11): e0141907. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0141907
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309 Virányi, Z., Topál, J., Gácsi, M., Miklósi, A., Csányi, V., 2004. Dogs respond appropriately to
310 cues of humans’ attentional focus. Behav. Process. 66(2), 161-172.
311 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2004.01.012
312

PT
RI
U SC
AN
M
D
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C EP
AC
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313 Table 1. Demographic information for owners. Group 1 is dog owners who perceived their dogs had separation-
314 related behavioral problems; group 2 is owners who perceived their dogs were well behaved when left alone.
315
Characteristic Group 1 (n=36) Group 2 (n=40) Statistical analysis
Age (in years)
Median 26.5 28.5 Z = -1.569;

PT
Mean 27.6 30.2 p = 0.117
Standard deviation 6.4 6.3

RI
Education
High school (n, %) 9, 25.0% 5, 12.5% χ2 = 3.333;
Bachelor degree (n, %) 20, 55.6% 26, 65.0% p = 0.504

SC
Postgraduate degree 7, 19.5% 9, 22.5%
Sex
Female (n, %) 28, 77.8% 34, 85.0% χ2 = 0.658:

U
Male (n, %) 8, 22.2% 6, 15.0% p = 0.417
AN
Marital status
Single (n, %) 19, 52.8% 19, 47.5% χ2 = 1.757
Married (n, %) 13, 36.1% 12, 30.0% p = 0.415
M

With partner (n, %) 4, 11.1% 9, 22.5%

Employed (n, %) χ2 = 0.650
Yes 23, 63.9% 29, 72.5% p = 0.420
D

Children (n, %) χ2 = 0.737

TE

No 30, 83.3% 36, 90% p = 0.391

First’s children age
Median 6.5 11.8 Z = -0.168;
EP

Mean 7.7 11.8 p = 0.867

Standard deviation 7.2 13.0
Dogs owned
C

Median 1.0 2.0 Z = -1.070

Mean 1.6 1.8 p = 0.285
AC

Standard deviation 0.8 0.8

316
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317 Table 2. Demographic information for dogs. Group 1 is dogs whose owners who perceived their dogs had
318 separation-related behavioral problems; group 2 is dogs whose owners who perceived their dogs were well behaved
319 when left alone.
320
Characteristic Group 1 (n=36) Group 2 (n=40) Statistical
analysis

PT
Age in years (0.17 a 11) (0.67 a 11)
Median 2.8 3.5 Z = -1.070;

RI
Mean 3.1 4.4 p = 0.285
Standard Deviation 2.5 2.8
Sex

SC
Female (n, %) 13, 36.1% 21, 52.5% χ2 = 2.058:
Male (n, %) 23, 63.9% 19, 47.5% p = 0.151
Size

U
mini (3 to 5 kg) 7, 19.4% 5, 12.5% χ2 = 7.171
AN
small (5 a 12 Kg) 13, 36.1% 7, 17.5% p = 0.127
medium (12 to 25 Kg) 9, 25.0% 12, 30.0%
large (25 to 40 Kg) 7, 19.4% 13, 32.5%
M

Giant (over 40 Kg) 0, 0.0% 3, 7.5%

Obedience classes with a dog χ2 = 3.712
trainer p = 0.054
D

Yes (n, %) 3, 8.3% 10, 25.0%

TE

Time of training (months) (3 a 5) (0.25 a 36) Z = -0.511

Median 4.0 6.0 p = 0.609
Mean 4.0 10.7
EP

Standard Deviation 1.0 13.7

Not neutered (n, %) 25, 69.4% 23, 57.5% χ2 = 1.162
p = 0.281
C

Years within the household

Median 2.0 3.2 Z = -2.718;
AC

Mean 2.6 4.3 p = 0.026

Standard Deviation 2.0 2.9
Age when neutered (%)
Median 2.0 1.0 Z = -0.023
Mean 1.7 2.2 p = 0.982
Standard Deviation 0.5 2.3
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321 Table 3. Breed distribution. Group 1 is dogs whose owners who perceived their dogs had separation-related
322 behavioral problems; group 2 is dogs whose owners who perceived their dogs were well behaved when left alone.
323
Group 1 (n=36) Group 2 (n=40)
n % n %

PT
American pitbull terrier 5 13.9 2 5.0
Australian cattle dog 1 2.8 0 0
Basset hound 1 2.8 0 0

RI
Beagle 0 0 4 10.0
Belgian malinois 1 2.8 1 2.5
Border collie 0 0 1 2.5

SC
Bulldog 0 0 2 5.0
Bullterrier 0 0 1 2.5
Chihuahua 3 8.3 4 10.0
Cocker spaniel 1

U 2.8 2 5.0
AN
Dachshund or Teckel 1 2.8 0 0
Doberman pinscher 1 2.8 0 0
German shepherd 0 0 1 2.5
M

Golden retriever 1 2.8 0 0

Labrador retriever 1 2.8 5 12.5
Lhasa apso 1 2.8 0 0
D

Maltese 0 0 1 2.5
TE

Mixed 6 16.7 9 22.5

Poodle 2 5.6 3 7.5
Pomeranian 1 2.8 0 0
EP

Pug 1 2.8 1 2.5

Schnauzer 6 16.7 0 0
Saint Bernard 0 0 2 5.0
C

Shiba inu 0 0 1 2.5

Staffordshire bull terrier 1 2.8 0 0
AC

Yorkshire terrier 2 5.6 0 0

324
325
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Dog behavior problems, stress and happiness 17

326 Table 4. Group comparisons of variables. Group 1 is dogs whose owners who perceived their dogs had separation-
327 related behavioral problems; group 2 is dogs whose owners who perceived their dogs were well behaved when left
328 alone.
329
Variable Group 1 (n=36) Group 2 (n=40) Mann Whitney
U test

PT
Attachment subscale (C-BARQ)
Median 2.3 1.8 Z = -3.331

RI
Mean 2.6 1.8 p = 0.001
Standard deviation 0.8 0.9
Trainability subscale (C-BARQ)

SC
Median 1.9 2.6 Z = -3.073
Mean 1.9 2.4 p = 0.002
Standard deviation 0.7 0.9

U
Relationship with the dog
AN
(MDORS-M scale mean)
Median 3.8 4.2 Z = -2.092;
Mean 3.8 3.9 p = 0.036
M

Standard deviation 0.5 0.6

Dog-owner interaction subscale
Median 3.1 3.7 Z = -1.385;
D

Mean 3.2 3.4 p = 0.166

TE

Standard deviation 0.9 0.9

Perceived emotional closeness subscale
Median 4.2 4.6 Z = -1.482
EP

Mean 4.1 4.3 p = 0.138

Standard deviation 0.7 0.9
Perceived cost subscale
C

Median 2.0 1.6 Z = -2.294;

Mean 2.0 1.8 p = 0.022
AC

Standard deviation 0.6 0.6

Dog-owner compatibility
Median 83.3 83.3 Z = -0.038
Mean 76.8 73.7 p = 0.970
Standard deviation 16.6 25.3
Happiness (SHS scale mean)
Median 5.0 5.5 Z = -2.207;
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Dog behavior problems, stress and happiness 18

Mean 5.0 5.4 p = 0.027

Standard deviation 0.8 0.9
Stress (PSS)
Median 20.5 16.5 Z = -2.323
Mean 22.0 17.2 p = 0.020
Standard deviation 8.9 7.4

PT
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331

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Highlights

• Owners who perceived their dogs have separation-related problems reported higher

scores in attachment, lower trainability, and worse owner-dog relationship scores than

PT
owners who believed their dogs were well behaved in their absence.

RI
• Owners who perceived their dogs were well behaved when left alone saw themselves as

SC
happier and less stressed.

•
U
No differences related to the human-dog compatibility were found between owners who
AN
perceived their dogs had separation-related problems and owners who reported that their
dogs were well behaved when left alone.
M

• A dog’s behavior could be a source of stress for the owner affecting the owner’s
D

perceived happiness.
TE
C EP
AC