CALCUTTA INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

NAME : ______________________
SUBJECT/TOPIC: Reproduction : A character of life (Handout 1)
GRADE/SECTION: 8A/B
DATE//LESSON: ________ TEACHER: D.G

Objectives Of The Handout :

#Critical thinking #Recall #Information literacy

Key Pointers : ( You may write the main takeaways from the content matter in
bullets here )
Introduction :

Reproduction is the biological process by which living organisms produce offspring of

the same species. It is a fundamental characteristic of all living organisms and is
essential for the continuation and survival of the species.

During reproduction, genetic material, in the form of DNA, is passed from parent
organisms to their offspring, ensuring the transmission of inherited traits and
characteristics.

Reproduction can occur through two main methods: sexual reproduction and asexual
reproduction.

1. Sexual Reproduction: Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of specialized

reproductive cells called gametes, which are produced by two parent organisms.
These gametes, typically an egg (female gamete) and a sperm (male gamete),
unite during fertilization to form a new organism, known as a zygote.
2.

3. Asexual Reproduction: Asexual reproduction involves the production of

offspring without the involvement of gametes or the fusion of genetic material
from two parents. In asexual reproduction, a single parent organism gives rise to
genetically identical offspring. This can occur through various methods such as
binary fission, budding, fragmentation, or vegetative propagation.

Asexual Reproduction Features :

● Asexual reproduction does not involve sex cells or fertilization

● Only one parent is required so there is no fusion of gametes and no mixing of
genetic information
● As a result, the offspring are genetically identical to the parent and to each other
(clones)
● Asexual reproduction is defined as a process resulting in genetically identical
offspring from one parent
 Few Types of Asexual Reproduction with Example

Note : To elaborate specifically on Agamogenesis it is also called Parthenogenesis.

Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction where an egg develops into a

complete individual without being fertilized. Parthenogenesis occurs in invertebrates
such as water fleas, rotifers, aphids, stick insects, some ants, wasps, and bees. Bees
use parthenogenesis to produce males (drones) and females (workers). If an egg is
fertilized, a queen is produced. The queen bee controls the reproduction of the hive
bees to regulate the type of bee produced.
 Pictorial Examples :
Bacteria produce exact genetic copies of themselves in a type of asexualreproduction
called binary fission:

Fig : Bacteria produce exact genetic copies of themselves in a type of asexual

reproduction called binary fission
Plants can reproduce asexually using bulbs and tubers; these are food storage
organs from which budding can occur, producing new plants which are
genetically identical to the parent plant:
Sexual Reproduction Features :
● Sexual reproduction is a process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two
gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote (fertilised egg cell) and the production of
offspring that are genetically different from each other
● Fertilisation is defined as the fusion of gamete nuclei, and as each gamete
comes from a different parent, there is variation in the offspring

Sexual Reproduction in Human being or Homo sapiens sapiens

Sexual reproduction in humans involves the fusion of specialized reproductive cells, or

gametes, from two individuals—typically a male and a female. The male gametes, known
as sperm cells, are produced in the testes, while the female gametes, known as eggs or
ova, are produced in the ovaries.
In order to understand the process we need to firstly recall the structural
components of male and female reproductive system
From the Male reproductive system the testes will be producing sperm and from
female reproductive system the ovary will be producing ovum
What is adaptation ?

Adaptation refers to the process by which organisms or parts of organism to undergo

changes in response to their environment, enabling them to better survive and
reproduce. It is a fundamental mechanism driving the evolution of species over time.
Adaptation occurs at various levels, including physiological, behavioral, and
morphological adaptations.
In order for a zygote to be developed the following steps that lead to fertilization must
occur.

Fertilization : fertilization, union of a sperm nucleus, of paternal origin, with an

egg nucleus, of maternal origin, to form the primary nucleus of a zygote.

The zygote later develops into Foetus and finally embryo till birth. Following the main
events that lead to the formation of an embryo or later foetus.

When a sperm successfully penetrates the outer layers of the egg, it triggers changes in
the egg that prevent other sperm from entering. The sperm's genetic material
(chromosomes) fuses with the egg's genetic material, forming a zygote. The zygote
contains a combination of genetic material from both parents.

The zygote undergoes rapid cell division, forming a cluster of cells known as a
blastocyst. As it travels down the fallopian tube, the blastocyst continues to divide and
develop.

The blastocyst eventually reaches the uterus and implants itself into the uterine lining.
Implantation occurs approximately 6-7 days after fertilization. Once implanted, the
blastocyst receives nourishment from the mother's blood supply through the formation
of the placenta.

Following successful implantation, the development of the embryo begins. It undergoes

further cell division and differentiation, eventually forming the various structures and
organs of the growing fetus.
But the question is, if every individual is created by mixing the ovum and sperm,
ultimately the nucleuses of both the parents. Then What decides the characters?
What makes us look unique?

The answer lies within the nucleus. The structure is DNA.

Gametes, the specialized reproductive cells involved in sexual reproduction, contain

genetic material in the form of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA is a complex molecule
that carries the hereditary information of an organism and is responsible for determining
its traits and characteristics.

In sexually reproducing organisms, each gamete typically carries half of the genetic
material required to form a complete organism. The male gamete, known as sperm, and
the female gamete, known as an egg or ovum, each contribute genetic material to the
offspring during fertilization.
The genetic material within gametes is packaged into chromosomes. Chromosomes are
thread-like structures composed of DNA molecules tightly coiled and organized.
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, with one member of each pair inherited from
each parent. Other organisms may have different numbers of chromosomes.

Within the DNA molecule, genetic information is encoded in the form of genes. Genes
are specific sequences of DNA that contain instructions for the synthesis of proteins,
which are the building blocks of cells and play vital roles in various biological processes.

During fertilization, when a sperm cell fuses with an egg cell, the genetic material from
both parents combines, resulting in a new individual with a unique combination of
genetic traits. This blending of genetic material through sexual reproduction contributes
to genetic diversity within a species and provides the basis for evolutionary adaptation
and variation.

Overall, gametes contain the genetic material necessary for the transmission of
inherited traits from parents to offspring, shaping the characteristics and genetic
makeup of the next generation.
23 pairs = 46 chromosomes

Why do you think the number of chromosomes need to be half in gamete ?

Most organisms have a specific, constant number of chromosomes in their cells, known
as the diploid number (2n). This diploid number is maintained in the cells of an
organism, but the halving that occurs during gamete formation. By reducing the
chromosome number in gametes, the subsequent fusion of gametes during fertilization
restores the diploid number in the offspring.

Like if a sperm has 46 chromosomes and the ovum has 46 chromosomes than the
zygote created will be having 92 chromosomes.
Do you think this zygote would develop into a normal child?

In order to maintain this number 46 i.e 23 pairs. The number of chromosomes creating
the gamete need to be half.

Out of these 46 chromosomes. One pair or 2 chromosomes decide your Biological sex
i.e XX in case of a female and XY for Male.

Variations and abnormalities can occur in the number or structure of sex chromosomes,
leading to conditions such as Turner syndrome (X0), Klinefelter syndrome (XXY), and
XYY syndrome, among others. These conditions can result in differences in sexual
development, physical characteristics, and reproductive capabilities.

It is important to note that while sex chromosomes play a crucial role in determining
biological sex, they do not solely determine gender identity, which is a complex interplay
of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.
By the end of the eighth week of development, the embryo is referred to as a fetus. From
this point onward, further growth and maturation occur, leading to the development and
refinement of organs and body structures throughout the remainder of the pregnancy.

n humans, the average duration of gestation, also known as pregnancy, is approximately

40 weeks or 280 days. However, it's important to note that the length of gestation can
vary, and a full-term pregnancy is considered to be between 37 and 42 weeks.
Childbirth typically involves three stages: labor, delivery of the baby, and the delivery of
the placenta. Here's a general overview of the process:

1. Labor: Labor is the first stage of childbirth and is characterized by regular

contractions of the uterus. These contractions help the cervix, the lower part of
the uterus, to dilate and efface (thin out) in preparation for delivery.
2. Delivery of the Baby: Once the cervix is fully dilated, the baby can begin to move
through the birth canal. The mother is usually instructed to push during
contractions to help the baby's descent. The baby's head is the largest part and
typically emerges first. As the head crowns, the doctor or midwife may provide
support and guide the baby's shoulders and body out of the birth canal.

Once the baby is delivered, the medical team may clear the baby's airways, clamp and
cut the umbilical cord, and provide immediate care, including warmth and assessment
of vital signs.

3. Delivery of the Placenta: After the baby is born, the final stage involves the
delivery of the placenta, also known as the afterbirth. The uterus continues to
contract, causing the placenta to separate from the uterine wall. The medical
team may gently tug on the umbilical cord to assist in the placenta's delivery. The
complete expulsion of the placenta ensures that the uterus contracts and
reduces the risk of excessive bleeding.

Throughout the childbirth process, healthcare professionals, such as obstetricians,

midwives, or nurses, monitor the mother's vital signs and the baby's well-being. Pain
management options, such as medication or relaxation techniques, may be provided to
help manage the discomfort of labor.
Write-down all the questions or doubts that arise while going through the handout in bullets