Professional Documents
Culture Documents
How to Assess
Student Performance
in Science
Going Beyond
Multiple-Choice Tests
How To
How to Assess Student Performance in Science:
Going Beyond Multiple-Choice Tests
by
Wendy McColskey and
Rita O’Sullivan
Associated with the
School of Education,
University of North Carolina
at Greensboro
2000, Revised
1997, Reprinted
1995, Revised
Edited by
Charles Ahearn, Director of
Communications and Publications, SERVE
Donna Nalley, Senior Editor, SERVE
Designed by
Richard Emond, Graphic Designer, SERVE
Introduction 1
Purpose of this Manual 1
What is “Good” Assessment? 2
Self-Assessment 3
Sample Assessment 5
Chapter 2 :
Desired Student Outcomes in
Science—What Do We Want Students
to Be Able to Do? 7
Articulating Outcomes 8
Examples of Science Education
Outcomes for Students 10
Sample Course Objectives Matrix
(Sixth Grade) 12
Chapter 3 :
Student Assessment Methods—What
are Methods of Assessing Student
Performance That Go Beyond
Multiple-Choice Tests? 13
Methods for Assessing Students—
Performance-based Assessments 13
Observing Students 14
Science Activity Observation Form 15
Asking Students 17
Looking at Students’ Work 22
Conceptual Understanding 25
Application and Creative Writing 25
Science Process Skills 26
Divergent Thinking 27
Chapter 4 :
Rubrics and Grading 37
Rubrics 37
Grading 41
Chapter 5 :
Getting Started 45
Appendix :
Reform in Curriculum and Instruction 47
About SERVE 53
Ordering Information 54
Order Form 57
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Acknowledgments
T his manual resulted from an R&D field experience that involved working
with science teachers to develop performance assessments for a science cur-
riculum reform project. The participation of these schools and teachers was invalu-
able to the development of this manual.
Graham Middle School, Alamance County School District, Graham, North Carolina
Participating schools and teachers from the North Carolina Project for Reform in
Science Education included the following:
A.G. Cox Middle School, Pitt County School District, Greenville, North Carolina
i
Noble Middle School, Virgo Middle School, New Hanover County School District,
Wilmington, North Carolina
ii
Chapter 1
Current Views on Assessment
Introduction about assessment, or what you feel
students expect you to do, but they are
E
ducational systems promote student choices nonetheless. This manual is de-
growth in a variety of dimensions. signed to provide you with the support you
Traditional dimensions have been and other teachers at your school need to
the basics (reading, writing, basic math begin a process of defining the outcomes
computations, and basic content knowl- you value for students in science and devel-
edge). Basic content knowledge can be oping assessment practices that encourage
effectively assessed with multiple-choice student progress toward desired ends.
and completion tests. However, with “edu-
cational reform” has come more concern
with higher-order cognitive dimensions Purpose of This Manual
(problem-solving, creativity), social dimen-
sions (communication skills, ability to work
in groups) and other dimensions (life-long
learning). While they are objective and
T his publication is designed to help
you do the following:
efficient, traditional measures may not 1. Consider the variety of possible student
serve these kinds of goals as well. outcomes in science, and select those
that are most important for students.
The purpose of this manual is to encour-
age discussions among science teachers 2. Reflect on and choose appropriate ways
about desired student outcomes in science to assess student performance on
and assessments appropriate to those important outcomes. There are three
outcomes. Multiple-choice tests have their major ways teachers have of assessing
place, but so do portfolios, observations, how students have changed relative to
performance tests, student interviews, and the goals of instruction: they can ob-
exhibitions. Once teachers are clear on serve students, ask students questions,
what they hope to accomplish with their and look at their work. The assessment
students, choosing appropriate assessment methods discussed in this manual are
methods follows. shown below.
1
3. Develop appropriate criteria for with at least one other teacher, if possible,
judging student work, and consider because of the valuable sharing of ideas
the alternatives to the teacher as sole that would result.
judge of student work (i.e., using peers,
professionals from the community, and Other laboratory products on alternative
student self-assessment). assessment that might be helpful include
T
• Narratives raditionally, the goal of most
subject area courses has been for
students to be able to recognize or
Ask Students Questions Using recall important facts, concepts, or relation-
ships that have been explained to them.
• Interviews
Frequently used assessment methods
• Self-assessment
(multiple-choice, matching, short-answer)
measure progress toward this goal.
Evaluate Their Work Using
How and what we test sends a clear mes-
• Open-ended questions sage about what is valued. Traditionally, we
• Performance tests have almost exclusively valued students’
• Journals success at retaining and bringing forth a
• Exhibitions and culminating sample of the information they have re-
demonstrations tained. When a teacher emphasizes factual
• Portfolios knowledge on a test, students conclude that
remembering facts is the goal. When stu-
2
Self
Self-Assessment
The first step in changing science education assessment is to have a clear understand-
ing of your current practices. Please answer the following questions and discuss them
with another teacher.
Self-Assessment Questionnaire
1. List below, in your own terms, the four most important student outcomes that
resulted from your science instruction last year. That is, what could students do well
at the end of the year that they could not do well at the beginning of your instruction?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Other:
3. In your science classes, on a typical day, how often were most students engaged
and challenged by their work?
All the time Somewhat often (less than half the time)
Very often (more than half the time) Almost never
Often (about half the time)
4. Think about the assessment methods represented by the grades in your gradebook.
What might students infer about the purpose of science instruction from your
choices about what is graded?
3
dents are not given an opportunity to retest lem-finding and solving to include role-
or improve their work, they may conclude playing, “real-life” simulations, investi-
that improvement is not valued. If higher- gations, major projects, and creative
order thinking, problem-solving, and critical depictions.
thinking are to be valued, then classroom
assessments need to lend value to them. • Use power verbs (such as research,
analyze, evaluate, and depict) to
Proponents of assessment reform argue reinforce that the student is demon-
that past assessment practices are inad- strating what he or she can do with
equate. Fundamental problems with previ- information.
ous testing practices include a) narrowness
of scope b) limited expectations of students • Allow for student creativity in their
c) overemphasis on memorizing facts d) products or responses.
lack of student ownership in the learning
process and e) lack of incentives for stu- • Allow students to be involved in creat-
dent improvement in their work. In other ing the criteria against which their
words, both the “what” and the “how” of performance will be judged.
student assessment need to be changed.
• Include audiences in addition to the
According to Wiggins (1989), “authentic teacher to validate and judge student
assessment” means that performances (e.g., scientists, other
students).
• Tests should involve real-life tasks,
performances, or challenges that repli- (High Success Network, 1992)
cate the problems faced by a scientist,
historian, or expert in a particular field; In summary, assessment reforms argue
thus, they are complex tasks rather than strongly that the work we have asked
drills, worksheets, or isolated questions. students to do in the past (drills,
worksheets, fact-level questions and an-
• Students should understand up-front swers, multiple-choice, and short-answer
the criteria on which their work will be tests) does not challenge and involve them,
judged and be able to apply the criteria does not encourage creative, quality work,
to their work. and does not provide them with experience
in using and applying information and skills
• Students should be asked to demon- in a “real-world“ way.
strate their control over the essential
knowledge being taught by actually What is a “real-world” task? A few ex-
using the information in a way that amples of generic kinds of tasks that have
reveals their level of understanding. students using information in ways that go
beyond just recalling or recognizing correct
(High Success Network, 1992) information include the following:
4
• Researching both sides of a controversy (worksheets, multiple-choice tests), how
and reporting it objectively likely is it that they will become problem-
solvers, creative producers, effective com-
• Developing criteria for rating the municators, and self-directed learners as
quality of a product, proposal, or adults?
recommendation
Educational objectives (curriculum goals),
Such tasks are recognizable as part of the design of learning experiences (instruc-
many adult work environments. tion), and student evaluation or assessment
are considered the three legs of the educa-
A key point to remember as you go through tional process. Chapter 2 deals with identi-
this manual is that assessing students fying science education objectives. Chap-
involves gathering information about what ters 3 and 4 deal with student assessment
they know, can do, or are like. If throughout methods. Additional information on science
12 years of school, students are assessed curriculum and instruction reform can be
only on passive, non-creative work found in the appendix.
Research with your team the value and uses of whales across time and cultures. Ana-
lyze and evaluate the practical uses vs. environmental protection issues, and develop
support for both. Choose a position, and be prepared to justify and present your posi-
tion to the class in a convincing manner.
Assessment Methods:
Teams are not allowed to proceed with developing their presentations until they can
show they have adequately researched the topic.
2. Oral presentation skills will be assessed by peers and teachers using a checklist.
Source: Adapted from High Success Network training materials; Outcome-Based Education Summer
Conference, Charlotte, NC, 1992; High Success Network, P.O. Box 1630, Eagle, CO 81631.
5
6
Chapter 2
Desired Student Outcomes in Science—What Do
We Want Students to Be Able to Do?
E
ducational goals provide the frame- Possible outcomes are that students will
work for assessing student progress. become
The goals a teacher has for his or her
class have clear implications for assess- • Self-directed learners
ment. Without a clear vision or articulation
of what is to be accomplished in the time • Quality producers and performers
you have with your students, how do you
know what to assess? Assessments com- • Goal-setters and pursuers
municate to students what is important.
• Effective communicators
Consider these statements from a recent
publication by the National Center for • Collaborative community contributors
Improving Science Education:
• Creative and complex thinkers
If only new vocabulary is tested,
there is an implicit message that • Innovative problem-solvers
science is mostly a matter of memo-
rizing new terms. Such a list gives some structure and direc-
tion to assessment across all content and
If only factual knowledge is tested, the subject areas. Teachers can design work
message may be that science is a static and experiences for students with these
body of facts, principles, and procedures kinds of outcomes for the student in mind.
to be mastered and recalled on demand. However, teachers also have science goals
or outcomes for students as shown in the
If tests call for the students to engage in following section. The science goals teach-
active exploration and reflection, to pose ers choose for their students give more
new questions and solve new problems, immediate direction for what they are trying
the message can be that science is a to accomplish with their science instruction.
mode of disciplined inquiry, applied
specialized knowledge, investigative
procedures, and rules of evidence for
understanding both the natural world
and the technologies through which
humans have shaped that world to
their ends. Key point: The assessments you
use must reflect your purposes,
(Loucks-Horsley, 1990) and the purposes of your instruc-
tion must be made known to the
You might have different levels of goals or
purposes that guide your work with stu- students.
dents. For example, some outcomes for
students cut across all levels and courses.
7
Outcomes Articulating Outcomes
At this point, please take a few minutes to reflect on what you feel are important objec-
tives for science instruction. It would be helpful to discuss your responses with other
science teachers.
1. How would you rank order the NAEP goals of conceptual understanding, scientific
investigation, practical reasoning, knowledge of the nature of science, and an
understanding of how technologies develop for the level of science you teach?
2. Review the list of sample science outcomes shown on the next pages. The list is
intended only as a starting point for brainstorming. Reword, reorganize, and add to
the list as needed. Then, think about the four most important science outcomes that
you have in mind for students, and enter those below under “Most Important Student
Outcomes.” You will likely revise these often before you are happy with them, but this
is the information that is critical to discuss with other teachers, with students, and
with parents so that everyone knows what you are aiming for with your instruction.
In the space below, enter what you believe to be the most important outcomes for your
students.
1. Outcome:
2. Outcome:
3. Outcome:
4. Outcome:
8
The National Assessment of Educational just knowing things is no longer an adequate
Progress develops and administers science goal for students. It is important to commu-
tests to a national sample of students on a nicate to students what they are expected to
regular basis to provide a picture of student be able to do with the content.
capabilities in science. These tests are
based on a conceptualization of the impor- One tool that helps teachers sharpen their
tant goals in science. thinking about this mix of content and
process objectives is a matrix such as the
The following information is taken from the one shown on page 12. (It is similar in
National Assessment Governing Board’s concept to a test specifications matrix—a
Science Framework for the 1994 National tool used by test developers to ensure that
Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP test items are written in numbers propor-
Science Consensus Project, 1992). The 1994 tionate to each cell’s importance.) The
NAEP assessment includes the following behaviors or outcomes expected of stu-
categories of student outcomes: dents are listed on the side. The content
areas considered essential for students to
1. Conceptual understanding, with stress understand are listed across the top. A
on the connections among disciplines course objectives matrix is a way to identify
and students’ organization of factual and communicate critical course outcomes
knowledge to students. A publication by the National
Science Teachers Association, The Content
2. Scientific investigations: acquiring new Core: A Guide for Curriculum Designers, lays
information, planning appropriate out a suggested scope and sequence of
investigations, using a variety of scien- science content in grades six through 12
tific tools, and communicating the that might be helpful in thinking through
results of the investigations the essential content at your grade level.
3. Practical reasoning: analyzing a prob- In the matrix shown, verbs such as explain
lem, planning appropriate approaches, and apply (4 & 5) specify the level of content
and evaluating results understanding to be gained. (Other examples
of thinking verbs are synthesize, categorize,
4. Nature of science/technology: including identify errors, analyze, summarize, and
knowledge of the nature of science (i.e., compare and contrast.) Science process skills
that scientists invent explanations to fit (1, 2, & 3) are also listed as course objec-
observations, but that these explana- tives. The sixth objective (“work coopera-
tions may change with new evidence) tively to investigate problems”) means that
and an understanding of how technolo- students will be expected to learn to prob-
gies are designed and developed lem-solve in a team setting. By maintaining
a journal and portfolio (7), students become
The sample outcomes listed are statements competent at reflecting on their learning and
about the intended results of science in- evaluating the quality of their work.
struction. They contain action verbs (process
objectives) that have students performing or Before you go on to the next chapter, you
behaving in some way (demonstrate, summa- may want to spend some time experiment-
rize, explore). A syllabus that lists topics to be ing with a matrix that describes your sci-
covered by a course is an implicit statement ence course objectives, perhaps building on
that the objective of the course is to “know” the four “most important” science out-
some things about the areas listed. However, comes previously identified.
9
Outcomes Examples of Science Education
Outcomes for Students
Conceptual Understanding
Scientific Investigations
6. Develop alternative interpretations and look at data in more than one way.
10
Practical Reasoning
5. Explore the advantages and disadvantages involved in the design and development
of technologies.
6. Summarize examples of how scientific knowledge has been applied to the design of
technologies.
11
Matrix
Sample Course Objectives Matrix
(Grade 6)
Make
observations
and predictions
Collect, record,
and interpret
data
Explain
relationships,
concepts,
principles,
theories, etc.
Apply
information to
new situations
Work
cooperatively
to investigate
problems
Maintain a
journal and
portfolio
Note: Matrix was adapted from those developed as a part of the North Carolina Project for Reform in
Science Education, College of Education, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina.
12
Chapter 3
Student Assessment Methods—What are Methods
of Assessing Student Peformance That
Go Beyond Multiple-Choice Tests?
A
lthough many people equate what students understand about mapping
assessment with testing, in reality, and direction. Multiple-choice items might
assessment involves far more than include the following:
merely giving tests (Hopkins, Stanley, &
Hopkins, 1990). That distinction is critical to 1. What direction are you traveling when
understanding the array of methods pre- you drive from New York to California?
sented in this chapter. To assess students is a) east
to collect information about their perfor- b) north
mance. It is an integral part of the teaching c) west
and learning process. The goal of education d) south
is to produce or facilitate changes in learn-
ers. How does one know if students are 2. The sun sets in the ________________.
becoming competent and knowledgeable? a) east
b) north
Numbers are often useful in assessment c) west
because they can be communicated and d) south
interpreted efficiently, but not all useful
information about how and what students A performance-based assessment, by
are learning is quantitative. In fact, many contrast, would ask students to construct a
argue that there has been an overdepen- map of their neighborhood or find their way
dence on quantitative test information and from one part of the school to another
an underutilization of more subjective using a compass. Performance-based
methods involving teacher observation and assessments provide students with an
judgment. Grading, promoting, and place- opportunity to demonstrate what they
ment into special education or remedial know, rather than just recognizing or
instruction are important educational recalling the right answer.
decisions that should be based on a variety
of assessment methods. “Let us not fall into Teachers assess students’ performance by
the trap of asking whether we should use observing them at work, asking them
teacher judgments or test scores. Faced by questions, and/or reviewing their work. In
complex problems of assessment and this section, each method of assessment
evaluation of student growth and the listed below will be described and
factors that influence it, we cannot reject examples provided.
any promising resource. Various sorts of
information complement each other” Methods for Assessing
(Hopkins, Stanley, & Hopkins, 1990, p. 8). Students—Performance-Based
Assessments
This section walks you through ways to
gather information about students. For
1. Observing Students
example, a teacher might be interested in
• Informal observations
13
• Structured observations Structured Observations
• Narratives
2. Asking Students
• Interviews
O ccasionally, more formal observa-
tions are needed. Formal observa-
tions have a specified focus and sample
• Self-assessments behavior to be observed systematically.
Some goals or objectives can only be
3. Looking at Students’ Work assessed by observation. For example, it is
• Open-ended questions difficult to imagine how a teacher would
• Performance tests/tasks assess students’ team problem-solving
• Journals skills or success at independent lab work
• Exhibitions/projects/culminating without observing them. Although informal
demonstrations observations occur daily, occasionally
• Portfolios teachers may want to record information
from their observations on a form. The
form might be structured as a matrix of
W
hen a teacher decides that a those being observed by the behaviors
performance-based assessment of interest.
is the most appropriate way to
assess student progress relative to an For example, if a school has recently set up
instructional goal, a decision must also be a science activity lab where students can
made as to how the student response will individually engage in hands-on science
be judged. The term “rubric” refers to activities, teachers may want to evaluate
guidelines for judging responses. Rubrics students’ progress by seeing how the
and grading are discussed in Chapter 4. students increase their ability to stay on
task and work independently with the
materials in the lab. Teachers might de-
Observing Students velop a structured observation form for the
lab as shown in the Science Activity
Informal Observations Observation Form.
14
Form
Science Activity Observation Form
Directions: List the students to be observed in the spaces provided. Plan to observe
those students during a 10-15-minute individual hands-on science activity. Observe
each student, and put a check in the box if he or she is on task. After you have observed
each student on your list once, go back starting with student No. 1, make a second
round of observations, and continue until the activity ends. After the observation ends,
check either “none,” “some,” or “much” under the level of assistance each student
needed to complete the activity.
1. _______________________________________________________
2. _______________________________________________________
3. _______________________________________________________
4. _______________________________________________________
5. _______________________________________________________
15
Form
Summary Science Activity
Observation Form
Teacher: ROSE
1. Alice 1 2 3
2. Mai 4 5 4
3. Juanita 2 3 4
4. Michael 4 4 5
5. George 2 4 5
TOTAL 13 18 21
16
Data collected over time can be useful for observations could be focused on those
showing gains. The sample form on page groups experiencing difficulties. The results
16 shows a general pattern of improvement could be provided to these groups with
over time on independent lab work. This comments on how to improve their func-
information may be used to demonstrate tioning. Over time, a series of these narra-
the benefits of the lab. It may also be used tives might demonstrate how students
to show which and how many children changed the way they worked as a team.
need improvement. Finally, teachers might
use it as a way to give students feedback
about how they are improving. Asking Students
I
n the last section on observing students,
Narratives several examples were provided of how
teachers collect information about
17
probing questions can be developed that 6. One of the goals mentioned in Chapter
would be useful in deciding how to help 2 is that students will be able to
students improve their performance. communicate effectively as a result of
their K-12 experience. If science
2. If a new unit is being developed, teachers adopt this goal, interviews are
interviewing a sample of students of clearly an assessment method of
different abilities about their prior choice. That is, students should not only
knowledge on the topic should allow be assessed with written tests but also
the teacher to assess students’ should be asked to express what they
readiness to learn the new topic. know verbally.
Instruction could then be designed to
target their entry level of knowledge. Interviews can vary in their degree of
structure. In unstructured interviews, the
3. Interviews can send a message to contents and order of the questions vary
students that a teacher cares about with the student and are responsive to each
what they think or understand. Rapport student’s answers. In semi-structured
is encouraged, and student motivation interviews, there may be some themes
may be increased. identified to structure the interviews, but
questions within those themes may be
4. Interviews allow students who have phrased differently for different students. In
difficulty with written tests to express structured interviews, teachers ask students
what they understand in a context that to respond to the same set of questions.
may be less threatening and anxiety-
producing. On the flip side, students
who do well on written tests may have Using Information from Interviews
difficulty communicating their
responses to questions verbally and
may need practice. T he way that information from inter-
views is used depends on the context
or purpose of the interview. Some
5. Interviews provide teachers the examples follow.
opportunity to probe and ask follow-up
questions in ways that challenge 1. If a new unit is being developed, and
students to think beyond their current the teacher is interviewing a small
level of understanding and to organize sample of students on their ability to
their knowledge in more systematic explain and relate the concepts of
ways. Thus, follow-up questions can be adaptation and natural selection, tape
individualized such that students are recording the interviews might be
pushed as far as their level of helpful. The teacher could listen to the
understanding permits. tape at a later time and look for
misconceptions in student responses.
18
GroupNarrative Observation:
Group Problem-Solving
Narrative
Crystal reminded the group that they needed to choose a recorder. Ramon volunteered
to be the recorder and write things down if they told him what to write. Jack said, “What
are we supposed to do?” Anita looked at the worksheet and began reading aloud the
directions of the activity sheet. Jack started blowing in the air and talking about wind.
Crystal told Jack to stop playing. He looked at his sheet for a moment and then started
blowing again.
The first section on the activity sheet asked the students to identify the different proper-
ties of wind. Crystal told Ramon to write down “the way it blows.” Anita offered, “how
fast it goes.” The next section asked the students to find a way to measure one of the
properties they had identified. Crystal said that they should build a weather vane;
Ramon and Anita agreed. Jack didn’t say anything. He was busy drawing a sailboat.
Crystal sent Jack off to the side of the room to get materials to build the weather vane.
Jack returned with the materials and immediately started to put them together. Crystal
went to the side of the room to get the things Jack forgot. Each of the children began
building their own weather vanes. Jack wanted everyone in the group to see his when
he blew on it. The other children began blowing on theirs. After a few minutes, Crystal
decided that Jack’s weather vane was the best.
19
Exam Oral Exam:
The Three Phases of Water
1. 1 point for each phase What are the three phases of water?
identified correctly
(ice, water, steam)
b. Liquid:
c. Steam:
b. Liquid to Ice:
c. Liquid to Steam:
d. Steam to Liquid:
20
prepare more carefully if they know they
must stand before a teacher and answer
Suggestions for Interviews questions individually.
21
the instrument but had forgotten the name Looking at Students’ Work
could respond.
An Overview
The teacher could use the assessment
M
results in several ways. First, the teacher ultiple-choice and completion
may want to summarize the frequency of items are not included in this
responses to the interest question (Question manual as there are many
1) as a baseline for comparison to the end- sources that can be tapped for guidance on
of-year level of interest. Summarizing the how to write these kinds of items
responses to the instrument item (Question (Gronlund & Linn, 1990; Hopkins, Stanley &
4) in a frequency chart (instruments by Hopkins, 1990; Payne, 1992). Rather, our
number of students who had used each and emphasis is on open-ended questions,
could describe each) could assist the performance tasks, journals, exhibitions,
teacher in judging how much remediation and portfolios. The development and
was needed. If cooperative learning skills administration of test questions, items, or
were to be a focus for the year, the names tasks starts with finding the most appropri-
of students who indicated dislikes about ate assessment option, given the relevant
working in a team (Question 5) could be instructional objectives. Each method has
listed and notes kept about any difficulties its place.
they had as teamwork was initiated.
22
Self
Science Skills Self-Assessment
Directions: Read the questions and statements below, and answer as best you can.
There are no right and wrong answers.
2. What did you like the most about science last year?
4. Put a check by each instrument you have used. Beside each instrument, describe
briefly what it does.
Microscope
Weight scale
Thermometer
Weather vane
Ruler
Barometer
Compass
Rain gauge
23
Completion items (e.g., The first man on • Describe the limitations of the data.
the moon was _________) are direct, mini-
mize the effect of guessing, and are good • Explain a method or procedure.
ways of assessing factual knowledge.
However, they are limited in their ability to • Integrate learnings in different areas.
tap students’ in-depth understanding or
reasoning about a problem. • Create or design something (i.e., an
experiment).
Multiple-choice items can be used flex-
ibly to tap into a variety of complex problem • Evaluate the worth of an idea.
situations and can ask students questions
using all levels of thinking (application, Some examples of open-ended questions
analysis, etc.). They can be scored reliably that address students’ skill at applying
and administered efficiently to cover a wide information and making judgments follow.
range of material. However, they are diffi-
cult to write well, and they do not require • “Would you weigh more or less on the
students to construct or frame a response. moon? On the sun? Explain.” (Assesses
the ability to apply a rule or principle in
Open-ended and performance task a specified situation.)
items fit well with the current emphasis on
developing students into effective commu- • “Why may too frequent reliance on
nicators, quality producers, and active, penicillin for the treatment of minor
complex thinkers because they call for ailments eventually result in its
students to perform or construct a response. diminished effectiveness against major
invasion of body tissues by infectious
bacteria?” (Assesses understanding of
Open-Ended Questions cause and effect.)
Some examples of generic starting points It should be noted that if an application has
for open-ended questions that relate to been taught explicitly, and the answer is
higher-order, cognitive objectives are provided from memory by the student,
provided below (Gronlund & Linn, 1990): rather than representing the presentation of
a new situation, the objective assessed is
• Explain a cause-effect relationship. factual recall, not application.
24
Concept Conceptual Understanding
Legend:
Rain
Flurries
Snow
Cold Front
Warm Front
Stationary front
1) How would life and the conditions on earth be different if all bacteria and fungi
became extinct? Explain the changes that might occur, and give as much detail
as possible. (Grade 8)
2) Using the weather map shown above, make a forecast for the weather in North
Carolina for the next day. Explain why you made the forecast. (Grade 4)
Source: Open-response released items (1991-1992). Kentucky Instructional Results Information System.
Kentucky Department of Education. Division of Curriculum, Assessment, and Accountability, Capital Plaza
Tower, Frankfort, KY 40601
1) If the earth stopped rotating on its axis, how might our weather change? Be
imaginative, speculative, and specific.
2) You are returning from your interstellar journey where you were in charge of soil
analysis. It is your responsibility to write up a description of the biome(s) you found
on your planet. Include information about the living and non-living components of
the biome. Be sure to note food webs, food chains, altitude, rainfall, soil types,
latitude, and any other important information.
Source: Robin Freedman (October, 1992). “Writing, Student Portfolios, and Authentic Assessment.” In The
Watershed, a quarterly publication by the California Assessment Program. California Department of Educa-
tion, P.O. Box 944272, Sacramento, CA 94244-2720.
25
Skills
Science Process Skills
1) Katie believes that students who do between four and ten hours of homework per
week make better grades than students who do not do homework or who do more
than 10 hours of homework per week. To test this hypothesis, she is writing a
survey that she will give to students at her school. (Grade 8)
• Describe what Katie should do with the responses to her survey to find if her
hypothesis is correct.
2) You are a state scientist. You are asked to develop an experiment to determine
whether discharge from a factory is endangering Kentucky Lake. (Grade 12)
3) The number of kernels that do not pop during microwave cooking varies with
different brands of microwave popcorn. Design an investigation to determine which
of three brands of microwave popcorn pops best. Be certain to describe each of the
following: (Grade 12)
• How you will analyze the data to determine which brand of popcorn pops best
Source: Open-response released items (1991-1992). Kentucky Instructional Results Information System.
Kentucky Department of Education. Division of Curriculum, Assessment, and Accountability, Capital Plaza
Tower, Frankfort, Kentucky 40601
26
Divergent Thinking
Creativity or divergent thinking is an important part of scientific thinking. For example,
the generation of research questions and hypotheses and the development of plans of
actions require an ability to posit multiple, original approaches. Tasks that engage
students’ creativity have no right answer. Open-ended questions can be developed that
ask for multiple responses.
Students might be given sample situations that relate to the unit under study, such as
the following:
Students might then be asked to 1) write as many questions as they can that will help
them understand the situation, 2) list as many possible causes as they can for the
situation, and 3) list as many possibilities as they can for what might happen in the
future as a result of what is taking place in the situation. The number and quality of the
responses are indicators of creativity. The quality of each response might be assessed
as I(irrelevant), P(pertinent), and U(unique).
Source: Assessment Ideas for Science in Six Domains (1992). Robert E. Yager amd Lawrence R. Kellerman
(Eds.). Science Education Center. Van Allen Hall, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242
via creative writing, the use of science ent, and not well-developed. It may be
process skills, and divergent thinking skills. difficult to judge their understanding of
Some examples are shown on pages 25-27. the concept because of weak communica-
tion skills.
Making Sense of Students’ At first, students may need more than one
Responses chance at expressing their understanding of
essential concepts. Perhaps on the first
27
Open-Ended Questions about the Apparent
Motion of the Sun
Rubric
Source: Rita Elliot, A.G. Cox Middle School, Pitt County Schools, Winterville, N.C.
28
3. Develop a rating scale or point system or at using lab equipment such as micro-
to use with the questions. More scopes, a performance test makes more
information about rating scales and sense than a multiple-choice test. For
checklists is found in Chapter 4. example, middle school students might be
given the following materials:
4. Read over a sampling of answers before
grading them, and get some idea of the Equipment
range of responses to each question. It 100 ml graduated cylinder (clear plastic)
may be helpful to sort the responses to balance (and mass units, if necessary)
a question into piles based on the rating tray or spill pan
scale being used before assigning a calculator
final scale value to the response. liter of water
metric ruler
Another use of students’ responses to
open-ended questions is to analyze their Materials
responses for misconceptions or problems glass marble
they are having in understanding a con- piece of wood dowel
cept. Rather than grading responses, re- small piece of plastic rod
sponses can be grouped into categories of aluminum rivet
similar kinds of answers so that future a lead weight
instruction can respond to the kinds of five pennies (use all five at one time)
errors being made.
Students would be instructed to use the
equipment and materials to make the
Performance Tests/Tasks necessary measurements to calculate the
density of each material. The questions
29
Test
Performance Test—Density of
Solids (Grade 8)
1. Using the equipment and materials provided, make the necessary measurements to
calculate the density of each material. Be sure to record and label the unit of
measurement used for each density. Use the chart below to record your information.
Density = Mass/Volume
2. Rank order your six materials from LEAST DENSE (1) to MOST DENSE (6) in the
chart below.
Material
1. (Least Dense)
2.
3.
4.
5.
6. (Most Dense)
30
3. Display the density of the materials in a graph showing mass and volume.
4. Describe how you determined the volume of the lead weight and wooden dowel.
5. Based on what you have learned about the density of these six materials, which
would you use to build a boat? Explain why.
Source: Kentucky Instructional Results Information System, Kentucky Department of Education, Division of
Curriculum Assessment and Accountability, Capital Plaza Tower, Frankfort, KY 40601.
Test questions to students: You are a scientist working for a large computer
company. Your assignment is to investigate electricity.
1. Make an electrical circuit using all the items on the table (battery, wire, light bulb,
switch).
Conducts Does Not Conduct
“BAG A” Items Electricity Electricity
2. Quickly draw a simple picture of
your circuit in the space below. Plastic Spoon
Steel Washer
String
3. Did you build a complete circuit?
Yes_____ No______ Penny
Nail
4. Explain how you know. Rubber Band
5. Open “Bag A.” Use the clip and lead to make an electrical tester. Test each of the
items in “Bag A” with your circuit. Place an X on the chart under the appropriate
column to show what happened when each item was tested.
8. Examine the item in “Bag B.” Do you think it will conduct electricity? Why or why not?
31
Draft Scoring Rubric
The following draft rubric was developed to assist in scoring student responses to the
Grade 6 Performance Field Test in science.
3 = Gives fairly complete and acceptable answers to most questions; provides good
answers, but rationale may be vague; includes a complete diagram of a circuit;
shows understanding of the concept of electricity and conductivity; responds to
Questions 4 or 8 in an acceptable manner.
1 = Very little response (diagram only or few answers); partial answers to a small
number of questions; no rationale; does not include a diagram of a circuit; contains
at least one correct answer other than Question 3.
Source: California Assessment Program. Science Performance Field Test, Grade 6, 1990. California State
Department of Education, Sacramento, CA 95814.
reading about science, then the use of rately, the teacher looks at the pattern of
performance tasks represents a better responses across the questions and assigns
match to instructional objectives. a number or letter grade based on the best
match to the descriptive categories. A
If the teacher is grading this performance complete/incomplete scoring guideline
task, he or she may choose to use a rating would reduce the descriptive categories
scale such as shown above. It is important down to two: one which described accept-
to note that scoring guidelines such as this able performance across the questions and
cannot be developed in the abstract. It one for unacceptable levels of performance.
takes careful analysis of many student
responses to the test to derive descriptive Depending on the purpose of the assess-
categories that accurately capture their ment, there are many different ways to
performance levels. judge how well students performed on the
task. However, it is critical to be clear on
Once the scoring guidelines are developed, the elements or features of a desired,
rather than scoring each question sepa- strong response.
32
Journals communication. That is, if the teacher does
not respond to, probe, challenge, or ask for
33
Sample Authentic Assessment
You are an investigative reporter researching how a country’s culture and history have
contributed to views regarding certain endangered species. Your team’s job is to decide
what history tells you about the development of your country’s views about the whale.
(Each team has been assigned a different country.) You are to write a newspaper article
reporting your information.
2. In your team, identify both pro and con views, and look at both practical and
environmental protection issues.
3. Prepare your article in such a way that it reports both information and pro and con
points of view.
4. Present your draft to the editors (another team) before you send it to the copy editor
and print shop.
Source: High Success Network Training Materials. Outcome Based Education Summer Conference, Charlotte,
NC, 1992. High Success Network, P.O. Box 1630, Eagle, CO 81631.
to teams of students, as that is how many professor reviews and provides feedback
“real-world” problems are tackled. Stu- (assessment information) about needed
dents may be asked to play a “real-life” role changes at many points along the way.
(see sample above) where they are charged Thus, the line between instruction and
with acting as an investigative reporter. assessment becomes blurred.
34
2. Begin to define the task more fully by growth in a particular area. If multiple-
asking what knowledge, competencies, choice and completion items are at one end
or dispositions students will have to use of the assessment continuum representing
to complete such a task (i.e., what very brief, quantitative, one-shot records of
instructional objectives are served?). student achievement, then portfolios are at
Revise and elaborate on the task as the other end, representing complex,
needed until you are satisfied with both qualitative, and progressive pictures of
the purposes or objectives and the task student accomplishments.
structure itself.
Why use portfolios? Although portfolios in
3. Consider the context. What should be art and writing are very common and
the medium for the product (oral, writ- familiar, math and science teachers are
ten, computer, debate)? Should the task also beginning to employ portfolios as ways
include group activities? Should experts to collect, organize, reflect on, and display
from the community be brought in? completed work (Hamm & Adams, 1991).
Portfolios might best be considered as a
4. Consider the administration of the task. tool to promote communication between
What do students need to know before the teacher and student about student
the task is given them? What difficulties understandings, strengths, weaknesses,
might they encounter? How will progress, and self-reflections. Portfolios can
assistance be provided? bind teachers and students together in very
personal and supportive ways.
5. Consider how students’ work on the
task will be assessed. Will there be a The use of portfolios, like any assessment
checklist for work processes to guide method, starts with a consideration of
students in the process of completing purposes. What objectives do you have for
the task? What are the important students that are best assessed by a portfo-
features of a successful product (e.g., lio, and what is the portfolio supposed to
communicated conclusions in a clear demonstrate (Collins, 1992)? Some ex-
and organized way, using visuals)? Who amples of purposes are shown below.
might assess student performance other
than the teacher (e.g., community 1. If the ability to design experiments were
professionals, other students)? an objective for students, a portfolio
might be used to show progress in this
6. Have colleagues and perhaps students ability over the year by including work
review the task and the criteria for on different assignments. Or, if the
judging success. Revise as needed. portfolio were to be used to better
understand how students go about
designing an experiment, it could
Portfolios contain all activities, drafts, and
revisions leading up to the final design
35
pieces. Parents could help the students 6. How much work should be included?
reflect on and choose their best pieces.
Like any of the other methods of looking at
3. If a goal of instruction is that students student work, portfolios involve the devel-
will read, summarize, and evaluate opment of criteria for judging good work.
information in newspaper articles on Student progress relative to a certain
science topics, the portfolio might instructional objective might be evaluated
represent evidence of their increasingly by developing criteria for individual pieces,
sophisticated efforts at critiquing these for the portfolio as a whole, or for students’
articles. written reflections on work in the portfolio
(Arter & Spandel, 1992). Criteria for a
4. Portfolios could be used as evidence of whole portfolio might be the quality or
basic content knowledge. Students variety of pieces included, the quality and
could be asked to keep all test papers in depth of self-reflection included, or the
a portfolio and write a reflection piece growth in performance as indicated by the
after each test on how they could products. Students’ self-reflections about
improve their responses. pieces might be evaluated on thorough-
ness, support of statements made by de-
5. Portfolios could be individualized such scribing specific aspects of the work, and
that students display work showing how well ideas are synthesized (Arter &
their particular strength or progress in a Spandel, 1992).
weaker area rather than having the
portfolio be the same for all students.
36
Rubrics and Grading
Chapter 4
M
ultiple-choice items can be scored 2 points if the response describes the
objectively. The student is offered relative speed (loose dissolves
a fixed number of options, and faster) but not the effects of
the option selected is compared to a scor- stirring or if the response just
ing key. Given the scoring key, any teacher describes what happens (stirring
would score the items in the same manner. makes the sugar fall apart)
Performance-based methods (open-ended
questions, performance tests, journals, 1 point for incorrect responses
exhibitions, and portfolios) depend to a
greater extent on teacher judgment of a 0 points for no response
response.
Typically, essay questions require longer
The term “rubric,” rather than “scoring key,” and more complex responses from stu-
is used to refer to the guidelines laid out for dents. If an essay question is to be scored
judging student work on performance- with a point system, the features of a
based tasks. There are at least five ways to successful response should be identified
arrange the criteria against which the prior to grading the essay and given nu-
student’s work will be judged. merical values representing their value
relative to each other. That is, some fea-
1. Point system. A point system assigns tures of the answer might be worth more
points for certain features of the than others (e.g., perhaps each reason
student’s response. Open-ended provided for a phenomenon is worth two
questions are often scored with this points, and the quality of the overall organi-
approach because points can reflect zation of the response is worth one point).
partial as well as full credit for a The student’s score is the sum of the point
response. values for each feature identified by the
teacher as present in his or her response.
For example, if third-grade students were
given the appropriate measuring equipment 2. Checklists. A checklist can be used to
and asked to find out if stirring makes any indicate that a student has effectively
difference in how fast sugar cubes and
loose sugar dissolve (NAEP, 1986), the point
system (adapted from the NAEP example)
might look like this: Just as assessment methods are
selected based on their
4 points if the response states that both appropriateness for the particular
types of sugar dissolve faster
when stirred, but loose sugar
goals the teacher has in mind for
still dissolves faster than cubes students, so it goes with developing
rubrics. There is no one right rubric
3 points if the response indicates that to use. Rubrics should communicate
stirring made a difference but
doesn’t describe the relative
to students the criteria for their
difference (that loose sugar still performance.
dissolves faster)
37
completed the steps involved in a task dimensions or criteria that might be
or demonstration. Checklists may be rated are organization, mechanics, and
applied to written work (e.g., journals) creativity. Each important dimension of
or observable behavior. the task performance is rated on a two
(e.g., “acceptable,” “not acceptable”) or
Suppose students are asked to do an more (e.g., “inadequate,” “partially
experiment to find out whether loose sugar satisfactory,” “satisfactory,”
dissolves faster or slower than sugar cubes “exemplary”) point scale.
(NAEP, 1986). Students are observed indi-
vidually, and a checklist is used for the For example, if students were asked to write
following behaviors: a letter to someone from a different time
period, such as ancient Egypt, on how
___ 1. Loose sugar tested measurement has changed over the years,
the science teacher might rate students’
___ 2. Sugar cubes tested work from 1 to 4 in terms of knowledge of
measurement demonstrated. The English
___ 3. Measurement of water and sugar teacher might be asked to rate the same
were problematic work using two dimensions: mechanics and
organization, with a 1-to-4 rating given on
___ 4. Measurements made effectively each dimension. Thus, students would
receive diagnostic feedback from two teach-
___ 5. Had problems timing how fast sugar ers (science and English) on three dimen-
dissolved sions (knowledge of measurement, mechan-
ics, organization) of their performance.
___ 6. Effectively timed how fast the sugar
dissolved The strength of analytic rating scales is that
they offer diagnostic information to the
___ 7. Final answer consistent with student about the strengths and weak-
evidence
38
Sample Analytic Scale
Ratings
Exceeds Meets Approaches Goal Not
Task Criteria Goals Goals Goal Yet Met
Source: Adapted from Davey & Rindone (1990). “Anatomy of a Performance Task.” Presented at the
American Educational Research Association meeting, Boston, MA., from materials developed by the Bureau
of Evaluation and Student Assessment, Connecticut State Department of Education.
39
1. Give clear responses that show under- ity represented an end-of-unit test, a fo-
standing of the scientific concepts and cused holistic scale such as the one shown
ideas addressed. can be used to easily translate student
responses into a grade.
2. Use scientific processes and tools to
gather, record, and organize appropri- 5. Holistic. With holistic scoring, no
ate data in a logical fashion. specific rating criteria are identified.
Instead, model responses are selected
3. Write strong supporting conclusions that represent numbers on the scale to
based on evidence collected. be used. Student responses are com-
pared to the model responses and are
4. Emphasize any additional data that given a number corresponding to the
is needed. model response they are most like.
At the other extreme, an “F” response might In developing rubrics for student work,
be one in which the student does not some teachers (High Success Network
demonstrate any understanding of the training materials, 1992) are finding the
problem or concept; has data that are following helpful:
missing, inappropriate, or incomplete; and
makes no attempt to state or complete 1. Provide examples to students of work
conclusions. that reflects the different points on a
rubric. For example, if essay questions
The rubric shown for the performance test are to be evaluated on the degree to
on page 31 is another example of a focused which conclusions are justified, provide
holistic approach to grading student re- examples of a “weak” justification as
sponses. If the performance test on electric- well as an “exemplary” justification.
T
he purposes of grading systems are
twofold (Stiggins, 1991). First, they
are a way of communicating to
students, parents, and other decision
makers something about the student’s
40
achievement status. Second, they are tion provided. Traditional and more perfor-
intended as motivators (e.g., to impress mance-based methods are used to assess
upon students that the work is important student progress toward these goals. All of
and worth their attention). the assessment methods described in
Chapter 3 represent legitimate ways of
Grading students’ achievement status assessing achievement status, but they
involves the teacher in a series of deci- must be matched carefully with desired
sions. In A Practical Guide for Developing outcomes for students.
Sound Grading Practices, Stiggins (1991)
describes some of the decisions that must Q: How are individual grades or scores
be made if a single grade is to be given combined into a single grade at the end
over an assessment period. of a grading period?
41
Sample Grading Period
Weighting System
Student A:
Assessments of Five Maximum Points Weight Student A Score/
Instructional Objectives Points Earned Maximum Score
42
Name
Report
Sample Science Progress Report
(Sixth Grade)
Teacher Comments:
Family Comments:
Source: Terri Hardin, A.G. Cox Middle School, Pitt County Schools, Winterville, N.C.
43
44
Getting Started
Chapter 5
T
raditional practices in assessment more likely to change in a collegial setting
are based on beliefs about the with sustained administrative support
purpose of education that are being (Loucks-Horsley et al., 1990).
publicly discussed and challenged. Assess-
ment practices do not necessarily change This kind of model might involve bringing
once people become aware of the need for together a volunteer group of lead science
change. Change does not happen the day teachers from several schools who, with a
after an afternoon of inservice training. facilitator,
Generally, change is a slowly evolving
process that occurs through experience, • Spend one day on an overview of
dialogue, and reflection. assessment (outcomes, methods,
rubrics) as provided in this publication
Teachers need time to try new assess-
ments, reflect on their success or failure, • Spend a day reflecting on science
and make revisions. Just as student learn- education goals and beginning to
ing is an individual process that is self- develop or adapt assessments to try out
directed and personally constructed, so is (i.e., observation forms, interview
teacher learning about assessment prac- protocols, open-ended questions,
tices. Changing assessment practices is not performance tests, journal criteria,
a simple, linear, lock-step process that all exhibition projects, portfolio tasks)
teachers follow in a prescribed manner.
Rather, it is a process of becoming more • Come together as a group on a regular
purposeful about basis to share experiences, demonstrate
the assessments developed and the
• Desired student outcomes in science student results obtained, continue to
develop or find new assessments, and
• The design of learning experiences in identify areas in which further
support of these outcomes assistance or information is needed
• The use of assessment methods that The following year, the lead teachers could
match well with desired outcomes start a similar process for interested science
teachers within their own schools.
• The use of grading systems that reflect
student achievement on these Teachers, either individually or in informal
outcomes. groups, could begin to reflect on their
assessment practices. Incorporating perfor-
What are some contexts in which this more mance-based assessment into the class-
purposeful thinking about student assess- room may be easier if experiences, con-
ment might be developed? cerns, and frustrations are shared with
colleagues. Sharing successful tasks and
Some districts have initiated district-wide methods with other teachers also increases
staff development efforts in assessment. the number of assessments available.
The literature on staff development sug-
gests that a good staff development pro- There is no right place to start with assess-
gram is sustained over time. Teachers are ment. There are many activities, depending
45
on the prior experience, time constraints, Chapter 3 on open-ended questions and
interest, and resources of the teacher(s) performance tests or consider how you
involved, that represent jumping-off points might improve or make more explicit
for changing or at least reflecting on as- the rubrics for the items.
sessment practices.
6. Start a folder of assessment samples
Listed below are some examples of activi- from released state tests or item banks,
ties that might get conversations started other teachers, district tests, or
about assessment practices. published articles, and critique them for
your purposes.
1. Articulate one very important desired
student outcome (refer to Chapter 2). 7. Review the hands-on, experiential, or
For example, a teacher might be lab activities you use with your
interested in how well students can students. Identify the most essential
develop and test hypotheses in the ones, and experiment with rubrics that
content area under study. Review the could be used to assess student
assessment methods in Chapter 3, and performance on these tasks.
choose an approach to assessing
students’ competence on this The process of incorporating and using a
dimension that you have not tried broader array of assessment methods can
before. Try the assessment approach to sharpen teachers’ thinking about the
see what you learn about student meaning of student success in science. It
performance and about the assessment can also result in improvements in the
method you chose. quality of instruction teachers design for
students. Finally, if teachers are explicit and
2. Experiment with a format for a course purposeful about their goals, students are
syllabus that outlines for students the more likely to evaluate the quality of their
major goals you have for their own work.
performance and how their
performance on these goals will be The benefits of experimenting with a
assessed and report card grades will be variety of assessment methods lie as much
derived. in the conversations they engender be-
tween teachers and students and among
3. Start a list of the advantages and teachers as they do in the information they
disadvantages of each of the provide on student competence. Students
assessment methods described in as well as teachers often become empow-
Chapter 3. What do you feel you need to ered as assessment becomes a dynamic,
know from someone who has tried interactive conversation about progress
each method before you go any further? through the use of interviews, journals,
exhibitions, and portfolios. Through these
4. Develop a chart (see sample on p. 42) assessment methods, teachers relate to
showing how you combine assessment students more as a facilitator, coach, or
data in obtaining student report card critic rather than as authority figures who
grades. What kind of weighting system dispense all information and knowledge.
are you using?
46
Appendix
Reform in Curriculum and Instruction
W
elch (1979) characterized the • Content was modernized.
social forces leading to science
education reform of the 1960s as • New curricular materials emphasized
scientists’ concern about outdated curricu- science processes and hands-on work.
lar materials, science manpower shortages,
and the threat of Soviet technological • Science manpower needs were met.
supremacy. These forces set the stage for
massive federal support for science curricu- The reform of the 1990s differs from the
lum development. earlier science curriculum reform in that it
is a subset of a much larger educational
For approximately 20 years, the National reform movement fueled by a concern that
Science Foundation supported extensive our students will not be internationally
curriculum development and teacher competitive as adults. Changes are being
inservice training programs in science proposed across the curriculum, emphasiz-
education. Their curricula differed from old ing higher-order thinking skills and prob-
programs in its modernization of content, lem-solving. In North Carolina, for example,
its emphasis on flexibility and variety in all public schools have been directed to
instructional tools, and the greater atten- infuse critical thinking throughout the
tion it gave to an overriding conceptual North Carolina Course of Study.
scheme, students’ attitudes toward science,
and the nature of scientific inquiry or The emphasis on science education in
hands-on student work. previous decades that resulted in the
development of curriculum materials
In spite of all the support for curricular provided a framework on which to build
change over this period, there were also current efforts. However, the current efforts
forces that were resistant to change. differ from prior curricular reform move-
ments in that they are geared toward
• Many teachers were inadequately scientific literacy for all students, not just
prepared in science and math, better science education for future scien-
particularly at the elementary and junior tists. This “science for all” goal is critical if
high levels, and were insecure about people are to have a basis for making
making curricular changes. informed decisions about issues like
nuclear power, personal health, the envi-
• Concern in the 1970s focused more on ronment, and reproduction (Loucks-Horsley
special remedial classes, the basic et al., 1990).
skills, and mainstreaming than on
science. Several national science education reform
efforts follow.
Welch (1979), in summarizing the achieve-
ments of the curriculum reform of the 60s With the support of the U.S. Department of
and 70s, reported that Education, the National Academy of Sci-
ences (through the National Research
• Curricular alternatives were developed Council) initiated a major effort to develop
and disseminated (PSSC, BSCC, SCIS). world-class standards for what students
47
should know and be able to do in science. For more information on SS&C or a copy of
These standards, like those developed by The Content Core, write to
the National Council of Teachers of Math-
ematics, will serve as guides for states, SS&C c/o National Science
districts, and schools. Standards will be Teachers’ Association
developed in the areas of curriculum, 1724 Connecticut Avenue, NW
teaching, and assessment to present a Washington, D.C. 20009
vision of science education against which
schools, districts, and states can compare Many states already have standard course-
themselves. of-study guides listing desired outcomes for
students at different levels of science
There have been at least two other signifi- instruction. In the past, many of these state
cant efforts to develop some consensus on curriculum guides have focused on stu-
student outcomes for science. Project 2061 dents’ obtaining knowledge of discrete bits
is a reform effort of the American Associa- of information such as
tion for the Advancement of Science
(AAAS). The project issued a report in 1989, • Knowing about human body systems
called Science for All Americans, that sug- and their functions
gested the knowledge, skills, and attitudes
that students should have as a result of • Knowing about the structure of atoms
their K-12 science instruction. The project and molecules
describes the outcomes expected of
17-year-olds. Teams of educators are However, states are currently developing
working on developing curriculum models new curriculum frameworks that empha-
and more specific student outcome state- size skills needed in the process of doing
ments based on the AAAS publication. science in addition to content knowledge.
For example, Alabama, Florida, Georgia,
For more information, write to Mississippi, North Carolina, and South
Carolina all had plans to publish new or
Project 2061 revised science curriculum frameworks by
1333 N Street, NW 1994. SERVE received a grant to develop a
Washington, D.C. 20005 Regional Mathematics and Science Consor-
tium. Through this grant, SERVE keeps the
The National Science Teachers’ Association region informed of exemplary science and
has a reform effort that proposes disman- math curriculum frameworks through a
tling the layer-cake organization of science collaborative effort among all Regional
courses (biology, then chemistry, then Educational Laboratories to collect, ana-
physics) in favor of courses that integrate lyze, and synthesize state frameworks for
material from the different science disci- math and science.
plines so that all disciplines are taught
every year. In an effort to show how sci- How Should Science Be Taught?
ence content might be better organized to
I
promote scientific literacy for all students, f science is not about the memorization
the NSTA published The Content Core: A of facts but a problem-solving process
Guide for Curriculum Designers. This docu- through which we work to understand
ment suggests the topics that should be problems, how can science education be
covered in grades 6-12 and at what level changed to reflect the problem-solving
they might be covered. process?
48
In Windows into Science Classrooms, Tobin, solve, predict, observe, analyze) and not
Kahle, and Fraser (1990) note the following: just the ability to memorize facts. The
amount of work completed and the diffi-
If an instructional activity is to be culty of the work posed to students are
consistent with the nature of science, it issues in developing rigorous science
must engage students in attempting to instruction. Work for students should be
generate answers to questions, rather designed to give them experience in the
than merely illustrating what is processes of science (recalling and imagin-
pronounced by assertion to be true in a ing, classifying and generalizing, compar-
textbook. When laboratory activities or ing and evaluating, analyzing and synthe-
demonstrations are used to illustrate sizing, deducing and inferring). Finally, if
the validity of what is known, the higher-order cognitive objectives are
emphasis is placed disproportionately targeted and students are given work that
on what we think we know rather than goes beyond rote memorization, then
on how we know it. In such situations, methods of student evaluation and grading
students are deprived of opportunities must be consistent and go beyond direct
to think, predict, analyze, and discuss; recall of information.
that is, they are deprived of oppor-
tunities to do science.
Relevance
For a teacher to instruct in the
processes of science rather than about
the established facts of science, a
fundamental shift in activities and
R egarding the information that is pre-
sented in classrooms, Tobin, Kahle,
and Fraser (1990) suggest it is critical to
priorities is required. The teacher must think about why information is taught and,
move from conducting an exercise to in particular, its relevance to students’
illustrate what is asserted to be the lives. For example, should a unit on verte-
correct answer by the textbook, to brates concentrate on having students
assigning problem-solving exercises learn the names of the bones in the body
during which students are asked to or understand the biology and epidemiol-
consider specific questions by testing a ogy of AIDS?
particular hypothesis or alternative
hypotheses. (p. 151)
Representative Structure
According to these authors, science classes
are often characterized by rote learning and
recall of memorized information. They
suggest that in order to move toward the
S ome have characterized this issue as
the selection of fewer topics taught well.
Tobin, Kahle, and Fraser (1990) argue that
development of problem-solving skills in the goal of instruction should be to help
their students, teachers must incorporate students come to terms with the major
rigor, relevance, and representative struc- organizing ideas of a discipline and why the
ture as elements of their teaching. idea or theme (such as evolution) occupies
the place it does within the discipline.
49
50
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52
SERVE
About the SERVE Organization
S
ERVE, directed by Dr. John R. Sanders, is an education organization with the mission to promote and
support the continuous improvement of educational opportunities for all learners in the Southeast. The
organization’s commitment to continuous improvement is manifest in a cycle that begins with research
and best practice. Building on theory and craft knowledge, SERVE staff develop tools and processes designed to
assist practitioners, to refine the organization’s delivery of technical assistance to schools and educational
agencies, and, ultimately, to raise the level of student achievement in the region. Evaluation of the impact of
these activities combined with input from affected stakeholders expands SERVE’s knowledge base and directs
future research.
This critical research-to-practice cycle is supported by an experienced staff strategically located throughout the
region. This staff is highly skilled in providing needs assessment services, conducting applied research in schools,
and developing processes, products, and programs that inform educators and increase student achievement. In
the last three years, SERVE staff has provided technical assistance and training to more than 18,000 teachers and
administrators across the region and partnered with over 170 southeastern schools on research and development
projects.
SERVE is governed by a board of directors that includes the governors, chief state school officers, educators,
legislators, and private sector leaders from Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, and South
Carolina.
At SERVE’s core is the Regional Educational Laboratory program. Funded by the U.S. Department of Education’s
Office of Educational Research and Improvement, SERVE is one of ten organizations providing services of the
Regional Educational Laboratory program to all 50 states and territories. These Laboratories form a knowledge
network, building a bank of information and resources shared nationally and disseminated regionally to improve
student achievement locally. Besides the Lab, SERVE is the lead agency in the Eisenhower Mathematics and
Science Consortium for the Southeast and the Southeast and Islands Regional Technology in Education Consor-
tium. SERVE also administers a subcontract for the Region IV Comprehensive Center and has additional funding
from the Department to provide services in migrant education and to operate the National Center for Homeless
Education.
Based on these funded efforts, SERVE has developed a portfolio of programs and initiatives that provides a
spectrum of resources, services, and products for responding to local, regional, and national needs. Program
areas include Assessment, Accountability, and Standards; Children, Families, and Communities; Education Policy;
Improvement of Science and Mathematics Education; Initiative on Teachers and Teaching; School Development
and Reform; and Technology in Learning.
SERVE’s National Specialty Area is Early Childhood Education, and the staff of SERVE’s Program for Children,
Families, and Communities has developed the expertise and the ability to provide leadership and support to the
early childhood community nationwide for children from birth to age eight.
In addition to the program areas, the SERVE Evaluation Department supports the evaluation activities of the
major grants and contracts and provides evaluation services to state and local education agencies in the region.
The Technology Support Group provides SERVE staff and their constituents with systems, technical assistance,
and software applications. Through its Communications and Publications Department, SERVE publishes a variety
of studies, training materials, policy briefs, and program products. Through its programmatic, technology support,
evaluation, and publishing activities, SERVE also provides contracted staff development and technical assistance
in many areas of expertise to assist education agencies in achieving their school improvement goals.
SERVE’s main office is at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, with major staff groups located in
Tallahassee, Florida, and Atlanta, Georgia. Unique among the ten Regional Educational Laboratories, SERVE
maintains policy analysts at the state education agencies of each of the states in its region. These analysts act as
SERVE’s primary liaisons to the state departments of education, providing research-based policy services to state-
level education policymakers and informing SERVE about key educational issues and legislation.
www.serve.org
53
RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
How To Assess
Student Performance
in Science
Going Beyond Multiple-Choice Tests
RDSPS