Table of Contents

Experiment 1.0: Arduino Running Lights

1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background
Arduino is an open-source gadget stage that depends on easy to use programming
and equipment. It is basically a tiny computer that is programmable. It is also
known as a Physical or Embedded Computing platform, where the hardware and
software is able to interact with the surrounding environment (McRoberts, 2000).
Vis Arduino, we are able to control the actions and make it autonomous. Arduino
is the base of autonomous technology where the user is able to learn the in depths
about this technology. There are other much more complex systems such as
Blueberry Pie which is used in bigger and more complex systems. Instructions can
be created via writing a program on the Arduino IDE software, which is then sent
to a microcontroller on the Arduino board (John-David Warren, 2011).
1.2 Objective
A completed electrical circuit combined with an Arduino board for a successful
Running Lights sequence.

2.0 Background Studies

2.1 Arduino UNO R3
The Arduino UNO is a microprocessor and microcontroller board which consists of
14 digital input/output pins. It functions as the brain of the circuit, controlling the
sequence of the Running Lights and the timing between each sequence via the
computer based software, Arduino IDE (S. M. Rakibur Rahman, 2017). It is
powered by an external power supply, in this case a connecting USB cable between
the PC and the Arduino board. The inputs and outputs of the Arduino board are used
to control the sequence of electricity flow in the circuit, which determines and
created the running lights sequence. A program is created for the functionality of
the robotic arm via the Arduino IDE software, and is then uploaded via USB to the
Arduino board. It then performs the operations as requested and responds to the
master. The response may only contain a confirmation of the request, and then
proceeds to the next step as written in the program (Jaroslav Sobota, 2013).

Figure 2.1: Arduino UNO board

2.2 Programming
The way to compose directions that are executed by the Arduino board is by writing
a coded program for it. It is written in programming language, so that the Arduino
board is able to understand the instructions and execute it (H Suziki, 1993). A
program to direct the current flow, and execute the tasks, which is the running lights
sequence is created via the Arduino IDE software, which is then uploaded into the
Arduino board via USB cable. The microprocessor in the Arduino board then
executes the task by instructing and controlling the electricity flow in the circuit.
(Harish K, 2017). Attached in Appendix A is the programming code for the running
lights sequence.

2.3 Microprocessor
A microprocessor is a series of integrated circuits that functions as a central processing
unit for a computer, in this case the Arduino UNO board (Schwartz & Manickum,
2015). In an Arduino it’s the brain for the entire board and its where the input
programming is turn into an output function. This results the carried out programmed
sequence, which is the running lights.

Figure 2.2: Microprocessor that is used in the Arduino UNO board

2.4 Microcontroller
A microcontroller is a control device which incorporates a microprocessor. It is
installed onto the Arduino UNO board. It executes the tasks understood by the
microprocessor via the programming codes, by allowing current to flow through the
circuit based on the programmed sequence (Steven F. Barrett, 2002).
2.5 LED
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source that produces light when
current flows through it. It has 2 cathodes which also determine the polarity of the LED.
The longer cathode is a positive lead, whereas the shorter cathode is the negative lead.
Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with electron gaps, discharging vitality as
photons(Kramer, 2010).
2.6 Resistors
A resistor is a detached two-terminal electrical segment that actualizes electrical
obstruction as a circuit component. In electronic circuits, resistors are utilized to
decrease current stream, change flag levels, to separate voltages, predisposition
dynamic components, and end transmission lines, among different employments
(Schwartz & Manickum, 2015). Resistors basically determine the current flow
𝑉
throughout the components in the circuit. The basic rule of R= 𝐼 applies, where when
the resistance value is greater, less current flows through the circuit.

Figure 2.3: 220Ω resistor that was used

2.7 Breadboard
A breadboard is basically the base for the electronic components and the Arduino in a
temporary circuit (ochiai, 2014). It is a solderless device which acts as a connecting
terminal for the components. Most of the electronic parts can be interconnected among
each other by embedding the terminals into the multiple openings on the breadboard
(Schwartz & Manickum, 2015).

Figure 2.4: Solderless Breadboard that was used in this circuit

2.8 Push Button
Push button is an electronic component which connects 2 points, or in other words
complete the circuit when it is pressed (Vincent A. Balogun, 2018). It functions
similarly to an electronic switch. In this case, when the push button is pressed, current
flows through the circuit and the LEDs light up based on the programmed sequence.

Figure 2.5: Push button

3.0 Methodology
3.1 Equipment
• Arduino UNO board
• Arduino IDE software
• Breadboard
• LED
• Resistors (220Ω)
• Push button
• Connecting wires
3.2 Procedure
1. The breadboard was used as the base for the Arduino system
2. LEDs were installed onto the breadboard according to it’s polarity.
3. Resistors were added for each LED, installed parallel to the LEDs.
4. Connecting wires were then used to connect the output pins from the Arduino
UNO board to the LED-Resistor circuit on the breadboard. Connecting wires
were also used to complete the circuit.
5. A push button was added into the Circuit. Figure 5.0 below shows the complete
circuit with the Arduino UNO board and the other components as stated above.
 Figure 3.1: Complete Arduino UNO circuit
6. The Arduino UNO board was then connected to the PC via USB cable to be
programmed.
7. The program for the Running lights was created on the Arduino IDE software,
and was then uploaded into the Arduino UNO board. Attached in Appendix A
is the program code for the Running lights sequence.
8. The same USB cable was used as the power source for the Arduino UNO R3
board.
9. The Running Lights sequence was initiated by completing the circuit via
pressing the push button. As can be seen in Figure 6.0 the circuit with a complete
running lights sequence.

4.0 Results
The LEDs lit up in sequence based on the program created. The circuit functioned as intended,
and this implies that the program was written correctly, and all connections were proper. The
objective of this experiment was accomplished.

Figure 4.1: Completed circuit with successful Running Lights sequence

5.0 Conclusion
The experiment was successful, as the LEDs lit up in sequence of the program code written
on the Arduino IDE software. We were able to learn the basic coding language for the
Arduino and successfully programmed the Arduino UNO board. This basic is the foundation
to more complex electronic circuits and coding where we can implement it into other systems
in the near future. This experiment holds a lot of information for us, which we had learnt, and
I am uttermost confident that this would help us to undertake more complex projects
successfully.
6.0 Reference List

H Suziki, H. K., 1993. A atangible programming language, a tool for collaborative learning.. Athens,
s.n., pp. 297-303.

Harish K, M. D. S. M. A. K. C. K. J., 2017. Pick and Place Robotic Arm Using Arduino. International
Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology Research (IJSETR), 6(12), pp. 1568-1573.

Jaroslav Sobota, R. P. P. B. M. S., 2013. Raspberry Pi and Arduino Boards in control education. IFAC
Symposium Advances in Control Education, 1(1), pp. 7-12.

John-David Warren, J. A. H. M., 2011. Arduino Robotics. 1 ed. New York: Apress.

McRoberts, M., 2000. Arduino Starters Kit Manual- A complete beginner's guide to the Arduino. 3 ed.
s.l.:Earthshine Design.

ochiai, Y., 2014. Visible Breadboard: System for Dynamic, Programmable, and Tangible Circuit
Prototyping with Visible Electricity. International Conference on Virtual, Augumented and Mixed
Reality, pp. 73-84.

S. M. Rakibur Rahman, S. A. M. O. R. I. A. N., 2017. An Arduino microcontroller based digitalization of

a vertical traversing mechanism used for the analysis of jet flows. s.l., AIP Publishing.

Steven F. Barrett, D. J. P., 2002. Microcontrollers. In: Handbook of Networked and Embedded Control
Systems. New Jersey: s.n., pp. 295-322.

Vincent A. Balogun, B. I. O. A. O. A. J. F. K. S. O. A., 2018. Hysteresis analysis of Thornton (IP6, IP12E

and TH5V) magnetic materials through the use of Arduino microcontroller. Journals of Materials
Research and Technology, 7(4), pp. 443-449.

7.0 Appendix
Appendix A
Attached on the next page is the program code written for the Running Lights sequence via the
Arduino IDE software.
Experiment 2.0 ROBOTIC ARM
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Background
Robotic arms are a norm in modern day production processes across various fields.
Automated systems like the robotic arm are required to do tasks that a human is not
capable of doing, as well as to minimize errors, which cuts costs evidently for
manufacturers. It is more effective and faster than the work of a human, hence the wide
usage of robotic arms in industries (Harish K, 2017). Theoretically, a robotic arm is a
mechanical arm, or a manipulator designed to perform various tasks via variable
programming (Shakeel, 2016). The robotic arm is anthropomorphic, hence having the
ability to do all sorts of tasks similar to a human arm, such as lifting objects, to carrying
out welding processes etc (Noor Ali Al teef, 2015). A robotic arm is controlled by a
computer, or in this case, an Arduino board, with the aid of numerous sensors and
actuators. These sensors help the robotic arm to identify the object of its task as well as
to ensure that the safety of humans are a priority, by stopping the robotic arm, if human
presence is sensed near the work space. Actuators however are the main component of
the robotic arm, as it is the primary source of movement of the robotic arm.

1.2 Objective
Assemble and program a Robotic Arm to pick and move a sponge.

2.0 Background Studies

2.1 Robotic Arm
A robotic arm is a robot which is able to rotate, raise and lower it’s arm to lift objects
for example, by being controlled by an Arduino board (Shakeel, 2016). It functions
by the ultimate usage of servo motors, which enables the robotic arm to function
freely. It has similar functions to the human arm. The arms of the robotic arm are
interconnected via articulated joints, that gives the freedom of rotational movement
(Zoids, 2017). By using components such as motors and microcontrollers, a self-
sufficient robotic arm is manufactured. This increases the operating speed and
reduces the complexity of the process, as well as being more efficient (Noor Ali Al
teef, 2015).

Figure 1.0: Sample of a robotic arm

2.2 Arduino board
Arduino UNO R3 is a microcontroller board which has 14 digital input/output pins.
It functions as the brain of the robotic arm, controlling the movement of the motors
in the Robotic Arm via a computer-based program (S. M. Rakibur Rahman, 2017).
It is powered by an external power supply, with the use of an Ac-to-DC adapter
(Noor Ali Al teef, 2015). The inputs and outputs of the Arduino board are used for
the control of the movement of the Robotic Arm (Jaroslav Sobota, 2013). A
program is created for the functionality of the robotic arm via the Arduino IDE
software, and is then uploaded via USB to the Arduino board. It then performs the
operations as requested, and responds to the master. The response may only contain
a confirmation of the request, and then proceeds to the next step as written in the
program (Jaroslav Sobota, 2013).

Figure 2.0: Arduino UNO R3 board

2.3 Servo motor

Servo motors are motors which consists of an AC or DC motor and is commonly
used in a closed-loop control system (Techopeida, 2016). It is basically an electrical
motor controlled by servomechanism. They function depending on the program that
has been coded for it. Servo Motors are extremely vital for the functionality of the
robotic arm. The servo motors are able to move to a specific position rapidly and
only requires 3 connections to the Arduino UNO R3 board(signal, power and
ground) (John-David Warren, 2011). Without it, the robotic arm is not able to
function as intended and carry out the tasks assigned. The servo motors are
implemented into the robotic arm to enable the arm to move in a rotational direction,
upwards and downwards, as well as to control the clamp which picks the sponge
and moves it (Shakeel, 2016).It is assembled at the rotational base of the robotic
arm, the elbows, shoulders, wrist as well as the clamp of the robotic arm.
 Figure 3.0: Servo Motor
2.4 Arduino UNO programming
The way to compose directions that are executed by the Arduino board is by writing
a coded program for it. It is written in programming language, so that the Arduino
board is able to understand the instructions and execute it. A program to direct the
robotic arm’s movements and it’s task, which is to lift and move the sponge is
created via the Arduino IDE software , which is then uploaded into the Arduino
board via USB cable. The microprocessor in the Arduino board then executes the
task by instructing and controlling the movement of the servo motors (Harish K,
2017). Attached in Appendix A is the programming code for the Robotic Arm.

3.0 Methodology
3.1 Equipment
1. Servo motors
2. Arduino Uno R3 board
3. Robot limbs (from the set)
4. Connection wires
5. Arduino IDE software
3.2 Procedure
1. The servo motors are first placed exactly at 90°. To do this, the servos are
connected to the Arduino board, and a program is coded and ran via the Arduino
IDE software. The code for this task can be found in Appendix B.
2. The servo brackets are then assembled and prepared. The servo motors are fitted
into the brackets.
3. The rotary base is then assembled onto a board which has a 360° compass
diagram printed on it. This is to assists us during programming to determine
how much the Robotic Arm needs to rotate. The servo motors that are required
for the rotational base was then attached.
4. The shoulder of the Robotic Arm is then assembled.
5. The servo motors in it’s brackets are then attached to the shoulder of the robotic
arm.
6. The same process was carried out for the elbow, which was attached to the
shoulder of the robotic arm.
7. The wrist was then attached to the elbow of the robotic arm, and it’s servo motor
was attached.
8. The clamp, or the mechanical gripper was then connected to the wrist. As the
function of this part is fairly simple, only 1 servo motor is required.
9. A program was then coded via the Arduino App for the movement of the robotic
arm. The program code for this process can be found in Appendix A. This
programming code was then uploaded into the Arduino board via USB.
10. The servo motors were then reconnected to the Arduino board via the input pins
and connecting cables.
11. A test run was carried out before carrying out the experiment.
12. A complete assembled model of the Robotic arm can be found in Figure 4
below.

Figure 4.0: Complete assembled model of the Robotic Arm

4.0 Results
The robotic arm was successfully assembled and programmed. The objective of this
experiment was to pick and move the sponge, which had been achieved.

5.0 Conclusion
This experiment was successful as the objective of it, which was to successfully assemble
and program the robotic arm as well as to move the sponge was accomplished. We had
learnt the basic programming language for the functionality of the robotic arm. We are
confident that we are able to use these fundamentals to undertake future more complexed
projects. The necessary infrastructure of this experiment that was meant to teach us has
been obtained via this experiment. For robotic arms, vast areas in various fields of it are
still developable. With the help of the robotic arm, many tasks are achieved in a faster
time span as well as with more precision and efficiency. For example, some robotic arms
have been custom developed to assist surgeons during a surgery, in the medical field.
6.0 References
Harish K, M. D. S. M. A. K. C. K. J., 2017. Pick and Place Robotic Arm Using Arduino. International
Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology Research (IJSETR), 6(12), pp. 1568-1573.

Jaroslav Sobota, R. P. P. B. M. S., 2013. Raspberry Pi and Arduino Boards in control education. IFAC
Symposium Advances in Control Education, 1(1), pp. 7-12.

John-David Warren, J. A. H. M., 2011. Arduino Robotics. 1 ed. New York: Apress.

Noor Ali Al teef, Y. S. J. H. M. H. M. Z. H. I. M. A. I. A. R., 2015. Design and the mechanism of, Syria:
s.n.

Ramon, M. C., 2014. Assembling and Controlling a Robotic Arm. In: Intel Galileo and Intel Galileo Gen
2. s.l.:s.n., pp. 509-577.

S. M. Rakibur Rahman, S. A. M. O. R. I. A. N., 2017. An Arduino microcontroller based digitalization of

a vertical traversing mechanism used for the analysis of jet flows. s.l., AIP Publishing.

Shakeel, R. M., 2016. Robotic Arm Final Year Project Report. pp. 39-73.

Techopeida, 2016. Servo Motor. [Online]

Available at: https://www.techopedia.com/definition/13274/servo-motor
[Accessed 18 April 2019].

Zoids, E., 2017. Instructables. [Online]

Available at: https://www.instructables.com/id/ROBOTIC-ARM-Arduino-Controlled/
[Accessed 29 April 2019].

Appendix A
Attached on the next page is the programming code for Robotic Arm
 Appendix B
Programming code to reset and prepare servo motors.
#include <Servo.h>

#define PIN 9

Servo prepareServo;

void setup() {

// Attaching the servo to PIN

prepareServo.attach(PIN);

void loop() {

// moves the servo to 90 degrees

prepareServo.write(90);

delay(250);

}
Case Study 1.0: Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV)
1.0 Introduction
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles, more commonly known as drones are rapidly becoming the future
of aerospace flying. The UAV is an aircraft without an on-board pilot and has the abilities to
fly like an ordinary aircraft. UAVs are a component of an unmanned aircraft system which
includes the aircraft, a ground controller, numerous sensors and radar technologies, and a
system of communication between the aircraft and the ground controller. It can be operated
with various degrees if autonomy, either under remote control by a human operator, or
autonomously by onboard computers (Honeywell, 2005). The UAV can be flown just like any
ordinary aircraft, for numerous purposes. Amongst them for military operations, surveillance,
imaging etc (Dario Floreano, 2015).
The UAV functions by being reliable to numerous sensors and actuators. Sensors are defined
as a system that observes the environment surrounding the system, and actuators are present to
influence it, depending on the programmed tasks. (Yunmok Son, 2015). Sensors are classified
into several categories. Proprioception sensors, such as gyroscopes, compasses and
accelerators, measures values internally to the system. Proprioception sensors controls the
internal system. Exteroceptive sensors, such as sonar sensors and infrared sensors etc measure
the external state of the system. Then there are active and passive sensors. Active sensors such
as a radar emits energy in the form of waves into the environment. These waves can be detected
by satellites to show the position of the UAV. Passive sensors however such as cameras receive
emissions produced, such as light (NASA, 2012), These sensors collect and transmits data to
the Flight Control System (Enric Pastor, 2006). The actuators then respond to this data, and the
movement and controls of the UAV are adhered based on the data.

Figure 1.1: Example of a Military UAV (Valdes, 2017)

 Figure 1.2: Example of a Commercial UAV (DRONENERDS, 2018)

2.0 Sensors in the UAV

2.1 Gyroscope
A gyroscope stabilises the flight of the UAV. It senses and records how fast the UAV is rotating
around it’s own axises, such as the roll, pitch and yaw of the aircraft. This information is then
relayed to the flight controller, where the gyroscope counter reacts by stabilizing the UAV
(Quad Me Up, 2016). The gyroscope has 1 degree of freedom, to serve as the error in
measurement of the flight of the UAV. During flight, when the gyroscope is not stable about
it’s axis, it will revolve about it’s axis to maintain stability (Stewart, 1858). In other words, the
gyroscope rotates in opposite direction to where the UAV is unstable. E.g. when the UAV is
pitching towards the left, the gyro rotates upon it’s X-axis towards the right (clockwise
direction), to stabilise the UAV as can be seen in Figure 1 below. In order for the UAV to
maintain a stable flight, the distribution of masses is equal at all sides of the UAV. Hence, the
moment of inertia of the UAV does not differ during flight (R. Chatys, 2005). Any differ in the
balance of the UAV is counter measured by the gyroscope. Without the gyroscope, the UAV
will not be able to maintain a stable flight.
 Figure 2.1: View of the gyroscope control on an UAV (R. Chatys, 2005)

2.2 Collision Avoidance sensors (Ultrasonic & Infrared)

Collision avoidance sensors play a vital role for UAV. Since a UAV is controlled by a
controller on the ground which has an obstructed view, it is bound to face obstacles blocking
their intended flight path, such as buildings and trees. Another reason is to enable the UAV to
fly in a shared airspace, which is filled with other UAVs and aircrafts (Imen Mahjri, 2015).
Depending on the programming of the UAV, the stint of the collision avoidance system ranges
from detection and warning of an obstruction to a fully autonomous detection and resolution,
such as avoidance manoeuvres carried out by the UAV itself, without depending on any change
by the controller of the flight (Imen Mahjri, 2015). To accomplish this, infrared and ultrasonic
sensors are used in UAVs (G. Benet, 2002).
Infrared sensors are used to ascertain the characteristics of its surroundings. Infrared radiation
is emitted from the sensor to detect obstacles that the UAV has the potential to face (Burnett,
2017). There are optical sensors using the triangulation measured method. The leeway distance
accepted is pre-determined and programmed into the on-board computer in the UAV. When an
object or obstacle is detected below the distance range given is detected, the sensors and the
data to the on-board computer, and the collision avoidance system takes action to avoid the
obstacle (G. Benet, 2002).
 Figure 2.2: Infrared Sensor in a UAV (Drone Base, n.d.)
Ultrasonic sensors however work based on the terminology of reflected sound waves to
measure the distance between the UAV and an obstacle. The working principle of the
ultrasonic sensor is fairly simple. Sound waves are emitted by the sensor at short pulses,
commonly at a frequency of 20kHz. When the soundwaves hit an obstacle, they are reflected
back towards the ultrasonic sensor. The sensor detects the reflected wave and thereafter
calculated the distance of the obstacle from the UAV by calculating the time taken for the wave
to be reflected back (L. Koval. J. Vanus, 2016). Similar to the Infrared sensor, the allowed safe
distance between the UAV and an obstacle is programmed into the on-board computer which
is then relayed to the Ultrasonic sensor. When the distance measured by the sensor falls below
the allowed range, the information is relayed back to the on-board computer, where anti-
collision manoeuvres are carried out. Ultrasonic sensors are more favourable compared to
Infrared sensors, as they have more reliability in different surrounding conditions, such as light,
dust, smoke etc (Burnett, 2017).

Figure 2.3: Ultrasonic Sensor (Makerlab Electronics, 2015)

Figure 2.4: Simple illustrative to understand how the Collision Avoidance system in the UAV
functions (Barnard Microsystems, n.d.)

2.3 Radar
A Radar is a remote sensing technology that uses electromagnetic waves to measure distance
and the speed of the aircraft. It can used to detect other aircraft flying in the vicinity of the
UAV. A radar system consists of a transmitter in the UAV producing the electromagnetic
waves, and a receiving antenna which receives the electromagnetic waves transmitted by
other radar transmitters (Wood, 2018) . The electromagnetic waves transmitted from a
transmitter is able to travel long distances at a larger wavelength (2.5-4cm) at a frequency of
8-12 GHz. (Richard J. Doviak, 1993). The radio waves travel at approximately at the speed of
light (3 x 108 ms-1 ) until it hits something, in other words can be received by the receiving
antenna of another radar system, which is able to allocate the location of the transmitter. The
working principle of a radar can be observed in Figure 2.0 below:
 Computer
High The waves are system in the
Frequency received by receiver unit
radio Antenna B on processes
waves are radar system and displays
produced B the waves on
a screen

Transmitter A Exact
Duplexer location
from radar
switches of radar
system A
antenna system A
sends narrow
through to can be
beams of
receiver pin-
radio waves
unit pointed
theough the
air medium on radar
system B

Figure 2.5: Flow chat on radar working principle

By this radar system, the location of the drone’s target, which could either be a landing zone,
or the controller of the UAV can be located, and be used as a navigation system to fly the UAV.
A radar is also able to pin-point the location on other radar systems. A good example is how
commercial UAVs that are flying in ‘No-Fly Zones’ are located by authorities (T. Stan
Gregory, 2015).

Figure 2.6: How the position of the UAV is shown on a Radar screen (ANSYS, n.d.)
2.4 Light detection and Ranging (LiDAR)
Light detection and ranging, commonly known as LIDAR is an active form of remote sensing
technology. The environment surrounding the UAV is scanned with a pulsed laser beam, and
the reflection time of the signal from the ground or object back to the detector is measured and
calculated. Information such as range to target, velocity of target and the chemical properties
of target can be obtained by the LIDAR. In an UAV, the LIDAR sensor is commonly used to
detect obstacles around the UAV, as well as detect the altitude of the UAV. To achieve this,
the LiDAR sensors fires rapid pulses of laser light, up to 150 000 pulses per second. The time
taken for the pulses to reflect back towards the sensor after facing an obstacle, is measured and
calculated by the instrument using formula 1 below:
Formula 1: Formula to calculate distance between obstacle and UAV using LIDAR sensors:

(𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒙 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕)

Distance = 𝟐

This data is then relayed towards the controller. In obstacle avoidance basis, the UAV will
differ its flight path by generating skirting manoeuvres to avoid the obstacle
(BOUABDALLAH, 2007).

A brief summary of how the LIDAR sensor functions can be found below in Figure 3.0.

Computation of
Emission of Distance
precise echo
Laser Pulse measured
position

Reflection Retrieving
of pulses UAV
recorded position
and altitude

Figure 2.7: Flow chart summary of how LIDAR sensors work

 Figure 2.8: LiDAR sensor (Corrigan, 2019)

3.0 Programming
The on-board computer which all the sensors and actuators are connected to is a single-board
computer such as Arduino or Raspberry Pi boards (Matheus Hentschke, 2018). A java code
was written into the Raspberry Pi software and uploaded into the microcontroller of the board.
The program enables the following functions of the UAV:
• Collision avoidance using the ultrasonic sensors and the infrared sensors
which sends signals to the on-board computer system of the UAV which
then controls the blade motors in the UAV to carry out anti- Collision
manoeuvres.
• Location sensing using the Radar and Lidar sensors, which transmit
information to the on-board controller, which then signals the location
of the UAV.
• Altitude and distance measurement using the Lidar sensors. The sensors
send signals to the on-board computer of the UAV, which then measures
and relays the information to the controller, to determine the altitude the
UAV is flying at.
• Stabilisation of the UAV during mid-flight via gyroscopic sensors and
the rotor blades. When the UAV is not stable, the gyroscopic sensors
measure the difference, and then relays information to the gyroscope.
The gyroscope then relays information to the rotor blades, which then
increases the rotational speed of specific rotor blades to stabilise the
UAV.
4.0 Actuation
4.1 Electronic Speed Controllers (ESC)
Electronic speed controllers are microcontrollers which controls the speed at which the
motors rotate. It translates the pilot’s controls into precise instructions, which then sends
signals to the motors to control the movement of the UAV. When the UAV is controlled to
move in a forward direction, the ESC understands this command, and automatically increases
the speed of the front rotors, and decreases the speed of the back rotors. This produces more
acceleration force towards the front of the UAV, which drives it in a forward direction (DJI,
2016).

Figure 4.1: Electronic Speed Controller for UAVs (Best Hoverboard Brands.org, 2019)
4.2 Rotors/Propellers
A rotor or propeller converts rotational movement, created by the brushless motors into thrust
in accordance with the Bernoulli’s principle (Higinio Gonzalez-Jorge, 2017). The size, pitch,
number of blades, and the type of material used characterises the rotors. For commercial
UAVs, he common go-to material is ABS plastic, whereas for industrial and military drones,
carbon fibre is usually used as it is more durable and produces less vibration whilst spinning.
The larger the diameter of the propeller, the more stable the flight of the UAV is. Commercial
UAVs commonly use 2-blade propellers, which produces more thrust. This enhances the
flight of the UAV. The lower the pitch in design of the propeller, the less drag is produced.
Hence, a smoother flight for the UAV (Higinio Gonzalez-Jorge, 2017).

Figure 4.2: Propellers for the UAV

4.3 Brushless Motors
A brushless motor is a form of electronically commutated DC motor (Higinio Gonzalez-
Jorge, 2017). They are formed by synchronised generators with permanent magnets and
stationary armatures (Ramon L. V. Medeiros, 2018). These motors commute via a
microcontroller on the on-board computer using a field-programmable gate array (Higinio
Gonzalez-Jorge, 2017). Field- programmable gate array is an electronic component used to
build reconfigurable circuits, in this case between the brushless motors, sensors and the on-
board computer. Brushless motors are used instead of Brushed motors because it has a higher
torque to weight ratio and a longer lifetime, which results in less maintenance (Ramon L. V.
Medeiros, 2018). This motor uses an electromagnetic field curated by energizing one of the
three common motor coils in sequence in order to spin the output shafts. This rotates the rotor
blades of the UAV at a speed of up to 12000rpm, which then produces lift (John-David
Warren, 2011). This enables the UAV to be airborne.

Figure 4.3: UAV Brushless Motor

4.4 Flight controller
A conventional flight control system consists of a mechanically connected flight control
surfaces to the on-board computer and the flight operator of the UAV. This is to define the
direction of the UAV during mid-flight. These controls include the motor controls that change
the speed of the UAV. Autopilot systems based on electronic interfaces can replace or assist
the manual control. The sensors integrated into the UAV produce electronic signals transmitted
to the on-board flight computer to determine how the actuators are to react at each control
surface to provide the expected or programmed response (Higinio Gonzalez-Jorge, 2017).

Figure 4.5: UAV Flight Controller (24 Market Reports, 2018)

5.0 Summary
All-in-all, the UAV is a complex yet interesting mechatronic system that is currently in use
around the world. The sensors, programming language and the actuators become mutual to
one another to perform the tasks assigned by the on-board computer of the UAV. The sensors
on board the UAV detects the surrounding environment and relays the information via signals
to the on-board computer, which then understands it and relays the information to both, the
controller of the UAV and the actuators. During autonomous flight, after receiving this
information, the actuators onboard the UAV counter-reacts to avoid an obstacle or increase
speed for instance. The UAV is a very interesting mechatronic system that is known to many.
It’s complexity of functioning is what makes UAV unique, hence the chosen topic.
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24 Market Reports, 2018. UAV Flight Controllers Market by Player, Region, Type, Application and
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Barnard Microsystems, n.d. Collision Sense and Avoid. [Online]

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[Accessed 1 MAY 2019].

Best Hoverboard Brands.org, 2019. Top 10 Best Drone ESC – Latest Bestsellers for Drone lovers.
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BOUABDALLAH, S., 2007. Obstacle Avoidance. design and control of quadrotors, 23(1), pp. 79-82.

Burnett, R., 2017. Ultrasonic vs Infrared Sensors- Which is better?. [Online]

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Corrigan, F., 2019. DroneZon. [Online]

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Case Study 2.0: Instrumented Landing System
1.0 Introduction
The most crucial part of a flight is the orientation precision and aircraft guidance point of
view phase is the landing approach(Andrej Novak, 2017). In order to execute the perfect
landing, the aircraft is required to follow a descending axis and a glide path. This is
executed by using the Instrumented Landing System (ILS). The Instrument Landing
System is a mechatronic system which allows pilots to conduct an instrumental approach
towards the runway during landing. This is extremely useful especially during bad weather,
such as rain or fog (Stoltny, 2016). This system also ensures that the aircraft lands at the
correct point on the runway as different aircrafts have different landing distance
requirements (Yajuan Zhu, 2016). The risk of the aircraft under-shorting or over-shooting
the runway during landing is minimize. The wrong landing sequence of aircrafts are one of
the major causes of aviation disasters (Alpo Vuorio, 2013). The approach system has
several technical radio devices that can be used for approaches and landings with reduced
visibility or when the weather conditions are so bad. There are two types of approach
system, a precision approach that provides both vertical and lateral guidance, and a non-
precision approach that provides lateral guidance but without vertical guidance utility. The
ILS is a precision approach system where it provides the pilot of the aircraft with
information about the directional aircraft guidance, and it’s lateral position during the final
phase of approach to the runway. The pilot is constantly aware of the position of the aircraft
during landing in relation to the desired trajectory of approach and can therefore make
immediate adjustments to follow the trajectory accurately (Mustaz Mohamemd Abdalla
Eltahier, 2017). In other words, the function of the ILS is to inform the pilot of
instantaneous deviations during approach at two levels; the horizontal level to determine
whether the aircraft the aircraft is in the descent axis or if it is deviating, and the Vertical
level to determine whether the aircraft is approaching the runway touchdown zone along
the descent slope (Mustaz Mohamemd Abdalla Eltahier, 2017). For the ILS to function,
there are multiple localizers and approach lighting attached at a certain distance form the
edge of the runway. To complete the system, ILS receivers are installed onto the aircraft
to receive the signals emitted by the localizers. These receivers are connected to the cockpit
of the aircraft where the pilot is able to receive the information and make adjustments to
the flight landing trajectory of the aircraft.
 Figure 1.1: Summarized illustration about the functional system of the Integrated Landing
System (ILS)
2.0 Sensors
2.1 Localizer
The localizer is a sensor which is attached to an antenna array that helps to locate
the aircraft on a lateral trajectory and guide the aircraft along the axis of the runway
during the landing sequence. This is accomplished by creating azimuth guidance
signals that are recognizable by the on-board localizer receiver (Mustaz Mohamemd
Abdalla Eltahier, 2017).The localizer transmitter radiates at a frequency in a 18-112
MHz band. The azimuth guidance signal is created by superimposing on the carrier
signal a 90 Hz modulated signal to the left and a 150Hz to the right (Mustaz
Mohamemd Abdalla Eltahier, 2017).These signals are then received by the on-
board localizer, which then transmits the data for the automated landing system as
well as the pilot. With this data, the aircraft Is able to align itself to the straight
runway at the programmed landing glide scope.
 Figure 2.1: The pattern of the localizer signal

Figure 2.2: The Localizer transmitter and sensors used near the airport runway

2.2 Avionic Sensor Unit

The Avionic Sensor Unit (ASU) consists of a Multi-Mode Receiver (MMR). The
MMR receives the signals from the navigation aids that are transmitting signals.
Information about the aircraft, such as location and altitude are relayed via the
avionic sensor. Signals generated by the sensors are firstly conditioned by circuit
boards in the Avionic Sensor Unit, before being sent to the signal processing unit
(Andrej Novak, 2017). The signals are then relayed to the on-board computer of
the aircraft for action to be taken. The avionic sensor unit detects the signals sent
by the localizer on the ground then relays it back to the on-board computer to allow
the pilot or the automated system of the aircraft to reposition itself into the correct
trajectory.
 2.3 Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
Distance Measuring system use sensors such as long-range LiDAR sensors to detect
the time taken for a transmitted signal to reflect back. The DME provides slant
distances between the aircraft’s current position and the runway. The data
accumulated is then used to calculate the distance between the signal transmitter
and the receiver. The formula used to measure the distance is as shown in Formula
1:
Formula 1: Formula to calculate distance between the aircraft and the runway using the
time-of-flight sensors:

(𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒙 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕)

Distance = 𝟐

This ensures safe and accurate landings for all aircrafts, which also reduced the risk of aviation
disasters due to landing.

3.0 Programming
The instrumented landing system is programmed to detect any aircraft and determine
the type of aircraft via the signals emitted from the aircraft. The ILS then calculates the
required distance for the landing glide scope for the aircraft (Yajuan Zhu, 2016). The
information is then related back to the aircraft. The ILS then directs the aircraft towards
the runway at a correct heading and speed to ensure a perfect landing (Mustaz
Mohamemd Abdalla Eltahier, 2017). A complex programming language is used for this
feature. A firewall is also added into the programming to prevent it from being hacked
by unauthorised people, that may intend to cause harm.
4.0 Actuators
4.1 Approach Lighting
Approach lighting are a series of lightbars that are extend out a certian distance
away from the runway. These lights are programmed to communicate with the
Localizer and sensors on the ground to detect the type of aircraft that is about to
land. The approach lights then receive the information and shine according to colour
and the number of lights as well. This is to allow the pilot to physically see the
position and distance of the runway, especially in the dark, and not only rely on the
ILS. This is to ensure that the pilot is also in control of the aircraft, in the scenario
that the ILS is not functioning etc (Ju-Derk Park, 2016).
 Figure 4.1: Approach lights schematic diagram near the runway
4.2 Transmitters
By definition, a transmitter is a set of equipment used to generate and transmit
signals. In this case, between the localizer and the aircraft (Shang Gao, 2018). The
transmitter on the ground base localizer transmits the radio waves indicating the
landing glide slope. The aircraft’s ILS receiver receives the radio waves which then
guide the aircraft into the glide slope to ensure a safe and accurate landing is
executed by the pilot and the aircraft, if it was flying autonomously.
4.3 Marker Beacons
Marker beacons are a type of radio transmitter used by the ILS. These beacons are
used to indicate the position of the aircraft along the landing glide slope trajectory.
An outer marker beacon is located 7 miles from the landing threshold. A 75MHz
carrier wave is transmitted in a series of dashes with a 400Hz audio tone. The
transmission is straight up and very narrow. The signal is received by a marker
beacon receiver and is used to illuminate a blue light on the instrument panel. This,
in addition to the oral tone in combination with the locator and glide slope indicator,
accurately locates the aircraft on an landing approach (Ju-Derk Park, 2016).
5.0 Summary
In a nutshell, the Instrumented Landing System of the aircraft is an extremely complexed
mechatronics system. The sensors, programming language and the actuators become
harmonious to one another to perform the tasks assigned. Constant improvements are being
implemented to improve this system to become more efficient. However, no matter the
advancement, radio navigation is still an essential element during this landing sequence.
This is to ensure that pilots are always aware of the environment around their aircraft and
are able to regain control when acquired. Yet again, this is still an interesting system that
has been implemented to ensure the safety of aircrafts and people.
6.0 References

Alpo Vuorio, B. B. A. S. T. L. I. J. S. E. K. R. G., 2013. Duty of Notification and Aviation

Safety—A Study of Fatal Aviation Accidents in the United States in 2015. Int J Environs Res
Public Health, 15(6).
Andrej Novak, K. H. M. J., 2017. Measuring and Testing the Instrument Landing System at
the Airport Zilina. Transportation Research Procedia, 28(1), pp. 117-126.
Anon., n.d. s.l., s.n.
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ACCURACY under SIMULATED CONDITIONS. Scientific Journal of Silesian University
of Technology, Series Transport, 94(15), pp. 163-173.
Mustaz Mohamemd Abdalla Eltahier, P. K. H., 2017. Review of Instrument Landing System.
IOSR Journal of Electronics and Communication Engineering , 12(2), pp. 106-113.
Rustem Sinitsyn, F. Y. E. C. O. Z., 2014. Passive acoustic radar for aircraft trajectory
tracking. Microwaves, Radar and Remote Sensing Symposium, pp. 79-83.
Saxena, S., 2016. Instrument Landing System (ILS). 1(1), pp. 1-9.
Shang Gao, X. D. Y. H. Y. G. Q. J., 2018. Airborne Wireless Sensor Networks for Airplane
Monitoring System. Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing.
Stoltny, M., 2016. INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM AS AN EXAMPLE OF. Scientific
Journal of Silesian University of Technology. Series Transport, Volume 93, pp. 123-129.
Yajuan Zhu, J. W. Y. C. a. Y. W., 2016. Calculation of Takeoff and Landing Performance
under Different Evironments. International Journal of Modern Physics, 42(1).