I.

1. Fraternal twins, or dizygotic twins, happen when two different eggs are fertilized by
two sperm. The egg fertilized by the sperm that will develop into an embryo and
grow into a baby. The majority of twins are fraternal twins (twins that are more like
siblings born at the same time).

Fraternal twins form in the same way that all

humans do, by the union of sperm and egg.
Dizygotic twinning occurs when more than one
egg is released during ovulation. This is known
as hyperovulation.

A tendency toward hyperovulation can be a

genetic trait. In this way, fraternal twinning
can be hereditary. A woman who has the gene
for hyperovulation can pass it down to her
daughter. Then, the daughter's chances of
having twins are increased.

Because men carry both X (female) and Y

(male) chromosomes, they can also hold the
trait for hyperovulation. They can pass it along
to their daughters too, increasing their
daughters' chances of having fraternal twins.

However, having the gene for hyperovulation does not increase a man's chances of
fathering fraternal twins. If a man carries the gene, it doesn't change the ovulation
pattern of the mother of his children. She has her own genes governing her
ovulation. Instead, it would be his daughter who inherits it through his genes. That is
why twins are sometimes assumed to "skip a generation."

2. Twins that look exactly alike are typically referred to as "identical" twins. However, a
more accurate term is "monozygotic." Monozygotic twins share almost exactly the
same genes, but they're not quite identical.

After one split, individual cell

masses continue splitting on
their own. With every split,
there is another chance of
mutation. Usually, by birth,
the genes of twins are
extremely similar but not
identical. Over time, genetic
dissimilarities continue to
increase. This is due to
epigenetics—the way the
environment changes how our DNA is expressed.

Even though monozygotic twins look alike and share similar characteristics, they are
not clones. The two embryos have the same genetic components to start, but slight
differences develop over time.
 When twins are born with genetically different sexes (one twin is genetically male
and the other is genetically female) they are usually dizygotic. Monozygotic twins are
typically born as the same genetic sex.

However, while it's extremely rare, it is possible for monozygotic twins to be two
different sexes. This goes back to the idea that genetic mutations can occur from the
very first split.

There is another (rare) way to have identical twins of different sexes. If you have an
egg with one X chromosome, and sperm with a Y chromosome, you would typically
get a boy (XY). Normally, if this embryo split into twins, you’d get identical twin boys.
However, it’s possible for one twin to result with only the X chromosome (usually
written as XO), and the other XY.
II.
1. Conjoined twins are two babies who are born physically connected to each other.

Conjoined twins develop when an early embryo

only partially separates to form two individuals.
Although two fetuses will develop from this
embryo, they will remain physically connected —
most often at the chest, abdomen or pelvis.
Conjoined twins may also share one or more
internal organs.

Though many conjoined twins are not alive when

born (stillborn) or die shortly after birth, advances
in surgery and technology have improved survival
rates. Some surviving conjoined twins can be
surgically separated. The success of surgery
depends on where the twins are joined and how
many and which organs are shared, as well as the
experience and skill of the surgical team.

Identical twins (monozygotic twins) occur when a single fertilized egg splits and
develops into two individuals. Eight to 12 days after conception, the embryonic layers
that will split to form monozygotic twins begin to develop into specific organs and
structures.

It's believed that when the embryo splits later than this — usually between 13 and 15
days after conception — separation stops before the process is complete, and the
resulting twins are conjoined.
III. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/hs/medical/humandev/2004/Chpt23-Teratogens.pdf

1. Drugs and Chemicals 2. Aminopterin

3. Phenytoin
4. Methotrexate
5. Large doses of retinoic acid 6. Trimethadione

7. Infectious agents 8. Herpes simplex virus

9. Rubella virus
10.