1.

Human Rights

2. Human rights are moral principles or norms[1] that describe certain standards
of human behaviour and are regularly protected as natural and legal
rights in municipal and international law.[2] They are commonly understood as
inalienable,[3] fundamental rights "to which a person is inherently entitled
simply because she or he is a human being" [4] and which are "inherent in all
human beings",[5] regardless of their nation, location, language, religion, ethnic
origin or any other status.[3] They are applicable everywhere and at every time
in the sense of being universal,[1] and they are egalitarian in the sense of
being the same for everyone.[3] They are regarded as requiring empathy and
the rule of law[6] and imposing an obligation on persons to respect the human
rights of others,[1][3] and it is generally considered that they should not be taken
away except as a result of due process based on specific circumstances;[3] for
example, human rights may include freedom from unlawful
imprisonment, torture and execution.[7]
3. The doctrine of human rights has been highly influential within international
law, global and regional institutions.[3] Actions by states and non-governmental
organisations form a basis of public policy worldwide. The idea of human
rights[8] suggests that "if the public discourse of peacetime global society can
be said to have a common moral language, it is that of human rights". The
strong claims made by the doctrine of human rights continue to provoke
considerable scepticism and debates about the content, nature and
justifications of human rights to this day. The precise meaning of the
term right is controversial and is the subject of continued philosophical
debate;[9] while there is consensus that human rights encompasses a wide
variety of rights[5] such as the right to a fair trial, protection
against enslavement, prohibition of genocide, free speech[10] or a right to
education (including the right to comprehensive sexuality education, among
others), there is disagreement about which of these particular rights should be
included within the general framework of human rights; [1] some thinkers
suggest that human rights should be a minimum requirement to avoid the
worst-case abuses, while others see it as a higher standard. [1][11] In the light of
emerging neurotechnologies, four new rights were identified: the right to
cognitive liberty, the right to mental privacy, the right to mental integrity, and
the right to psychological continuity.[12][13]
4. Many of the basic ideas that animated the human rights movement developed
in the aftermath of the Second World War and the events of the Holocaust,
[6]
culminating in the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in
Paris by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. Ancient peoples did
not have the same modern-day conception of universal human rights. [14] The
true forerunner of human rights discourse was the concept of natural
rights which appeared as part of the medieval natural law tradition that
became prominent during the European Enlightenmentwith such philosophers
as John Locke, Francis Hutcheson and Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui and which
featured prominently in the political discourse of the American Revolution and
the French Revolution.[6] From this foundation, the modern human rights
arguments emerged over the latter half of the 20th century, [15] possibly as a
reaction to slavery, torture, genocide and war crimes, [6] as a realisation of
 inherent human vulnerability and as being a precondition for the possibility of
a just society.[5]

Why are human rights important?

Human rights are important in the relationships that exist between individuals and
the government that has power over them. The government exercises power over its
people. However, human rights mean that this power is limited. States have to look
after the basic needs of the people and protect some of their freedoms. Some of the
most important features of human rights are the following:
• They are for everyone.
• They are internationally guaranteed.
• They are protected by law.
• They focus on the dignity of the human being.
• They protect individuals and groups.
• They cannot be taken away

Human rights reflect the minimum standards necessary for people to live with
dignity. Human rights give people the freedom to choose how they live, how they
express themselves, and what kind of government they want to support, among
many other things. Human rights also guarantee people the means necessary to
satisfy their basic needs, such as food, housing, and education, so they can take full
advantage of all opportunities. Finally, by guaranteeing life, liberty, equality, and
security, human rights protect people against abuse by those who are more
powerful.

2. Duty signifies legal obligation

1. Ethical, legal, or moral accountability, owed always or for a certain period, specially to
someone who has a corresponding right to demand satisfaction of an obligation.
2. Responsibility of conduct, function, or performance that arises from an express or implied
contract, or from the fact of holding an office or position.
3. Alternative term for customs duty. See also duty of care and duty to act.
The term that describes the obligation or duty that is enforced by a court of law, it can be a
debt and the legal responsibility to carry out what the law asks.

An obligation or a duty which can be enforced by a court of law. The term that describes the
obligation or duty that is enforced by a court of law it can be a debt and the legal
responsibility to carry out what the law asks.

Legal obligation means performing certain duties which is prescribed by law. If someone is
suppose to do something, which is specified by law, such person has to do that, if it is not
done, then legal action can be taken against the person not complying with the obligation.
Which are your legal obligation, what can be the consequences for not complying with
them, to know better take legal advice online. For example, it is the legal obligation of every
earning citizen to pay income tax. If any person does not file income tax, or files income tax
stating a false economic status to evaded tax, then such person is not complying with the
legal obligation. Similarly every citizen has legal obligation towards state, as well as other
individuals as well. Like, every earning adult child has the legal obligation to look after the
parents who do not have any means for living.

f someone is suppose to perform a legal obligation towards you, but does not perform it,
then you can find a local lawyer for taking legal consultancy services. A good lawyer can help
you to understand your rights of having a legal obligation performed by other person. You
can also hire a lawyer onlineto take the person to court, so that such non-performing person
gets pressurized by the court’s order to perform what he is legally obliged to.

Legal Representation

The legal work that a licensed attorney performs on behalf of a client.

Licensed attorneys have the authority to represent persons in court proceedings and in othe
r legalmatters. When hiring an attorney, a careful consumer considers a number of variables,
including thenature and importance of the case, the attorney's fee and payment arrangemen
t, personal chemistrywith the attorney, and the attorney's reputation.

Self-Representation

If a case is simple, a person may wish to represent himself, or proceed pro se. The courts usu
allydiscourage self-representation because legal practice requires special skills, and an unsch
ooled prose party is usually at a disadvantage in court. Even attorneys are well advised to hir
e anotherattorney for personal legal problems.

Advertising

Many attorneys advertise their services. Attorneys must obey all applicable advertising laws
andmust follow rules of professional conduct related to advertising. Under these rules they
may notmake false or misleading claims, create unjustified expectations, or compare the ser
vices of anotherattorney unless the comparison can be factually substantiated. An attorney
may not make in-personor live telephone solicitations unless the attorney is related to the p
erson or has a professionalrelationship with the person. An attorney may not contact an indi
vidual after he or she indicates adesire that the solicitations cease, and an attorney may not
coerce or harass prospective clients.Aside from these and similar restrictions, attorneys gene
rally are free to use the various media topromote their services.

Duties and Obligations

Legal representation places duties on both the client and the attorney. The client should pro
vide theattorney with all information relevant to the case and keep the attorney apprised of
new information.The client should be completely honest about the case with the attorney. T
he client also shouldfollow the attorney's directives.

The client has an obligation to pay the attorney for the representation. If the client does not
maketimely payment, the attorney may decline to perform further work for the client. An att
orney also maydiscontinue representation if the client wants the attorney to perform an une
thical or illegal act, theclient lies and refuses to correct the lie, the client makes representati
on unreasonably difficult, or theattorney discovers a conflict of interest.

Generally, a conflict of interest is any circumstance that adversely affects a client, or limits th
eloyalty of the attorney to a client. For example, assume that an attorney regularly represent
s acorporation. A new client seeks the attorney's representation in a suit against the same co
rporation.Representing the new client would be a conflict of interest. Generally, the attorney
would not be ableto take the case or continue representation after the conflict was discover
ed. However, the attorneymay continue representation if he does not believe that the conflic
t would adversely affect therelationship with the corporation, and if both the corporation an
d the client agree to the attorney'srepresentation. In practice, continued representation whe
re there is a conflict of interest is rare.

If an attorney must withdraw from representation, he must act to protect the interests of th
e client.This may involve helping the client find another attorney, postponing court dates, an
d surrenderingpapers and documents relevant to the case. The attorney must return to the c
lient any money owedto the client under the fee agreement.

An attorney has many obligations to his or her client. He must zealously defend the interests
of theclient and respond to the client's concerns. He must communicate with the client, kee
ping the clientinformed about the status of the case and explaining developments so that th
e client can makeinformed tactical decisions. He must abide by the client's decisions regardin
g the objectives of therepresentation. With few exceptions an attorney may not divulge clien
t communications to outsideparties without the client's consent.

Attorneys are officers of the court, and as such they must follow the law and obey ethicalcon
straints. They may not harass persons in the course of representation. They may not assist ac
lient who they know will not tell the truth about the case. An attorney should not begin a ro
manticaffair with the client during the course of legal representation. In most states such be
havior is anethical violation. No attorney in any state may perform legal services in exchange
for sexualrelations.

3. Ethics deals with what aspects of human behaviour

Multiculturalism in the work force is increasing, and more and more people want to work for
different international companies. But not all of them are aware that there might be
different ethical standards or significantly different interests. Not all of them are aware that
they have to comply with a company value system which might be different from the one
they are used to. It is a well known fact that when two or more countries interact, people
often find that their ethics and understanding of social responsibility differ. More than this,
some of these values may be incompatible with their personal moral belief and ethics
(Francesco and Gold 2005: 52). Ethics is generally seen as a product of a society culture
which the members of a culture follow unconditionally and take it for granted, as they
usually understand and follow the social requirements. Their choices reflect their decisions.
Some anthropologists (Geertz 1973:51) define culture as “systems of shared meaning and
understanding”. In business the situation is totally different since one of the biggest mistakes
is to assume that ethical rules can be generally applied. 2. Business ethics vs. individual
behaviour In the world of business, the phrase 'business ethics' is generally used to describe
the actions of individuals within an organization, as well as the organization as a whole. Most
of the experts agree that business ethics consists of written and unwritten codes of
principles and values that govern decisions and actions within a company. Business ethics,
also known as corporate ethics, is considered to be the application of ethical values to
business behaviour and is applied to any aspects of 16 PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION
AND TRANSLATION STUDIES, 3 (1-2) / 2010 business conduct. It is about how a company
does its business, about how it behaves intrinsically. If we have a look at the sites of different
companies, we can easily notice that more and more companies are formulating their own
ethical and social responsibility policies. Companies have come to realize that they have to
publicize ethical actions and their politics. The general rule is that they work only with
partners that follow workplace standards and business practices and are consistent with the
company values. Unfortunately the general public cannot find very easy examples of
companies which comply with business ethics. It is rather easy to find examples of unethical
business behaviour as ethical breaches have become front-page news. According to Collier
and Esteban (2007) employee attitudes and behaviours will be affected by organisational
culture and climate. Motivation and commitment will be affected, among others, by the
extent to which they can align personal identity and image with that of the organisation. The
danger of a potential conflict between an individual and a company is pointed out by
Francesco and Gold (2005:48), who consider ethics as: “moral standards, not governed by
law which can be in conflict with the interest of employee or even with the interest of the
company”. The relationship between ethics and legality cannot be denied. Still an important
distinction has to be made, while ethics are complied with voluntarily the compliance with
the law is often involuntary. In effect, when a company breaks a law, it is of no consequence
unless detected and then enforced. Unfortunately, we have a lot of examples in history
when legal was not always synonymous with ethical. However the fact that is not illegal is
not an excuse for failing to accept personal responsibility for one’s ethical decisions. Another
factor that can influence the behaviour of an employee is the personal responsibility for
one’s ethical choices. This is one of the reasons for which the number of the companies
which require their employees to attend different seminars on business conduct is
increasing. The employers want to be sure that their employees know and abide the
company’s rules of conduct. According to Christians, Rotzell, & Fackler (1995: 51),
intentionality is at the heart of lying and when realties are intentionally misrepresented the
intention of deceiving is deliberate and it can be considered an ethical problem; whereas the
unintentional misrepresentations of facts are considered to be intellectual failings, not moral
ones. Besides this truth can have two components: accuracy and completeness. In
answering a question about a certain issue a person might mention two things but omit a
third. The reply is accurate but incomplete. Adequate training for CEOs and subsidiary
managers around the world make them aware that function to certain ethical principles they
can get a statement that can “be completely true, but not truly complete”. Adequate training
for employees makes them aware that everybody has to accept personal responsibility for
one’s own actions. PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION AND TRANSLATION STUDIES, 3 (1-2) /
2010 17 A rather recent factor that can influence the behaviour of an employee is social
responsibility. Large organizations often use corporate governance to promote business
ethics and social responsibility. An employee’s behaviour is influenced by the way in which
the company he is working for tries to provide benefits to local communities and does
something to increase the living standards of the local people. Ethics and social
responsibility are major concerns in the global economy. People have to follow the body of
obligations that the society they belong to requires for its members. 3. Dangers of unethical
behaviour With the development of the international collaboration, multicultural
corporations have to face new challenges due to dissimilar cultural assumptions, social
norms and societal values. Differences in culture can create conflicts that pose moral issues
and can raise serious ethical dilemmas. Besides this, there are cases when there is a
discrepancy between the company’s code of ethics and the company’s actual practices
which can lead to a lack of commitment. Both employers and employees have to be aware
that inappropriate conduct may have serious consequences both socially and legally. Both
have to be trained adequately in applied ethics, but it is up to the employers to consider
ways of scientifically study organizational ethics. 4. Conclusions Due the increase of
multiculturalism in the work force, in order to avoid conflicts, both employers and
employees have to be aware of the existence of different ethical standards. Rather than
imposing their own standards (Schneider and Barsoux 2003:301) employers and employees
should try to find ways of using the differences in cultures in order to become global citizens.
Managers need to evaluate the extent to which national culture can interfere with their
company's policy. In conclusion we can say that working for a multinational company implies
among other things: a change in behaviour, knowledge of the company ethical standards
and policy, and awareness of personal and social responsibilities.

Ethical values, translated into active language establishing standards or rules describing the
kind of behaviour an ethical person should and should not engage in, are ethical principles.
The following list
of principles incorporate the characteristics and values that most people associate with
ethical behaviour.

1. HONESTY. Ethical executives are honest and truthful in all their dealings and they do not
deliberately mislead or deceive others by misrepresentations, overstatements, partial truths,
selective omissions, or any other means.

2. INTEGRITY. Ethical executives demonstrate personal integrity and the courage of their
convictions by doing what they think is right even when there is great pressure to do
otherwise; they are principled, honorable and upright; they will fight for their beliefs. They
will not sacrifice principle for expediency, be hypocritical, or unscrupulous.

3. PROMISE-KEEPING & TRUSTWORTHINESS. Ethical executives are worthy of trust. They

are candid and forthcoming in supplying relevant information and correcting
misapprehensions of fact, and they make every reasonable effort to fulfill the letter and
spirit of their promises and commitments. They do not interpret agreements in an
unreasonably technical or legalistic manner in order to rationalize non-compliance or create
justifications for escaping their commitments.

4. LOYALTY. Ethical executives are worthy of trust, demonstrate fidelity and loyalty to
persons and institutions by friendship in adversity, support and devotion to duty; they do
not use or disclose information learned in confidence for personal advantage. They
safeguard the ability to make independent professional judgments by scrupulously avoiding
undue influences and conflicts of interest. They are loyal to their companies and colleagues
and if they decide to accept other employment, they provide reasonable notice, respect the
proprietary information of their former employer, and refuse to engage in any activities that
take undue advantage of their previous positions.

5. FAIRNESS. Ethical executives and fair and just in all dealings; they do not exercise power
arbitrarily, and do not use overreaching nor indecent means to gain or maintain any
advantage nor take undue advantage of another’s mistakes or difficulties. Fair persons
manifest a commitment to justice, the equal treatment of individuals, tolerance for and
acceptance of diversity, the they are open-minded; they are willing to admit they are wrong
and, where appropriate, change their positions and beliefs.

6. CONCERN FOR OTHERS. Ethical executives are caring, compassionate, benevolent and
kind; they like the Golden Rule, help those in need, and seek to accomplish their business
objectives in a manner that causes the least harm and the greatest positive good.

7. RESPECT FOR OTHERS. Ethical executives demonstrate respect for the human dignity,
autonomy, privacy, rights, and interests of all those who have a stake in their decisions; they
are courteous and treat all people with equal respect and dignity regardless of sex, race or
national origin.
8. LAW ABIDING. Ethical executives abide by laws, rules and regulations relating to their
business activities.

9. COMMITMENT TO EXCELLENCE. Ethical executives pursue excellence in performing their

duties, are well informed and prepared, and constantly endeavour to increase their
proficiency in all areas of responsibility.

10. LEADERSHIP. Ethical executives are conscious of the responsibilities and opportunities of
their position of leadership and seek to be positive ethical role models by their own conduct
and by helping to create an environment in which principled reasoning and ethical decision
making are highly prized.

11. REPUTATION AND MORALE. Ethical executives seek to protect and build the company’s
good reputation and the morale of its employees by engaging in no conduct that might
undermine respect and by taking whatever actions are necessary to correct or prevent
inappropriate conduct of others.

12. ACCOUNTABILITY. Ethical executives acknowledge and accept personal accountability for
the ethical quality of their decisions and omissions to themselves, their colleagues, their
companies, and their communities.

4. What is human rights commission and explain its function in india

National Human Rights Commission of India is an autonomous public body constituted on 12

October 1993 under the Protection of Human Rights Ordinance of 28 September 1993. It
was given a statutory basis by the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993. Wikipedia

Website: nhrc.nic.in

Formed: 12 October 1993

Jurisdiction: Government of India

Headquarters: New Delhi

First executive: Ranganath Misra

Preceding executive: K. G. Balakrishnan

National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) of India is an autonomous public body

constituted on 12 October 1993 under the Protection of Human Rights Ordinance of 28
September 1993. It was given a statutory basis by the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993
(TPHRA). The NHRC is the National Human Rights Commission of India,responsible for the
protection and promotion of human rights, defined by the Act as "rights relating to life,
liberty, equality and dignity of the individual guaranteed by the Constitution or embodied in
the International Covenants".

Functions[edit]

The Protection of Human Rights Act mandates the NHRC to perform the following functions:

proactively or reactively inquire into violations of government of India human rights or

negligence in the prevention of such violation by a public servant

by leave of the court, to intervene in court proceeding relating to human rights

make recommendations about granting relief to the victims and their families.

review the safeguards provided by or under the Constitution or any law for the time being
in force for the protection of human rights and recommend measures for their effective
implementation

review the factors, including acts of terrorism that inhibit the enjoyment of human rights
and recommend appropriate remedial measures

to study treaties and other international instruments on human rights and make
recommendations for their effective implementation

undertake and promote research in the field of human rights

engage in human rights education among various sections of society and promote
awareness of the safeguards available for the protection of these rights through
publications, the media, seminars and other available means

encourage the efforts of NGOs and institutions congress to working in the field of anti
human rights.

such other function as it may consider it necessary for the protection of human rights.

requisitioning any public record or copy thereof from any court or office.

by sitting and taking application and rejecting then on the basic of sex, caste, income and
social status.

5. Explain Prototype

Definition - What does Prototype mean?

A prototype is an original model, form or an instance that serves as a basis for other
processes. In software technology, the term prototype is a working example through which a
new model or a new version of an existing product can be derived.

Techopedia explains Prototype

A prototype is an example that serves as a basis for future models. Prototyping gives
designers an opportunity to research new alternatives and test the existing design to
confirm a product’s functionality prior to production.

A prototype has many benefits, such as the developer and the implementer getting valuable
feedback from the user even before the actual project is started. The actual process of
creating prototype involves the following steps:

Identify Basic Requirements: Basic requirements are determined, including input and output
data needed.

Initial Prototype Creation: The initial prototype is created.

Review: The clients and the end-users verify the prototype and provide valuable feedback on
additions or deletions. Also necessary changes are made to the final product.

Revise and Improve the Prototype: Using the feedback from the client and end user, both
the specifications and the prototype can be changed accordingly and improved. If changes
are incorporated, a repeat of steps #3 and #4 may be required.

What Is A Prototype?

A prototype is a rudimentary working sample, model, mock-up or just a simulation of the

actual product based on which the other forms (MVP, final product, and variations) are
developed.

The main motive behind prototyping is to validate the design of the actual product.
Sometimes, creating a prototype is called materialization as it is the first step of transforming
the virtual or conceptualized design into the real physical form.

It is the preliminary version of the actual product developed for:

Validating the design of the product,

Presenting to investors or licensees,

Intellectual property protection,

Removing kinks in manufacturing,

Testing and refining the product.

Qualities Of A Good Prototype

Representation

A prototype is a rudimentary representation of the actual product. It represents how the

product will look and/or work like.

Precision

More precise the prototype, better the response and feedback.

Functional

A good prototype performs the basic functions of the actual product (if possible).

Improvision

A good prototype is one which can be improvised on with minimum effort. This one of the
most important aspect of prototyping as a prototype is subject to many improvisations.

Types of Prototypes

While a prototype can be in the form of paper, digital, miniature or a partial product, all of
these can be categorized into three categories on the basis of what they represent.

Functional Prototypes

Functional prototypes are designed to imitate the functions of the actual product as closely
as possible no matter how different they look from the actual product.These types of
prototypes are produced for the products which are dependent on the function rather than
the display.

For example: creating a backend prototype without working on the frontend of the website.

Display Prototypes

Display prototypes are designed with more focus on the look and feel of the product rather
than the functions. These prototypes may or may not function but represent the look of the
actual product very well.Display prototypes are usually used in the fashion industry and in
other industries where looks are more important.

Miniatures

Miniatures are smaller versions or the basic versions of the product focused on both the
functional aspect as well as the display aspect. Nevertheless, these aren’t the actual
products and lack many qualities of the actual product like not working at full capacity, etc.

Miniatures are usually developed by the 3D printing of the product.

From a usability perspective, the prototypes can be categorized into:

Throwaway prototype

Throwaway prototype refers to the models which are eventually discarded or thrown away
rather than becoming a part of the actual product. These products are only used to
represent what an actual product can do. Throwaway prototypes are also called close ended
prototypes

Evolutionary Prototype

Evolutionary prototyping uses a different approach than throwaway prototyping and

involves building a basic but robust prototype in a manner which can further be improved
and built upon to form an actual saleable product. This avoids wastage of resources.

Prototype Examples

Prototypes come in many types and shapes. It all depends on the reason for what a
prototype is created. While some prototypes are developed just to represent or mimic the
functioning or the look of the product (paper prototypes, HTML prototypes, etc.) to
investors, some include showing a miniature version (3D print, single version of the lot, etc.)
of the product with full or partial functionality.

PROTOTYPE C PROTOCOL

In computer programming, a function prototype or function interface is a declaration of a

function that specifies the function's name and type signature (arity, parameter types, and
return type), but omits the function body. The term is particularly used inC, C++, and PHP.

In computer programming, a function prototype or function interface is a declaration of

a function that specifies the function's name and type signature (arity, data
types of parameters, and return type), but omits the function body. While a function
definition specifies how the function does what it does (the "implementation"), a function
prototype merely specifies its interface, i.e. whatdata types go in and come out of it. The
term function prototype is particularly used in the context of the programming
languages C and C++ where placing forward declarations of functions in header files allows
for splitting a program into translation units, i.e. into parts that a compiler can separately
translate into object files, to be combined by a linker into an executable or a library.

In a prototype, parameter names are optional (and in C/C++ have function prototype scope,
meaning their scope ends at the end of the prototype), however, the type is necessary along
with all modifiers (e.g. if it is a pointer or a const parameter).

In object-oriented programming, interfaces and abstract methods serve much the same
purpose.

Consider the following function prototype:

public void main(int a,int b);

First of all function prototype includes the function signature, the name of the function,
return type and access specifier. In this case the name of the function is "main". The
function signature determines the number of parameters and their types. In the above
example, the return type is "void". This means that the function is not going to return any
value. In this example, the access specifier is "Public", which means that the functions is
globally accessible by any part of the program.

he Prototyping Model is a systems development method (SDM) in which a prototype (an

early approximation of a final system or product) is built, tested, and then reworked as
necessary until an acceptable prototype is finally achieved from which the complete system
or product can now be developed. This model works best in scenarios where not all of the
project requirements are known in detail ahead of time. It is an iterative, trial-and-error
process that takes place between the developers and the users.

There are several steps in the Prototyping Model:

The new system requirements are defined in as much detail as possible. This usually involves
interviewing a number of users representing all the departments or aspects of the existing
system.

A preliminary design is created for the new system.

A first prototype of the new system is constructed from the preliminary design. This is
usually a scaled-down system, and represents an approximation of the characteristics of the
final product.

The users thoroughly evaluate the first prototype, noting its strengths and weaknesses, what
needs to be added, and what should to be removed. The developer collects and analyzes the
remarks from the users.
The first prototype is modified, based on the comments supplied by the users, and a second
prototype of the new system is constructed.

The second prototype is evaluated in the same manner as was the first prototype.

The preceding steps are iterated as many times as necessary, until the users are satisfied
that the prototype represents the final product desired.

The final system is constructed, based on the final prototype.

The final system is thoroughly evaluated and tested. Routine maintenance is carried out on a
continuing basis to prevent large-scale failures and to minimize downtime.

6. Explain cryptography

Cryptography or cryptology (from Ancient Greek: κρυπτός, translit. kryptós "hidden, secret";
and γράφεινgraphein, "to write", or -λογία -logia, "study", respectively[1]) is the practice and
study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of third parties
called adversaries.[2] More generally, cryptography is about constructing and
analyzing protocols that prevent third parties or the public from reading private messages;
[3]
various aspects in information security such as data confidentiality, data
integrity, authentication, and non-repudiation[4] are central to modern cryptography.
Modern cryptography exists at the intersection of the disciplines of mathematics, computer
science, electrical engineering, communication science, and physics. Applications of
cryptography include electronic commerce, chip-based payment cards, digital
currencies, computer passwords, and military communications.

Cryptography prior to the modern age was effectively synonymous with encryption, the
conversion of information from a readable state to apparent nonsense. The originator of an
encrypted message shared the decoding technique needed to recover the original
information only with intended recipients, thereby precluding unwanted persons from doing
the same. The cryptography literature often uses the name Alice ("A") for the sender, Bob
("B") for the intended recipient, and Eve ("eavesdropper") for the adversary.[5] Since the
development of rotor cipher machines in World War I and the advent of computers in World
War II, the methods used to carry out cryptology have become increasingly complex and its
application more widespread.

Modern cryptography is heavily based on mathematical theory and computer science

practice; cryptographic algorithms are designed around computational hardness
assumptions, making such algorithms hard to break in practice by any adversary. It is
theoretically possible to break such a system, but it is infeasible to do so by any known
practical means. These schemes are therefore termed computationally secure; theoretical
advances, e.g., improvements in integer factorizationalgorithms, and faster computing
technology require these solutions to be continually adapted. There exist information-
theoretically secure schemes that probably cannot be broken even with unlimited
computing power—an example is the one-time pad—but these schemes are more difficult
to implement than the best theoretically breakable but computationally secure mechanisms.

The growth of cryptographic technology has raised a number of legal issues in the
information age. Cryptography's potential for use as a tool for espionage and sedition has
led many governments to classify it as a weapon and to limit or even prohibit its use and
export.[6] In some jurisdictions where the use of cryptography is legal, laws permit
investigators to compel the disclosure of encryption keys for documents relevant to an
investigation.[7][8] Cryptography also plays a major role in digital rights
management and copyright infringement of digital media.[9]

Terminology

Alphabet shift ciphers are believed to have been used by Julius Caesarover 2,000 years ago.
[5]
This is an example with k=3. In other words, the letters in the alphabet are shifted three in
one direction to encrypt and three in the other direction to decrypt.

The first use of the term cryptograph (as opposed to cryptogram) dates back to the 19th
century - it originated in The Gold-Bug, a novel by Edgar Allan Poe.[10]

Until modern times, cryptography referred almost exclusively to encryption, which is the
process of converting ordinary information (called plaintext) into unintelligible text
(called ciphertext).[11] Decryption is the reverse, in other words, moving from the
unintelligible ciphertext back to plaintext. A cipher (or cypher) is a pair of algorithms that
create the encryption and the reversing decryption. The detailed operation of a cipher is
controlled both by the algorithm and in each instance by a "key". The key is a secret (ideally
known only to the communicants), usually a short string of characters, which is needed to
decrypt the ciphertext. Formally, a "cryptosystem" is the ordered list of elements of finite
possible plaintexts, finite possible cyphertexts, finite possible keys, and the encryption and
decryption algorithms which correspond to each key. Keys are important both formally and
in actual practice, as ciphers without variable keys can be trivially broken with only the
knowledge of the cipher used and are therefore useless (or even counter-productive) for
most purposes.

Historically, ciphers were often used directly for encryption or decryption without additional
procedures such as authentication or integrity checks. There are two kinds of

cryptosystems: symmetric and asymmetric. In symmetric systems the same key (the secret
key) is used to encrypt and decrypt a message. Data manipulation in symmetric systems is
faster than asymmetric systems as they generally use shorter key lengths. Asymmetric
systems use a public key to encrypt a message and a private key to decrypt it. Use of
asymmetric systems enhances the security of communication. [12] Examples of asymmetric
systems include RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman), and ECC (Elliptic Curve Cryptography).
Symmetric models include the commonly used AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) which
replaced the older DES (Data Encryption Standard).[13]

In colloquial use, the term "code" is often used to mean any method of encryption or
concealment of meaning. However, in cryptography, code has a more specific meaning. It
means the replacement of a unit of plaintext (i.e., a meaningful word or phrase) with a code
word (for example, "wallaby" replaces "attack at dawn").

Cryptanalysis is the term used for the study of methods for obtaining the meaning of
encrypted information without access to the key normally required to do so; i.e., it is the
study of how to crack encryption algorithms or their implementations.

Some use the terms cryptography and cryptology interchangeably in English, while others
(including US military practice generally) use cryptography to refer specifically to the use and
practice of cryptographic techniques and cryptology to refer to the combined study of
cryptography and cryptanalysis.[14][15] English is more flexible than several other languages in
which cryptology(done by cryptologists) is always used in the second sense
above. RFC 2828 advises that steganography is sometimes included in cryptology.[16]

The study of characteristics of languages that have some application in cryptography or

cryptology (e.g. frequency data, letter combinations, universal patterns, etc.) is called
cryptolinguistics.

Cryptography

Definition - What does Cryptography mean?

Cryptography involves creating written or generated codes that allow information to be kept
secret. Cryptography converts data into a format that is unreadable for an unauthorized
user, allowing it to be transmitted without unauthorized entities decoding it back into a
readable format, thus compromising the data.

Information security uses cryptography on several levels. The information cannot be read
without a key to decrypt it. The information maintains its integrity during transit and while
being stored. Cryptography also aids in nonrepudiation. This means that the sender and the
delivery of a message can be verified.

Cryptography is also known as cryptology.

Techopedia explains Cryptography

Cryptography also allows senders and receivers to authenticate each other through the use
of key pairs. There are various types of algorithms for encryption, some common algorithms
include:
 Secret Key Cryptography (SKC): Here only one key is used for both encryption and
decryption. This type of encryption is also referred to as symmetric encryption.

 Public Key Cryptography (PKC): Here two keys are used. This type of encryption is
also called asymmetric encryption. One key is the public key that anyone can access.
The other key is the private key, and only the owner can access it. The sender
encrypts the information using the receiver’s public key. The receiver decrypts the
message using his/her private key. For nonrepudiation, the sender encrypts plain text
using a private key, while the receiver uses the sender’s public key to decrypt it. Thus,
the receiver knows who sent it.

 Hash Functions: These are different from SKC and PKC. They use no key and are also
called one-way encryption. Hash functions are mainly used to ensure that a file has
remained unchanged.