THEORY OF

MACHINESMEC219

Front loader
Unit I: BASIC ELEMENTS OF A MACHINE AND
MECHANISMS

Learning Objectives
• Difference between Mechanism and Machines
• Degree of freedom
• Links, Kinematic Pair and their Classification
BASIC ELEMENTS OF A MACHINE AND
MECHANISMS
•Kinematics and Kinetics(Dynamics)
• Kinematics:- The study of motion without regards of
forces
• Kinetic: The study of forces on system in motion.

A design that has poor kinematics will prove troublesome

and perform badly.
BASIC ELEMENTS OF A MACHINE AND MECHANISMS

Mechanism
• Mechanism is a device that transforms motion to
some desirable pattern and typically develops very
low forces and transmits little power.
• Or
• Mechanism is a means of transmitting, controlling, or
constraining relative movement.
Example of Mechanism
Example of Mechanism
Example of Mechanism
Moves packages from an assembly
bench to a conveyor

Front loader
Lift platform
Example of Mechanism

Simple press
Conceptual design for an
exercise machine
 Machines
• A Machine typically contains mechanisms that are
designed to provide significance forces and transmits
significant power.

Automatic Transmission
Machine and Mechanism differ in degree rather than kind
 Applications of Kinematics

Virtually any machine or device that moves contains

one or more kinematic elements such as linkages,
cams, gears, belts, chains..

a chain drive to provide

torque multiplication
and simple cable-
operated linkages for
braking
 Applications of Kinematics
An automobile contains many more examples of
kinematic devices. Its steering system, wheel
suspensions, and piston-engine all contain linkages;
the engine's valves are opened by cams; and the
transmission is full of gears.
 Applications of Kinematics

Figure (a) shows a spatial linkage used to control the rear wheel movement of a modem
automobile over bumps.
 Degree of Freedom(DOF)or Mobility

 A mechanical system’s mobility (M) can be

classified according to the number of degree of
freedom that it possesses.
 The system’s DOF is equal to the number of
independent parameters(measurements) that
are needed to uniquely define its position in
space at any instant of time.
 Any rigid body in three dimensional world has
six degree of freedom, three translational
motions (x, y, z) and three rotational motions.
 DOF = 6- Number of restraints
Types of Motion

 Completely Constrained Motion

 Incompletely Constrained Motion
 Successfully Constrained Motion
 Types of Motion
 Completely Constrained Motion
When the motion between two elements of
a pair is in a definite direction.
Pure rotation or translation
 Types of Motion
 Incompletely Constrained Motion
When the motion between two elements of
a pair is possible in more than one direction.
 Types of Motion
 Successfully Constrained Motion
When the motion between two elements of
a pair is possible in more than one direction
but is made to have motion only in one
direction by using some external forces.
 Link
 Linkages are the basic building blocks of all
mechanisms.
 A link is an (assumed) rigid body that possesses
at least two nodes that are points for
attachment to other links.
Link
 Review Lecture 1

 Kinematics and Kinetics(Dynamics)

 Mechanism and Machines
 Degree of Freedom(DOF)or Mobility
 Completely Constrained Motion
 Incompletely Constrained Motion
 Successfully Constrained Motion
 Joints
A joint is a connection between two or more
links (at their nodes), which allows some
motion, or potential motion between the
connected links. Joints are also called
Kinematic pairs.
 Joints
Joints can be classified in several ways

1. By the type of contact between elements, line,

point (higher pair) or surface(lower pair) .
2. By the number of degree of freedom allowed
at the joint
3. By the nature of relative motion.
 Joints
Joints: Single Degree-of-Freedom
pivot slider Helical (H)
Revolute or Turning Prismatic (P)
(R)/Pin joint
 Joints: Multiple Degree-of-Freedom

– Cylindrical (C) 2 DOF – Spherical (S) 3 DOF

Planar (F) 3 DOF

LINKS, JOINTS, AND KINEMATIC CHAINS

The Half joint is also

called roll-slide joint
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 LINKS, JOINTS, AND KINEMATIC CHAINS
Joint order is defined as the number of links joined
minus one

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 Kinematic Chain

– an assemblage of links and joints, interconnected

in a way to provide a controlled output motion in
response to a supplied input motion.
- The kinematic chain forms the mechanism if at
least one link is grounded
LINKS, JOINTS, AND KINEMATIC CHAINS
• Ground
Any link or links that are fixed with respect to the
reference frame
• Crank
A link which makes a complete revolution and is
pivoted to ground

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LINKS, JOINTS, AND KINEMATIC CHAINS

•Rocker
A link which has oscillatory (back and forth)
rotation and pivoted to ground

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LINKS, JOINTS, AND KINEMATIC CHAINS
• Coupler
A link which has complex motion and is pivoted to ground

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 Drawing Kinematic Diagrams
– Real links can be of any shape , but a “kinematic” link,
or link edge, is defined as a line between joints that
allows relative motion between adjacent link or link edge.
 Drawing Kinematic Diagrams
– Real links can be of any shape , but a
“kinematic” link, or link edge, is defined as a line
between joints that allows relative motion
between adjacent link or link edge.
 Drawing Kinematic Diagrams

Moving rotating joints

Grounded rotating joints

Grounded translating joints

Grounded half joints

Drawing Kinematic Diagrams
 Joints(Review)
Joints can be classified in several ways

1. By the type of contact between elements, line,

point (higher pair) or surface(lower pair) .
2. By the number of degree of freedom allowed
at the joint
3. By the nature of relative motion.
Joints(review)
Joints: Multiple Degree-of-Freedom
LINKS, JOINTS, AND KINEMATIC CHAINS(review)

38
 Determining DOF or Mobility in
Planar Mechanism

DOF is the number of inputs that need to be

provided in order to create a predictable output
or
The number of independent coordinated required to
define its position.

To determine the overall DOF of any

mechanism, we must account for the number of
links and joints, and for the interactions among
them.
The DOF of any assembly can be predicted from
an investigation of the Gruebler condition.
 Determining DOF or Mobility in
Planar Mechanism
• Gruebler Condition
• Any link in a plane has 3 DOF.
• Therefore, a system of L unconnected links in the same
plane will have 3L DOF.
• A full joint removes two DOF
• A half joint removes only one DOF from the system
(because a half joint has two DOF).
• Any link if grounded or attached to the reference frame,
all three of its DOF will be removed.

40
Determining DOF or Mobility in
Planar Mechanism

41
 Determining DOF or Mobility in
Planar Mechanism

Gruebler’s equation
M = 3L-2J- 3G (1)
Where : M = degree of freedom or Mobility
L = Number of links
J = number of joints
G = number of grounded links

G is always one as all the ground link for

different links will be considered as single plane,
So Gruebler’s equation becomes
M = 3(L-1)-2J (2)
 Determining DOF or Mobility in
Planar Mechanism
• Kutzbach’s Modification of Gruebler’s Equation is:
M=3(L-1)-2J1-J2 (3)

where: M = degree of freedom or mobility

L = number of links
J1 = number of 1 DOF (full) joints
J2 = number of 2 DOF (half) joints
• The value of J1 and J2 in these equations must still be
carefully determined to account for all full, half, and
multiple joints in any linkage.
• Multiple joints count as one less than the number of
links joined at that joint and add to the "full" (J1)
category.
43
Exercise
• Compute the DOF of the following examples with Kutzbach's
equation.

44
Exercise

45
Mobility in Planar Mechanism(Review)

Gruebler’s equation
M = 3L-2J- 3G (1)
Where : M = degree of freedom or Mobility
L = Number of links
J = number of joints
G = number of grounded links

G is always one as all the ground link for

different links will be considered as single plane,
So Gruebler’s equation becomes
M = 3(L-1)-2J (2)
 Mobility in Planar
Mechanism(Review)
• Kutzbach’s Modification of Gruebler’s Equation is:

M=3(L-1)-2J1-J2 (3)

where: M = degree of freedom or mobility

L = number of links
J1 = number of 1 DOF (full) joints
J2 = number of 2 DOF (half) joints
• The value of J1 and J2 in these equations must still be
carefully determined to account for all full, half, and
multiple joints in any linkage.
• Multiple joints count as one less than the number of
links joined at that joint and add to the "full" (J1)
category.

47
Exercise
Exercise
Mechanisms and Structures
• If the DOF is positive, it will be a mechanism, and the
links will have relative motion.
• If the DOF is exactly zero, then it will be a structure, and
no motion is possible. Simply Supported Beam
• If the DOF is negative, then it is a preloaded
structure(Super Structure). Similar to Indeterminate
beam

50
Mechanisms and Structures

51
Gruebler Paradoxes

•Because the Delta Triplet

Gruebler criteria
pays no attention
to link sizes or
shapes it can give
misleading result
The Grashof Condition- Four Bar Chain
• The Grashof condition is very simple relationship that predicts the
rotation behaviour or rotatability of a four bar linkage’s inversions based
only on the link lengths.

• Grashof’s law states that for planar four-bar linkage, the sum of the
shortest and longest link lengths cannot be greater than the sum of the
remaining two if there is to be continuous relative motion between
two members
The Grashof Condition
The Grashof Condition

• Grashof’s law does not specify the order in which the links are
connected
• If the shortest link s is adjacent to the fixed link crank-rocker
linkage is obtained
The Grashof Condition

• If the shortest link s is fixed as frame drag link or

double-crank linkage is obtained
The Grashof Condition
• By fixing the link opposite to s the double rocker
mechanism is obtained.
• Note that although the link s is able to make complete
revolution neither link adjacent to the frame can do
so; both must oscillate between limits and are therefor
rockers
The Grashof Condition

•For s+l > p+q, all inversions will be double-

rockers
•For s+l = p+q, all inversions will either be
crank-rockers or double cranks, but will
have change points twice per revolution of
the input crank when the all links become
collinear.
The Grashof Condition

• Parallel Crank four bar linkage.

The Grashof Condition

• Deltoid linkage equal links are adjacent to each other.

When any of the shorter link is fixed, a double crank
mechanism is obtained in which one revolution of the
longer link causes two revolution of the other shorter
link
The Grashof Condition(Review)
 Limiting Conditions

• Toggle Position
• Stationary Positions
• Transmission Angle
 Limiting Conditions

• Toggle : a point where

the link cannot rotate
anymore. Determined
by the collinearity of
two moving links.
• A different link then
have to be driven to
get it out of toggle
 Limiting Conditions – 4 Bar Mechanism
Stationary Position

• A Grashof fourbar crank-rocker linkage will also assume two

stationary positions, when the shortest link(crank O2C) is
collinear with the coupler.
• Cannot be back driven from rocker through these collinear
positions
• Stationary positions define the limits of motion of the driven
rocker 64
 Mechanical Advantage
• The Mechanical advantage of a mechanism is the ratio of
the output force or torque to the input force or torque
• Now Power Input = Power out put 3
• 𝑇2𝜔2 = 𝑇4𝜔4 B C C’’
𝑇4 𝜔2 C’
• 𝑇2 = 𝜸
𝜔4 4
B’’
2
𝜸
D
A
1

B’

• The velocity 𝜔4 of the output link become zero at extreme

positions(𝛾 = 0 𝑜𝑟 180)
 Transmission Angle – 4 Bar Mechanism

• The angle between output link and the coupler is defined as the
transmission angle.
• It is a measure of the quality of force and velocity transmission at
the joint.
Transmission Angle
b C
B 𝝁
𝜸
k c
a

A D
d

T4 = F34sin(µ) x (O4D)

• The torque produced is maximum when 𝜇 is 900.

• Mechanism is jam when b and d become coincident.
• 𝜇 is usually kept 450 to 900
 Transmission angle
b C
B 𝝁
Apply cosine law to
k c
Triangles ABD and BCD a
𝜽
A D
2 2 2 d
𝑎 +𝑑 − 2𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 𝑘 (𝑖)
𝑏 2 +𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜇 = 𝑘 2 (ii)
• From (i) and(ii)
𝑎2 +𝑑2 − 𝑏 2 -𝑐 2 − 2𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 2𝑏𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜇 = 0
The Maximum and minimum values of the transmission
angle can be found by
 Transmission angle
b C
The Maximum and minimum 𝝁
B
values of the transmission angle
can be found by k c
a
𝑑𝜇 𝜽
=0
𝑑𝜃 A D
d
𝑎2 +𝑑2 − 𝑏 2 -𝑐 2 − 2𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 2𝑏𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜇 = 0

𝑑𝜇 𝑎𝑑 sin 𝜃
=
𝑑𝜃 𝑏𝑐 sin 𝜇
Transmission angle -Example
• Find The Maximum and Minimum transmission angle for the configuration given
below
Single Slider Crank Chain
In a four bar kinematic chain there are four
revolute pairs. If one of this pairs is changed as
prismatic/sliding pair that kinematic chain is called
single slider crank chain.

Link 1 – Fixed Link Link 3 – Connecting Rod

Link 2 – Crank Link 4 – Slider / Piston
Inversions of Single Slider Crank Chain

• As there are four links, fixing each link in

turn, four inversions can be obtained.
• In the first inversion, where the link with one
revolute pair and one prismatic pair is fixed.
Example: 1) I.C. Engine mechanism, in
which the fourth link piston is the input and the
crank is output. 2) In air compressor, in which
the second link crank is the input and the
piston is the output.
Inversions of Single Slider Crank Chain
Second Inversion of Single Slider Crank Chain

Second link in the original chain, ie., crank with two

revolute pairs is fixed, second inversion is obtained.
2
3

1
4

Link 2 is fixed
 Examples for the Second Inversion
1. Whitworth Quick Return Mechanism

Let 𝜃1 = 𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐶 ′ 𝑂2 C’’ at 𝑂2

𝜃2 = 𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝐶 ′ 𝑂2C’’ at 𝑂2
Then,
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝜃1
=
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝜃2
Examples for the Second Inversion:
2. Rotary Engine Mechanism
Third Inversion of Single Slider Crank Chain

Third link of the original chain, ie., Connecting Rod

with two revolute pairs (length of this link is more
than crank) is fixed to obtain third inversion.

Example: 1. Oscillating Cylinder Mechanism

2. Crank and slotted lever quick
return mechanism
Oscillating Cylinder Mechanism
Crank and Slotted Lever Quick Return
Mechanism
Crank and Slotted Lever Quick Return
Mechanism
 Crank and Slotted Lever Vs Whitworth
Quick Return Mechanism

1. Crank of Whitworth mechanism is longer than fixed

link as compared to Quick Return Mechanism
2. Coupler of Whitworth mechanism makes complete
revolution while coupler for Quick Return
Mechanism oscillates
Fourth Inversion of Single Slider Crank Chain

In the original chain, if the fourth link with revolute

pair and prismatic pair is fixed, then the fourth
inversion is obtained.
Example : Hand Pump
Double Slider Crank Chain( 2R-2P)
This Chain has two revolute pairs and two prismatic
pairs.

A 4

1
 Scotch Yoke Mechanism
•
Scotch Yoke Mechanism
 First inversion of the double slider

The First inversion of the double slider crank chain is

obtained when the link with two prismatic pairs is fixed.
Example : Elliptic Trammel
X = BC cosθ
Y = AC sinθ
(X / BC) = cosθ
(Y / AC) = sinθ
2 (X2 / BC2) = cos2θ
B
(Y2 / AC2) = sin2θ
3
(X2 / BC2) + (Y2 / AC2) = cos2θ + sin2θ = 1
Equation for Ellipse.
A 4
1
Elliptic Trammel
 Second inversion of the double slider
The second inversion is with a link with revolute pair
and prismatic pair is fixed.
Example: Scotch Yoke Mechanism, which is also
called as Sinusoidal Generator.
 Scotch Yoke Mechanism
•
Scotch Yoke Mechanism
Third inversion of the double slider crank

Third inversion of the double slider crank chain is

obtained when the link with two revolute pairs is
fixed.
Example: Oldham coupling, which is used to
connect two parallel misaligned shafts.
 Sample MCQ

1 The Degree of freedom of links joined with full joints is negative, this is an
(a) Mechanism (b) Structure (c) Machine(d)
Super Structure
2 Which of the following is the inversion of double slider crank chain

(a) Beam Engine (b) Hand Pump (c) Detloid Linkage (d)
Oldham coupling

3 Which of the following is an higher pair

(a) Piston-Cylinder (b) Ball Bearing (c) Ice Skater (d) All
 Sample MCQ

4
 Acknowledgement

Some material used is taken from the internet, I

acknowledge for all such resources.