Energy 93 (2015) 2208e2228

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Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Thermoeconomic multi-objective optimization of an organic Rankine

cycle for exhaust waste heat recovery of a diesel engine
Fubin Yang a, b, Hongguang Zhang a, b, *, Songsong Song a, b, Chen Bei a, b, Hongjin Wang a, b,
Enhua Wang c
a
College of Environmental and Energy Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Pingleyuan No. 100, 100124 Beijing, China
b
Collaborative Innovation Center of Electric Vehicles in Beijing, Pingleyuan No. 100, 100124 Beijing, China
c
State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua University, Qinghuayuan, 100084 Beijing, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this paper, the ORC (Organic Rankine cycle) technology is adopted to recover the exhaust waste heat of
Received 26 June 2015 diesel engine. The thermodynamic, economic and optimization models of the ORC system are estab-
Received in revised form lished, respectively. Firstly, the effects of four key parameters, including evaporation pressure, superheat
20 September 2015
degree, condensation temperature and exhaust temperature at the outlet of the evaporator on the
Accepted 24 October 2015
Available online 19 November 2015
thermodynamic performances and economic indicators of the ORC system are investigated. Subse-
quently, based on the established optimization model, GA (genetic algorithm) is employed to solve the
Pareto solution of the thermodynamic performances and economic indicators for maximizing net power
Keywords:
Diesel engine
output and minimizing total investment cost under diesel engine various operating conditions using
Waste heat recovery R600, R600a, R601a, R245fa, R1234yf and R1234ze as working fluids. The most suitable working fluid
Organic Rankine cycle used in the ORC system for diesel engine waste heat recovery is screened out, and then the corre-
Thermoeconomic analysis sponding optimal parameter regions are analyzed. The results show that thermodynamic performance of
Multi-objective optimization the ORC system is improved at the expense of economic performance. Among these working fluids,
R245fa is considered as the most suitable working fluid for the ORC waste heat application of the diesel
engine with comprehensive consideration of thermoeconomic performances, environmental impacts
and safety levels. Under the various operating conditions of the diesel engine, the optimal evaporation
pressure is in the range of 1.1 MPae2.1 MPa. In addition, the optimal superheat degree and the exhaust
temperature at the outlet of the evaporator are mainly influenced by the operating conditions of the
diesel engine. The optimal condensation temperature keeps a nearly constant value of 298.15 K.
© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
IC (Internal combustion) engines only convert about 40% of the
total fuel combustion energy into useful work, and the remaining
energy is discharged into environment in the form of waste heat
[1,2]. Under the background of energy crisis, how to realize the
recovery of the waste heat from the IC engines has received much
attention these years. Light-duty passenger vehicle exhaust system
operates at gas temperatures from 500 to 900
C, while the heavy-
duty vehicle exhaust system operates at gas temperatures from 500
to 650
C. These high temperature exhaust gases provide significant
* Corresponding author. Beijing University of Technology, Pingleyuan No. 100,
100124 Beijing, China. Tel.: þ86 10 6739 2469; fax: þ86 10 6739 2774.
E-mail address: zhanghongguang@bjut.edu.cn (H. Zhang).
opportunities for waste heat recovery [3]. The exhaust waste heat
recovery of IC engines would not just bring huge advantages for
improving the fuel consumption, but also increase engine power
output, further reducing CO2 and other harmful exhaust gas
emissions [4]. If approximately 6% of the exhaust heat could be
converted into useful power, it would be possible to reduce the fuel
consumption around 10% [5]. ORC (Organic Rankine cycle) system is
considered as a promising method due to its simple configuration
and high efficiency [6e9].
The concept of applying an ORC to IC engines first appeared after
the 1970 energy crisis [10e12]. Compared with other waste heat
recovery technologies, ORC is receiving more and more attention
due to its higher thermal efficiency, simplicity and ability to operate
efficiently under low and medium grade heat sources [13]. Another
advantage of this technology is the use of widely available and
affordable components because of the similarities between ORC

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.10.117
0360-5442/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 F. Yang et al. / Energy 93 (2015) 2208e2228
and refrigeration cycle [14]. However, it is difficult to control the
ORC system due to the transient characteristic of IC engines.
Another technical bottleneck is that the ORC system requires a large
installation space. In addition, the exhaust backpressure will
deteriorate the performance of IC engines. Currently, most of the
researches are focused on working fluid selection, parameters
optimization, and configuration analysis.
The properties of the working fluid have a great influence on the
performance of the ORC system. The working fluid with good
properties performs higher system efficiency and meets the envi-
ronmental requirements. Many investigations have been conduct-
ed to select the optimal working fluid. Liu et al. presented the
influence of working fluids on the performance of ORC for waste
heat recovery. The effects of different types of working fluids,
including wet, isentropic and dry fluids on the thermal efficiency
and the total heat-recovery efficiency were evaluated. The results
showed that dry or isentropic fluids are considered as appropriate
for the ORC applications [15]. Wang et al. investigated the perfor-
mances of ORC system with nine different pure organic working
fluids for engine waste heat recovery. The results revealed that
R245fa and R245ca are the most environment-friendly working
fluids [16]. Andreasen et al. provided a generic method for ORCs
optimization and fluid selection considering pure fluids and mix-
tures. It was shown that mixed working fluid can increase the net
power output of the cycle [17]. Tian et al. conducted fluids selection
and parameters optimization for the ORCs used in exhaust heat
recovery of ICE (Internal Combustion Engine). The results indicated
that R141b, R123 and R245fa present better performance than the
other fluids [13]. Roy et al. presented a study of ORC system by using
R12, R123, R134a and R717 as working fluid. The results showed
that R123 is the most suitable choice for the investigated system
[18]. Xu et al. proposed a critical temperature criterion for selection
of working fluids for subcritical pressure organic Rankine cycle. In
addition, a new method was developed to couple the heat source
with the organic fluid, and the integrated-average temperature
difference was used to quantify the thermal match in the evapo-
rator. The results showed that the thermal efficiencies of the ORC
system are well correlated with critical temperature. R245fa and
R141b can be used over a wide heat source temperature range [19].
Generally speaking, the selection of working fluid is mainly influ-
enced by the heat source temperature range. Besides, operating
conditions, thermoeconomic performances, environmental im-
pacts and safety levels should also be concerned. Therefore, no
single working fluid is best for all ORC applications. Recently, many
studies have shown that the critical temperature limits the appli-
cation range of the working fluid [19,20]. But more comprehensive
study needs to be done in the future.
In order to achieve the optimal performances of the ORC system,
several key parameters including evaporation pressure, superheat
degree and condensation temperature need to be optimized. Mago
et al. analyzed the effects of turbine inlet parameters on the system
performances. The results indicated that the fluid with the highest
boiling point has the best thermal efficiency [21]. Wang et al.
examined the effects of four key thermodynamic parameters,
including turbine inlet pressure, turbine inlet temperature, pinch
temperature difference and approach temperature difference, on
the net power output and surface area of heat exchangers. The
results revealed that the thermodynamic parameters have signifi-
cant effects on net power output and heat transfer area of the ORC
system [22]. Liu et al. investigated the sensitivity of system pa-
rameters, containing working fluid, superheat degree, pinch tem-
perature difference in the heat exchangers, evaporating
temperature, the isentropic efficiencies of the pump and the pump,
to the performance of the ORC system. The results showed that the
evaporating temperature has a great influence on the
2209
thermodynamic and economic performances of the ORC system
[23]. Yang et al. analyzed the effects of the turbine inlet and outlet
pressures on the net power output, thermal efficiency, and total
cost of equipments of the ORC system. The results revealed that the
thermo-economic performance of the ORC system can be improved
by increasing the turbine inlet temperature in superheated state
[24]. Miao et al. conducted the experimental researches by
adjusting the frequency of the working fluid pump and the shaft
torque of the expander. The results showed that the optimal per-
formance of the ORC system can be controlled by these two pa-
rameters [25]. In addition, optimization algorithms are widely used
in many researches to improve the system performance for finding
the optimal operation parameters.
For parametric optimization, optimization algorithms are used
to achieve the optimal system performance. Xi et al. examined the
performances of three different ORC systems using six kinds of
working fluids. The GA (genetic algorithm) is used to optimize the
operating conditions and the thermodynamic parameters [26].
Wang et al. presented a working fluid selection and parametric
optimization by using simulated annealing algorithm [27]. Rashidi
conducted the parametric optimization of regenerative Clausius
and ORC system based on artificial neural network and artificial
bees colony algorithm [28].
Different performance criteria are adopted by scholars for
evaluating ORC system. One type is the thermodynamic indicators.
Shu et al. presented the thermodynamic analysis of a dual loop ORC
system with net power output, thermal efficiency, and exergy ef-
ficiency as the objective functions [29]. Yang et al. studied the
performances of zeotropic mixtures of ORC under engine various
operating conditions. Variations of net power output, thermal ef-
ficiency, exergy efficiency of the ORC system were investigated [30].
Song et al. examined the waste heat recovery of a marine diesel
engine using ORC technology. The maximum power output was
adopted as the evaluation criterion to define the optimal system
parameters [31]. Maraver provided optimization guidelines for a
wide range of operating conditions and different ORC configura-
tions in terms of the exergy efficiency [32].
In addition, another type is the economic indicators. Imran
conducted the thermo-economic optimization of basic ORC and
regenerative ORC for waste heat recovery. Thermal efficiency and
specific investment cost were considered by using NSGA-II (Non-
dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm-II) [33]. Zhang et al. pre-
sented an investigation on the parameter optimization and per-
formance comparison of subcritical ORC and transcritical power
cycle system for low-temperature geothermal power generation.
Thermal efficiency, exergy efficiency, recovery efficiency, heat
exchanger area per unit power output and the levelized energy cost
were selected as the performance indicators [34]. Li et al. examined
the effects of pinch point temperature difference and evaporating
temperature on the performance of ORC system for minimizing the
electricity production cost [35]. Hajabdollahi et al. optimized the
design parameters of the ORC system for diesel engine waste heat
recovery. The NSGA-II was applied to maximize the thermal effi-
ciency and minimize the total annual cost simultaneously [36].
Based on the aforementioned analysis, ORC technology which is
an effective method to recover the low temperature waste heat has
been widely studied, especially in working fluid selection and pa-
rameters optimization. But most of researches about the ORC are
only focused on stationary heat source. Few studies have been
conducted for the IC engines with large temperature span, small
mass flow rate and variable heat source. In this paper, the exhaust
waste heat characteristics of a vehicle diesel engine are analyzed
under various operating conditions. The effects of four key pa-
rameters, including evaporation pressure, superheat degree,
condensation temperature and exhaust temperature at the outlet of
2210 F. Yang et al. / Energy 93 (2015) 2208e2228
the evaporator on the performances of the ORC system are inves-
tigated based on the thermodynamic and economic models. Sub-
sequently, genetic algorithm is employed to solve the Pareto
solution of the thermodynamic performances and economic in-
dicators for maximizing net power output and minimizing total
investment cost under diesel engine various operating conditions
using R600, R600a, R601a, R245fa, R1234yf and R1234ze as work-
ing fluids. The most suitable working fluid used in the ORC system
for diesel engine waste heat recovery is screened out, and then the
corresponding optimal parameter regions are analyzed.
2. Modeling
2.1. System description
The schematic diagram of the ORC system for diesel engine
waste heat recovery is shown in Fig. 1. The ORC system mainly
consists of evaporator, expander, condenser and pump. The work-
ing fluid absorbs waste heat from the diesel engine in the evapo-
rator and turns into high temperature and high pressure vapor.
Then the high temperature and high pressure vapor flows into the
expander to produce power. After that, the low pressure super-
heated vapor enters the condenser and condenses into liquid state.
Finally, the liquid working fluid is pumped back to evaporator and a
new cycle begins.
In this paper, exhaust gas acts as the high temperature heat
source. The heat source is characterized with exhaust mass flow
rate and exhaust temperature. Evaporator is the coupling unit be-
tween the diesel engine and the ORC system, in which the exhaust
gas transfer heat to the ORC system. The exhaust waste heat char-
acteristics of a six-cylinder, in-line, turbocharged, intercooled,
direct injection, heavy truck diesel engine were evaluated. The
main technical performance parameters of the diesel engine are
listed in Table 1. The engine test cell integrated with all the
measuring equipments was designed by Weichai Power Co., Ltd.
When selecting the most appropriate working fluid for ORC
system, many aspects including thermodynamic property,
Diesel engine
Turbine
Compressor
Exhaust gas
Air intake
Texh,in Texh,out
Evaporator
1 5
Pump
Generator
Expander
2 4
Cooling water
Tcool,out Condenser Tcool,in
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the ORC system.
Table 1
The main technical performance parameters of the diesel engine.
Items Parameters Units
Type WP12. 336E40
Rated power 247 kW
Maximum torque 1600 Nm
Displacement 11.596 L
Cylinder number 6
Speed at maximum torque 1400 r/min
Stroke and cylinder bore 155  126 mm
Compression ratio 17.1
Air intake type Turbocharged and Intercooled
Fuel injection system High pressure common rail
environmental impacts, safety levels, and chemical stability need to
be taken into account. Considering the strict restriction of the
Montreal Protocol, CFCs (chlorofluorocarbon) is firstly excluded due
to its high atmospheric lifetime and ODP (ozone depletion poten-
tial). Generally, dry and isentropic working fluids are better than
wet working fluids as they can avoid the presence of droplet after
an expansion process. So this study only investigates the ORC sys-
tem with dry or isentropic working fluids. For a subcritical ORC
system, the critical temperature and pressure of the working fluid
limits the application range. The working fluid with low critical
temperature and pressure could easily become a supercritical ORC
system due to the high exhaust temperature. While the supercrit-
ical ORC system would make the condensation process more
difficult [37]. In order to avoid the negative pressure in the pipe-
lines, the condensation pressure of the working fluid should be
higher than the atmospheric pressure. In addition, non-corrosive,
non-flammable, non-toxic and environmental friendly (low ODP
and GWP (global warming potential)) working fluids are recom-
mended. It should be noted that HFCs is currently being replaced by
HFOs because of its high GWP [38]. Moreover, alkanes are also
environmental friendly with null ODP and a relatively low GWP,
which has been widely used in ORC application. Considering all the
above factors, six different working fluids are selected for ther-
modynamic and economic analysis. The properties of the selected
working fluids are shown in Table 2, and the corresponding Tes
diagram is shown in Fig. 2.
2.2. Thermodynamic modeling
Similar to the steam Rankine cycle, the ORC mainly includes four
thermodynamic processes. The thermodynamic model of the ORC
system is established based on the first and second laws of ther-
modynamics. Taking R245fa as an example, the Tes diagram is
plotted in Fig. 3 for thermodynamic analysis.
To simplify the calculation process, several assumptions are
given as follows:
(1) The whole system is under steady state.
(2) There are no pressure drops in the pipes and the
components.
(3) The heat losses in each component are also neglected.
(4) The isentropic efficiencies of the expander and the pump are
set to 0.7 [39] and 0.65 [33]. For the practical application of
the ORC system, the isentropic efficiencies of the pump and
expander are not as high as the assumptions [25,40]. While
this study is principally focused on analyzing the waste heat
recovery potential of the ORC system, therefore the isen-
tropic efficiencies of the pump and expander are assumed
under the optimal condition. Accordingly, the effects of these
two values on the ORC system performance will be discussed
with the experimental data in the future works.
 F. Yang et al. / Energy 93 (2015) 2208e2228 2211

Table 2
Properties of the selected working fluids.

Working fluids Molar mass Critical temperature (K) Critical pressure (MPa) ODP GWP(yr)

R600 58.122 425.13 3.796 0 ~20

R600a 58.122 407.81 3.629 0 ~20
R601a 72.149 460.35 3.378 0 ~20
R1234yf 114.04 367.85 3.382 0 4
R1234ze 114.04 382.52 3.636 0 6
R245fa 134.05 427.16 3.651 0 950

500
I_exp ¼ T0 m_ wf ðs2  s1 Þ (2)

450
The isentropic efficiency of the expander can be expressed as:
R601a R245fa
h1  h2
R600 hise;exp ¼ (3)
h1  h2s
Temperature (K)

400
R1234ze
Process 2e4 (Condenser):
350 R600a For pure working fluid, there is no temperature glide during the
condensation process. The temperature variation of the cooling
water in the condenser is small. Therefore, the exergy change of the
300 cooling water in the condenser is neglected. The heat transfer rate
R1234yf and exergy destruction rate of the condenser can be determined as:
250
Q_ con ¼ m_ wf ðh2  h4 Þ (4)
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Entropy (kJ/kg.K)
I_con ¼ m_ wf ½ðh2  h4 Þ  T0 ðs2  s4 Þ (5)
Fig. 2. Tes diagram of the six selected working fluids.
Process 4e5 (Pump):
The power consumed and exergy destruction rate of the pump
can be expressed as:

W_ p ¼ m_ ðh5  h Þ (6)
wf 4

I_p ¼ T0 m_ wf ðs5  s4 Þ (7)

The isentropic efficiency of the pump can be expressed as:

h5s  h4
hise;p ¼ (8)
h5  h4
Process 5e1 (Evaporator):
The heat transfer rate and exergy destruction rate of the evap-
orator can be determined as:


Q_ eva ¼ m_ wf ðh1  h5 Þ ¼ m_ exh hexh;in  hexh;out
Fig. 3. Tes diagram of the ORC system.
(9)




(5) The ambient temperature is set to 291.15 K. I_eva ¼ m_ exh hexh;in  hexh;out  T0 sexh;in  sexh;out
(6) When the diesel engine is running, the exhaust temperature  m_ wf ½ðh1  h5 Þ  T0 ðs1  s5 Þ (10)
is relatively high. The PPTD (pinch point temperature dif-
ference) may occur at either the starting point of preheating The net power output and thermal efficiency of the ORC system
(state point 5 shown in Fig. 3) or the starting point of are respectively calculated using the following equations:
vaporization (state point 6 shown in Fig. 3) [37,41]. In this
W_ net ¼ W_ exp  W_p (11)
paper, the PPTD in the evaporator is set to be greater than
20 K. The flow chart of the determination of PPTD is shown in
Fig. 4. In addition, the PPTD in the condenser occur at state W_ net
hth ¼ (12)
point 3 shown in Fig. 3, whose value is set to 5 K. Q_
eva

Process 1e2 (Expander):

2.3. Heat exchanger modeling
The power output and exergy destruction rate of the expander
can be expressed as:
Heat exchangers contribute a large proportion of the system
total cost [42], whereas the cost of the heat exchangers mainly
W_ exp ¼ m_ ðh  h Þ (1) depends on the heat transfer area. The effective heat transfer area
wf 1 2
of the heat exchanger varies with the heat source temperature and
2212 F. Yang et al. / Energy 93 (2015) 2208e2228

Start

Parameters optimization

Calculate the temperature difference between Calculate the temperature difference between
exhaust gas and state point 5 ( TDexh,5) exhaust gas and state point 6 ( TDexh,6)

Compare TDexh,5 with TDexh,6 and determine the

pinch point temperature difference ( TPPTD)

No
Is TPPTD greater than 20K?

Yes

Output optimal solution

End

Fig. 4. Flow chart of the determination of PPTD.

mass flow rate. Furthermore, the operating parameters of the ORC

system also influence the effective heat transfer area of the heat 1 b db ro 1
¼ þ ri b þ þ þ (15)
exchanger. Therefore, it will be necessary to set up the thermody- Keva ai l h ao h
namic model of the heat exchanger for the parameters optimization
of the ORC system under engine various operating conditions.
lNu
LMTD (Logarithmic mean temperature difference) method is used a¼ (16)
d
in this study. The heat transfer rate between the working fluid and
the exhaust gas in each section can be expressed as: For the exhaust gas outside of the tube, Zhukauskas correlation
is used to calculate the Nusselt number [44].
Q_ ¼ KADTLMTD (13) When 1000 < Re < 2  105,

The LMTD can be determined as: !0:25

Prexh
00 Nuexh ¼ 0:35ε 0:2
Re0:6 0:36
exh Prexh (17)
Dt 0  Dt Prexh;wall
DTLMTD ¼ Dt 0
(14)
ln Dt 00
When Re < 1000,
00
where Dt 0and Dt are the maximum and minimum temperature !0:25
differences at the ends of the heat exchangers, respectively. Prexh
Nuexh ¼ 0:71Re0:5 0:36
exh Prexh (18)
Prexh;wall
2.3.1. Evaporator modeling
The evaporator used in ORC system for IC engines should meet For the single phase working fluid in the tube side, Gnielinski
the requirements of thermal stability, low resistance, compact size correlation is used to calculate the Nusselt number [45].
and high heat transfer efficiency. Relevant researches have shown  
that fin-and-tube evaporator performs better [39,41,43]. In this "
2=3 #
ðf =8Þ Rewf  1000 Prwf d
study, a fin-and-tube evaporator is selected for thermodynamic Nuwf ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi  1 þ ct (19)
2=3
1 þ 12:7 f =8 Prwf  1 l
analysis. The schematic and the geometric dimensions of the fin-
and-tube evaporator are shown in Fig. 5 and Table 3, respectively.
Based on the geometric dimensions of the evaporator and the  2
physical properties of the exhaust gas and the working fluid under f ¼ 1:82lgRewf  1:64 (20)
engine various operating conditions, the thermodynamic model of
the evaporator is established. As shown in Fig. 3, the evaporator is For liquid state,
divided into preheated zone (state point 5 e state point 6), evap-
oration zone (state point 6 e state point 7) and superheated zone
0:01
Prwf Prwf
(state point 7 e state point 1) based on the working fluid state in ct ¼ ; ¼ 0:05  20 (21)
Prwall Prwall
the evaporator. The overall heat transfer coefficients for each zone
can be calculated using the following equations: For vapor state,
 F. Yang et al. / Energy 93 (2015) 2208e2228 2213

Working fluid outlet

Exhaust inlet
Exhaust outlet

Working fluid inlet

Exhaust outlet

Exhaust inlet

Fig. 5. Schematic of the fin-and-tube evaporator.

Similar to the evaporator, the condenser is divided into super-

0:45
Twf T heated zone (state point 2 e state point 3) and condensation zone
ct ¼ ; wf ¼ 0:5  1:5 (22)
Twall Twall (state point 3 e state point 4). The overall heat transfer coefficients
for each zone can be determined using the following equations:
Liu and Winterton correlation is applied for the convective heat
transfer coefficient in the evaporation zone [46].
1 1 d 1
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ¼ þ ri þ þ ro þ (28)
 2 Kcon ai l ao
htp ¼ Fhfb þ ðShnb Þ2 (23)
For the single phase working fluid in the superheated zone, the
The forced convective heat transfer enhancement factor is Chisholm and Wanniarachchi correlation is adopted to calculate the
calculated by: Nusselt number [47].


0:35
0:646
r 6b
F ¼ 1 þ xPrl l  1 (24) Nusp ¼ 0:724 Re0:583 Pr1=3 (29)
rv p
The suppression factor is given by:
 1
S ¼ 1 þ 0:055F 0:1 Re0:16
L (25) Table 3
Geometric dimensions of the fin-and-tube evaporator.
The convective heat transfer coefficient for the film boiling is Items Parameters Units
calculated according to Dittus-Boelter equation.
Number of tubes in each row 9 e
Number of tube rows 20 e
hfb ¼ 0:023ðll =dÞRe0:8 0:4
L Prl (26) Tube outer diameter 25 mm
Tube inner diameter 20 mm
The convective heat transfer coefficient for the nucleate boiling Tube pitch 60 mm
is calculated based on Cooper's pool boiling correlation. Row pitch 100 mm
Fin height 12 mm

q2=3 ð  lgpr Þ0:55 M 0:5

Fin width 1 mm
hnb ¼ 55p0:12
r (27) Rib effect coefficient 3 e
Tube row alignment Staggered type e
Tube material Stainless steel316L e
2.3.2. Condenser modeling Fin material Stainless steel316L e
The plate heat exchanger is used as the condenser. The geo- Inner heat transfer area 9 m2
Tube length 8.8 m
metric dimensions of the plate condenser are listed in Table 4.
2214 F. Yang et al. / Energy 93 (2015) 2208e2228

Table 4
Geometric dimensions of the plate condenser. CEPCI2013
CEXP ¼ F C0 F (37)
Items Parameters Units CEPCI2001 S EXP MP
Chevron angle 60 degree 0
where CEXP is the basic cost of the expander, FMP is the additional
Plate spacing 2.24 mm
Width of plate 0.119 m factor of the expander.
Plate thickness 0.3 mm The basic cost of the expander is given by:
 2
0
lgCEXP ¼ K1;EXP þ K2;EXP lgW_ EXP þ K _
3;EXP lgW EXP (38)
For the two phase working fluid, Nusselt number is calculated
according to Ref. [48]. where K1;EXP , K2;EXP and K3;EXP are the constants for the expander
type, WEXP is the power output of the expander.
Nutp ¼ 4:118Re0:4
eq Pr
1=3
(30) The system total investment cost is the sum of the cost of each
component.

2.4. Economic modeling Ctot ¼ CHX þ CPP þ CEXP (39)

The CRF (capital recovery factor) can be calculated by Ref. [50]:
TIC (Total investment cost) and EPC (electricity production cost)
of the ORC system are selected for evaluating the economic per-
ið1 þ iÞLTpl
formance. The TIC of the ORC system depends mainly on the cost of CRF ¼ (40)
the four components. Therein, the cost of the heat exchanger is ð1 þ iÞLTpl  1
given by Ref. [49]:
where i is the interest rate, and LTpl is the plant lifetime.
CEPCI2013
 The EPC can be expressed as [13]:
CHX ¼ F C0 B þ B2;HX FM;HX FP;HX (31)
CEPCI2001 S HX 1;HX
CRF þ fK
EPC ¼ Ctot
 (41)
where CEPCI2001 and CEPCI2013 are the Chemical Engineering Plant Wexp  Wp hfullload
0 is the basic cost of the heat
Cost Index for years 2001 and 2013, CHX
exchanger, FS is an additional factor for overhead cost, B1;HX and where fK is the maintenance and insurance cost factor, and hfullload
B2;HX are the constants for the heat exchanger type, FM;HX is the is the full load operation hours.
material factor of the heat exchanger, and FP;HX is the pressure The values of these constants for the economic model are listed
factor of the heat exchanger. in Table 5. The economic model adopted in this paper is mainly
The basic cost of the heat exchanger can be calculated by: applied to large-power level ORC system. With the commerciali-
zation of the small-power level ORC system, the system cost will
0
lgCHX ¼ K1;HX þ K2;HX lgAHX þ K3;HX ðlgAHX Þ2 (32) significantly decrease. It will be part of authors' future work to
correct the economic model.
where K1;HX , K2;HX and K3;HX are the constants for heat exchanger
type, and AHX is the heat transfer area.
2.5. Coupling between ORC and diesel engine
The pressure factor of the heat exchanger can be determined by:
This paper focuses mainly on the diesel engine waste heat re-
lgFP;HX ¼ C1;HX þ C2;HX lgPHX þ C3;HX ðlgPHX Þ2 (33)
covery by using the ORC system. For a variable heat source, it is
difficult to achieve the coupling between the ORC system and the
where C1;HX , C2;HX and C3;HX are the constants for heat exchanger
engine waste heat. The related researches can be seen in
type, and PHX is the design pressure of the heat exchanger.
Refs. [20,25,51]. In this research, because m_ exh , Texh;in and Pexh are
The cost of the pump is given by:
obtained by engine experiment, the total heat transfer rate of the
CEPCI2013
 evaporator can be determined as:
0
CPP ¼ FS CPP B1;PP þ B2;PP FM;PP FP;PP (34)
CEPCI2001

Q_ eva ¼ m_ exh hexh;in  hexh;out (42)
where CPP0 is the basic cost of the pump, B
1;PP and B2;PP are the
constants for pump type, FM;PP is the material factor of the pump, where, hexh;in and hexh;out are the specific enthalpies of the exhaust
and FP;PP is the pressure factor of the pump. gas at the inlet and the outlet of the evaporator, respectively. The
The basic cost of the pump is given by:
 2 Table 5
0
lgCPP ¼ K1;PP þ K2;PP lgW_ PP þ K _ Constants for economic modeling.
3;PP lgW PP (35)
Constant Value Constant Value Constant Value
where K1;PP , K2;PP and K3;PP are constants for the pump type, and FS 1.70 FM,PP 2.20 K1,EXP 2.2659
WPP is the consumption power of the pump. B1,HX 0.96 B1,PP 1.89 K2,EXP 1.4398
The pressure factor of the pump is given by: B2,HX 1.21 B2,PP 1.35 K3,EXP 0.1776
FM,HX 2.40 K1,PP 3.389 CEPCI2013 527.7
K1,HX 4.66 K2,PP 0.536 CEPCI2001 397
lgFP;PP ¼ C1;PP þ C2;PP lgPPP þ C3;PP ðlgPPP Þ2 (36) K2,HX 0.1557 K3,PP 0.1538 i 0.1
K3,HX 0.1547 C1,PP 0.3935 LTpl 15
where C1;PP , C2;PP and C3;PP are the constants for the pump type, PPP C1,HX 0 C2,PP 0.3957 fK 0.0165
is the design pressure of the pump. C2,HX 0 C3,PP 0.00226 hfull-load 7500
C3,HX 0 FMP 3.5
The cost of the expander is given by:
 F. Yang et al. / Energy 93 (2015) 2208e2228
values of hexh;in and hexh;out can be determined by h ¼ hðT; PÞ.
Therefore, the heat transfer process of the linear curve AC for the
exhaust gas shown in Fig. 6 can be expressed as:


Q_ ¼ m_ exh hexh  hexh;out
The optimal performances of the ORC system are obtained by
the coordinated variation of the operating parameters. The P7 , T1 ,
T4 and Texh;out are given the initial values at first. Because P1 is equal
to P7 , so h1 and h4 can also be obtained by h ¼ hðT; PÞ. In addition,
h5s is given by h ¼ hðP; sÞ, and h5 is described as:
h5s  h4
h5 ¼ h4 þ
hise;p
The mass flow rate of the working fluid can be determined using
the following equation:
Q_ eva ¼ m_ wf ðh1  h5 Þ
Based on the thermodynamic and economic models, the fitness
function is calculated. Thus the iterative process is conducted to
repeat the above procedure, until the fitness function meets the
convergence criterion. Therein, the convergence criterion can be
expressed as:
jFunction tolerancej < 106
The entropies of state points 1 and 6 shown in Fig. 3 are obtained
by s ¼ sðT; PÞ, and the entropy of state point 5 shown in Fig. 3 is
obtained by s ¼ sðP; hÞ. Therefore, the equation for exhaust gas
shown in Fig. 3 (Line AC in Fig. 6) can be expressed as:
Texh:in  Texh:out
T¼ ðs  sexh:out Þ þ Texh:out
sexh:in  sexh:out
According to Eq. (47), the temperature of state point 8 shown in
Fig. 3 can be calculated. A comparison of DTDexh;5 (temperature
difference between the state point 5 and exhaust gas at the outlet of
the evaporator) and DTDexh;6 (temperature difference between the
state point 6 and exhaust gas at state point 8) is conducted to
identify the DTPPTD . If the DTPPTD meets the requirement of PPTD, all
of the operating parameters are decided. The next step is to eval-
uate the thermodynamic and economic performances of the ORC
system. Otherwise, the above procedure will be repeated.
Fig. 6. The TeQ curve coupling the exhaust gas and organic fluid.
2215
3. Engine waste heat evaluation
When the diesel engine is running, the exhaust energy varies
with the operating conditions. As the high temperature heat source
of the ORC system, the variation of the exhaust energy has an effect
(43) on the operating parameters of the ORC system. Therefore, it is
essential to analyze the characteristics of the exhaust waste heat
under engine various operating conditions. Fig. 7(a) shows the
variation of the power output and BSFC (brake specific fuel con-
sumption) of the diesel engine under various operating conditions.
It can be observed that the power output of the diesel engine in-
creases with the engine speed and engine torque. At engine rated
condition, the power output of the diesel engine reaches a
maximum value of 247 kW. Furthermore, the diesel engine has
(44)
better fuel economy at mediumehigh speed and load regions. The
exhaust energy of the diesel engine is mainly influenced by exhaust
mass flow rate and exhaust temperature. Fig. 7(b) shows the vari-
ation of exhaust temperature under engine various operating
conditions. It can be observed that the exhaust temperature is in
the range of 606 Ke653 K at mediumehigh load regions. The
(45)
variation of exhaust mass flow rate with engine operating condi-
tions is shown in Fig. 7(c). It can be seen that the exhaust mass flow
rate increases with the engine speed and load. At rated condition,
the exhaust mass flow rate reaches a maximum value of 0.36 kg/s.
The exhaust temperature at the outlet of the evaporator is set to
393.15 K to avoid the acid corrosion. Thus the available exhaust
energy is shown in Fig. 7(d). According to the results presented in
Fig. 7(d), the variation of the operating conditions of the diesel
(46) engine has a great influence on the available exhaust energy. In
addition, the available exhaust energy increases with the engine
speed and load. Over the whole operating range of the diesel en-
gine, the available exhaust energy is in the range of 3 kWe103 kW.
Especially in the mediumehigh speed and load regions, the avail-
able exhaust energy is relative high.
(47)
4. Multi-objective optimization
4.1. Multi-objective optimization solution
Analyses of the ORC system is involved in multi-objective
optimization of both thermodynamic and economic perfor-
mances. The objective functions are constrained by decision vari-
ables with each other, which mean one objective function performs
better at the expense of others'. There exist the Pareto solutions for
the multi-objective optimization, which is the mainly different
from single-objective optimization. For the practical application of
the ORC system, it is essential to select one or several solutions as
the optimal choice from the Pareto solutions.
The genetic algorithm has been widely used in multi-objective
optimization [22,26,33,36]. GA is a random search algorithm
based on natural selection and biology evolutionary theory. The GA
uses three main types of operators at each step to create the next
generation from the current population. Selection operator selects
the individuals that contribute to the population at the next gen-
eration. Crossover operator combines two parents to form children
for the next generation. Mutation operator applies random changes
to individual parents to form children [52].
In this study, GA is used to conduct the multi-objective opti-
mization for the ORC system. The net power output and total in-
vestment cost are selected as the objective functions with
evaporation pressure, superheat degree, condensation temperature
and exhaust temperature at the outlet of evaporator as decision
variables. The multi-objective optimization model can be described
as:
2216 F. Yang et al. / Energy 93 (2015) 2208e2228
Fig. 7. Performance map of the diesel engine.
 

max W_ net ¼ f P7 ; T ; T ; T
1 4 exh;out


min ðCtot Þ ¼ f P7 ; T1 ; T4 ; Texh;out
The logical bounds of the decision variables depend on the
practical operating conditions of the ORC system. The logical
bounds of the decision variables are listed in Table 6. The flow chart
of the optimization procedure is shown in Fig. 8.
4.2. Evaluation of the genetic algorithm
When GA is used for multi-objective optimization of the ORC
system, it is essential to verify the optimization model. The pa-
rameters of the GA mainly include population size, tournament size
and crossover fraction. Take engine rated condition for example,
R245fa is selected as the working fluid for verifying the
Table 6
Lower and upper bounds of decision variables.
Decision variables
Evaporation pressure (MPa)
Superheat degree (K)
Condensation temperature (K)
Exhaust temperature at the outlet of evaporator (K)
optimization model. The Pareto frontier for the optimization model
(48) should be well-distributed. Fig. 9 shows the variation of Pareto
frontier with the population size. It can be seen that the Pareto
frontier presents good consistency under different population size.
(49)
When the population size is 150 or 200, the Pareto frontier with
well-distributed converge in a small area. Furthermore, there is no
significant difference for the Pareto frontier when the population
size increases from 150 to 200, but the optimization model has
slower convergence rate with increasing population size. The
variation of the Pareto frontier with the tournament size is shown
in Fig. 10. It can be observed that the Pareto frontier obtains ideal
distribution when the tournament size is 2, 4 or 8. In addition,
when the tournament size is 4, the distribution of the Pareto
frontier is better than that of others. Fig. 11 shows the variation of
Pareto frontier with crossover fraction. It can be concluded that
when the crossover fraction is 0.6 or 0.8, the Pareto frontier has
ideal distribution. When the crossover fraction increases from 0.6
to 0.8, there is no significant improvement for the Pareto frontier.
Lower bound Upper bound
1 3
0 20
298.15 308.15
393.15 418.15
 F. Yang et al. / Energy 93 (2015) 2208e2228
Start
Input operating conditions and logical bounds
Initial population
First generation
Calculate fitness function
Yes
If meet stopping criteria?
No
Selection Operator
Crossover Operator
Mutation Operator
New population
Output optimum solution
End
Fig. 8. Flow chart of the optimization procedure.
Based on the above verification results of the optimization model,
the parameters setting are listed in Table 7. The method of ideal
point is introduced to select an optimal solution from the Pareto
solutions [53].
5. Results
The operating parameters of the ORC system have a great in-
fluence on the system performance. Therefore, it is necessary to
investigate the variation of the system performance with the
operating parameters. In addition, the exhaust temperature at the
outlet of the evaporator is usually set up to be constant value
[1,2,53e56]. However, the exhaust temperature, which is mainly
influenced by the engine operating conditions, varies for the
practical application. Take engine rated condition for example,
R245fa is selected as the working fluid to explore the potential for
recovering the exhaust gas waste heat from a diesel engine. The
effects of evaporation pressure, superheat degree, condensation
temperature and exhaust temperature at the outlet of the evapo-
rator on the system performance are analyzed.
5.1. Effect of evaporation pressure
Fig. 12 shows the effect of the evaporation pressure on the net
power output, EPC, thermal efficiency and heat transfer area at
Tsup ¼ 10 K, Tcon ¼ 303.15 K and Texh;out ¼ 408.15. The variation of
the net power output with the evaporation pressure is shown in
2217
Fig. 12(a). It can be observed that the net power output increases
with the evaporation pressure. This is due to the enthalpy of state
point 2 shown in Fig. 3 is set as a constant value, the enthalpy of
state point 1 increases with the evaporation pressure, which results
in an increase in enthalpy difference between the inlet and the
outlet of the expander. When the evaporation pressure increases
from 1 MPa to 3 MPa, the net power output of the ORC system
increases from 9.13 kW to 12.82 kW. Fig. 12(b) shows the variation
of the EPC with the evaporation pressure. It can be seen that the
EPC decreases with increasing evaporation pressure. According to
Eq. (41), the EPC is mainly affected by the TIC and the net power
output. Therein, the TIC is primarily determined by the heat
transfer area. As can be seen from Fig. 12(d), the heat transfer area
also increases with the evaporation pressure. The increment of the
net power output is larger than that of the heat transfer area, which
results in decreasing the EPC with the evaporation pressure. When
the evaporation pressure increases from 1 MPa to 3 MPa, the EPC
decreases from 1.13$/kW h to 0.86$/kW h. Fig. 12(c) illustrates the
variation of the thermal efficiency with the evaporation pressure.
From Eqs. (9), (11) and (12), when the heat transfer rate is certain,
the thermal efficiency of the ORC system increases with the evap-
oration pressure. When the evaporation pressure increases from
1 MPa to 3 MPa, the thermal efficiency of the ORC system increases
from 0.09 to 0.13. Furthermore, it can be seen from Fig. 12(d) that
the heat transfer area increases from 25.47 m2 to 28.19 m2 with
evaporation pressure increases from 1 MPa to 3 MPa.
5.2. Effect of superheat degree
Fig. 13 shows the effect of the superheat degree on the system
performances at Peva ¼ 2 MPa, Tcon ¼ 303.15 K and Texh;out ¼ 408.15.
The variation of the net power output with the superheat degree is
presented in Fig. 13(a). As can be seen, the net power output of the
ORC system slightly increases with the increment of the superheat
degree. When the superheat degree increases from 0 K to 20 K, the
enthalpies of state point 1 in Fig. 3 are 485.15 kJ/kg, 493.16 kJ/kg,
500.69 kJ/kg, 507.88 kJ/kg and 514.84 kJ/kg, respectively. Due to the
condensation temperature is kept constant at 303.15 K, so the in-
crements of the enthalpy difference between state point 1 and state
point 2 in Fig. 3 are 5.01 kJ/kg, 7.53 kJ/kg, 7.19 kJ/kg and 6.97 kJ/kg,
respectively. Because of the working fluid mass flow rate is small,
which leads to slightly increase in net power output with the su-
perheat degree. When the superheat degree increases from 0 K to
20 K, the net power output of the ORC system shows an increase of
11.63 kWe11.74 kW. Fig. 13(b) illustrates the effect of the superheat
degree on the EPC. It can be observed that the superheat degree
causes a small decrease in EPC. This is due to the small variation in
the net power output and heat transfer area with the increase in
superheat degree. When the superheat degree increases from 0 K to
20 K, the EPC decreases from 0.93$/kW h to 0.91$/kW h. The effect
of the superheat degree on the thermal efficiency is shown in
Fig. 13(c). As can be seen, the thermal efficiency is almost kept a
constant at 0.12. Fig. 13(d) shows the variation of the heat transfer
area with the superheat degree. It can be concluded that the heat
transfer area shows a decrease of 27.42 m2e27.18 m2.
5.3. Effect of condensation temperature
Fig. 14 illustrates the variation of system performances with the
condensation temperature at Peva ¼ 2 MPa, Tsup ¼ 10 K and
Texh;out ¼ 408.15. The variation of the net power output with the
condensation temperature is shown in Fig. 14(a). It can be observed
that the net power output decreases obviously with increasing
condensation temperature. This is due to the fact that the enthalpy
of state point 1 in Fig. 3 is kept a constant value, whereas the
2218 F. Yang et al. / Energy 93 (2015) 2208e2228

Fig. 9. Pareto frontier under different population size.

Fig. 10. Pareto frontier under different tournament size.

 F. Yang et al. / Energy 93 (2015) 2208e2228
Fig. 11. Pareto frontier under different crossover fraction.
enthalpy of state point 2 in Fig. 3 increases, which results in
increasing the enthalpy difference between the inlet and the outlet
of the expander. When the condensation temperature increases
from 298.15 K to 308.15 K, the net power output of the ORC system
decreases from 12.33 kW to 11.09 kW. Fig. 14(b) shows the effect of
the condensation temperature on the EPC. As can be seen, the EPC
increases obviously with the condensation temperature. This is
because an increase in condensation temperature causes the net
power output to decrease while the heat transfer area to increase.
When the condensation temperature increases from 298.15 K to
308.15 K, the EPC decreases from 0.87$/kW h to 0.97$/kW h.
Fig. 14(c) illustrates the effects of the condensation temperature on
the thermal efficiency. Similar to the evaporation pressure and
superheat degree, the thermal efficiency depends mainly on the net
power output when the heat transfer rate is certain. It can be seen
that the thermal efficiency of the ORC system shows a decrease of
0.125 to 0.113 with the condensation temperature. The effect of the
condensation temperature on the heat transfer area is evaluated in
Fig. 14(d). It can be observed that the heat transfer area increases
from 27 m2 to 27.46 m2 with the condensation temperature.
Table 7
Parameters setting of genetic algorithm.
Parameters Value
Population size 150
Selection function Tournament
Tournament size 4
Crossover fraction 0.6
Mutation function Adaptive feasible
Crossover function Scattered
Stop generations 800
2219
5.4. Effect of exhaust temperature at the outlet of the evaporator
Fig. 15 shows the variation of the system performances with the
exhaust temperature at the outlet of the evaporator at Peva ¼ 2 MPa,
Tsup ¼ 10 K and Tcon ¼ 303.15. The effect of the exhaust temperature
at the outlet of the evaporator on the net power output is presented
in Fig. 15(a). It is shown that the net power output decreases
obviously with increasing exhaust temperature at the outlet of the
evaporator. This is due to all state points in Fig. 3 are certain, the net
power output is mainly influenced by the mass flow rate of the
working fluid. The heat transfer rate of the evaporator decreases
with the increases of the exhaust temperature at the outlet of the
evaporator, which will result in a decrease in the mass flow rate of
the working fluid. When the exhaust temperature at the outlet of
the evaporator increases from 393.15 K to 418.15 K, the net power
output of the ORC system decreases from 12.40 kW to 11.24 kW.
Fig. 15(b) shows the effect of the exhaust temperature at the outlet
of the evaporator on the EPC. As can be seen, the EPC increases with
the exhaust temperature at the outlet of the evaporator. This can be
explained by the fact that the decrement of the net power output is
larger than that of the heat transfer area presented in Fig. 15(d).
When the exhaust temperature at the outlet of the evaporator in-
creases from 393.15 K to 418.15 K, the EPC shows an increase of
0.89$/kW h to 0.94$/kW h. The effect of the exhaust temperature at
the outlet of the evaporator on the thermal efficiency is shown in
Fig. 15(c). It can be observed that the exhaust temperature at the
outlet of the evaporator has no influence on the thermal efficiency.
This is because the thermal efficiency of the ORC system depends
on the enthalpies of each state point shown in Fig. 3. When all state
points in Fig. 3 are certain, the thermal efficiency has no change.
Under this condition, the thermal efficiency of the ORC system is
2220 F. Yang et al. / Energy 93 (2015) 2208e2228
Fig. 12. The effects of evaporation pressure on the system performances.
0.12. Fig. 15(d) shows the variation of the heat transfer area with the
exhaust temperature at the outlet of the evaporator. It can be
concluded that the heat transfer area decreases with increasing
exhaust temperature at the outlet of the evaporator, which is
mainly caused by decreasing the heat transfer rate. The heat
transfer area shows a decrease of 29.86 m2e25.67 m2 with the
exhaust temperature at the outlet of the evaporator.
It can be seen from the aforementioned analysis that the vari-
ation of the operating parameters has a great influence on the
system performance. For the practical application of the ORC sys-
tem, the optimal operating parameters vary with the engine's
operating conditions. Therefore, it will be necessary to investigate
the optimal operating parameters under engine various operating
conditions.
5.5. Pareto optimization of the ORC system
Based on the optimization model established in section 4, the
evaporation pressure, superheat degree, condensation temperature
and exhaust temperature at the outlet of the evaporator are
selected as the decision variables for maximizing net power output
and minimizing total investment cost. GA is used to conduct the
multi-objective optimization for six different working fluids in the
ORC system.
Fig. 16 shows the optimization results of the net power output
for six different working fluids under various operating conditions
of the diesel engine. It can be seen that the optimization results of
the net power output for these six different working fluids have the
same variation tendency, and all present higher net power output
in high speed and high load region. This is due to the exhaust en-
ergy is high when the diesel engine operates in the high speed and
high load region, which results in a higher mass flow rate of the
working fluid. It can also be observed that the overall variation
tendency of the net power output depends on the exhaust energy
of the diesel engine other than the types of the working fluids.
Although the optimization results of the net power output for these
six different working fluids has the same variation tendency, the
corresponding values for each working fluid are different. Fig. 16(a)
shows the optimization results of the net power output using R600
under various operating conditions of the diesel engine. As can be
seen, at the engine's rated condition, the optimized net power
output of the ORC system is 11.19 kW. While at idle condition, the
optimized net power output of the ORC system is only 0.32 kW.
Similarly, Fig. 16(b)e(f) illustrates the optimized net power output
of the ORC system using R600a, R601a, R245fa, R1234yf and
R1234ze respectively. At the engine's rated condition, the opti-
mized net power outputs of the ORC system for these five different
working fluids are 8.78 kW, 13.19 kW, 11.55 kW, 5.17 kW and
7.05 kW, respectively. It can be concluded that when using R601a,
R245fa and R600 as the working fluids, the ORC system shows
better thermal performance. In addition, whichever working fluid
the ORC system selects, they all have the lowest net power output
at idle condition of the diesel engine. At idle condition, the opti-
mized net power outputs of the ORC system for these five different
working fluids are 0.27 kW, 0.45 kW, 0.36 kW, 0.16 kW and 0.21 kW,
respectively.
Fig. 17 shows the optimization results of the TIC for these six
different working fluids under various operating conditions of the
 F. Yang et al. / Energy 93 (2015) 2208e2228
Fig. 13. The effects of superheat degree on the system performances.
diesel engine. Similar to the net power output, the TIC is mainly
influenced by the operating conditions of the diesel engine. The net
power output of the ORC system increases with the exhaust energy,
which results in an increase in cost of power consumption equip-
ment and heat transfer area. Thus, the TIC increases with the cost of
power consumption equipment and heat transfer area. That is to
say, thermodynamic performance of the ORC system is improved at
the expense of economic performance. Fig. 17(a)e(f) illustrates the
optimization results of the TIC using R600, R600a, R601a, R245fa,
R1234yf and R1234ze, respectively. At the engine's rated condition,
the corresponding TIC are 527,000$, 501,930$, 536,990$, 532,710$,
501,930$ and 511,460$. According to the results presented in
Figs. 16 and 17, the ORC system using R601a, R245fa and R600 has
higher net power output with higher TIC. At idle condition, the
optimization results of the TIC for these six different working fluids
are 372,900$, 370,750$, 382,900$, 384,930$, 368,890$ and
369,230$. It can be concluded that even if at idle condition, the ORC
system also has higher TIC with lower exhaust energy. This is due to
the ORC system is not yet common at this stage. For the near future,
the TIC will decrease with the development of the ORC technology.
It can be seen from the aforementioned analysis that the
working fluid with higher net power output also has higher TIC.
Therefore, it is essential to investigate other evaluation indicators
for the optimal working fluid. EPC is usually used to evaluate the
thermoeconomic performance of the ORC system. Fig. 18 shows the
normalized results of the EPC for these six different working fluids
under full-load characteristic. As can be seen, the ORC system using
R601a, R245fa and R600 has smaller polygon area under the eleven
operating points of the full-load characteristic. That is to say, the
2221
ORC system using R601a, R245fa and R600 has lower EPC under the
same operating condition of the diesel engine. When using R1234yf
as working fluid, the ORC system has the largest polygon area with
the worst thermoeconomic performance. It also can be seen that
the EPC decreases with increasing engine speed.
Fig. 19 shows the normalized results of the thermal efficiency for
these six different working fluids under full-load characteristic. As
can be seen, the polygons of the normalized results of the thermal
efficiency for these six different working fluids are nearly circular,
which shows that the thermal efficiency remains approximately
constant under full-load characteristic of the diesel engine.
Furthermore, the polygon areas of the normalized results of the
thermal efficiency using R601a and R245fa are obviously larger
than that of others.
According to the optimization results, the effect of critical
temperature of these six different working fluids on the system
performances when the diesel engine operates at rated condition is
shown in Fig. 20. The working fluids with critical temperature in
descending order are: R601a, R245fa, R600, R600a, R1234ze and
R1234yf. Fig. 20(a) presents the variation of net power output with
the critical temperature. It can be seen that the net power output
increases with increasing working fluids' critical temperature.
R601a with the highest critical temperature has the maximum net
power output, while R1234yf with the lowest critical temperature
has the minimum net power output. The figure also shows that the
net power output increases from 5.17 kW to 13.19 kW as the critical
temperature increases from 367.85 K to 460.35 K. The same
behavior is also obtained for the thermal efficiency presented in
Fig. 20(c). It clearly indicates that the higher the critical
2222 F. Yang et al. / Energy 93 (2015) 2208e2228
Fig. 14. The effects of condensation temperature on the system performances.
temperature of the working fluid the better the system net power
output and thermal efficiency. Consistent with other researchers'
findings [19,20,57,58], the critical temperature of the working fluid
is a vital decision criteria for the ORC system performances.
Fig. 20(b) shows the variation of EPC with the critical temperature.
It can be concluded that the EPC decreases with increasing working
fluids' critical temperature. When the critical temperature in-
creases from 367.85 K to 460.35 K, the EPC decreases from 1.91$/
kW h to 0.8$/kW h. It means that the working fluids with the higher
critical temperature also have better economic performances.
Contrary to net power output and thermal efficiency, the critical
temperature of the working fluid is not the only criteria for TIC as
shown in Fig. 20(d).
Based on the aforementioned analysis, when using R601a and
R245fa as the working fluids, the ORC system presents better
thermodynamic and economic performances. For practical appli-
cation of the ORC system, not only the thermoeconomic perfor-
mances, but also the environmental impacts, safety levels, toxicity
and flammability should be considered. Comparing R601a with
R245fa, both working fluids have null ODP and low GWP. R245fa is a
non-corrosive, non-flammable, low-toxic and stable working fluid
under the atmospheric pressure, which can be applied over a wide
heat source temperature range. Although R601a is an environ-
mental friendly working fluids and presents better thermodynamic
performances, important point to be noted that it is an extremely
volatile and extremely flammable liquid at room temperature and
pressure [55,59,60]. Furthermore, R601a may also cause respiratory
disease and mild dermatitis due to its irritant effect. Thus, R245fa is
selected as the most suitable working fluid for engine waste heat
recovery application with overall consideration of thermoeconomic
performances, environmental impacts, safety levels and fitness
factors. While many researches of working fluid selections have
been done for ORC applications, the general conclusions cannot be
reached at this stage [19]. The new contribution of this study is to
obtain the optimal operating regions of the ORC system with
consideration of working fluid selections and thermoeconomic
performances under engine various operating conditions by using
optimization algorithm. More detailed mechanism analysis of
organic working fluids will be accomplished in the future.
Fig. 21 shows the optimization results of evaporation pressure,
superheat degree, condensation temperature and exhaust tem-
perature at the outlet of the evaporator using R245fa under engine
various operating conditions. Combined with the optimal operating
parameters, it can provide a guidance for the control strategy of the
ORC system. The optimization result of the evaporation pressure
under engine various operating conditions is shown in Fig. 21(a). As
can be seen, the optimized evaporation pressure varies in a small
range. The variation range of the optimized evaporation pressure is
from 1.1 MPa to 2.1 MPa. The evaporation pressure is set from 1 MPa
to 3 MPa in the optimization model of section 4. It can thus be seen
that the optimized evaporation pressure do not reach the upper
limit of the evaporation pressure. Considering the rated pressure of
the pump and the pressure capacity of the pipe, the optimized
evaporation pressure can meet the requirements of practical en-
gineering application. Fig. 21(b) shows the optimization results of
the superheat degree under engine various operating conditions. In
general, it can be concluded that the optimized superheat degree is
mainly influenced by the operating conditions of the diesel engine.
Over the whole operating range of the diesel engine, the optimized
superheat degree is from 0.5 K to 20 K. The optimized condensation
 F. Yang et al. / Energy 93 (2015) 2208e2228 2223

Fig. 15. The effects of exhaust temperature at the outlet of the evaporator on the system performances.

temperature under engine various operating conditions is illus- up to 300 K. It also indicated that the variation of the operating
trated in Fig. 21(c). It can be observed that the optimized conden- conditions of the diesel engine has a slight influence on the opti-
sation temperature is almost kept a constant at 298.15 K for most of mized condensation temperature in pursuit of the optimal ther-
the operating conditions, and only few operating points can reach moeconomic performance. Considering the lower condensation

Fig. 16. The optimization results of the net power output for the six different working fluids.
2224 F. Yang et al. / Energy 93 (2015) 2208e2228
Fig. 17. The optimization results of the total investment cost for the six different working fluids.
temperature of the working fluid, the water cooling method is
recommended for the practical application of the ORC system.
Meanwhile, the cooling water's temperature varies significantly
with the seasons. The cooling intensity is controlled by regulating
the mass flow rate of the cooling water. The temperature of the low
temperature heat source varies within a small range. Therefore, the
optimized condensation temperature can also meet the re-
quirements of practical engineering application. Fig. 21(d) shows
the optimization results of the exhaust temperature at the outlet of
the evaporator under engine various operating conditions. It can be
seen that the optimized exhaust temperature at the outlet of the
evaporator is mainly influenced by the engine torque. When the
engine torque is above 500 N m, the optimized exhaust tempera-
ture at the outlet of the evaporator is in the range of 414 Ke417 K.
When the engine torque is from the idle condition to 500 N m, the
optimized exhaust temperature at the outlet of the evaporator is in
the range of 393 Ke414 K. In addition, the optimized exhaust
temperature at the outlet of the evaporator decreases from 414 K to
Fig. 18. Normalized results of the EPC for the six different working fluids under full-
load conditions.
393 K with decreasing the engine torque. This is due to the fact that
the exhaust temperature is low when the engine is operated at low
load regions. The exhaust temperature at the outlet of the evapo-
rator should be decreased to ensure higher heat transfer rate.
Fig. 22 shows the optimization results of the mass flow rate of
the working fluid, heat transfer rate, EPC and thermal efficiency
using R245fa under engine various operating conditions. The
operating parameters of the ORC system is controlled by regulating
the mass flow rate of the working fluid during practical operation.
The variation of the optimized mass flow rate of the working fluid
under engine various operating conditions is shown in Fig. 22(a). As
can be seen, although the optimized operating parameters have a
big fluctuation, the mass flow rate of the working fluid is mainly
influenced by the exhaust energy. It also can be seen that the mass
flow rate of the working fluid increases with the exhaust energy.
Over the whole operating range of the diesel engine, the optimized
mass flow rate of the working fluid is in the range of 0.01 kg/s to
0.34 kg/s. Fig. 22(b) shows the variation of the heat transfer rate in
Fig. 19. Normalized results of the thermal efficiency for the six different working fluids
under full-load conditions.
 F. Yang et al. / Energy 93 (2015) 2208e2228 2225

Fig. 20. The effect of critical temperature of six different working fluids on the system performances.

the evaporator under engine various operating conditions. It can be
seen that the variation of the heat transfer rate is very similar to the
exhaust energy and the mass flow rate of the working fluid. For the
exhaust side, the exhaust mss flow rate and exhaust temperature
increases with the engine speed and engine torque, which further
increases the exhaust energy and the heat transfer rate of the
evaporator. Over the whole operating range of the diesel engine,
the heat transfer rate of the evaporator is in the range of
3.11 kWe94.27 kW. The variation of the EPC under engine various
operating conditions is presented in Fig. 22(c). It can be observed
that the EPC is mainly influenced by the engine torque. When the
diesel engine operates at the high load regions, the ORC system

Fig. 21. Optimization results of the operating parameters for R245fa.

2226 F. Yang et al. / Energy 93 (2015) 2208e2228

Fig. 22. Optimization results of mass flow rate of working fluid, heat transfer rate, EPC and thermal efficiency for R245fa.

shows a better economic performance with a lower EPC. At these performances and economic indicators of the ORC system are
operating regions of the diesel engine, the EPC is in the range of investigated. Furthermore, based on the established optimization
0.91$/kW h to 3.19$/kW h. The EPC increases dramatically with model, genetic algorithm is employed to solve the Pareto solution
decreasing engine torque. This is due to the fact that when the of the thermodynamic performances and economic indicators for
diesel engine operates at the medium-low torque regions, the net maximizing net power output and minimizing total investment
power output of the ORC system decreases significantly, while the cost under diesel engine various operating conditions using R600,
TIC of the ORC system decreases slightly, which results in an in- R600a, R601a, R245fa, R1234yf and R1234ze as working fluids. The
crease in EPC obviously. That is to say, when the ORC technology is most suitable working fluid used in the ORC system for diesel en-
used to recover the waste heat from the IC engines, it has better gine waste heat recovery is screened out, and then the corre-
thermoeconomic performance at the mediumehigh regions of the sponding optimal parameter regions are analyzed. The main
IC engines. Fig. 22(d) illustrates the variation of the thermal effi- conclusions can be summarized as follows:
ciency of the ORC system under engine various operating condi-
tions. It can be seen that the thermal efficiency of the ORC system is (1) The thermodynamic and economic performance of the ORC
approximately 0.12 under most of the operating conditions. When system is improved by increasing the evaporation pressure.
the diesel engine operates at the low load regions, the thermal The superheat degree has a slight influence on the ORC
efficiency of the ORC system decreases to 0.11. Based on the system. Both thermodynamic and economic performances
aforementioned analysis, the optimal operating parameters and gradually worsen with increasing the condensation tem-
their corresponding thermoeconomic indicators using R245fa as perature and exhaust temperature at the outlet of the
working fluid at engine rated condition are listed in Table 8. evaporator.
(2) Based on the optimization results, the thermodynamic per-
formance of the ORC system is improved at the expense of
6. Conclusions economic performance. For the selected working fluids,
R601a and R245fa show better thermoeconomic perfor-
In this paper, the ORC system is used to recover the exhaust mance. At engine rated condition, the net power outputs of
waste heat from a diesel engine, the thermodynamic, economic and the ORC system for these two working fluids are 13.19 kW
optimization models of the ORC system are established, respec- and 11.55 kW, respectively. The total investment costs of the
tively. The effects of four key parameters, including evaporation ORC system for these two working fluids are 536,990$ and
pressure, superheat degree, condensation temperature and exhaust 532,710$, respectively.
temperature at the outlet of the evaporator on the thermodynamic (3) R245fa is the best choice for the engine waste heat recovery
application with overall consideration of thermoeconomic
performances, environmental impacts and safety levels.
Table 8
Optimal operating parameters and the corresponding thermoeconomic indicators of
(4) When using R245fa as the working fluid, the optimized
the ORC system at engine rated condition. evaporation pressure varies from 1.1 MPa to 2.1 MPa. The
optimized superheat degree is mainly influenced by the
Item Value Item Value Item Value
operating conditions of the diesel engine. Over the whole
Peva (MPa) 1.83 W_ net (kW) 11.55 hth (%) 12.26 operating range of the diesel engine, the optimized super-
Tsup (K) 19.98 Ctot ($) 532,707 Q_ eva (kW) 94.27
heat degree is from 0.5 K to 20 K. The optimized condensa-
Tcon (K) 298.62 m_ wf (kg/s) 0.34 Aeva (m2) 14.76
Texh;out (K) 417.61 EPC($/kW h) 0.91 Acon (m2) 10.55 tion temperature is almost kept a constant at 298.15 K for
 F. Yang et al. / Energy 93 (2015) 2208e2228 2227

most of the operating conditions. The optimized exhaust ct temperature difference correction factor
temperature at the outlet of the evaporator is mainly influ- f resistance coefficient
enced by the engine torque. When the engine torque is above F forced convective heat transfer enhancement factor
500 N m, the optimized exhaust temperature at the outlet of S suppression factor
the evaporator is in the range of 414 Ke417 K. x quality
(5) Both mass flow rate of the working fluid and heat transfer pr reduced pressure
rate of the evaporator increases with the engine speed and q heat flux (W/m2)
torque. The ORC system has better thermoeconomic perfor- M molecular weight (kg/kmol)
mance at the mediumehigh regions of the IC engines. The P pressure (MPa)
thermal efficiency of the ORC system is approximately 0.12
under most of the operating conditions.
Greek symbols
b rib effect coefficient
ORC technology is an effective way to recover the low grade
a heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K)
waste heat. Currently, this technology has also been widely applied
l thermal conductivity (W/m K)
in engine waste heat recovery. But most of the present researches
h efficiency
only focus on the parameters sensitivity analysis, and few of them
d fin height (m)
have considered the multi-objective and multi-parameter optimi-
ε correction factor
zation by using the optimization algorithm. In addition, the vehicle
engine often operates at various operating conditions. Therefore,
one important thing is how to deal with the coordinated variation Subscripts
of ORC parameters and engine operating conditions. The main 0 reference state
contribution of this paper is to obtain the optimal operating regions 1e7 state points in the cycle
of the ORC system with consideration of thermodynamic perfor- i inner
mances and economic indicators under engine various operating o outer
conditions by using genetic algorithm. The optimization results exp expander
indicate that engine operating conditions have a great influence on exh exhaust
the optimized evaporation pressure, superheat degree and exhaust con condenser
temperature at the outlet of the evaporator, while the optimized wf working fluid
condensation temperature is almost kept a constant value for most tp two phase
of the engine operating conditions. In summary, this research is l liquid
helpful in determining optimal operating regions and selecting v vapor
proper working fluids for the diesel engine-ORC combined system. fb film boiling
nb nucleate boiling
Acknowledgments L all the mass flow rate taken as liquid
eva evaporator
This work was sponsored by the National Natural Science eq equivalent
Foundation of China (Grant No. 51376011), the Beijing Natural th thermal
Science Foundation Program (Grant No. 3152005), the Scientific sup superheat degree
Research Key Program of Beijing Municipal Commission of Educa- in inlet
tion (Grant No. KZ201410005003), and the Key Project of Thir- out outlet
teenth Scientific Research Foundation for Graduate Students in tot total
Beijing University of Technology (Grant No. ykje2014e10708). The cool cooling water
authors would like to thank the reviewers for their valuable com-
ments on this research. Acronyms
ORC organic Rankine cycle
Nomenclature PPTD pinch point temperature difference
LMTD logarithmic mean temperature difference
W _ power (kW) ODP ozone depletion potential
GWP global warming potential
Q_ heat transfer rate (kW)
m_ mass flow rate (kg/s)
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