HUMAN REPRODUCTION  This process does not happen by

merely swimming in a pool with the

 Human reproduction is the biological
opposite sex or using a common or
process by which a man and a
unisex toilet.  Fertilization starts
woman create their children.  The
when millions of sperms are
sexual nature of human reproduction
ejaculated into the vagina during
(compared with asexual
intercourse.  A few hundred of these
reproduction) results in a genetically
sperms survive the acid pH of the
unique offspring with a lower chance
vagina, swim upward through the
of inheriting harmful mutations but
movement of their flagella, and
with a higher chance of receiving
ascend to the uterus and into the
beneficial traits.
fallopian tube to meet the egg.  It
 A person is not obliged to reproduce,
takes an average of 7 hours for the
but if he/she chooses to do so, then
sperm and egg to meet, but can
it must be done with respect to life,
occur within 15 minutes to 3 days. 
person (mother and child), family and
After a sperm penetrates the zona
nature.
pellucida or the thick capsule
 At present, millions die or are
surrounding one mature egg,
disabled because of reproduction-
changes occur in the cell preventing
related causes. It, therefore,
other sperms from entering after
becomes incumbent on each one to
penetration, the nuclear contents of
understand how human reproduction
the sperm and the egg merge in a
occurs in order to properly care
process called fertilization resulting in
about the offspring and keep it safe.
a zygote with 46 chromosomes ( 23
from each parent).  The
CHAPTER 5- FROM EGG AND SPERM TO
chromosomes contain the complex
NEWBORN
genetic blueprint of every detail that
defines a human being and the
Fertilization: from Egg and Sperm to
inherited traits from one’s parents.
Zygote
The genetic sex is determined at
 Oogenesis and Spermatogenesis-
fertilization.  As soon as the zygote is
Oogenesis refers to the production or
formed, a series of cell divisions start
development of a mature egg from
which transforms the single-celled
one of the hundred thousands of
zygote into many cells to give rise to
oocytes (immature eggs) to become a
the future embryo and the placenta. 
mature egg.  As the Graafian
It remains in a mobile state traveling
follicle bursts, the ovum is released. 
from the fallopian tube to reach the
This egg is drawn into the fallopian
uterus in about 3 to 4 days.
tube.  Oogenesis begins before birth
 The fertilization of two different eggs
but ovulation occurs once a month
by two different sperms results
on average from puberty to
in non-identical twins who may be of
menopause.  Ova are viable, i.e., can
different sex and are similar as any
be fertilized, for approximately 24
other siblings.  On the other hand, a
hours after ovulation.
mitotic division of a single zygote
 Spermatogenesis is the maturation of
produces identical twins who are of
the immature sperms inside the
the same sex and are extremely
testes.  As the sperms are released
similar in appearance but are not
into the male duct system, they
entirely alike because of
continue to mature, acquiring
environmental factors.  If the mitotic
motility and optimum fertilizing
division is incomplete, conjoined
capacity.  The change from immature
twins result.
to mature sperm takes about 53 days
and starts at puberty continuing
Implantation: From Zygote to Embryo to
throughout life.  Sperms, although
Fetus
viable for 72 hours, are believed to
Implantation
have maximum fertilizing capacity for
 The zygote attaches into the uterine
only 24 hours.
lining about 6 to 7 days after
conception or fertilization in a
Fertilization
 process known as implantation.  organ start to function.  While in the
During this time, the zygote takes the
form of a blastocyst with an inner cell
mass (future embryo) and an outer
cell mass (future placenta).
The Zygote
 As early as one week after
fertilization, the placenta is formed
from both mother and fetal tissues.  fainting, abnormal cravings, and
The placenta is a temporary disc-
shaped organ that connects the fetus
to the uterine wall.  It is the life
support system of the developing
fetus that serves as the passageway
for the transfer of nutrients, waste
materials, and chemicals between
the mother and the fetus by osmosis
and diffusion.  It also produces
the human chorionic gonadotropin
(HCG). During early pregnancy, HCG
stimulates the corpus luteum to
enlarge so it can support the uterus
and the zygote until the placenta
takes over.  Detection of HCG is the
basis of common pregnancy tests.  to ensure her own health and that of
The placenta later secretes its own
hormones to support the pregnancy
and play a role in labor, lactation, and
breastfeeding.  The cord is the
connecting link between the fetus
and the placenta.
 In the zygote, the continuous and
purposeful cell division and cell
differentiation results in the
development of the embryonic
membranes and the different germ
layers that give rise to specific organs
and body systems at the third week.
The Embryo
 From the fourth to the eighth week
of development, the product of
gestation is called an embryo.  This is
a critical time because viruses, drugs
and inadequate nutrition can gravely
affect the embryo’s development.
The Fetus
 After the eighth week until delivery,
the embryo is called a fetus. At the
end of the third month, the 1-inch C-
shaped fetus has already the
rudiments of all the organs of a full
developed human being.  It has a
considerably large head and is
recognizable as human.  The fetus
then progressively grows and
develops to human proportions.  Its
uterus, the fetus floats in a pale-
straw colored liquid called
the amniotic fluid.          
The Mother
 In the first few weeks, the mother
will not menstruate and may feel
fatigue, light-headedness, dizziness,
nausea and vomiting (morning
sickness).  By the end of the fourth
month, (16 weeks) to the fifth month
(2o weeks), she will “show” and be
able to feel the fetus
move (quickening).  By this time, the
mother will start to feel better
because the morning sickness would
have improved and she will begin to
eat more.  Towards the latter
months, she may experience some
heaviness, swollen legs, constipation,
pelvic pains, frequent urination, and
uterine contractions.
 The mother must take care of herself
the baby. 
The maternal in utero environment,
made up of nutrition, hormones,
metabolites, stress, and drugs, is a
critical determinant of fetal growth. 
It may likewise influence a wide
variety of disorders in adulthood. 
The mother should avoid infections,
smoking and alcohol, psychosocial
stress, and medical disorders.
Drinking coffee and cola should be
discouraged in favor of milk. 
Pregnant women should have egular
prenatal consultation.  Additional
medical consultations must be done
if she experiences severe cramps,
vaginal discharge or bleeding,
headache or visual disturbances or
hand and face edema.
The Father
 Pregnancy is a cooperative project of
both the man and the woman from
initiation through growth and
maturation until the delivery of the
child.  The father plays an
indispensable and essential role as a
constant source of love and support. 
Some fathers even experience similar
symptoms as the mothers do in a
phenomenon called sympathetic
pregnancy.

Childbirth
 On average, 280 days from the first
day of the mother’s last menstrual
period, the fetus is ready for birth.  Breastfeeding is a natural method of
Childbirth should be a natural,
healthy, participatory, and joyous
experience.
Labor
 Labor begins with an interplay of
factors from the hormones of the
placenta, fetal pituitary and adrenal
glands.  It is characterized by
regular uterine contractions of
increasing intensity and longer
duration, which result in the
expulsion of the mucus plug, opening
or dilatation of the lower portion of
uterus (cervix), some bleeding and in
the late stage of labor, rupture of the
bag of waters and the woman’s urge
to push. The length of labor from the
time of regular contractions to the
delivery of placenta averages 12 to
15 hours for the first delivery and 5
to 6 hours for the succeeding
deliveries.
Delivery
 With more intense and continuous
uterine contractions  and the
woman’s pushing efforts, the baby is
born. Afterwards, the placenta
(afterbirth)  is usually delivered
within 5  minutes.  The uterus is then
massaged to induce uterine
contractions to minimize or stop
bleeding.
 Some women may experience
difficulties in the delivery and the
obstetrician may decide to do a
Cesarean section (C section). This
process involves cutting through the
abdomen to deliver the baby.
After Delivery
 After delivery, the newborn is nursed
and fed by the mother.  Breast milk is
best for the first six months of life.  It
is the gold standard for infant
feeding.  In addition to providing
nutrition, it protects the baby against
infections, and results in less allergy,
heavier growth, better
neurodevelopment, and lower rates
of chronic disease.  For the mother,
breastfeeding is economical and
convenient.  It also helps the uterus
contract to reduce bleeding and
reconditions the uterine muscles
stretched by pregnancy. 
child spacing and protects the
mother from infection, cancer,
diabetes, osteoporosis ad
rheumatoid arthritis.
  Republic Act No. 7600 also known as
“The Rooming-in and Breastfeeding
Act of 1992,” requires all private and
government health institutions to
adopt rooming-in and breastfeeding
practices.
CHAPTER 6- PARENTHOOD
Children
 Children are blessings that bring joy
and pride to parents.  They may fulfill
a marriage, perfect the personality of
parents, enrich marital love, or
confer status on the family. Various
cultures look at children differently. 
They may be viewed as a
continuation of family line, or a
means of ensuring that family
members and ancestors are
honored.  In rural Philippines,
children are usually viewed as
investment potential, securing their
parents against economic, physical
and psychological hardships in old
age.  Conversely, children may be
liabilities.
 Thus, children may be welcomed or
simply accepted as part of adulthood
or marriage.  In either case, they
should be planned for, cared for, and
given the best possible future
parents can provide. They are not
mere objects of ownership.
Planned Parenthood
 Responsible parenthood is a privilege
and obligation exercised by married
couples to deliberately and
generously decide to raise a large
family or, for different reasons and
motives and with due respect for the
moral law, to avoid a new  birth for
an indeterminate period.  It involves
the issue of when and how many
children to have.
 Planned parenthood is not about
avoiding  fertility, but rather about
 maintaining fertility until the person
can choose the right time for
assuming the responsibilities of being
a parent.  Spacing or limiting the
number of births may promote a
woman’s health and well-being, as
well as improve future pregnancy
outcomes.  Common justifications for
planned parenthood include danger
to the mother’s or child’s health and
life, eugenic hereditary defects, and
socio-economic difficulties.
CHAPTER 7 – PREVENTING PREGNANCY
Common Ways of Preventing Pregnancy
Preventing ovulation or killing the sperms
(contraceptives)
 These methods are interventions
which suppress the generative
functions which may or may not
leave the reproductive glands intact.
 Breastfeeding –stimulates natural
hormones which prevent ovulation;
also provides 98% contraceptive
protection for up to 6 months after
delivery, provided that there is little
or no supplemental feeding.
 Surgical castration – achieves
permanent sterility ( an infertile
state) by removing the reproductive
organs; may be considered a form of
mutilation.
 The hormones estrogen and
progesterone administered as pills,
injections and skin implants stop the
ovaries from releasing eggs.
 Spermicides such as gels, creams, or
suppositories inserted into the vagina
kill the sperms.
 Intrauterine devices (IUDs) induce an
inflammatory reaction which kills the
sperms as they enter the female
genital tract.
Preventing sperm from reaching the egg
in the fallopian tube (contraceptives)
 Vasectomy- surgical procedure that
cuts the vas deferens of men ,
blocking the pathway of the sperms
and preventing their release when
man ejaculates; a method of
permanent contraception
 Condoms – sheaths, often made of
latex, worn over the erect penis
during intercourse.  They trap the
ejaculate with the sperms it contains;
prevent pregnancy in approximately
85% of the time if used  correctly. 
Some sources say that condoms are
less effective in preventing the
transmission of AIDS because they
have holes of approximately 5
microns.  The sperms are more than
5 microns in diameter but the HIV
virus is 0.1 micron. However, the
Centers  for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) has published that
the consistent and correct use of
condoms can greatly reduce but not
completely eliminate the risk of STD,
including HIV transmission.
 Tubal Ligation- a surgical procedure
that cuts the fallopian tube, blocking
the pathway of the egg from the
ovaries and the sperm from the
uterus so no fertilization can occur.
 Diaphragm and cervical cap- are cup-
like structures  covering  the vagina
or lower uterine orifices to obstruct
the entrance of the sperm.
 Progesterone hormones thicken the
mucus  in the vagina and the lower
uterus to prevent the sperm  from
reaching the egg.
 Interrupted intercourse (coitus
interruptus)- also known as
withdrawal method, refers to the
pulling out of the penis before
ejaculation.  This method is not
totally effective as some semen may
already be secreted into the vagina
before actual ejaculation.
Preventing the fertilized egg from
implanting in the uterine wall
(abortifacients)
 IUD may be considered both as
contraceptive and an abortifacient.
These are artificial structures
inserted into the uterus that increase
uterine contractions to prevent
implantation
 Hormonal contraceptives keep the
lining of the uterus thin to make it
difficult for the embryo to implant
(contraceptive and abortifacient)
 Another manner of abortion is by
dislodging implanted egg or embryo. 
This process uses drugs or
mechanical devices which remove
the implanted embryo from its
nesting place in the uterine wall and
cause it to be prematurely delivered 
before it can survive.  Abortion is
 murder. It is immoral, illegal,
unnecessary and dangerous.
Risks of Contraception
 Physical Problems
 Surgical procedures carry all the
usual surgical and anesthetic risks.
 Hormonal contraceptives may cause
side effects that include tumors;
cardiovascular, blood, lung and
gallbladder disease; weight gain
depression or mood disturbances;
nausea; menstrual disturbances;
decreased sexual desire or response;
acne, breast tenderness.  Its dreaded
complications are blood clots which
can clog vital organs and cause
death.
 The IUD has associated risks of
expulsion, cramping, menstrual
irregularities, perforation of the
uterus, pelvic infection, and ectopic
pregnancy.
 Psychological and moral problems
 The use of contraceptives has been
associated with depression, divorce,
sexual dysfunction and anxiety.  reversible; couples can avoid or
Some studies show that this effect is
due to the act of contraception itself.  Moreover, it is the Catholic Church’s
For some people, practicing
contraception weakens moral values
and causes loss of respect for women
and children.  For married couples,
preventing pregnancy without
acceptable justification opposes the
procreative  good of the marital act  values.
and treats the child as something to
be avoided or disposed of as seen
fit.   Contraception may also lead  to
sexual permissiveness, marital
infidelity, premarital sex, and the
accompanying  risk  of STDs.  Some
people even believe that no
justification is acceptable; couples
who practice contraception merely
want to enjoy the sex act without
consequences or even worse, to have
a license to immorality.
Natural Family Planning (NFP)
 Natural family planning is a scientific
method that respects life  and life
processes and involves the
systematic observation of a woman’s
bodily signs  of fertility and
infertility.  The date of ovulation is
determined  by the calendar record
of the menstrual cycle, basal body
temperature rise (thermal method)
or change in mucus ( Billing’s
ovulation method)
 Following NFP, the couple will only
engage  in sexual intercourse during
the infertile period  (no egg in the
reproductive tract) and will practice
abstinence during the fertile period
(possible egg in the reproductive
tract) which is 5 to 7 days before and
3 days after ovulation.
Benefits of NFP
 Natural family planning strengthens
the love and maturity of the married
couple through communication,
cooperation and self-control.  It is
safe, healthy (no side effects of
hormones) and inexpensive.
Likewise, it neither interferes with
the natural reproductive system nor
distorts the sexual act because it
does not use mechanical devices,
hormones and unhygienic or
distasteful procedures.  NFP is
effective if used properly. It is
achieve pregnancy anytime. 
accepted method of planned
parenthood.
 The choice of method to be used  in
planning for parenthood depends on
the couple’s health, socioeconomic
conditions, and religious and cultural
CHAPTER 8- FACILITATING
REPRODUCTION
Infertility
 Eighty to  eighty-five percent of
normal couples will conceive after
one year of frequent intercourse. 
The absence of conception after a
year of regular unprotected
intercourse is referred to as
infertility. One in ten couples has
infertility problems.  It is equally 
frequent in both males and females
and is often permanent. The most
common female causes are
unovulatory disorders, blocked
fallopian tubes, and aging. The male
causes include poor or absent
sperms, and less commonly,
impotence or  inability to ejaculate
normally. The most modifiable risk
 factors for infertility are diet, lifestyle
habits (smoking or alcohol), STDs,
drugs, exposure to environmental
contaminants ( chemicals, radiation,
air pollution, and heavy metals), and
disease. Less common causes  include
genetic malformations of the
reproductive tract and endocrine
disorders. Less common causes
include genetic malformations of the
reproductive tract and endocrine
disorders.
 Many infertile couples only need
proper timing and counseling.  Some
need correction of lifestyle habits
and treatment of health disorders.  employed , age of patient and source
Others resort to modern assisted
reproductive technologies (ARTs).  births, premature deliveries, adverse
The adoption of a child born to
different parents is always a
generous option for the infertile
couple.
Assisted Reproductive Technologies
(ARTs)
 All fertility treatments that use drugs  or protecting and individual’s
to stimulate ovulation or involve
handling of the egg, the sperm or
both are classified as ARTs. Majority
of babies born by ART are healthy
and without complications.  Health
problems if present are
multifactorial.
 In vitro fertilization (IVF) is the best
known method of ART.  It involves
aggressive ovarian stimulation,
engineering fertilization in the
laboratory with eggs and sperms
from the couple or from donors,
embryo culture, selectively
harvesting timely embryos for
implantation/embryonic transfer and
embryo cryopreservation for future
use.
 The main detriments to ART are
religious reasons and cost.  For
Catholics, human beings can only be
conceived through sexual intercourse
between married couples.  genes in 23 paired chromosomes.
Reproduction can be facilitated by
guidance, regulation of the menstrual
cycle, and correction of underlying
disorders, but the role of parents can
not be susbstituted and the sexual
act can not be replaced. As such, ART
is not recommended by the Catholic
Church.  The storage of
cryopreserved embryos is an
additional issue.  These embryos are
human beings manipulated  and used
as a means to increase implantation
or for research, and it violates
respect for them. The Protestant and
Anglican churches do not allow IVF
with gamete donation and surrogacy
(embryo implanted in a woman who
is not the biologic mother).  Likewise,
the costs run to hundreds of
thousands of pesos.  ART is not
cheap.
 The success of ART depends on the
cause of infertility, drugs
administered, ART techniques
of eggs. Its risks include multiple
effects of hormones, stress, and
anxiety of couples which may
threaten the stability of their
marriage.
Fertility Preservation
  Fertility preservation refers to saving
reproductive tissues or cells for
procreation purposes.  Men can
freeze sperm  samples for thawing
out at later dates and for use in IVF. 
Women can likewise  freeze eggs or
embryos for future use.
STAGES IN THE REPRODUCTIVE LIFE
 A general pattern evolves  as  an
individual  advances from being an
egg  and sperm to a fertilized egg, to
a child, and to an adult, and then to
an older person.  This development
may not follow the same exact dates
and pattern for everyone. Variations
may result from the effect of genes,
environment and culture.
CHAPTER 9- FERTILIZATION TO BIRTH
Fertilization
 Humans have approximately 23,000
 
The genes determine the
characteristics that define the species
as human and the traits inherited
from his/her parents
 Upon fertilization, the newly
conceived zygote contains 23  pairs
of chromosomes-one of each pair
coming from each parent.  Twenty
two pairs are matching chromosomes
 and the remaining pair is the sex
chromosome. If the sex pair is XX, the
individual is genetically female; if the
pair is XY, the individual is genetically
male.  The Y chromosome contains
the testis-determining gene.  Under
its influence, male development
occurs.  In its absence, female
development is established.
Gonads
 Although the sex of the person is
determined genetically at
fertilization, gonads or genitals do
not immediately develop.  During the
first six weeks of development, the
genital systems in both male and
female embryos are similar and
potentially bisexual with two pairs of
genital ducts.  Primordial germ cells
originating from the epiblast migrate
to invade the urogenital ridge at the
sixth week and induce the
development of the gonads.
 The presence of the Y chromosome
dictates developmental changes of
the gonad to form  the testes.  The
testosterone produced by the testes
influences the development of the
male ductal system and external
genitalia.  On the other hand, the
absence of the Y chromosome results
in the formation of the ovaries.  The
absence of testosterone and the
presence of estrogen from the
placenta influence the development
of the female internal reproductive
organs and external genitalia.
 The germ cells increase in number as
the fetus develops until the infant is
born.
CHAPTER 10- The Infant and the Child
Infancy (0-1 year old)
 For the infant, breastfeeding is
beneficial.  Through the mother’s
milk, nutrients and immunity are
provided to the baby.  Through her
touch, the infant derives warmth and
security, leading to a better mother-
infant bonding.  No particular sexual
behavior  is manifest at this stage.
Childhood (1-13 years old)
 During early childhood, the children’s
sexual behavior relates to pleasure
and comfort.  What starts as
accidental self-discovery at two years
of age progresses to a curious self-
exploration in  the pursuit of pleasure
in a three-year old. Adults in the
child’s life, especially the parents,
mold the child’s acceptance of  and 
comfort with his/her gender identity.
 At three to five years of age, the child
begins to  develop  his/her
own gender identity.  Curiosity 
spreads to others, and the child
learns about the opposite sex.
Children also play “doctor,” a phrase
used to describe children examining
each other’s genitals. Adults,
especially parents, continue to mold
children’s acceptance of and comfort
with their identity establishing the
capacity for healthy sexual and
emotional  relationships in
adulthood.
 During school age, children develop
an intuition about appropriate sexual
behavior and express preference for
the same sex over  the opposite sex. 
Emotional and physical closeness
between the children and their
parents transfers to friends whom
they may hug and hold hands with.
 Towards the end of childhood, the
hypothalamus directs the
development of the secondary sex
characteristics through the hormones
secreted by the ovaries and the
testes.  As secondary sex
characteristics begin to develop, the
child becomes more aware of his/her
sex and learns to behave as
expected.
End of Childhood
 The germ cells continue to increase in
number.  At the start of puberty, they
undergo meiosis (special cell division 
undergone by germ or sex cells) and
develop to form the mature
spermatozoa in the male. 
Meanwhile, in the female, the
primary oocytes formed during latter
months of pregnancy resume their
meiotic division at puberty to form
the mature ovum.